Chapter 8 Production of Power from Heat Except for nuclear power, the sun is the ultimate source of all the mechanical energy used by mankind. The total rate at which energy reaches the earth from the sun is staggering, but the rate at which it falls on a square meter of surface is small. Energy gathered over a large area is required to make practical its use in any large-scale production of work. Nevertheless, solar photovoltaic cells are used for electric power in small-scale special applications. Solar radiation also finds direct application for heating water and buildings, for generation of high temperatures in metallurgical applications (solar furnaces), and for evaporating water in the production of salt. ‘The kinetic energy associated with atmospheric winds is increasingly used in favorable locations to produce power by large windmills. The potential energy of tides is another possible source of power, but production from these sources remains small in comparison with world demands for energy. Eventually, such alternatives will become essential. Significant hydroelectric power is generated by conversion of the potential energy of wafer into work, a process that can in principle be accomplished with an efficiency of 100%. ‘However, by far the most important sources of power are the chemical (molecular) energy of foels and nuclear energy. Large-scale installations for this purpose depend on the evolution of heat and its subsequent partial conversion into work. Despite improvements in equipment design, the efficiency of conversion does not approach 100%. This is a consequence of the second law. The efficiency of conventional fossil-fuel steam-power plants rarely exceeds 35%. However, efficiencies greater than 50% can be reatized in combined-cycle plants with dual power generation: @ From advanced-technology gas turbines. © From steam-power cycles operating on heat recovered from hot turbine exhaust gases. A common device for the direct conversion of chemical energy into electrical energy, without the intermediate generation of heat, is the electrochemical cell, ¢.g., a battery. A re- lated device is the fuel cell. in which reactants are supplied continuously to the electrodes. The prototype is a cell in which hydrogen reacts with oxygen to produce water through electro- chemical conversion. The resulting efficiency can be as great as 85%. a considerable improve- Mest over processes that first convert chemical energy into heat. This technology has potential ication in transportation, and may well find other uses. Its theoretical basis is considered in Sec. 13.10. 2908.1. The Steam Power Plant 291 In a conventional power plant the molecular energy of fuel is released by a combustion Process. The function of the work-producing device is to convert part of the heat of com- bustion into mechanical energy. In a miclear power plant the fission process releases energy of the nucleus of the atom as heat, which is then partially converted into work. Thus, the thermodynamic analysis of beat engines, as presented in this chapter, applies equally well to conventional (fossil-fuel) and nuckear power plants. ‘The steam power plant is a large-scale heat engine in which the working fluid (HzO) is in steady-state flow successively through a pamp, a boiler, a turbine, and a condenser in a cyclic process (See. $.2). The working fluid is separated from the heat source. and heat is transferred across a physical boundary. In a fossil-fuel-fired plant the combustion gases are separated from the steam by boiler-tube walls. ‘The intemal-combustion engine is another form of heat engine. wherein high tempera- tures are attained by conversion of the chemical energy of a fuel directly into internal energy within the work-producing device. Examples are Otto and Diese! engines and the gas turbine.’ This chapter is devoted to the analysis of several common heat-engine cycles. 8.1 THE STEAM POWER PLANT ‘The Carnot-engine cycle, described in Sec. 5.2, operates reversibly and consists of two isother- mal steps connected by two adiabatic steps. In the isothermal step at higher temperature Ty. heat |Qj| is absorbed by the working fluid of the engine, and in the isothermal step at lower "Details of steam power plants and intcrnal-combustioa engincs can be found in E, B, Woodruff, H. 6. Lamencrs, and T, S. Lammers. Steam Plant Operation, 6th ed, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1992; and C. F. Taylor, The Internat Combustion Engine in Theory and Practice: Thermodynamics, Fiiid Fling, Performance, MIT Press, Boston, 1984. Obras gidas po292 CHAPTER 8. Production of Power from Heat Figure 8.2: Carnot cycle on a T'S diagram. Figure &3: The Rankine cycle. temperature T¢-, heat |Qc| is discarded by the fluid. The work produced is |(W| = |Q4|—|cl. and the thermal efficiency of the Carnot engine is: qe =1-— (58) Clearly, 1 increases as Tyy increases and as Te decreases. Although the efficiencies of practical heat engines are lowered by irreversibilities, it is still true that their efficiencies are increased when the average temperature at which heat is absorbed is increased and when the average temperature at which heat is rejected is decreased. Figure 8.1 shows a simple steady-state steady-flow process in which steam generated in « boiler is expanded in an adiabatic turbine to produce work. The discharge stream from the turbine passes to a condenser from which it is pumped adiabatically back to the boiler. The power produced by the turbine is much greater than the pump requirement, and the net power output is equal to the difference between the rate of heat input in the boiler |Q 4! and the rate of heat rejection in the condenser |Oc|. ‘The processes that occur as the working fluid flows around the cycle of Fig. 8.1 are represented by lines on the T'S diagram of Fig. 8.2. The sequence of lines shown conforms toa Camot cycle. Step 1 > 2 is the vaporization process taking place in the boiler, wherein saturated liquid water absorbs heat at the constant temperature Ty, and produces saturated vapor. Step 2 > 3 is a reversible, adiabatic expansion of saturated vapor into the two-phase region to produce a mixture of saturated liquid and vapor at Tc. This isentropic expansion is represented by a vertical line. Step 3 + 4 is a partial condensation process wherein heat is rejected at Tc. Step 4 —+ 1 takes the cycle back to its origin, producing saturated-liquid water -at point 1. It is an isentropic compression process represented by a vertical line. The Rankine Cycle ‘The thermal efficiency of the Carnot cycle just described is given by Eq. (5.8). As a reversible cycle, it could serve as a standard of comparison for actual steam power plants. However, severe practical difficulties attend the operation of equipment intended to carry out steps 2 > 3 and 4 —> 1. Turbines that take in saturated steam produce an exhaust with high liquid content,8.1. The Steam Power Plant 293 which causes severe erosion problems. Even more difficult is the design of a pump that takes in a mixture of liquid and vapor (point 4) and discharges a saturated liquid (point 1). For these reasons, an alternative model cycle is taken as the standard, at least for fossil-fuel-buming power plants. Itis called the Rankine cycle, and differs from the cycle of Fig. 8.2 in two major respects. First, the heating step I + 2 is carried well beyond vaporization, so as to produce a superheated vapor, and second, the cooling step 3 — 4 brings about complete condensation, yielding saturated liquid to be pumped to the boiler. The Rankine cycle therefore consists of the four steps shown by Fig. 8.3. and described as follows: © 1 — 2 A constant-pressure heating process in a boiler. The step lies along an isobar (the pressure of the boiler), and consists of three sections: heating of subcooled liquid water to its saturation temperature, vaporization at constant temperature and pressure, and superheating of the vapor to a temperature well above its saturation temperature. * 2+ 3 Reversible, adiabatic (isentropic) expansion of vapor in a turbine to the pressure of the condenser. The step normally crosses the saturation curve, producing a wet ex- haust. However, the supetheating accomplished in step | — 2 shifts the vertical line far ‘enough to the right on Fig. 8.3 that the moisture content is not too large. «3 -— 4 A constant-pressure, constant-temperature process in a condenser to produce saturated liquid at point 4. © 4+ I Reversible, adiabatic (isentropic) pumping of the saturated liquid to the pressure of the boiler, producing compressed (subcooled) liquid. The vertical line (whose length is exaggerated in Fig. 8.3) is very short, because the temperature rise associated with compression of a liquid is small. Figure 8.4: Simple Practical power cycle. Power plants can be built to operate on a cycle that departs from the Rankine cycle solely because of the irreversibilities of the work-producing and work-requiring steps. Figure 8.4 Nevertheless, present-day auclear power planes generate saeurseed steam and operate with eurbines designed 10 ‘ject liquid at various stages of expansion.294 CHAPTER 8. Production of Power from Heat illustrates the effects of these irreversibilities on steps 2 —> 3 and 4 — 1. The lines are no longer vertical, but tend in the direction of increasing entropy. The turbine exhaust is normally still wet, but as long as the moisture content is less than about 10%, erosion problems are not serious. Slight subcooling of the condensate in the condenser may occur, but the effect is inconsequential. ‘The boiler serves to wansfer heat from a burning fuel (or from a nuclear reactor) to the cycle, and the condenser transfers heat from the cycle to the surroundings. Neglecting kinetic- and potential-energy changes reduces the energy relations, Eqs. (2.31) and (2.32), in either case to: ‘Turbine and pump calculations are weated in detail in Secs, 7.2 and 7.3. Example 8.1 ‘Steam generated in a power plant al a pressure of 8,600 kPa and a temperature of ‘500°C is fed to a turbine. Exhaust from the turbine enters a condenser at 10 kPa, where it is condensed to saturated liquid, which is then pumped to the boiler. (a) What is the thermal efficiency of a Rankine cycle operating at these condi- tions? (0) What is the thermal efficiency of a practical cycle operating at these conditions if the turbine efficiency and pump efficiency are both 0.75? (c) If the rating of the power cycle of part (b) is 80,000 kW, what is the steam rate and what are the heat-transier rates in the boiler and condenser? Solution 8.1 (a) The turbine operates under the same conditions as the turbine of Ex. 7.6, where: (AH)s = -1,.274.2 WS kg Thos W, (isentropic) = (AH)s = —1,274.2 KI kg~! Moreover, the enthalpy at the end of isentropic expansion, H in Ex. 7.6, is here: Hy = 2,117.4 kg"! ‘The enthalpy of saturated liquid at 10 kPa (and f" = 45.83°C) is: Hy = 191. 3k) kg!8.1. The Steam Power Plant Thus by Eq. (8.2) applied to the condenser, Q(condenser) = Hy — Hj = 1918-21174 = 1,925.6 kg"! where the minus sign signifies that heat flows out of the system. ‘The pump operates under essentially the same conditions as the pump of Ex. 7.10, where: W, Gsentropic) = (AH)s = 8.7 ki kg! Whence, Hi = Hy +(AH)s = 191.8 +8.7 = 2005 Kl kg! ‘The enthalpy of superheated steam at 8,600 kPa and 500°C is: Hy = 3,391.6 KS kg"! By Eg. (8.2) applied to the boiler, Orboiler) = Hz = Hy = 3,391.6 — 2005 = 3,191.1 kg"! ‘The net work of the Rankine cycle is the sam of the turbine work and the pump work: W, (Rankine) = —1,274.2 + 8.7 = -1,265.5 I kgm? This result is of course also: W.(Rankine) = —QO(boiler) — Qicondenser) = -3,191.1 + 1,925.6 = -1,265 50 kgm! The thermal efficiency of the cycle is: (b) With a turbine efficiency of 0.75, then also from Ex. 7.6: W, (turbine) = AH = —955.6 Kd kg? Whence Hs = Hy + AH = 3,391.6 ~ 955.6 = 2436.0 kg! For the condenser, Q(condenser) = Hs — Hy = 191.8 — 2,436.0 = —2.244.2 kd kg™! By Ex. 7.10 for the pump, W,(pump) = AH = L1.6ki kg The net work of the cycle is therefore: W, (net) = —955.6 + 11.6 = —944.0k3 kg"!2% CHAPTER 8. Production of Power from Heat and Hy = Hy + MH = 191.84 11.6 = 203.4. ge! Then — Qiboiler) = Hy ~ Hy = 3,391.6 ~ 203.4 = 3,188.2 ks kg! ‘The thermal efficiency of the cycle is therefore: _ Watneo| 944.0 Qboiler) — 3,188.2 which may be compared with the result of part (a), (c) For a power rating of 80,000 kW: = 0.2961 W, (net) = 9 W, (net) _ Walnety _ -80,000 ss“! W, (net) ~ —944.010) kg~! =84.75kgs! ‘Then by Bq. (8.1), Olboiler) = (84.75)(3.188.2) = 270.2 x 10° ds“! Olcondenser) = (34.75) 2,244.2) = -190.2 x 10° Ks“! Note that Orboiler) + G(condenser) = —W,(nety The Regenerative Cycle The thermal efficiency of a steam power cycle is increased when the pressure and hence the vaporization temperature in the boiler is raised. It is also increased by increased superheating in the boiler. Thus, high boiler pressures and temperatures favor high efficiencies. However, these same conditions increase the capital investment in the plant, because they require heavier construction and more expensive materials of construction. Moreover, these costs increase ever more rapidly as more severe conditions are imposed. Thus, in practice power plants seldom operate at pressures much above 10,000 kPa or temperatures much above 600°C. The thermal efficiency of a power plant increases as the pressure and hence the temperature in the condenser is reduced. However, the condensation temperature must be higher than the temperature of the cooling medium, usually water, and this is controlled by local conditions of climate and geography. Power plants universally operate with condenser pressures as low as practical. ‘Most modem power plants operate oa a modification of the Rankine cycle that incorpo- rates feedwater heaters. Water from the condenser, rather than being pumped directly back to the boiler, is first heated by steam extracted from the turbine. This is normally done in several stages, with steam taken from the turbine at several intermediate states of expansion. An ar- rangement with four feedwater heaters is shown in Fig. 8.5. The operating conditions indicated on this figure and described in the following paragraphs are typical, and are the basis for the illustrative calculations of Ex. 8.2.8.4. The Steam Power Plant 297 Figure 8.5: Steam power plant with feedwater heating. ‘The conditions of steam generation in the boiler are the same as in Ex. 8.1: 8,600 kPa and $00°C. The exhaust pressure of the turbine, 10 kPa, is also the same, The saturation temperature of the exhaust steam is therefore 45.83°C. Allowing for slight subcooling of the condensate, we fix the temperature of the liquid water from the condenser at 45°C. The feedwater pump, which operates under exactly the conditions of the pump in Ex. 7.10, causes a temperature rise of about 1°C, making the temperature of the feedwater entering the series of heaters equal to 46°C. ‘The saturation temperature of steam at the boiler pressure of 8,600 kPa is 300.06°C, and the temperature to which the feedwater can be raised in the heaters is certainly less. This tem- perature is.a design variable, which is ultimately fixed by economic considerations. However. & ‘value must be chosen before any thermodynamic calculations can be made, We have therefore arbitrarily specified a temperature of 226°C for the feedwater stream entering the boiler. We have also specified that all four feedwater heaters accomplish the same temperature rise. Thus, the total temperature rise of 226 — 46 = 180°C is divided into four 45°C increments. This establishes all intermediate feedwater temperatures at the values shown on Fig. &.5. The steam supplied to a given feedwater heater mast be at a pressure high enough that its saturation temperature is above that of the feedwater stream leaving the heater. We have bere presumed a minimum temperature difference for heat transfer of no less than 5°C, and have chosen extraction steam pressures such that the 1“ values shown in the feedwater heaters are at least $°C greater than the exit temperatures of the feedwater streams, The condensate from298 CHAPTER 8. Production of Power from Heat ‘each feedwater heater is fashed through a throttle valve to the heater at the next lower pressure, and the collected condensate in the final heater of the series is flashed into the condenser. Thus, all condensate returns from the condenser to the boiler by way of the feedwater heaters. The purpose of heating the feedwater in this manner is to raise the average temperature at which heat is added in the boiler. This increases the thermal efficiency of the plant, which is said to operate on a regenerative cycle. Example 8.2 Determine the thermal efficiency of the power plant shown in Fig. 8.5, assuming tur- bine and pump efficiencies of 0.75. If its power rating is 80,000 kW, what is the steam rate from the boiler and what are the heat-transfer rates in the boiler and condenser? Solution 8.2 Initial calculations are made on the basis of | kg of steam entering the turbine from the boiler. The turbine is in effect divided into five sections, as indicated in Fig. 8.5. Because steam is extracted at the end of each section, the flow rate in the turbine decreases from one section to the next, The amounts of steam extracted from the first four sections are determined by energy balances. ‘This requires enthalpies of the compressed feedwater streams. The effect of pressure at constant temperature on a liquid is given by Eq. (7.25): OH = V(I- BT)AP (const T) For saturated liquid water at 226°C (499.15 K), the steam tables provide: P™=25082kPa H=97NSK ke! | V = 1201 cm kg! In addition, at this temperature, B= 1.582 x 10K" ‘Thus, for a pressure change from the saturation pressure to 8,600 kPa: AH = 1,201[1 — (1.528 x 10-9499, 15) SO 2982) ca LS kb kg7! and HA = H (sat. liq.) + AH = 971.5 + 1.5 = 973.0 kg! ‘Similar calculations yield the enthalpies of the feedwater at other temperatures. lll pertinent values are given in the following table. re 26 181 136 a 6 HIKS kg! for water at tand P=8,600kPa 973.0 771.3 S774 387.5 20008.1. The Steam Power Plant 299 ‘Steam feed 10 ‘ection 2 2900kFs Figure 8.6: 3182 Section Lof - turbine and first Tigtqud =F" 8180 fecdwater hester. vn P= 8600s cat yoisre aan ‘Consider the first section of the turbine and the first feedwater heater, as shown by Fig. 8.6. The enthalpy and entropy of the steam entering the turbine are found from the tables for superheated steam. The assumption of isentropic expansion of steam in section I of the turbine to 2,900 kPa leads to the result: (AH) = —320.5 Kb kg"! If we assume that the turbine efficiency is independent of the pressure to which the steam expands, then Eq. (7.16) gives: AH = 9(AH)s = (0.75)(-320.5) = —240.4 KI kg! By Eq. (7.14), W,@ = AH = -2404K5 In addition, the enthalpy of steam discharged from this section of the turbine is: H =3391.6— 2404 = 3,151.2 kK kgé! A simple energy balance on the feedwater heater results from the assump- ments, @ = —W, = 0, Equation (2.30) then reduces to: AHH. = 0 s de autc300 (CHAPTER 8. Production of Power from Heat from = awI2 Figure 8.7: Section I of turbine and second feedwater heater. This equation gives mathematical expression to the requirement that the total en- thalpy change for the process be zero, Thus on the basis of 1 kg of steam emering the turbine (Fig. 8.6): m(999.5 — 3,151.2) + (1)(973.0— 771.3) =0 Whence, m = 0.09374 kg and 1 — m = 0.90626 kg On the basis of 1 kg of steam entering the turbine, 1 — m is the mass of steam flowing into section I of the turbine. ‘Section II of the turbine and the second feedwater heater are shown in Fig. 8.7. In doing the same calculations as for section 1, we assume that cach kilogram of ‘steam leaving section I] expands from its state af the turbine entrance to the exit of section I with an efficiency of 0.75 compared with isentropic expansion. The ‘enthalpy of the steam leaving section Il found in this way is: H =29878 kJ kg"! ‘Then on the basis of I kg of steam entering the turbine, W, (I) = (2,987.8 — 3,151.2)(0.90626) = —148.08 kd das Obras f8.1. The Steam Power Plant 301 An energy balance on the feedwater heater (Fig. 8.7) gives: (0.09374 + m)(789.9) — (0.09374)(999.5) — m(2,987.8) + (1)(771.3 — $77.4) =0 Whence, m = 0.07971 kg Note that throttling the condensate stream does not change its enthalpy. ‘These results and those of similar calculations for the remaining sections of the turbine are listed in the accompanying table, From the results shown, and Yom = 0.3055 kg Hidkg' WARS tFCat mikg of atsection forsection section steam exit exit ‘State extracted Sec. 1 31512 —240.40 363.65 Superheated 0.09374 vapor Sec. It 2,987.8 —148.08 27248 Superheated 0.07928 vapor Sec. 2,827.4 —13265 183.84 Superheated 0.06993 vapor Sec.IV 2,651.3 —133.32 96.00 = Wet vapor §=—_-0.06257 x =0.9919 Sec.V 2.4359 -149.59 45.83 Wet vapor x =09378 ‘Thus for every kilogram of steam entering the turbine, the work produced is 804.0 kJ, and 0.3055 kg of steam is extracted from the turbine for the feedwater heaters, The work required by the pump is exactly the work calculated for the pump in Ex. 7.10, that is, 11.6 kJ. The net work of the eycle on the basis of 1 kg of steam generated in the boiler is therefore: W, (net) = -804.0+ 11.6 = —792.4J ‘On the same basis, the heat added in the boiler is: Qiboiler) = AH = 3,391.6 ~ 973.0 = 2.41860 The thermal efficiency of the cycle is therefore: _ [Wy(oen| 7924 ~ Qtboiler) ~ 2418.6 ‘This is a significant improvement over the value 0.2961 of Ex. 8.1. = 0.327632 CHAPTER 8. Production of Power from Heat Because W, (net) = ~80,000 kJ s~!, ., _ Walnet) _ —80,000 = 100: rt Wien ~ 792.4 ~ 100-96KS ‘This is the steam rate to the turbine, used to calculate the heat-transfer rate in the boiler: Qboiler) = 9 AH = (100.96)(2,418.6) = 244.2 x 10° Ks! ‘The heat-transfer rate to the cooling water in the condenser is: O(condenser) = —_GO(boiler) — W, (net) = —244.2 x 10° — (80.0 x 10°) = — 164.2 « 107 ds! Although the steam generation rate is higher than was found in Ex. 8.1, the heat- transfer rates in the boiler and condenser are appreciably less, because their func- tions are partly taken over by the feedwater heaters. 8.2 INTERNAL-COMBUSTION ENGINES In a steam power plant, the steam is an inert medium tw which heat is transferred from a burning fuel or from a nuclear reactor. It is therefore characterized by large heat-transfer surfaces: (1) for the absorption of heat by the steam at a high temperature in the boiler, and @) for the rejection of heat from the steam at a relatively low temperature in the condenser. The disadvantage is that when heat must be transferred through walls (as through the metal walls of boiler tubes) the ability of the walls to withstand high temperatures and pressures imposes a limit on the temperature of heat absorption. In an internal-combustion engine, on the other hand, a fuel is burned within the engine itself, and the combustion products serve as the working medium, acting for example on a piston in a cylinder. High temperatures are internal, and do pot involve heat-transfer surfaces. ‘Burning of fuel within the internal-combustion engine complicates thermodynamic anal- ysis. Moreover, fuel and air flow steadily into an internal-combustion engine and combustion products flow steadily out of it; no working medium undergoes a cyclic process, as does steam in a steam power plant. However, for making simple analyses, one imagines cyclic engines with air as the working fluid that are equivalent in performance to actual internal-combustion ‘engines. In addition, the combustion step is replaced by the addition to the air of an equivalent amount of heat. In what follows. each internal-combustion engine is introduced by a quali- tative description. This is followed by a quantitative analysis of an ideal cycle in which air, treated as an ideal gas with constant heat capacities, is the working medium. 1S Dr8.2. Imemal-Combustion Engines 303 Figure 88: Onto engine cycle. The Otto Engine ‘The most common internal-combustion engine, because of its use in automobiles, is the Ono ‘engine. Its cycle consists of four strokes, and starts with an intake stroke at essentially constant pressure, during which a piston moving outward draws a fueV/air mixture into a cylinder, This is represented by line 0 > | in Fig. 8.8. During the second stroke (1 -> 2 — 3), all valves are closed, and the fuel/air mixture is compressed, approximately adiabatically along tine segment 1 —» 2; the mixture is then ignited, and combustion occurs so rapidly that the volume remains nearly constant while the pressure rises along line segment 2 —» 3. It is during the third stroke (3 > 4 —> 1) that work is produced. The high-temperature, high-pressure products of combustion expand, approximately adiabatically along line segment 3 + 4; the exhaust valve then opens and the pressure falls rapidly at nearly constant volume along line segment 4 —> 1. During the fourth or exhaust stroke (line | > 0), the piston pushes the remaining combustion gases (except for the contents of the clearance volume) from the cylinder. The volume plotted in Fig. 8.8 is the total volume of gas contained in the engine between the piston and the cylinder head. The effect of increasing the compression ratio, i.c., the ratio of the volumes at the begin- ning and end of compression from point | to point 2, is to increase the efficiency of the engine, i.e., to increase the work produced per unit quantity of fuel. We demonstrate this for an ide- alized cycle, called the air-standard Otto cycle, shown in Fig. 8.9. It consists af two adiabatic and two constant-volume steps, which comprise a heat-engine cycle for which the working fluid is air, considered an ideal gas with constant heat capacities. Step CD, a reversible adia- atic compression, is followed by step DA, in which sufficient heat is absorbed by the air at constant volume to raise its temperature and pressure to the values resulting from combustion in an actual Otto engine. Then the air is expanded adiabatically and reversibly (step AB), and cooled at constant volume (step BC) to the initial state at C_304 CHAPTER 8. Production of Power from Heat ‘The thermal efficiency 9 of the air-standard cycle shown in Fig. 8.9 is simply: = Wien! _ Boa + ac (8.3) Qa Opn ) For | mol of air with constant beat capacities, Qos = Cv(Ts - Tn) and Qec = CviTe — Ta) ‘Substituting these expressions in Eq. (8.3) gives: p= vu Ta ~To) + Cv(Te - To) Cv(Ts = Tp) Ts = Te P gale (84) ‘The thermal efficiency is related ina simple way to the compression ratio, r = Ve/ Vp. ‘Each temperature in Eq. (8.4) is replaced by an appropriate group PV/A, in accord with the ideal-gas equation. Thus, PeVe Tc= CTR PoVi Tp = Povo Substituting into Eq. (8.4) leads to: a - Me (PanPe al ve (ore) Se For the two adiabatic, reversible steps, P¥Y = const. Hence: PaV), = Pave (because Vp = Va and Vc = Vg) PcVE = PoVZ, ‘These expressions are combined (o eliminate the volumes: Pe Ps _Pa Pa-Pc_ Pa-Po Pe Py | “Re a Pa-Pe_ Pe _[Vo\"_ 1)" a noma (R) -(;) where we have used the relation Pc Vz. = Pp V},. Equation (8.5) now becomes: netor(2) =1-(2)7 86) ‘This equation shows that the thermal efficiency increases rapidly with the compression ratio r at low values of r, but more slowly at high compression ratios. This agrees with the results of actual tests on Otto engines.8.2. Intemal-Combuastion Engines 30s The Diesel Engine The fundamental difference between the Otto cycle and the Diesel cycle is that in the Diesel cycle the temperature at the end of compression is sufficiently high that combustion is initiated spontaneously. This higher temperuture results because of a higher compression ratio that carries the compression step to a higher pressure. The fuel is not injected umtil the end of the compression step, and then is added slowly enough that the combustion process occurs at approximately constant pressure. For the same compression ratio. the Otto engine has a higher efficiency than the Diesel engine. Because preignition limits the compression ratio attainable in the Otto engine, the Diesel engine operates at higher compression ratios, and consequently at higher efficiencies. Example 8.3 ‘Sketch the air-standard Diesel cycle on a PV diagram, and derive an equation giving the thermal efficiency of this cycle in relation to the compression ratio r (ratio of vol- umes at the beginning and end of the compression step) and the expansion ratio r, (ratio of volumes at the end and beginning of the adiabatic expansion step). Solution 8.3 ‘The air-standard Diesel cycle is the same as the air-standard Otto cycle. except that the heat-absorption step (corresponding to the combustion process in the actual engine) is at constant pressure, as inticated by line DA in Fig. 8.10. Figure 8.10: Air-standard Diesel cycle. On the basis of 1 mol of air, considered to be an ideal gas with constant heat capacities, the heat quantities absorbed in step DA and rejected in step BC are: Qoa = Cr(Ta—To) aod Qac =CviTc —Ts) ‘The thermal efficiency, Eq. (8.3), is:306 CHAPTER 8. Production of Power from Heat wt 8 ay ERT 9 _1 (TEM) nett on * Cota) ~! y \Ta= To For reversible, adiabatic expansion (step AB) and reversible, adiabatic compres- sion (step CD), Eq. (3.30a) applies: TaV{' = Tevz* and ToV3' = Tove" (A) By definition, the compression ratio is r = Vc/Vp; in addition the expansion ratio is defined as 7. = Vg /Va. Thus, yt nr non(2) re=t»(*) ‘Substituting these equations into Eq. (A) gives: 1 [TC fre?! - Tol fry” =1--|—— 8) 9 - [ Taz T (By Also Pa = Pp, and from the ideal-gas equation, PoVp = RTp and PaVa = RT Moreover, Vo = Vp. and therefore: To , Yo _ Vole Ty, Va Va/Va This relation combines with Eq. (B): fre’! —eiairy* 1=r/r 1 G/re” — airy” or asi) [fee (8.2) The Gas-Turbine Engine The Otto and Diesel engines exemplify direct use of the energy of high-temperature, high- pressure gases acting on a piston within a cylinder; no heat transfer with an external source is required. However, turbines are more efficient than reciprocating engines, and the advantages of internal combustion are combined with those of the turbine in the gas-turbine engine. The gas turbine is driven by high-temperature gases from a combustion chamber, as indi- cated in Fig. 8.11. The entering air is compressed (supercharged) to a pressure of several bars before combustion. The centrifugal compressor operates on the same shaft as the turbine. and part of the work of the turbine serves to drive the compressor. The higher the temperature of theFigure 8.11: Gas-turbine engine. combustion gases entering the turbine, the higher the efficiency of the unit, i, the greater the work produced per unit of fuel burned. The limiting temperature is determined by the strength of the metal turbine blades, and is much lower than the theoretical flame temperature (Ex. 4.7) of the fuel. Sufficient excess air must be supplied to keep the combustion temperature at a safe level. The idealization of the gas-turbine engine, called the Brayton cycle, is shown on a PV diagram in Fig. 8.12. The working fluid is taken as air. considered an ideal gas with constant heat capacities. Step AB is a reversible adiabatic compression from P4 (atmospheric pressure) Figure 8.12: Ideal cycle for gas-turbine engine: i.e, the Brayton cycle.8 CHAPTER 8. Production of Power from Heat to Pp. In step BC heat Qgc, replacing combustion, is added at constant pressure, raising the air temperature. A work-producing isentropic expansion of the air reduces the pressure from Pc to Pp (atmospheric pressure). Step DA is a constant-pressure cooling process that merely completes the cycle. The thermal efficiency of the cycle is: [W(net)| _ |Weo| — Wan “One Qe where each energy quantity is based on 1 mol of air. “The work done as the air passes through the compressor is given by Eq. (7.14), and for air as an ideal gas with constant heat capacities: (8.8) Wap = Hy — Ha =Ce(Tn - Ts) Similarty, for the heat-addition and turbine processes, Qac = Cr(Te - Ts) and |Weo| = Cp(Te — Tp) Substituting these equations into Eq. (8.8) and simplifying teads to: (89) Because processes AB and CD are isentropic, the temperatures and pressures are related by Eq. (3.306): ows 7 (aly n-(m) mt To { Po\°-D/r (t -Wir and Te = (#) = #) (lly With these equations T, and Tp may be eliminated to give: e,\o-y n=1-(#) (8.12) Example 8.4 ‘A gas-turbine engine with a compression ratio Px/ Pa = 6 operates with air entering the compressor at 25°C. If the maximum permissible temperature in the turbine is 760°C, determine: (a) The efficiency » of the ideal air cycle for these conditions if y = 1.4. (0) The thermal efficiency of an air cycle for the given conditions if the compressor and turbine operate adiabatically but irreversibly with efficiencies 7. = 0.83 and my = 0.86.8.2. Internal-Combustion Engines Solution 8.4 (a) Direct substitution in Eq. (8.12) gives the ideal-cycle efficiency: = /6)"4-"4 = 1-060 = 0.40 ” () Iereversibilities in both the compressor and turbine reduce the thermal effi- ciency of the engine, because the net work is the difference between the work required by the compressor and the work produced by the turbine. The tempera- ture of the air entering the compressor T and the temperature of the air entering the turbine, the specified maximum for Tc, are the same as for the ideal cycle. However, the temperature after irreversible compression in the compressor Ta is higher than the temperature after isentropic compression T,,, and the temperature after irreversible expansion in the turbine Ty is higher than the temperature after isentropic expansion Tj. The thermal efficiency of the engine is given by: LW turd) — W (comp) a ‘The two work terms are found from the expressions for isentropic work: 1Witurb)| = Cp(Te — T)) Cr(T; - Ta) Ne “The heat absorbed to simulate combustion is: Q=CriTe — Ts) ‘These equations combine to yield: mnTe — Tp) — O/ne(Tp ~ Ta) To-Ta ‘An alternative expression for the compression work is: Wicomp) = CriTs — Ts) (8) ‘Combining Eqs. (A) and (B) and using the result to eliminate Ty from the equation for gives after simplification: Ge meme(Tc/ Ta — Tp/ Ta) — (Ta/Ta —1) © ne(Te]Ta — V) ~ (Tg/Ta — VY ‘The ratio Tc/Ta depends on given conditions. The ratio T/T is related to the pressure ratio by Bq. (8.10). In view of Eq. (8.11), the ratio Tj,/T4 can be expressed as: T _TeT _ Te &—Diy Ts” Tate” Ts 4) W (comp) = (a) Obras prote30 CHAPTER 8. Production of Power from Heat ‘Substituting these expressions in Eq. (C) yields: _ MNT! Ta — Ler) — (a ~ 1) neTc/T, — 1) ~ (a = Yb o-biy where «= (#2) (8.13) Pa ‘One can show by Eq. (8.13) that the thermal efficiency of the gas-turbine engine increases as the temperature of the air entering the turbine (Tc) increases, and as the compressor and turbine efficiencies n. and 7, increase. The given efficiency values are here: ny = 0.86 and ne = 0.83 Other given dats provide: Te _ 20427315 _ T, 254273.15 and = (6) ADA we 1.67 ‘Substituting these quantities in Eq, (8.13) gives: wa (0.86)(0.83)(3.47)(1 1.67) — (1.67 — 1) ” 083047 — 1) — 067-1) This analysis shows that, even with a compressor and turbine of rather high effi- ciencies, the thermal efficiency (23.5%) is considerably reduced from the ideal- cycle value of 40%. =0.235 8.3 JET ENGINES; ROCKET ENGINES In the power cycles so far considered the high-temperature, high-pressure gas expands in a turbine (steam power plant, gas turbine) or in the cylinders of an Otto or Diesel engine with reciprocating pistons. In cither case, the power becomes available through a rotating shaft. Another device for expanding the hot gases is a nozzle. Here the power is available as kinetic energy in the jet of exhaust gases leaving the nozzle, The entire power plant, consisting of a compression device and a combustion chamber, as well as a nozzle, is known as a jet engine Because the kinetic energy of the exhaust gases is directly available for propelling the engine and its attachments, jet engines are most commonly used to power aircraft. There are several types of jet-propulsion engines based on different ways of accomplishing the compression and ion processes. Because the air striking the engine has kinetic energy (with respect to the expansion engine), its pressure may be increased in a diffuser,‘Figure 8.13: The turbojet power plant. ‘The turbojet engine (usually called simply a jet engine) illustrated in Fig. 8.13 takes ad- vantage of a diffuser to reduce the work of compression. The axial-flow compressor completes the job of compression, and then the fuel is injected and burned in the combustion chamber. The hot combustion-product gases first pass through a turbine where the expansion provides just enough power to drive the compressor. The remainder of the expansion to the exhaust pres- ‘sure is accomplished in the nozzle. Here, the velocity of the gases with respect to the engine is increased to a level above that of the entering air. This increase im velocity provides a thrust (force) on the engine in the forward direction. If the compression and expansion processes are adiabatic and reversible, the turbojet-engine cycle is identical to the ideal gas turbine cycle shown in Fig. 8.12. The only differences are that, physically, the compression and expansion ‘steps are carried out in devices of different types. ‘A rocket engine differs from a jet engine in that the oxidizing agent is carried with the engine. Instead of depending on the surrounding air for burning the fuel, the rocket is self- contained. This means that the rocket can operate in a vacuum such as in outer space. In fact, the performance is beter in a vacuum, because none of the thrust is required to overcome friction forces. In rockets burning liquid fuels the oxidizing agent (e.g... liquid oxygen) is pumped from tanks into the combustion chamber. Simultaneously, fuel (e.g... hydrogen, kerosene) is pumped into the chamber and burned. The combustion takes place at a constant high pressure and pro- duces high-temperature product gases that are expanded in a nozzle, as indicated in Fig. 8.14. In rockets burning solid fuels the fuel (organic polymers) and oxidizer (¢.g., ammonium perchlorate) are contained together in a solid matrix and stored at the forward end of the com- bastion chamber. In an ideal rocket, the combustion and expansion steps are the same as those for an ideal jet engine (Fig. 8.12). A solid-fuel rocket requires no compression work, and in a liquid-fuel rocket the compression energy is small, because the fuel and oxidizer are pumped as liquids. Obra: tegidas por direitos de <312 CHAPTER 8. Production of Power from Heat Figure 8.14: Liquid-fvel rocket engine. PROBLEMS 8.1, The basic cycle for a steam power plant is shown by Fig. 8.1. The turbine operates adiabatically with inlet steam at 6,800 kPa and 550°C and the exhaust steam enters the condenser at 50°C with a quality of 0.96. Saturated liquid water leaves the condenser, and is pumped to the boiler. Neglecting pump work and kinetic- and potential-energy changes, determine the thermal efficiency of the cycle and the turbine efficiency. 8.2. A Camot engine with HO as the working fluid operates on the cycle shown in Fig. 8.2. ‘The H20 circulation rate is | kg s~'. For Ty = 475 K and Te = 300 K, determine: (a) The pressures at states 1, 2,3, and 4, (b) The quality x" at states 3 and 4. (c) The rate of heat addition. (d) ‘The rate of heat rejection. (e) The mechanical power for cach of the four steps. (f) The thermal efficiency n of the cycle. 8.3, A steam power plant operates on the cycle of Fig. 8.4, For one of the following sets of operating conditions, determine the steam rate, the heat-transfer rates in the boiler and ‘condenser. and the thermal efficiency of the plant. (a) Py = Py = 10,000 kPa; 7; = 600°C: Py = P; = 10 kPa; p(turbine) = 0.80; 2X pump) = 0.75; power rating = 80,000 kW. ()) Py = Py = 7,000 kPa: Ty = 550°C; Py = Py = 20 kPa; n(turbine) = 0.75; (pump) = 0.75; power rating = 100,000 kW. (c) Py = Py = 8,500 kPa; Ty = 600°C; Py = Ps = 10 kPa: (turbine) = 0.80; n(pump) = 0.80; power rating = 70,000 kW, (d) Py = Py = 6500 kPa; Tz = 525°C; Ps = Py = 101.33 kPa; n(turbine) = 0.78; in(pump) = 0.75: power rating = $0,000 kW. (e) Pi = Py =950(psia); 000°); Ps = 14. 7(psiay, m(turbine) = 0.78; |. 100(°F; Py = Py = Mpsia); n¢turbine) = 0.80; n(pump) = 0.75; power rating = 80,000 kW.Problems 313 8.4, Steam enters the turbine of a power plant operating on the Rankine cycle (Fig. 8.3) at 3,300 kPa and exhausts at 50 kPa. To show the effect of superheating on the perfor- mance of the cycle. calculate the thermal efficiency of the cycle and the quality of the exhaust steam from the turbine for turbine-inlet steam temperatures of 450, 550, and 650°C. 8.5. Steam enters the turbine of a power plant operating on the Rankine cycle (Fig. 8.3) at 600°C and exhausts at 30 kPa, To show the effect of boiler pressure on the performance of the cycle, calculate the thermal efficiency of the cycle and the quality of the exhaust steam from the turbine for boiler pressares of of 5,000, 7,500, and 10,000 kPa. 8.6, A steam power plant employs two adiabatic turbines in series. Steam enters the first turbine at 650°C and 7,000 kPa and discharges from the second turbine at 20 kPa. The system is designed for equal power outpats from the two turbines, based on a turbine efficiency of 78% for each turbine. Determine the temperature and pressure of the ‘steam in its intermediate state between the two turbines. What is the overall efficiency of the two turbines together with respect to isentropic expansion of the steam from the initial to the final state? 8.7, A steam power plant operating on a regenerative cycle, as illustrated in Fig. 8.5, in- cludes just one feedwater heater. Steam enters the turbine at 4,500 kPa and 500°C and exhausts at 20 kPa. Steam for the feedwater heater is extracted from the turbine at 350 kPa, and in condensing raises the temperature of the feedwater to within 6°C of its condensation temperature at 350 kPa. If the turbine and pump efficiencies are both 0,78, what is the thermal efficiency of the cycle and what fraction of the steam entering the turbine is extracted for the feedwater heater? 8.8. A steam power plant operating on a regenerative cycle, as illustrated in Fig. 8.5, in- cludes just one feedwater heater. Steam enters the turbine at 650(psia) and 900(°F) and exhausts at I(psia). Steam for the feedwater heater is extracted from the turbine at S0(psia), and in condensing raises the temperature of the feedwater to within 11(°F) of its condensation temperature at 5O(psia). If the turbine and pump efficiencies are both 0.78, what is the thermal efficiency of the cycle and what fraction of the steam centering the turbine is extracted for the feedwater heater? ‘8.9. A steam power plant operating on a regenerative cycle, as illustrated in Fig. 8.5, in- cludes two feedwater heaters. Steam enters the turbine at 6,500 kPa and 600°C and exhansts at 20 kPa. Steam for the feedwater heaters is extracted from the turbine at pressures such that the feedwater is heated to 190°C in two equal increments of temperature rise. with 5°C approaches to the steam-condensation temperature in each feedwater heater. If the turbine and pump efficiencies are both 0.80, what is the thermal efficiency of the cycle and what fraction of the steam entering the turbine is extracted for each feedwater heater? 8.10. A power plant operating on heat recovered from the exhaust gases of internal com- bustion engines uses isobutane as the working medium in a modified Rankine cycle314 CHAPTER 8. Production of Power from Heat in which the upper pressure level is above the critical pressure of isobutane, Thus the isobutane does not undergo a change of phase as it absorbs heat prior to its entry into the turbine. Isobutane vapor is heated at 4,800 kPa to 260°C, and enters the turbine as a supercritical fluid at these conditions. Isentropic expansion in the turbine produces a superheated vapor at 450 kPa, which is cooled and condensed al constant pressure, ‘The resulting saturated liquid enters the pump for return to the heater. If the power outpat of the modified Rankine cycle is 1,000 kW, what is the isobutane flow rate, the heat-transfer rates in the heater and condenser. and the thermal efficiency of the cycle? ‘The vapor pressure of isobutane is given in Table B.2 of App. B. 8.11. A power plant operating on heat from a geothermal source uses isobutane as the work- ing medium in a Rankine cycle (Fig. 8.3). Isobutane is heated at 3,400 kPa (a pressure just a little below its critical pressure) to a temperature of 140°C, at which condi- tions it enters the turbine. Isentropic expansion in the turbine produces superheated ‘vapor at 450 kPa, which is cooled and condensed to saturated liquid and pumped to the heater/boiler. If the flowrate of isobutane is 75 kg s~!, what is the power out- put of the Rankine cycle and what are the heat-transfer rates in the heater/boiler and coolerfcondenser? What is the thermal efficiency of the cycle? The vapor pressure of isobutane is given in Table B.2 of App. B. Repeat these calculations for a cycle in which the turbine and pump each have an efficiency of 80%. 8.12. For comparison of Diesel- and Orto-engine cycles: (a) Show that the thermal efficiency of the air-standard Diesel cycle cun be expressed as yr et n=1-(7) ved where r is the compression ratio and r; is the cutoff ratio, defined as r. = V4/Vp. (See Fig. 8.10.) (8) Show that for the same compression ratio the thermal efficiency of the air-standard (Oto engine is greater than the thermal efficiency ofthe air-tandard Diese] cycle. ‘Hint: Show that the fraction which multiplies (1/7)"~" in the above equation for 1 is greater than unity by expanding r} in a Taylor series with the remainder taken 10 the first derivative. (©) If y = 1.4, how does the thermal efficiency of an air-standard Otto cycle with a compression ratio of 8 compare with the thermal efficiency of an air-standard Diesel cycle with the sume compression ratio and a cutoff ratio of 2? How is the comparison changed if the cutoff ratio is 3? 8.13. An air-standard Diesel cycle absorbs 1,500 J mol! of heat (step DA of Fig. 8.10, which simulates combustion). The pressure and temperature at the beginning of the ‘compression step are 1 bar and 20°C, and the pressure at the end of the compression step is 4 bar. Assuming air to be an ideal gas for which Cp = (7/2)R and Cy = (5/2), what are the compressioa ratio and the expansion ratio of the cycle?Problems 31s 8.14. Calculate the efficiency for an air-standard gas-turbine cycle (the Brayton cycle) op- erating with a pressure ratio of 3. Repeat for pressure ratios of 5, 7, and 9. Take y =135. 8.15, An air-standard gas-turbine cycle is modified by installation of a regenerative heat exchanger to transfer energy from the air leaving the turbine to the air leaving the compressor. In an optimam countercurrent exchanger, the temperature of the air lenv- ing the compressor is raised to that of point D in Fig. 8.12, and the temperature of the gas leaving the turbine is cooled to that of point B in Fig. 8.12. Show that the thermal efficiency of this cycle is given by peoi_Za payee Tc \Pa 8.16. Consider an air-standard cycle for the turbojet power plant shown in Fig. 8.13, The temperature and pressure of the air entering the compressor are 1 bar and 30°C. The pressure ratio in the compressor is 6.5, and the temperature at the turbine inlet is 1,100°C. If expansion in the nozzle is isentropic and if the nozzle exhausts at | bar, ‘what is the pressure at the nozzle inlet (turbine exhaust) and what is the velocity of the air leaving the nozzle? 8.17. Air enters a gas-turbine engine (see Fig. 8.11) at 305 K and 1.05 bar, and is com- pressed to 7.5 bar. The fuel is methane at 300 K and 7.5 bar; compressor and turbine efficiencies are each 80%. For one of the turbine inlet temperatures Tc given below, determine: the molar fuel-to-air ratio, the net mechanical power delivered per mole of fuel, and the turbine exhaust temperature Tp. Assume complete combustion of the methane, and expansion in the turbine to 1(atm). (@) Te = 1,000K; (6) Te = 1,250K; (6) Te = 1,500K 8.18. Most electrical energy in the United States is generated in large-scale power cycles through conversion of thermal energy to mechanical energy, which is then converted tw electrical energy. Assume a thermal efficiency of 0.35 for conversion of thermal to mechanical energy, and an efficiency of 0.95 for conversion of mechanical to electrical energy. Line losses in the distribution system amount to 20%. If the cost of fuel for the power cycle is $4.00 GJ", estimate the cost of electricity delivered to the customer in $ per kWhr. Ignore operating costs, profits, and taxes. Compare this number with that found on a typical electric bill. 8.19. Liquefied natural gas (LNG) is transported in very large tankers, stored as liquid in equilibrium with its vapor at approximately atmaspheric pressure. If LNG is essen- tially pure methane, the storage temperature then is about 111.4 K, the normal boiling point of methane. The encrmous amount of cold liquid can in principle serve as a heat sink for an on-board heat engine. Energy discarded to the LNG serves for its vaporiza- tion. If the heat source is ambient air at 300 K, and if the efficiency of a heat engine is (60% of its Carnot value, estimate the vaporization rate, in moles vaporizsed per KJ of power output. For methane, A H!* = 8.206 kJ mol—!.316 CHAPTER 8. Production of Power from Heat 8.20. The oceans in the tropics have substantial surface-to-deep-water temperature gradients. Depending on location, relatively constant temperature differences of 15 to 25°C can obtain for depths of 500 to 1,000 m. This provides the opportunity for using cold (deep) water as a heat sink and warm (surface) water as a heat source for a power cycle. The technology is known as “OTEC” (Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion). (a) Consider a location where the surface temperature is 27°C and the temperature at a depth of 750 m is 6°C. What is the efficiency of a Camot engine operating between these temperature levels? (b) Part of the output of a power cycle must be used to pump the cold water to the surface, where the cycle hardware resides. If the inherent efficiency of a real cycle is 0.6 of the Carnot value, and if 1/3 of the generated power is used for moving cold water to the surface, what is the actual efficiency of the cycle? {c) The choice of working fluid for the cycle is critical. Suggest some possibilities. Here, you may want to consult a handbook, such as Perry's Chemical Engineers" Handbook, &21. Air-standard power cycles are conventionally displayed on PV diagrams. An alterna- tive is the PT diagram. Sketch air-standard cycles on PT diagrams for the following: (a) Camot cycle; (b) Otto cycle; (c) Diesel cycle; (d) Brayton cycle, Why would a PT diagram not be helpful for depicting power cycles involving liq- uid/vapor phase changes? 8.22. A steam plant operates on the cycle of Fig. 8.4. The pressure levels are 10 kPa and 6,000 kPa, and steam leaves the turbine as saturated vapor. The pump efficiency is 0.70, and the turbine efficiency is 0.75. Determine the thermal efficiency of the plant. 8.23. Devise a general scheme for analyzing four-step air-standard power cycles. Model each step of the cycle as a polytropic process described by Eq. (3.35c) with a specified value of 8. Decide which states to fix, partially or completely, by values of T and/or P. Analysis here means determination of: T and P for initial and final states of each step: Q and W for each step; and the thermal efficiency of the cycle. The analysis should also include a sketch of the cycle on a PT diagram.