CM3G-001-E1

CDMA Mobile Communication

Course Objectives:
· Learn CDMA Concepts

· Learn CDMA Network Architecture

· Understand the Numbering Plans used in CDMA

· Discover the Key Technologies of CDMA

Contents

1 CDMA Overview ........................................................................................................................................ 1

1.1 Development of Wireless Communication ....................................................................................... 2

1.1.1 The First Generation Analog Cellular Mobile Communication ............................................. 2

1.1.2 The Second Generation Digital Cellular Mobile Communication ......................................... 2

1.1.3 The Third Generation Mobile Communication - IMT2000 ................................................... 3

1.2 Basic Concepts of CDMA................................................................................................................. 6

1.2.1 Multiple Accesses Technology............................................................................................... 6

1.2.2 CDMA-related Concepts........................................................................................................ 7

1.3 CDMA Features ................................................................................................................................ 8

2 CDMA Network Architecture ................................................................................................................. 11

2.1 System Architecture ........................................................................................................................ 11

2.2 An Introduction to Network Entities ............................................................................................... 12

2.2.1 BTS Subsystem .................................................................................................................... 12

2.2.2 Mobile Switching Subsystem............................................................................................... 13

2.2.3 Operation and Maintenance Management Subsystem (OMM)............................................ 15

2.3 Interfaces and Protocols .................................................................................................................. 15

2.3.1 Interfaces .............................................................................................................................. 15

2.3.2 Interface Protocols ............................................................................................................... 18

3 Numbering Plan ....................................................................................................................................... 21

3.1 Numbering Plan .............................................................................................................................. 21

3.2 MDN ............................................................................................................................................... 21

3.3 IMSI and MIN................................................................................................................................. 22

3.4 Equipment Number ......................................................................................................................... 23

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 3.5 Temporary Local Directory Number (TLDN) .................................................................................23

3.6 Electronic Sequence Number (ESN) ...............................................................................................23

4 CDMA Key Technologies .........................................................................................................................25

4.1 Basic Concept ..................................................................................................................................25

4.1.1 Walsh Code ...........................................................................................................................25

4.1.2 Pseudo-random Sequence Number .......................................................................................25

4.1.3 Number Application..............................................................................................................25

4.1.4 Number-based Channels .......................................................................................................25

4.2 Key Technologies ............................................................................................................................25

4.2.1 Power Control Technology ...................................................................................................25

4.2.2 Diversity Technology............................................................................................................25

4.2.3 Handoff Technology .............................................................................................................25

4.2.4 Voice Coding Technology .....................................................................................................25

4.2.5 Channel Modulation Technology..........................................................................................25

4.2.6 Soft Capacity ........................................................................................................................25

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1 CDMA Overview

Key points

· Development history and trend of mobile communication

· What is CDMA system?

· CDMA features

The objective of mobile communication is to implement communication anywhere at

any time, and at any place.

The wireless mobile communication technology is basically focused on the innovative

development of mobile communication bands, reasonable and efficient use of
frequency resources, as well as compact, light and multifunctional design. Ever since
1970s when the “Cellular” theory was sponsored by the Bell laboratory in America,
cellular communication has been widely used. Theoretically, the essence of the cellular
system is to repeatedly use wireless channels in different geographic locations, which
is frequency division multiplexing. Divide the service area into a number of abstract
hexagonal cellular cells, while two nonadjacent cells use the same frequency. The cell
size is determined according to the user density. In this way, spectrum utilization can be
greatly enhanced and the system capacity can thus be effectively raised. Meanwhile,
based on the development of microelectronic technology, computer technology,
communication network technology, signal coding technology and digital signal
processing technology, the development of mobile communication has gained a great
leap forward on such aspects like switching, signaling network system and wireless
modulation and coding technology. Thus, the cellular mobile communication system
has experienced a series of changes, from analog to digital, from Frequency Division
Multiple Access (FDMA) to Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) and Code
Division Multiple Access (CDMA), and the evaluation from the first generation
cellular mobile communication system to the third generation mobile communication
system.

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CM3G-001-E1 CDMA Mobile Communication

1.1 Development of Wireless Communication

1.1.1 The First Generation Analog Cellular Mobile Communication

In late 1970s, the first generation cellular mobile communication system was
developed on the basis of the cellular networking technology. It created the first case
for the commercialization of cellular mobile communication system. The first cellular
system AMPS (Advanced Mobile Phone Service) was realized in Chicago in 1979.
During the same period, other systems were also under development, including TACS
in UK and NMT in North Europe.

The first generation communication featured FDMA and analog modulation (FM).
Voice transmission was achieved through analog signals. It was restricted by a series of
factors, such as low frequency utilization small capacity, lack of unified international
standards and effective anti-interference / anti-attenuation measures, complicated
equipment, high cost, poor voice quality and security. Besides, it required a protection
band and could be intercepted very possibly due to easy number cloning. The number
of subscribers was also limited. Non-voice and digital communication services were
impossible. Therefore, it could not satisfy the requirements of market development.
These fatal disadvantages hindered its further development and it was inevitably
replaced by digital cellular mobile communication step by step.

1.1.2 The Second Generation Digital Cellular Mobile Communication

Developed in the 1990s, the mobile phone system featuring TDMA and narrow-band
CDMA is called as the second generation mobile communication system. There are
two typical product categories:

1.1.2.1 TDMA system

The major feature of TDMA series products is the adoption of TDMA and FDMA
technologies to implement mobile communication. The mature and representative
systems include Pan-European GSM, American D-AMPS and Japanese PDC. Their
common features were presented by digitalization, TDMA, better voice quality,
excellent security, data transmission capability and the function for automatic roaming.
Each of them had their own advantages and shortcomings: The PDC system uses high
spectrum utilization, but only available in Japan. The D-AMPS system has the largest
capacity but its equipment is very complicated. The GSM technology maturity is based
on open standards and widely used around the world.
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 Chapter 1 CDMA Overview

1.1.2.2 N-CDMA system

The CDMA wireless technology is an innovative digital cellular technology developed

after the former digital communication technologies like GSM. The N-CDMA series is
the narrowband CDMA based on IS-95 and developed under the sponsorship of
Qualcomm.

Featuring digital transmission was based on a series of key technologies, including

spreading communication, power control, soft capacity, soft handoff, voice activation;
voice coding, multiple access, diversity receiving and RAKE receiving. Hence the
CDMA system has obtained more advantages and as pushed the mobile communication
technology to a new development stage.

The advanced technologies have granted the CDMA system with overwhelming
advantages over the TDMA system, such as high spectrum utilization, wide coverage,
large system capacity, simple frequency planning, high voice quality, fine
anti-resistance, small radiation power, power saving, long standby time, strong
penetration capability, excellent indoor coverage, high security and excellent
prevention against number cloning.

The development of CDMA is a progressive process. Most commodities available on

the market are developed on the basis of the IS-95A narrowband N-CDMA technology.
This system features low cost, high quality, interconnection, supports IP and data
services, implements Wireless Intelligent Network (WIN) service and provides
convenient and efficient communication services to users. On the aspects of
communication technologies and people’s requirements, the future wireless
communication world will be a broadband-based, integrated data and multimedia
network. The broadband CDMA technology will be an important support to this
network.

1.1.3 The Third Generation Mobile Communication - IMT2000

1.1.3.1 Development Motive of the Third Generation Cellular Mobile Communication

System

Represented by AMPS and TACS, the first generation cellular mobile communication
system provided a solution to mobile conversation and greatly satisfied the
requirements of terminal users, but many problems existed in this system. For example,
poor conversation quality, low spectrum utilization and security and so it was replaced
soon by the second generation cellular mobile communication system represented by
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CM3G-001-E1 CDMA Mobile Communication

GSM and IS95. Compared with the first generation, great improvement was seen on
aspects such as conversation quality, spectrum utilization, security and confidentiality.
It satisfied people’s requirements in a certain period. Along with the continuous
development of mobile communication and the expansion of mobile communication
scale, the disadvantages of the second generation were also exposed gradually.

1. Insufficient radio frequency resources

The rapid increase of mobile terminal users made the frequency resources of the
system relatively insufficient. The development of mobile communication
surprisingly exceeded the imagination. To expand system capacity, the cell of
some central cities was shrinked less than 500 meters in diameter that resulted in
frequent handoff and serious interference and thus the conversation quality
became fairly poor.

Low frequency utilization was another key reason for frequency resource
insufficiency. Compared with the first generation mobile communication, the
second generation raised the frequency utilization, but compared with the third
generation with the CDMA technology as the core; its frequency utilization is
still very low.

2. Unable to meet the requirements for new services

The second generation features the voice-oriented design, with its main
objective focused on providing quality and efficient voice services. Along with
the development of the Internet and electronic commerce, data service will
become the main stream. In the future, various broadband information services
such as high-speed data, low-speed image and television will become the
application used most frequently by terminal users. But the second generation
was designed mainly for voice services, which cannot provide high-speed data
service.

1.1.3.2 Third Generation Cellular Mobile Communication System

This system (3G) is also known as IMT-2000, which means that its working band is
2000MHz and its highest service rate can go up to 2Mbit/s. Based on the broadband
W-CDMA technology, it is a multimedia and intelligent system that is able to raise
multiple transmission rates, integrate terrestrial cellular system, cordless system,
cellular mobile communication system and satellite system, and thus implement global

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 Chapter 1 CDMA Overview

services on the real sense. It provides a centralized platform for the integration and
allocation of various services. The 3G system has three main features:

1. Seamless Global Roaming.

2. High-speed transmission; High-speed mobile environment: 144kbit/s; Walking

slow-speed mobile environment: 384kbit/s; Indoor still environment: 2Mbit/s.

3. Seamless service transfer, namely, service interworking is available among fixed

network, mobile network and satellite network.

1.1.3.3 Evolution from 2G to 3G

As described above, two development directions are undergoing. Fig 1.1-1shows the
evolution of the N-CDMA system based on IS-95A to the 3G system.
2G 3G

cd m a 200 0
1X E V D O
P h as e II
2M b p s
c d m a 2000 1 X
P h ase I
1 44kb p s
IS 9 5-B
64k b p s

IS 95-A
14 .4kb p s

Fig 1.1-1 Evaluation from 2G to 3G

IS-95A embedded the IP protocol in the mobile station, so the network does not require
additional IP layer on the packet transmission layer. In this way, the hardware will be
compatible with all subsequent standard networks based on the IP. The data
transmission rate of the IS-95A network is 14.4kbit/s; In the IS95-B network, the data
transmission rate is raised to 64kbit/s through core network and wireless network
upgrading. A set of data basic equipment is added to the Basestation Controller (BSC)
to promote the CDMA system into a packet mode network. CDMA2000 1X is the first
stage of CDMA2000. It has effectively doubled the original voice capacity and raised
the data transmission rate to 144kbit/s. It may provide a typical rate of 130kbit/s for
terminal users. CDMA2000 1XEVDV is the second stage of CDMA2000. It intended
to integrate the capability of the first stage to the same carrier and still maintain the

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CM3G-001-E1 CDMA Mobile Communication

capability of packet data service transmission at the split carrier. In this stage, three
modes of services are provided: realtime, non-realtime and combined
realtime/non-realtime. 2Mbit/s data transmission rate can also be provided in this stage.

1.2 Basic Concepts of CDMA

1.2.1 Multiple Accesses Technology

It’s known that the first concern of any transmission system is how to establish channel
connection between terminal users within the network and within the electric wave
coverage of the wireless communication environment. The essence of this problem is
multi-access mobile communication. Currently this mode is used by FDMA in the
analog system, TDMA and CDMA in the digital system. The theoretical basis of
multi-access connection implementation is the signal splitting technology, namely,
implementing appropriate signal design at the sending end, so that the signals sent from
individual stations are different and while the receiving end has the identifying
capability to detach and select the corresponding signal from the combined signals.

FDMA stands for Frequency Division Multiple Access. In this case, signal power is
centralized to a relatively narrow channel in frequency domain for transmission.
Different signals are allocated to channels of different frequency. Interference to and
from adjacent channels is restricted through bandpass filter. So, only the energy for
useful signals is allowed through the specified narrow channel, while signals of other
frequencies are excluded out.

TDMA stands for Time Division Multiple Access. One channel consists of a series of
periodic timeslots. The energy for different signals is assigned to a different timeslot.
Interference from adjacent channels can be restricted through timed channel selection.
Only the energy for useful signals is allowed through the specified timeslot.

CDMA stands for Code Division Multiple Access. Each signal is assigned with a
pseudo-random binary code for spreading. The energy for different signals is assigned
to a different pseudo-random sequence. In the receiver, signals are detached with a
correlator. The correlator only receives selected binary sequence and compresses its
spectrum. The bandwidth of any signals mismatching the binary sequence of this user
will be compressed. As a result, only the information of useful signals can be identified
and extracted.

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 Chapter 1 CDMA Overview

Fig 1.2-1 illustrates the correspondence among FDMA, TDMA and CDMA in
frequency domain and time domain.

Time Time Frequency Time Frequency

Frequency
FDMA TDMA CDMA

Fig 1.2-1 FDMA, TDMA and CDMA Time Domain and Frequency Domain

1.2.2 CDMA-related Concepts

CDMA is based on the frequency spreading technology, namely, modulating the

information data of certain signal bandwidth to be sent with a high-speed
pseudo-random code whose bandwidth is far greater than the signal bandwidth, so that
the bandwidth of the original data signal can be spread and then sent out via carrier
modulation. Using the same pseudo-random code, the receiving end completes the
correlated processing, converts the broadband signal into the original narrowband
signal of the original information data (namely despreading) and implements
information communication.

y Note

The spreading technology is to convert the bandwidth of the original signal to a much
wider bandwidth for transmission in order to enhance the anti-interference performance
of the communication system. Its mathematics model is the Shannon formula in the
information theory. Namely, in the case of white noise interference, the channel
capacity is:
C = B log2(1 + S / N)
B: channel bandwidth; S: signal average power; N: noise average power;
C: channel capacity.
The above formula shows: Even if the signal-noise ratio (S/N) is low, increasing the
bandwidth B can still ensure high quality communication without lowering system
capacity.

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CM3G-001-E1 CDMA Mobile Communication

CDMA is a self-interference system. All users occupy the same bandwidth and
frequency. Its working mechanism can be illustrated with a contract example.

Provided that bandwidth is a big house, all people will enter this only house. If they
speak different languages, they can hear their companion’s voices and only suffers
interference from conversations of other people. In this house, air can be imagined as
carrier, while the different languages can be regarded as codes. We can keep increasing
the number of users until we are overwhelmed by the background noise. If the signal
strength of other users can be controlled, more users can be accommodated while high
conversation quality can be ensured.

1.3 CDMA Features

The CDMA mobile communication network is combined through multiple
technologies such as spreading, multiple access, cellular networking and frequency
reuse. It is the coordination of three-dimension signals among frequency domain, time
domain and code domain. Therefore it features excellent performance against
interference and multi-path attenuation, high confidentiality and security. The same
frequency can be reused in multiple cells. Its carrier-to-interference ratio (C/I) is
smaller than 1. Trade-off optional is available between capacity and quality. These
attributes grant the CDMA system with very important advantages over other systems.

1. Wide coverage

In the mobile communication system field, a comparison between CDMA and

GSM systems may reveal that the coverage radius of the former is theoretically
2 times of that of a standard GSM system. To cover 1000 km2, only 50 BTSs are
required in the CDMA system, but 200 BTSs are needed in the GSM system.
Less BTSs for the same coverage means a big decrease of equipment investment
for network operators.

2. Large capacity

In the same spectrum utilization, the capacity of CDMA is 4-5 times of that of
GSM or 10 times of that of an analog network.

3. High voice quality

The CDMA system ensures high voice quality. The noise chip can dynamically
adjust the data transmission rate and select a different level for transmission,

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 Chapter 1 CDMA Overview

according to proper threshold. Meanwhile the threshold may change according

to the background noise level. Therefore, good conversation quality can still be
ensured even in the case of high background noise. The voice quality provided
by the 8K code of CDMA’s variable noise chip is no worse than the 13K code of
GSM. The 13K code provides voice service almost as good as wired telephone
and can even do better than wired telephone on the aspect of background noise.
Meanwhile, the soft handoff technology is integrated in the system, which
means “First connect then disconnect”, so the defect “easy call failure” of hard
handoff is completely avoided.

y Note

Soft handoff is the handoff of a terminal at the same frequency but between different
channels. The channel handoff within the same BTS between different sectors is called
as softer handoff. To the opposite, the handoff at different frequencies and between
different channels is called as hard handoff.

4. Green mobile phone

In the CDMA system, different power control technologies are used, so the
average power is decreased a lot compared with that of the GSM system and the
radiation is also lowered, which ensures that the system can be used safely.

5. High frequency utilization

In the CDMA system, different pseudo-random codes are used for user signal
modulation. On the aspects of frequency domain, the spectrum of all signals are
overlaid, therefore the spectrum utilization is very high.

6. Simple frequency planning and easy expansion

Users can be identified according to different sequence codes, therefore,

different CDMA carriers can be used in adjacent cells and the network can be
flexibly planned and easily expanded.

7. High conceivability and confidentiality.

8. Excellent performance against interference and multi-path attenuation

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CM3G-001-E1 CDMA Mobile Communication

Summary
Mobile communication develops in a surprising fast speed. As the CDMA technology
is becoming mature, its overwhelming technical advantages enable it to be the basis of
the 3G mobile communication. It can satisfy the requirements of network operators for
high capacity, low cost, high efficiency and can effectively relieve the conflict between
limited frequency bands and unlimited user requirements. The understanding and
mastering the CDMA technology means understanding the essence of communication
development.

Topics for discussion

1. Compared with other multiple access modes, what features does CDMA boast of?

2. How will the 3G mobile communication change the future world?

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2 CDMA Network Architecture

Key points

· The basic architecture and some functions of the CDMA network.

· Descriptions of individual interfaces and the information transferred over them.

· Protocols related with the CDMA network.

2.1 System Architecture

The CDMA cellular mobile communication system consists of four independent
subsystems: Mobile Station (MS), Base Transceiver Subsystem (BSS), Mobile
Switching Subsystem (MSS) and Operation & Maintenance Subsystem (OMM). MS
and BSS can communicate directly, while the communication between BSS and MSS
is implemented through the standard A interface. Other interfaces, such as B, C, D, E,
H, M, N, O and P represent the interfaces among the functional entities. When different
functional entities are configured in each physical unit, some interfaces will become
internal interfaces that may not follow the unified interface standard. Ai, Di and Pi are
the system’s interfaces to interconnect with other communication networks. Fig
2.1-1shows the architecture and interfaces of the CDMA system:

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CM3G-001-E1 CDMA Mobile Communication

MS MSC EIR IWF

Um E F L PSPDN

Pi

BTS Abis BSC A MSC Ai PSTN

Di
Q Q C B ISDN

OMC AUC H HLR D VLR

N G

SME M SME M SC M SC VLR

Fig 2.1-1 Network Architecture of the CDMA Cellular Mobile Communications System

BSC Base Station Controller Base station controller

BTS Base Transceiver Station Base station transceiver
MSC Mobile services Switching Center MSC
OMC Operation and Maintenance Center Operations & maintenance center
AUC Authentication Center Authentication Center
EIR Equipment Identification Register Equipment Identification Register
HLR Home Location Register HLR
VLR: Visitor Location Register VLR
MS Mobile Station Mobile station
ISDN Integrated Services Digital Network Integrated service digital network
PSTN Public Switched Telephone Network Public Switching Telephone Network
PSPDN Public Switched Public Data Network Public Switched Public Data Network
PLMN Public Land Mobile Network Public land mobile network
SC Short Message Center Short message center

2.2 An Introduction to Network Entities

2.2.1 BTS Subsystem

The BTS Subsystem (BSS) is the assembly of radio equipment and radio channel
control equipment, serving one or more cellular cells. In certain radio coverage, it is

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 Chapter 2 CDMA Network Architecture

controlled by the Mobile Switching Center (MSC) to implement channel assignment,

user access and paging, and information transfer. Normally, the BSS consists of one or
more BSCs and BTSs. The BTS is responsible for radio transmission and BSC for
control and management.

2.2.1.1 Base Transceiver

The Base Transceiver (BTS) belongs to the radio part of a basestation system.
Controlled by BSC, it serves the radio transceiving equipment of a certain cell,
implements the conversion between BSC and radio channels, radio transmission
through air interface between BTS and MS and related control, and communicates with
BSC through the Abis interface.

2.2.1.2 Base Station Controller

One end of the Base Station Controller (BSC) can be connected with one or more BTSs,
while its other end can be connected with MSC and OMC. Oriented to radio network,
BSC implements radio network management, radio resource management and radio
BTS monitoring and management. It also controls the establishment, connection and
disconnection of radio connection between MS and BTS, controls the positioning,
handoff and paging of MS, provides voice coding and rate adjustment and carries out
operation and maintenance of the BSS.

2.2.2 Mobile Switching Subsystem

The Mobile Switching Subsystem (MSS) implements the main switching functions of
the CDMA network. Meanwhile it manages the database for user data and mobility.

2.2.2.1 Mobile Switching Center

MSC is the core of the CDMA network. It controls and implements voice channel
connection for MSs within its coverage, namely serving as an interface between
CDMA and other networks. The functions MSC carries out include call connection,
charging, BSS-MSC handoff, assist radio resource management and mobility
management. Besides, each MSC also implements the GMSC function for call route
establishment to the MS, namely, to query the location information of each MS.

MSC gets all data required for call request processing from three databases, VLR, HLR
and AUC.

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CM3G-001-E1 CDMA Mobile Communication

2.2.2.2 Visitor Location Register

The Visitor Location Register (VLR) is a dynamic user database, storing the related
user data of all MSs (visitors) within the MSC’s management range, including user ID,
MS’s location area information, user status and services available for the user.

VLR gets and stores all necessary data from the HLR of a mobile subscriber. Once the
mobile subscriber leaves the control area of the VLR, it will be registered in another
VLR, and the previous VLR will delete its data log.

2.2.2.3 Home Location Register

The Home Location Register (HLR) is a static database, storing the data for mobile
subscriber management. Each mobile subscriber should be registered in its HLR. It
stores two kinds of information: parameters related with the mobile subscriber,
including the subscriber’s ID, access capability, user type and supplementary service;
current location information of the subscriber for call route establishment. For example:
the address of MSC or VLR. No matter where the mobile subscriber roams, its HLR
should provide all related parameters and input the latest location into the database.

2.2.2.4 Authentication Center

The Authentication Center (AUC), a functional entity managing the authentication

information related with mobile stations (MS). It implements MS authentication, stores
the MS authentication parameters, generates and sends the corresponding
authentication parameters according to the requests of MSC or VLR, including A-KEY,
SSD, ESN, MIN and AAV, and then calculates all random numbers to get the
authentication result.

2.2.2.5 Short Message Center

The Short Message Center (SC) is responsible for receiving, storing and forwarding
short messages between the CDMA mobile subscribers and fixed line users or between
mobile subscribers. It serves as a postal office, receiving mails from every place, sorts
them out and then distribute them to the corresponding users. Through SC, the
messages can be sent to destination more reliably.

The short message services include point-to-point server and cell broadcast service.

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 Chapter 2 CDMA Network Architecture

y Note

Currently the MSC of ZTE features the functions of the Intelligent Network (IN)
Service Switching Point (SSP) to process IN service requests at the Service Control
Point (SCP).

For convenient management, MSC is always combined with VLR.

Besides, the signaling to AUC must pass HLR first, so HLR and AUC are normally
combined together to minimize network load.

2.2.3 Operation and Maintenance Management Subsystem (OMM)

The Operation & Maintenance Center (OMC) provides equipment operators with
network operation and maintenance services, manages subscriber information, makes
network planning and improves the efficiency and service quality of the whole system.
OMC includes OMC-S and OMC-R, depending on the part for maintenance. OMC-S is
responsible for the maintenance on the MSS side while OMC-R is responsible for the
maintenance on the BSS side. Its specific functions include: maintenance test, obstacle
check and handling, system status monitoring, realtime system control, office data
modification, performance management, subscriber tracking, alarm and traffic
measurement.

2.3 Interfaces and Protocols

According to the Open System Interconnection (OSI) model, we can analyze the
CDMA network on the aspects of interface, protocol and interface functions in detail.

2.3.1 Interfaces

As shown in Fig 2.1-1, various interfaces exist in the CDMA system. They can divide
into the following categories according to different subsystems: Air interface Um
between mobile terminals and the BSS; A interface between BSS and MSS, and other
interfaces between internal entities of the network.

2.3.1.1 Air interface

The Um interface is defined as the communication interface between MS and BTS. It is

the key distinguishing the CDMA network from the GSM network and the most
important interface of the CDMA network.

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CM3G-001-E1 CDMA Mobile Communication

This interface grants compatibility to MSs from different suppliers and networks of
different operators, enables MSs to roam, ensures the frequency efficiency of the
cellular system, and adopts a series of anti-interference technologies and interference
preventing measures. Obviously, the Um interface implements the physical connection
from MS to the fixed part of the CDMA system, i.e. the wireless connection. Besides, it
transfers information for radio resource management, mobility management and
connection management.

2.3.1.2 Interface between BSS and MSS – A interface

The A interface is located between MSC and BSC. Its physical link is implemented
through standard PCM digital transmission link of 2.048Mbit/s. It transfers information
for MS management, BTS management, mobility management and connection
management.

2.3.1.3 BSS internal interface (Abis)

An interface between BSC and BTS is called the Abis interface. BSC on the Abis
interface provides signaling control information for BTS configuration, monitoring,
and testing and service control. Please refer to related documentation about the BTS
side.

2.3.1.4 MSS internal interfaces

Fig 2.3-1 Internal Interfaces of the Network

In Fig 2.3-1, the MSS part contains the names of interfaces between equipment entities.

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 Chapter 2 CDMA Network Architecture

They will be described one by one in the coming part.

1. B interface

As an internal interface between VLR and MSC, the B interface is used by the
MSC to request the current location information of the MS from VLR or notify
the VLR to update the location information of the MS.

2. C interface

As an interface between HLR and MSC, the C interface transfers information

for route selection and management. Once a call is required to a MS, the
Gateway MSC (GMSC) will request the roaming number of the called MS from
the HLR of the called side. The physical link of the C interface is 2.048Mbit/s
standard PCM digital transmission cable.

3. D interface

As an interface between HLR and VLR, the D interface exchanges information

related with MS location and user management. It ensures that the MS can
establish and receives calls within the entire service area. Its physical link is
2.048Mbit/s standard digital link.

4. E interface

It is the interface controlling different MSCs of adjacent areas. When the MS

moves, during a call, from the control area of one MSC to that of another MSC,
this interface can be used to exchange related handoff information to activate
and complete handoff, and thus to complete the cross-cell channel handoff
process without interrupting the communication. Its physical link is
implemented through 2.048Mbit/s standard digital link between MSCs.

5. N interface

This interface is used to transfer route information related with the called
subscriber between SC and HLR. Its physical link is implemented through
2.048Mbit/s standard digital link.

6. Q interface

It is an interface between MS and MSC transferring short messages.

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CM3G-001-E1 CDMA Mobile Communication

y Note

In the CDMA System; Um, A interface and other interfaces on the network side are all
open interfaces. The Abis interface is normally used as an internal interface. If MSC
and VLR are combined, the B interface will be used as an internal interface. All open
interfaces are compliant with standard protocols.

2.3.2 Interface Protocols

A protocol is the common language among various functional entities. It transfers

messages through interfaces to establish an effective information transmission channel
to complete all communication and management functions of the CDMA system.
Different interfaces may require different physical links to complete their own
functions. When the hierarchical protocol structure is adopted for the system’s
interfaces, the interworking with ISDN can be considered. Therefore, the interfaces
match the OSI reference model. The purpose of this structure is to allow the isolation
of different signaling protocols, describing protocols according to continuous
independent hierarchy. Each layer of protocol provides specified service at the agreed
service access point for its upper layer protocol. Fig 2.3-2 shows the protocol structure
of the CDMA network.

Fig 2.3-2 CDMA Network Protocol Structure

On the BTS side, the IS-95 protocol of Qualcomm is used for the CDMA system.

At the A interface, related standards stipulated by the Ministry of Information Industry.

The signaling model is shown in Fig 2.3-3:

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 Chapter 2 CDMA Network Architecture

BSC A口 MSC

DTAP BSSMAP DTAP BSSMAP

Allocation function Allocation function

SCCP SCCP

MTP MTP

DTAP: Direct Transfer Application Part

BSSMAP: BSS Mobile Application Part

SCCP: Signaling Connection Control Part

MTP: Message Transmission Part

Fig 2.3-3 Signaling Protocol Reference Model of A Interface

The third layer consists of DTAP and BSSMAP. DTAP messages are transparent to the
A interface, therefore the A interface supports various air interfaces to implement call
processing and mobility management, while radio resource management is mapped
into a BSSMAP message and then transferred through the A interface.

Layer 2: Based on the MTP of SS7 signaling.

Layer 1 features digital transmission at the rate of 2048 Kbit/s.

On the network side, the functional entities communicate through SS7 MAP protocol,
which reflects the SS7 signal protocol structure.

M AP

TUP IS U P TCAP

SCCP

M TP

Fig 2.3-4 SS7 Signaling Hierarchical Structure

19
CM3G-001-E1 CDMA Mobile Communication

y Note

Concepts related with the SS7 signaling system are widely used in the CDMA network.
Information transfer is implemented through the MAP application layer among MSC,
VLR, HLR, AUC and SC. Due to its important position, SS7 will be described
separately in this set of textbooks.

Summary
This chapter briefly describes the structure and related interfaces of the CDMA
system. It is the study of the CDMA theory, also the basis for equipment
maintenance. In the subsequent chapters, the CDMA system will be further described
based on this chapter.

Topics for discussion

1. How many parts can the CDMA network be divided and what are they?

2. What is the main signaling transferred at each interface of the CDMA network?

3. Why is the SS7 signaling system important? What is its structure?

20
3 Numbering Plan

Key points

．Understand the meanings of each number in the CDMA network

．Remember the numbering rules for each number.

In the CDMA network, different numbers are used in different places. Because of the
roaming feature of mobile subscribers, these numbers must be accepted and identified
at any switching equipment. Therefore, in mobile communication, it is very necessary
to give a unified numbering plan for different numbers to enable entities in the network
to distinguish and identify mutually.

3.1 Numbering Plan

In CDMA networking, we use the following numbering plan:

1. E.164: The international public telecommunication numbering plan.

All country codes (CC) are assigned by ITU in Recommendation E.164.

2. E.212: International identification plan for mobile terminals and mobile users

All mobile country codes (MCC) are assigned by ITU in Recommendation

E.212.

3.2 MDN
The Mobile Directory Number (MDN) is the standard international telephone number
used to identify a given subscriber. It consists of CC Country Code), MAC (Mobile
Access Code ) and SN (Subscriber Number).

The MDN number is based on the ITU-T E.164 standard.

Structure of the MDN:

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CM3G-001-E1 CDMA Mobile Communication

CC: Country Code

MAC: Mobile Access Code.

SN: Subscriber Number.

In Wireless Local Loop (WLL) application, MDN can be of different structures

depending on network operators in different countries.

The standard structure for WLL will be:

MDN is sent by MSC/VLR to HLR to setup the call procedure. Usually, we dial only
the Office Code + ABCD therefore; MSC/VLR transforms the dialed number into the
above MDN format and then sent via SS7 link.

3.3 IMSI and MIN

The International Mobile Subscriber Identity (IMSI) is a unique identifier allocated to
each mobile subscriber. It consists of MCC (Mobile Country Code), MNC (Mobile
Network Code) and MSIN (Mobile Station Identification Number).

The IMSI number is based on the ITU-T E.212 standard.

This number should be written into the MS.

MCC: Mobile country code

MNC: Mobile network code

22
 Chapter 3 Numbering Plan

MSIN: Mobile subscriber identification number, a 10-digit decimal number.

MIN is defined following the AMPS standard to ensure the CDMA/AMPS bimodal
operation, and is the last 10 digits of IMSI, namely MSIN, as required by this system.

IMSI number may vary in context depending on operators in different countries.

3.4 Equipment Number

In CDMA networking, we use MSCIN/VLRIN/HLRIN/SCIN to identify the
networking entities and realize international routing of SS7 messages.

In CDMA networking, MSCIN/VLRIN/HLRIN/SCIN is based on the ITU-T E.212

standard.

3.5 Temporary Local Directory Number (TLDN)

To call a mobile subscriber, VLR allocates a temporary number to the mobile
subscriber for the network to select a route.

3.6 Electronic Sequence Number (ESN)

ESN is the unique number used to identify a MS. One unique SN (Serial Number) is
allocated to every individual bimodal MS. It consists of 32 bits, and the equipment
serial number is set by the MS manufacturer.

y Note

The GT number is the address information of the SCCP layer. It will be described in
the description of SS7 signaling.

Summary
This chapter describes all numbers involved now by the CDMA network and their
numbering rules. Most of them are specified by the headquarters of China Unicom.
These numbers are important evidence for addressing when we use the CDMA network.
How to use these numbers will be described in the coming chapters.

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CM3G-001-E1 CDMA Mobile Communication

Topics for discussion:

1. What is the relationship between IMSI and MIN?

2. What is the function of TLDN?

3. What are the numbering plans for HLR and MSC?

24
4 CDMA Key Technologies

Key points

．Application of codes in the CDMA system

．Key technologies on CDMA.

4.1 Basic Concept

CDMA stands for code division multiple access. Various code sequences may be
involved in this technology. Different coding processes are required for different
sources and channels. The following description is focused on several different codes.

4.1.1 Walsh Code

The Walsh code is originated from the Walsh function through complicated resolution
process. The process is not described in this textbook. The point is on the attributes of
Walsh code.

The Walsh function is a non-sine complete orthogonal function system. Its possible
value could be selected from +1 and –1 (or 0 and 1). It is suitable to be used and handle
digital signals. Thanks to its excellent correlation, the Walsh function can be used as
address code in CDMA communication. In IS-95, the 64-order Walsh code is used for
channel discrimination. In the CDMA system, each forward code channel is spread
with 1.2288Mbit/s 64-order function to make all forward code channels mutually
orthogonal. The code channels spread with 64-order Walsh function n (n=0—63) can
be defined as Code channel No.n.

4.1.2 Pseudo-random Sequence Number

In the communication theory, white noise is a random process. Its transient value is
subject to normal distribution. Its power spectrum is even in a very wide range. The
pseudo noise (PN) sequence, similar with the white noise sequence, appears random
but it is actually a regular periodic binary sequence. In the CDMA communication
technology, the address code is selected from a pseudo random sequence. From all

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CM3G-001-E1 CDMA Mobile Communication

pseudo sequences, the m sequence is selected as the address code. Its various phases
can be used to discriminate different subscribers. This method is used in the current
CDMA cellular system.

IS-95 also uses the self correlation of the PN code, while the m sequence has the best
self correlation, therefore the PN code of the m sequence is selected as the address
code. The near orthogonal attributes of m sequences in different phases are used to
allocate a phase for the channel of each subscriber.

The periodic donation of the m sequence is:

P = 2 n – 1 (n is the length of the shift register).

In the CDMA system, the long code and short code of the m sequence are used: long
code n=42, short code n=15.

y Note

Orthogonal: a mathematical concept. If the integral of two functions product comes to

zero in a period, it can be called as orthogonal.

Correlation: can be divided as self correlation and mutual correlation. The former is the
comparison of the same signal at different time segments, reflecting the change of
wave form and the phase. Mutual correlation refers to the relationship between two
signals and is used to indicate the difference of wave form and the phase between two
signals.

The self correlation of the m sequence pseudo-random code is approximately 1, while

that of mutual correlation is approximately 0. This is the optimal code type.

The “m” in the m sequence should not be used in its upper case. In the pseudo
sequences, the M sequence is another spreading communication sequence.

4.1.3 Number Application

4.1.3.1 Walsh code —— identifying forward channel

In the CDMA system, each forward code channel is spread with 1.2288Mbit/s 64-order
function to make all forward code channels mutually orthogonal.

4.1.3.2 PN 215 short number —— identifying BTS, 242 long number —— reversely
identifying MS: forward identifying scrambler

Among forward channels, the m sequence of a length of 242 –1 is used to harass the

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 Chapter 4 CDMA Key Technologies

codes on the service channel. The m sequence of a length of 215 –1 is used for
orthogonal modulation of the forward channel. Different m sequences are used by
different BTSs for modulation. Their phase deviation is 64 bits at least. So, totally 512
different phases can be available at most.

Among reverse channels, the m sequence of a length of 242 –1 is used for spreading
directly. Along with the mask value change, the phase of the m sequence also changes.
Every subscriber will be allocated with a mask calculated through the MS “Electronic
Serial No.” (ESN). Namely, every subscriber will be randomly allocated with a phase
of PN code (with the length as 242 –1) and this phase is not repeated. Because of the
dual correlation attributes of the m sequence, any two subscribers are approximately
orthogonal. The PN code of 215 –1 is also used for orthogonal modulation of reverse
service channels. But it is unnecessary to identify the BTS at the reverse channel, m
sequences of the same phase are used for all BTSs, so the phase deviation is 0.

4.1.4 Number-based Channels

4.1.4.1 Forward channel

1. Pilot channel: A channel continuously transmitting signals at the forward

CDMA channel. It is used for synchronization and handoff of all working MSs
within the coverage of the BTS.

2. Intra-frequency channel: This channel is for convolution coding, code symbol

repetition, interleaving, spreading and modulation. In the coverage of the
BTS, the active MS can get initial clock synchronization through this channel.

3. Paging channel: This channel is for convolution coding, code symbol repetition,
interleaving, scrambling, spreading and modulated spreading signals. The BTS
sends system information and MS paging messages through this channel.

4. Service channel: Transfer subscriber service data. The relationship between

channels and Walsh code is illustrated in Fig 4.1-1:

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CM3G-001-E1 CDMA Mobile Communication

Fig 4.1-1 Relationship between Channels and Walsh Code

4.1.4.2 Reverse channel

1. Access channel: The channel used by the MS to originate communication with

the BTS and by responding BTS to send paging channel messages. The access
channel transmits a coded, interleaved and modulated spreading signal. It is
discriminated exclusively through the public long number mask.

2. Reverse service channel: used to transmit subscriber information and signaling

information during call connection.

4.2 Key Technologies

4.2.1 Power Control Technology

This is the core technology of the CDMA system. If all subscribers in the cell transmit
signals at the same power, the signals transmitted from a near MS to the BTS are
stronger, and the signals transmitted from a far MS to the BTS are weaker. As a result,
strong signals override weak ones. This is called “Near/Far Effect” in the mobile
communication. The CDMA system is a self-interfering system. All mobile subscribers
share the same bandwidth and frequency. The “Near/Far Effect” is very obvious. The
purpose of CDMA power control is to wipe out this effect to ensure that the system can
provide high communication quality without generating interference to other
subscribers.

Power control includes forward power control and reverse power control, while reverse
power control can also be divided into open loop power control only involved with

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 Chapter 4 CDMA Key Technologies

MSs and closed loop power control involved with MSs and BTS.

4.2.1.1 Reverse Open Loop Power Control

In this power control mode, the MS adjusts its transmitting power according to its
receiving power in the cell, so that the signals transmitted by all MSs have the equal
power when reaching the BTS. The main purpose is to implement such effects as
shadow compensation; therefore, it features a large dynamic scope, at least in the range
of –32dB ~ +32dB according to the IS-95 standard.

Open loop power control is based on a rough estimation of the sending level of a MS,
while the MS estimates the sending level by measuring the receiving power, without
modulation via any forward link.

4.2.1.2 Reverse Closed Loop Power Control

The design purpose of closed loop power control is to enable the BTS to correct the
open loop power of the MS rapidly so that the MS can maintain the optimal
transmitting power. During closed loop power control at a reverse service channel, the
MS will refer to the received effective power control bit at the forward service channel
to adjust its average output power.

4.2.1.3 Reverse Power Control

During forward power control, the BTS adjusts the transmitting power of each MS
according to measurement results. Its purpose is to allocate light forward link power
for MSs with low path attenuation and allocate heavy forward link power for those
MSs with high BER and far from the BTS.

The BTS decides whether to increase or decrease the transmitting power according to
the forward FER report from the MS.

4.2.2 Diversity Technology

This technology enables the system to receive two or more input signals at the same
time and the attenuation statuses of these input signals are not related to each other. The
system demodulates these signals respectively and then adds them together. In this way,
more useful signals can be received to overcome attenuation.

The mobile communication channel is a multi-path attenuation channel. Its attenuation

can be divided into fast attenuation and slow attenuation.

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CM3G-001-E1 CDMA Mobile Communication

The diversity technology is an effective method to overcome multi-path attenuation. It

enables the receiver to combine several received signals carrying the same information
but of independent attenuation attributes, before making a decision. Attenuation is
related with frequency, time and space, therefore the diversity technology involves
space diversity, time diversity and frequency diversity.

4.2.2.1 Time diversity (RAKE receiving technology)

The mobile communication channel is a multi-path attenuation channel. The RAKE

receiving technology is to receive a line of signals for demodulation separately and
then, overlay them for output to achieve enhanced receiving effects. The multi-path
signal is not a negative factor, but can be a favorable factor in the CDMA system.

4.2.2.2 Frequency diversity

The CDMA bandwidth transmission is the specific application of frequency diversity.

4.2.3 Handoff Technology

The following types of handoff may be involved when the MS implements

communication via the service channel:

4.2.3.1 Soft handoff

Soft handoff happens between CDMA channels of the same frequency but in adjacent
cells. In this type of handoff, when the MS starts to communicate with a new BTS, the
communication with the original BTS is not immediately cut off. Soft handoff is only
available for CDMA channels of the same frequency. It can provide path diversity at
the BTS border for forward service channels and reverse service channels. Fig 4.2-1
shows a soft handoff between different BTSs within the same BSC; while Fig 4.2-2
shows a soft handoff between different BSCs within the same MSC.

Fig 4.2-1 Soft handoff Within the Same BSC

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 Chapter 4 CDMA Key Technologies

Fig 4.2-2 Soft handoff between Different BSCs within the Same MSC

4.2.3.2 Softer handoff

The handoff between CDMA channels in different sectors but with the same frequency
and within the same BTS is called as softer handoff. Fig 4.2-3 reflects the softer
handoff process.

Fig 4.2-3 Softer Handoff Process

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CM3G-001-E1 CDMA Mobile Communication

4.2.3.3 Hard handoff

In this handoff mode, the MS will first get disconnected from the original BTS and
connected with a new BTS. The handoff normally happens at CDMA channels of
different frequencies or between different MSCs, as shown in Fig 4.2-4.

Fig 4.2-4 Hard Handoff

4.2.3.4 Handoff from CDMA to analog

In this handoff, the MS transfers from a CDMA service channel to an analog voice
channel.

4.2.4 Voice Coding Technology

At present, the voice coding of the CDMA system falls in two types: Code-Excited
Linear Prediction (CELP), 8 kbps and 13 kbps. The voice quality of 8kbps voice
coding is as good as the 13kbps voice of GSM, or even better. The voice quality of 13
kbps voice coding is as good as that of the fixed toll call. The CELP is based on the
same principles as the PELPC, with the difference that the pulse position and amplitude
are replaced by a vector code table.

4.2.5 Channel Modulation Technology

Reverse CDMA channels include access channels and reverse service channels. These
channels are used at the same CDMA frequency through direct sequence spreading
CDMA technology. Data transmission is implemented in the unit of frame 20ms. Any
data, before transmission, will be processed in a series of links: convolution coding,
block interleaving, 64-order orthogonal modulation, direct sequence spreading and
baseband filtering.

Forward CDMA channels include pilot channel, intra-frequency channel, paging

channel (7 at most) and a number of service channels. Each code channel will be

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 Chapter 4 CDMA Key Technologies

orthogonally spread through a Walsh function and then spread through a

1.2288Mchip/s PN sequence.

The following part describes the digital spectrum spreading mechanism and the
changes of signal spectrum after spreading, as shown in Fig 4.2-5 and Fig 4.2-6.

Cell decoding
Cell coding

Channel Channel
Carrier Carrier
coding decoding
(spreading) modulation demodulation (dispreading)
Forward Forward
transmission receiving
Walsh code Walsh code
Cell decoding

Cell coding
Channel Channel
Carrier Carrier
decoding demodulation modulation coding
(dispreading) (spreading)

Backward Backward
PN p seudo- receiving transmission PN pseudo-
random code random code

Fig 4.2-5 Digital Spectrum Spreading

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CM3G-001-E1 CDMA Mobile Communication

S(f) S（f）

Signal

f0
Signal

f0 f0
Signal spectrum before spread Signal spectrum after spread

S（f） S（f）

Signal

Noise

Noise
Signal White noise White noise

f0 f0
Signal spectrum before despread Signal spectrum after despread

Signal Pulse noise White noise

Fig 4.2-6 Signal and Noise Spectrum Change

4.2.6 Soft Capacity

In the CDMA network, two methods are available for dynamic capacity adjustment:

1. Raise FER to get more available channels by lowering voice quality.

2. Cell breath function: Adjust the pilot value of the BTS to adjust the cell’s
coverage.

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 Chapter 4 CDMA Key Technologies

Summary
This chapter describes the characteristics and use of various codes in the CDMA
system, and gives a brief introduction to key technologies, such as power control
technology, handoff technology, voice coding technology, RAKE receiving technology,
and so on. It is the adoption of these key technologies that promotes high voice quality,
low call drop rate, large network capacity and long service life of MS batteries in the
CDMA system. Details about these technologies are available in documentation of the
BTS side.

Topics for discussion

1. Why the pseudo number is used as the address code of a subscriber in the CDMA
system?

2. What are the codes used in the CDMA system to implement CDMA services?

3. What are the key technologies used in the CDMA system?

4. What are the advantages of these key technologies?

35