GENERAL BIOLOGY 2

LESSON 3: LYMPHATIC SYSTEM/IMMUNE SYSTEM

Prepared by: Jayrald L. Cruzada

LYMPHATIC SYSTEM/IMMUNE SYSTEM:

I. The lymphatic system/Immune System has three general functions: (AIM)
✓ 1. Absorption of fats
In the small intestine, special lymphatic vessels called lacteals absorb dietary lipids that are not
absorbed by the blood capillaries.
✓ 2. Immunity (Protection)
As the lymphatic system recovers tissue fluid, it also picks up foreign cells and chemicals from the tissues.
On its way back to the bloodstream, the fluid passes through lymph nodes, where immune cells stand guard
against foreign matter. When they detect anything potentially harmful, they activate a protective immune
response.
✓ 3. Maintenance of fluid balance
Fluid continually seeps out of capillaries into surrounding tissues. The capillaries reabsorb about 85% of the
fluid, leaving about 15% behind. This amount may seem minimal, but, over the course of a day, the remaining
fluid would total as much as 4 liters, enough to cause massive swelling and even death. One of the roles of
the lymphatic system is to absorb this fluid and return it to the bloodstream.

Fast Facts:
1. Lymphatic vessels are found in almost every tissue, except for bone marrow, cartilage, and the central nervous
system.
2. Unlike blood vessels, lymphatic vessels carry fluid in one direction only: away from the tissues.

II. Components of Lymphatic/Immune System

1. Lymphatic vessels
Similar to veins, lymphatic vessels—also called lymphatic capillaries—have thin walls and valves to prevent backflow.
Lymphatic vessel walls are formed by a thin layer of epithelial cells. However, unlike the cells in veins (which are tightly
joined), the cells forming lymphatic vessel walls overlap loosely, allowing gaps to exist between the cells.

2. Lymph (the fluid within the vessels)

Lymphatic vessels are filled with lymph: a clear, colorless fluid similar to plasma but with a lower protein content.
Lymph originates in the tissues as the fluid left behind following capillary exchange. Depending upon its location in the
body, lymph may contain lipids (after draining the small intestines), lymphocytes (after leaving the lymph nodes),
hormones, bacteria, viruses, and cellular debris.
3. Lymphatic Tissue/Lymphatic organs.
Each of the lymphatic organs has a particular function in immunity, and each is rich in lymphocytes, one of the types of
white blood cells.
A. Primary Organs
1. Red bone marrow - produces all types of blood cells. Site of B-lymphocyte maturation.

2. Thymus - Quite large in children, it begins to shrink about age 14. By adulthood, it is a fraction of its former size.
The thymus also produces a hormone called thymosin that promote the development of T-lymphocytes.
B. Secondary Organs
1. Lymph nodes - are the most numerous lymphatic organs, numbering about 450 in a typical adult. They serve two
functions: to cleanse the lymph and to act as a site of T and B cell activation.

Lymph nodes are widespread but especially concentrated in the following locations:
• Cervical lymph nodes occur in deep and superficial groups in the neck, and monitor lymph coming from the head and
neck.
• Axillary lymph nodes are concentrated in the armpit (axilla) and receive lymph from the upper limb and breast
• Thoracic lymph nodes occur in the thoracic cavity, especially in the mediastinum, and receive lymph from the
mediastinum, lungs, and airway.
• Abdominal lymph nodes occur in the posterior abdominopelvic wall and receive lymph from the urinary and
reproductive systems.
2. Spleen
About the size of a fist, the spleen is the body’s largest lymphatic organ. It resides in the upper left quadrant of the
abdomen, just inferior to the diaphragm, where it’s protected by the lower ribs. It contains the largest collection of
lymphoid tissue in the body.

Functions:
(1) removing abnormal blood cells and other blood components by phagocytosis
(2) storing iron recycled from red blood cells, and
(3) initiating immune responses by B cells and T cells in response to antigens in circulating blood.

3. Lymphoid tissue -- Mucosa Associated Lymphoid Tissue (MALT)

3.1 tonsils - Masses of lymphoid tissue, the tonsils form a protective circle at the back of the throat. They
guard against pathogens entering the body through the nose or throat. There are three sets of
tonsils:
 3.2 appendix - attached to a portion of the large intestine. Lymphoid tissue accumulates in the appendix after
birth. In turn, the appendix helps in the maturation of B lymphocytes and the production of
antibodies. The appendix produces specific molecules that aid in the movement of lymphocytes to
various locations within the body.

3.3 Peyer’s Patches - Clusters of lymphoid nodules deep to the epithelial lining of the small intestine

4. Lymphatic Cells
Leukocytes or white blood cells are specialized cells that can defend our body from pathogens. All leukocytes originate
from cells in the bone marrow called hematopoietic stem cells. Leukocyte can in turn differentiate into a variety of
different cell types that each have their own unique function.

LEUKOCYTE

GRANULOCYTES AGRANULOCYTES

Neutrophil Lymphocytes Monocytes

Eosinophil T-Lymphocyte B-Lymphocyte Natural Killer Cells Macrophages

Basophil Helper T-cell Plasma Cells

Cytotoxic T-cell Memory B-cell

Memory T-cell

Suppressor T-cell
Granulocytes – characterized by the presence of granules in their cytoplasm and by their lobe-shaped nuclei.
1. Neutrophils are phagocytic cells that can seek out and engulf bacterial cells that infect our body.
2. Eosinophils are also phagocytic cells that are involved in allergic reactions and parasitic infections
3. Basophils contain special chemicals (ex. Histamine) that are involved in inflammation and also contain anti-clotting
agent called heparin.

Agranulocytes- lack granules and have spherical or kidney-shaped nuclei

1. Monocytes enter tissue and develop into macrophages, which are large scavenger cells that engulf pathogens via
phagocytosis.
2. Lymphocytes are cells involved in our acquired immune response. They differentiate into three types:
a. Natural Killer Cells – seek out and destroy infected cells and cancer cells.
b. B-lymphocytes – are cells that are part of the antibody mediated response. They further differentiate into:
plasma cells that produce the antibodies and memory cells that protect the body from reinfection.
c. T-lymphocytes are part of cell-mediated response. These differentiate into:
c.1. Helper T-cells release chemicals and assist maturation of other cells.
c.2. Cytotoxic T-cells which recognize foreign antigens and destroy pathogens. For virus-infected and cancer cells.
c.3. Memory T-cells- also protect the body from reinfection
c.4. Suppressor T-cells which regulate and suppress the immune system

Other Relevant Terms:

Antigen-presenting cells (APCs)- Cells that process foreign matter and display antigenic fragments of it to certain T cells,
thus alerting the immune system to the presence of an enemy. APCs include
dendritic cells, macrophages, and B cells. They are strategically located in the skin,
mucous membranes, and lymph nodes.
Dendritic cells- are branched, mobile APCs found in the epidermis, mucous membranes, and lymphatic organs.
They play an important role in alerting the immune system to pathogens that have breached the body
surfaces. They engulf foreign matter by receptor-mediated endocytosis rather than phagocytosis, but
otherwise function like macrophages. After internalizing an antigen, they migrate to a nearby lymph node
and activate an immune reaction to it.
Mast Cells – A mast cell (also known as a mastocyte or a labrocyte) is a migrant cell of connective tissue that contains
many granules rich in histamine and heparin. Histamine promotes increased blood flow to injured tissues
by dilating capillaries. It also promotes inflammatory response. Heparin is an anticoagulant (blood thinner)
that prevents the formation of blood clots thereby promoting free mobility of leukocytes that attack
infectious microorganisms

Overview of the Immune System

A person’s survival depends on the body’s ability to protect itself against the hordes of microorganisms—including
viruses, bacteria, fungi, and protozoa—that constantly surround us. Other threats from which the body needs protection
include toxic chemicals, radiation, and even allergens, like pollen. All the threats aren’t external, however. Some arise
from inside the body. For example, abnormal cells often develop as a part of daily life. Left unchecked, these cells will
continue to grow and divide, resulting in a tumor or even cancer.
The body has three lines of defense for taking care of the threats it encounters on a daily basis.
 Nonspecific Immunity (Innate Immunity)
Nonspecific immunity protects against a broad range of pathogens, using a variety of mechanisms, such as:
✓ external barriers
✓ phagocytosis
✓ antimicrobial proteins
✓ natural killer cells
✓ inflammation
✓ fever.

External Barriers
The skin and mucous membranes provide the first line of defense against microorganisms.
The skin- composed of tough protein, repels most pathogens, while its surface, which is dry and lacking in nutrients,
makes a hostile environment for bacteria. Further inhibiting bacterial growth is the acid mantle, a thin layer
of acid produced by sweat.
The mucous membranes- lining the digestive, respiratory, urinary, and reproductive tracts (which are open to the
exterior) produce mucus that physically traps pathogens. In the respiratory tract, the mucus
is then swallowed, and the pathogens are destroyed by stomach acid. Mucus, tears, and
saliva also contain an enzyme called lysozyme, which destroys bacteria.

Phagocytosis
If a pathogen makes its way past the skin or mucous membranes and enters the body, it will immediately confront a key
player in the second line of defense: phagocytes.
Antimicrobial Proteins
Two types of proteins help provide nonspecific resistance against bacterial and viral invasion: interferons and the
complement system.

Interferons
Some cells respond to viral invasion by producing a protein called interferon. When a virus infects a cell, the cell
produces interferon, which it releases to nearby cells. The interferon binds to surface receptors on neighboring cells.
This triggers the production of enzymes within the cells that would prevent the virus from replicating if it managed to
invade.

Complement System
Over 20 different proteins (called complement) circulate in the bloodstream in an inactive form, waiting to assist in the
immune response. A bacteria, or antibodies against the bacteria, activate the complement. Once a complement reaction
begins, it continues as a cascade of chemical reactions, with one complement protein activating the next (similar to what
occurs in blood clotting).

Complement also aids the immune system

by coating pathogens, making them attractive to
phagocytes, and stimulating inflammation
(which summons neutrophils through chemotaxis).
Natural Killer Cells
A unique group of lymphocytes called natural killer (NK) cells continually roam the body, seeking out pathogens or
diseased cells. They recognize and destroy any foreign cells, including cancer cells, virus-infected cells, and bacteria—as
well as the cells of transplanted organs and tissues. The NK cells use several methods to destroy the cells. Most of them
involve the secretion of chemicals that causes the cell to die and break apart (lysis).

Inflammation
Tissue injury, whether from trauma, ischemia, or infection, produces inflammation. Inflammation stimulates the body’s
defense system to begin fighting the infection while instigating measures to contain the pathogen. Furthermore, the
inflammatory response includes processes that clean up and repair the damaged tissue.
Fever
Also known as pyrexia, fever is an abnormal elevation of body temperature. (A person with a fever is said to be febrile.)
Experts now believe that fever is beneficial during an illness. Besides promoting the activity of interferon, an elevated
body temperature inhibits the reproduction of bacteria and viruses. Following is the normal sequence of events during a
fever:
1. As neutrophils and macrophages phagocytize bacteria, they secrete a fever-producing substance called a pyrogen. The
pyrogen stimulates the anterior hypothalamus to secrete prostaglandin E (PGE).
2. PGE resets the body’s set point for temperature. For example, it may raise it from a normal of 98.6° F (37° C) to 102° F
(39° C).
3. When the set point rises, the body needs to generate heat, which it does through shivering and constricting blood
vessels in the skin. The result: chills and cold, clammy skin.
4. The temperature rises until it reaches its new set point, where it remains as long as the pathogen is present.
5. When the pathogen is no longer a threat, the phagocytes stop producing the pyrogen and the body’s set point for
temperature returns to normal. When this happens, the body needs to lose the excess heat, which it does through
sweating and dilating blood vessels in the skin. The result: warm and flushed skin.

Even though most fevers are beneficial, excessively high temperatures are dangerous. Temperatures above 105° F
(40.5° C) can cause convulsions; those above 111° F to 115° F (44° C to 46° C) typically result in irreversible brain damage
or death.

Specific Immunity (Adaptive Immunity)

General Characteristics
1. It has a systemic effect. When an adaptive response is mounted against a particular threat such as a bacterial
infection, it acts throughout the body to defeat that pathogen wherever it may be found.
2. It exhibits specificity. Adaptive immunity is directed against a specific pathogen. Immunity to one disease such as
chickenpox does not confer immunity to others such as tetanus.
3. It has a memory. When reexposed to the same pathogen, the body reacts so quickly that there is no noticeable
illness. The reaction time for inflammation and other innate defenses, by contrast, is just as long for later exposures as
for the initial one

For this third line of defense, the body employs two mechanisms:

Cellular immunity (cell-mediated) - aims to destroy foreign cells or host cells that have become infected with a
pathogen.
Humoral immunity (antibody-mediated) - focuses on pathogens outside the host cells, sends out antibodies to “mark”
a pathogen for later destruction.
FAST FACT:
Humoral immunity is so named because antibodies exist in body fluids, and body fluids were once called humors.

I. Cellular Immunity (Cell-Mediated Immunity)

✓ This involves leukocytes called T-lymphocytes.
✓ One type of T-lymphocyte is the Helper T-cell (CD4 T-cell). Helper T cells release chemicals called interleukins
and interferons. These chemicals help B-lymphocytes mature into plasma cells and memory B cells.
✓ T lymphocytes contain T-cell receptors. These cells can bind to antigen complexes and with the help of Helper T
cells, differentiate into Cytotoxic T cells. These cytotoxic T cells travel to infected area and bind to specific
antigens. Once bound, they release powerful proteins (perforins) that can drill holes and kill pathogen.
✓ In addition, T lymphocytes can also form its own memory T cells as well as suppressor cells that can tone down
the immune response.
Cellular Immunity (Cell-Mediated Immunity)

II. Humoral Immunity (Antibody-Mediated Immunity)

✓ Humoral immunity involves leukocyte called B-lymphocytes.
✓ An antigen is any molecule that triggers an immune response. Any foreign substance is said to be antigenic.
✓ Once the B-lymphocyte binds to the specific antigen, it calls upon the Helper T-cell that helps it differentiate
further. The B-lymphocytes then undergoes many cycles of mitosis to produce plasma cells and memory cells.
✓ Plasma cells are factors that produce antibodies that are specific to the antigen that the B-lymphocyte was
bound to.
✓ Memory cells however keep a copy of that antibody in case of reinfection
✓ Antibodies, also called immunoglobulins, bind only to specific antigens. Once bound, they call upon other
leukocyte or they can aggregate to form large insoluble complexes via a process called agglutination.
✓ The body manufactures five classes of antibodies:
IgA, IgD, IgE, IgG, and IgM.
IgA: Populates mucous membranes in the intestines, respiratory tract, and urinary tract; also found in
saliva, tears, and breast milk
IgD: Exists in the blood in very small amounts; may activate basophils and mast cells
IgE: Involved in allergic reactions
IgG: Is the primary antibody of the secondary immune response; also the most abundant of all the
immunoglobulins, making up 80% of all circulating antibodies
IgM: Active in the primary immune response; also involved in agglutination of incompatible blood
types