A Handbook for Designing Mathematics Laboratory in Schools Authors HUKUM SiNct Ram Avtar V.P. Sincit o tera otra wfRarer fer erect argeierr TWATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH AND TRAWUINGPreface Mathematics has been used by almost all scientists, engineers and technologists. Its place in the sciences and in the practical arts, from the information and computational standpoints as well as its cultural significance, makes it indispensable in our life, We are striving to discover new and effective methods to educate our students, The concept of Mathematies Laboratory can be an important breakthrough in overcoming most of the instructional weaknesses in present cay mathematies instruction It may be believed that a successful implementation of the Mathematics Laboratory concept will go a long way in removing maths phobia to our students, ‘The present handbook comprises six parts which deal in a precise manner the know all about Mathematies Laboratory. The issue of purpose and structure in one way and the requirement ‘of equipments and activities at various stages in the other way are all dealt within the handbook. An attempt has also been made toanswer questions which may arise in the minds of the teachers regarding practical marks in mathematics. ‘The present handbook is a modest beginning wherein an attempt has been made to make mathematics teaching as simple as possible for the benefit of the students, teachers and boards. It is hoped that once Mathematics Laboratory is established in the schools further improvement may be thought of by the individual schools. Itis a pleasure to express gratitude to all those who have been associated at all stages with the development of this handbook which was the need of the hour, Thanks are due to the Director, NCERT for his keen interest in the development of this handbook. The «Joint Director, NCERT, Head, DESM and other colleagues are also duly acknowledged for giving their valitable suggestions which have resulted in the improvement of this handbook. ICs believed that the readers will find this handbook useful. Any suggestion from the readers for further improvement of the handbook will be highly appreciated AuthorsContents Prerace itl @ ‘The Purpose of the Mathematics Laborat 35 a t for the Mathematics Laborat: 611 3.1 Instruments 7 3.2 Tables 7 3.3. Ready-Reckoners 7 3.4 Charts, Pictures 7 3.5 Models 7 3.6 Overhead Projector along with Slides, 1 8.7 Audio and Video Cassettes, CD rat 3.8 Calculators oa 3.9 Computers 1 8.10 Books and Journals 11 8.11 Portraits of Mathematicians 11 4 Activitios at Different Stages 12-182 4.1 Activities at the Elementary Stage 13-68 4.2 Activities at the Secondary Stage 69-120 4.3. Activities at the Higher Secondary Stage 121-182(vat) 183-185 5.1 Projects on History of Mathematics 183 5.2, Mathematics Projects on some moreTopics 184 5.3. Projects on Recreational Mathematics 185 a Evaluation 186Introducti on, Yee mtees e important place in the school curriculum. The study of mathematics requires specific abllity of intelligence. It helps in training and disciplining the mind as also developing the power of thinking and reasoning. Mathematical skills and their applications form an indispensable tool in our daily life. It has been rightly said that higher the achievernent in the field of mathematics, so is the nation’s development, Today, in. the fast technologically-oriented society, it has found a greater role to play. There is hardly any subject in which mathematics has no role to play. However, inspite of all the above characteristics, due to the hierarchy of concepts and largely deductive and abstract nature of the subject, mathematics is considered as a very dull and difficult subject. A phobia has been created in the minds of the children that mathematics is tough to learn. As a result, most of the students are not taking interest in the subject and it has become one of the main causes of student's failure in mathematics. No doubt, mathematics is a subject which requires single-minded concentration and continuous efforts to achieve perfect and accurate learning, A student who can concentrate well can learn well,7 ammremmmmannesi it «Sos ‘Therefore, to remove this phobia, it is necessary to motivate the children by arousing and maintaining their interest In mathematics, This will create in them a positive attitude towards the subject. For this, it is necessary to make the involved abstractions tangible and concrete by developing the mathematical concepts out of direct personal experiences. It is, a fact that most of the elementary and basic concepts on which the superstructure of modern mathematical theories rest, were evolved by the human beings out of direct personal experiences with concrete objects. If we analyse a mathematical problem, its comprehension and ultimate solution hinges around a correct perception of the elements of the physical situation involved in the problem. Therefore, by putting something concrete into the hands of a student, will give a better picture of conceptualisation of the problem. Hence, the traditional approach of teaching mathematics in which abstract concepts are usually presented to the students in an authoritarian way should be discouraged and activity approach which stresses the presentation of concrete experiences should be encouraged. Thus, mathematics has to be learnt by doing rather than by reading. This doing of mathematics gives rise to the need of a suitable place for performing these activities. A well-equipped mathematics laboratory is the suitable place for the same which can instantly motivate the students and create an environment to mathematics learning. This long felt need of mathematics laboratory was emphasised in National Curriculum Framework for Elementary and Secondary Education (1988) and has also been endorsed in the National Curriculum Framework for Schoot Education — 2000 (CFSE — 2000) which states as follows: ‘To help exploration of mathematical facts through experimentation, a mathematics corner could be set up in the existing science laboratories, For this, existing sctence laboratortes need to be converted into science-curn-mathematics laboratories.A pratnemaiesiaoratry con fir mathematical awareness, skill building, positive attitudes and learning by doing experiences in different branches of mathematics such as Algebra. Geometry, Mensuration, Trigonometry, Calculus, Coordinate Geometry, Mechanics, etc. It is the place where students can learn certain concepts using concrete objects and verify many mathematical facts and properties using models, measurements and other activities. It will also provide ‘an opportunity to the students to do certain calculations using tables, calculators, ete... and also to listen or view cerlain audio-video cassettes, remedial instructions, enrichment materials, etc., of his/her own choice on a computer. ‘Thus, tt will act as an individualised learning centre for a student. It provides opportunities for discovering, remedial instruction, reinforcement and ‘enrichment. Mathematics laboratory will also provide an opportunity for the teacher to explain and demonstrate many mathematical concepts, facts and properties using concrete materials, models, charts, etc. The teacher may also encourage students to prepare similar models and charts using. materials like thermocol, cardboard, ete., in the laboratory. The laboratory will also actCemmemmmmncessnies inv sos as a forum for the teachers to discuss and deliberate on some important mathematical issues and problems of the day. It may also aet as a place for teachers and the students to perform a number of mathematical celebrations and recreational activities, ‘Thus, the purpose of a mathematics laboratory is to enable: a student to learn mathematies with the help of concrete objects and to exhibit the relatedness of mathematics with everyday life. (a student to verify or discover some geometric properties using models, measurements, paper cutting, paper folding, etc, a student to use different tables and ready reckoners in solving some problems. a student to draw graphs and do certain calculations using computers and calculators, the students to do some field work like surveying, finding heights, making badminton courts, ete... using instruments kept in the laboratory, 1 the students and teachers to organise mathematics club activities inchiding celebration of birthdays of famous mathematicians. the students to listen or view certain audio or video cassettes, CDs relating to different mathematical concepis/ topics. a student to see a certain programme on a computer as a part of remedial instruction or enrichment under the proper guidance of the teacher, Othe studenis to perform certain experiments, which ean be *_ easily evaluated by the teacher. Othe students to do certain projects under the proper guidance of the teacher, [the students to perform certain recreational activities in mathematics. a teacher to visually explain some abstract concepts by using three-dimensional models. (a teacher to demonstrate certain concepts and patterns using charts and models. Sa teacher to demonstrate and reinforce the truth of certain algebraic identities using different models. a teacher to demonstrate the truth of various formulae for areas and volumes of different plane and solid figures using models,i i ek a teacher to explain certain concepts using computers and calculators. Othe teachers and students to consult good reference mathematies books, journals, ete., kept in the laboratory. 1 the teachers to mect and discuss important issues relating to mathematics trom time to time. a teacher to explain certain concepts, data, graphs, etc., using slides. a teacher to generate different sets of parallel tests using a computer for testing the achievement of students. 1 the budding mathematicians to take inspiration from the lives, works and anecdotes relating to great mathematicians.8 Fcuipment forthe Mathematis Laboratory Aisi icone ot en involved in a lot of mode! making activities under the guidance of the teacher, the smooth running of the mathematics laboratory will depend upon the supply of number of oddments. These include string and thread, sealing wax and soft red wax, cello tape, white cardboard, hardboard, needles and pins, drawing pins, sandpaper, pliers, screw-drivers, rubber bands, gummed papers and labels, matches, squared paper, plywood, scissors, saw, paint, solder iron, solder wire, iron wire, cotton wool, tin, plastic sheet, glazed papers, etc, Besides these, some models, charts, slides, etc., made up ofa good durable material should also be there for the teacher to demonstrate ‘some mathematical concepts, facts and properties before the students. Different tables, ready recknors, should also be there in the laminated form so that these can be used by the students for different purposes. Further, for performing activities such as measuring, drawing, and calculating, consulting reference ‘books, ctc., there should be equipments like mathematical instruments, calculators, computers. books, journals etc., in the laboratory. In view of the above, following is the list of equipments suggested for the laboratory.oem oe an am 3.1 Insrroments: Mathematical instrument set (Ruler, Set-squares, Divider, Protractor and Compasses), metre scale, measuring tape, diagonal scale, calculators, computers, etc. 2 TaBLes * Squares * Square roots * Cubes * Cube roots * Compound Interest * Recurring Deposits 3.3 Reapy-reckonzrs * Wages * Interest * Taxes ‘3.4 Cuarrs, Picrores Charts of the following (involving numbers 1 to 100) * Even and odd demarcated with different colours Multiples of three demarcated Multiples of five demarcated Primes demarcated Multiples of nine demarcated Charts of units of length, area, volume along with their abbreviations " Charts of magic squares, important formulae, regional numerals, numerals of ancient times and portraits of mathematicians along with anecdotes. 3.5 Mopeis = Number line * Geoboards - rectangular, circular and isometric * Models for verifying the following identities: (@) @+ bP =a+2ab+ (i) (a— by’ = a? 2ab + b? (ii) (a+ b) (a-b) = a? - b? WW) (a+ b+ cf = a? + b? + 0? + Qab + Bbe+ Qa ©) kat bt c=katkb+ keDanson isi itv w Sc (vl) (a+ bP — (a— by = dab (wi) (a+ BF + (a— by = 2a? + bY) (ix) (a+ b) (at c) = a? + a(b +0) + be (8) acx?+ (ab + ed) x+ bd = (ax + d) (ox +b) * Models for verifying the following identities: W (a+ by = a? + 3a? b+ Sab* + b° (i) (a— b)’ = a3 30% + 3ab* - b? * Models of ( Equilateral triangle (ui) Isosceles triangle (ii) Scalene triangle () Right triangle () Square (vi) Rectangle (vii) Quadrilateral (vil) Parellelogram (ix) Rhombus (x) Trapecium (xi) Regular pentagon (ii) Regular hexagon (xiii) Regular octagon Gav) Circle Gx) Right angle (wi) Acute angle (xvii) Obtuse angle evil) Linear pair (xix) Supplementary angles (cx) Complementary angles. * Models of () Cube (i) Cuboid (ii) Tetrahedron (iv) Right circular cylinder (y} Right circular cone (vi) Right prisms, Pyramids with triangular, square and hexagonal bases (vi) Sphere and hemisphere,i a a a * Hollow hinged models of the items listed above (made of tin sheets) * Model for conic sections * Models for finding the centre of a circle Models for verifying the following results: ( Sum of the angles of a triangle is 180°. (i) Sum of the angles of a quadrilateral is 360°. (ii) Sum of exterior angles of a polygon is 360”. iv) Opposite angles of a parallelogram are equal. ( Opposite angles of a cyclic quadrilateral are supplementary. (i) Corresponding angles/alternate angles made by two parallel lines with a transversal are equal. (vi Exterior angle of a triangle is equal to the sum of the two interior opposite angles. (iti) Angles in the same segment ofa circle are equal. (69 Angle at the centre is double the angle at any pointon the circle. (9) Equal chords are equidistant from the centre and its converse. (xi) Tangents from an external point to a circle are equal, (di) If two circles touch each other, then the two centres and the point of contact are collinear. (xii) Base angles of an isosceles triangle are equal and its converse. (xv) Inequality results in a triangle, (xv) Vertically opposite angles are equal (wi) Diagonals of a parallelogram bisect cach other. xvii) Diagonals of a rhombus bisect each other atright angles. ® Models illustrating following concepts/properties: @ Concurrency of medians of a triangle (ii) Concurrency of altitudes of a triangle (ii) Concurrency of angle bisectors of a triangle (iv) Concurrency of perpendicular bisectors of the sides ofa triangle (¥) Incircle, circumeirele and excircles in a triangle (vi) Height and slant height of a cone (vii) Height and slant height ofa pyramid (vit) Angles forming linear pair (09 SSS congruency of trianglesemma ise soi (9) ASA congruency of triangles bc) SAS congruency of triangle (xii) RHS congruency of triangles (xii) Anglesina semicircle (xiv) Majorsegment and minor segment of a circle. Models for verifying Pythagoras theorem by: () Counting small squares (t) Baudhayana’s method (i) Bhaskara’s method (Gv) Cutting the square on hypotenuse into four congruent quadrilaterals and a square. Models for showing relationship between area of: (© Parallelogram and a reciangle on the same base and between the same parallels. (i) A triangle and that of a rectangle. (i) A parallelogram and that ofa trapezium. (iv) ‘Two triangles on the same base and between the same parallels. Mocels of hollow prisms and pyramids of the same base and same height of three different sizes. Models of hollow cylinders and cones of the same base and same height of three different sizes. Models for deriving formulae for area /volume: (i) Circles sliced into sectors for area of a circle. (i) Sphere sliced along diameters which can be rearranged, to form a cylinder for surface area. (ii) Sphere sliced into pyramids with vertices at the centre for the volume of the sphere. Hinged models for demonstrating symmetry of (i) Square (ii) Rectangle i) Isosceles triangle (v) Equilateral triangle tv) Circle ‘Model for, demonstration of : ( Sets i)’ Relations and functionsi a aa 3.6 a7 3.8 3.9 (iti) Quadratic functions with the help of linear functions (fv) Sequence and series (W) Height and distance (vi) Pascal's triangle (vil) Arithmetic progression (will) Conte sections (ix) Increasing, decreasing functions (@) Maxima, minima, point of inflection (xi) Lagrange’s mean value theorem (xii) Rolle’s theorem (xiii) Definite integral as limit of sum (xv) Angle in a semicircle using vectors ( ORIEN (a) 16} 2] 3 Jas ) Fig. 4.1.4wn i ae mm Demonstration ( Demonstrate that the sum of numbers taken along any row, column or diagonal remains constant, ie., number 34. (i) Demonstrate the above stated rule to obtain magte square of the type 4 x 4 using any consecutive 16 natural numbers viz. from 15 to 80, or from 30 to 45, 45 to 60, ete. and find their corresponding magic constant. Use * Model can be used to explain magic square of magic constant 34 and other magic constants as demonstrated above.Femmes aie» ss Activiry 5 J cr by piviston Method | Materials ‘Thermocol sheet, 1 unit wide cardboard strips, coloured paper, glue, scissors, scale, pencil, etc. Preparation () Take a thermocol sheet of about 50 units x 50 units and cover it with white paper. (i) Cut 1 unit wide cardboard strips to get 2 pieces of 35 units, 3 pieces of 20 units, 3 pieces of 15 units. 4 pieces of 5 units Iength, (ill) Stick the cardboard strips as shown in the figure 4.1.5. 35 20 Fg. 4.1.5 ti) The first set of strips represent the numbers 35 and 20 whose HCF is to be found. (ii) The second set of strips shows the division of — 20)35/1 the larger number by the smaller numberie, —/20 35 = 20% 1+ 15. 15 {ill The-third set of strips shows the division of | 15)20{1 20 by 15. Remainder 5 is the next divisor. 2 iv) Fourth set of strips shows the division of 15 5)I3(3 by5.ie. 15=545+5 15)cn i eS a ‘The required HCF of 35 and 20 1s 5 (the last divisor in the process when the remainder is zero}. 5 units strip can measure 35 units and 20 units strips an exact number of times, Le., the numbers 20 and 35 are exactly divisible by 5. Use * Model can be used to explain the methods of finding HCF of two numbers by continued division.(measoncscanera ws Activity 6 [Lowest Common Multiple e | Materials Hardboard, chart paper, scale, pencil, eraser, sketch pens, scissors, saw etc. Preparation ( Cut a 15 units x 12 units hardboard. This will be the base board. (i) Cut 12 units x 12 units hardboard and then cut 5 more boards of this measurement. (iif) All the boards will have a margin of 1 unit width on all the four sides. iv) On the base board, we make a 10 units x 10 units square and make equal squares on it. (Fig. 4.1.6 a) (s) We paste the heading on top of the base board and write numbers 1 to 100 on these squares. (vi) On the other 5 boards, we make 100 equal squares leaving the margin. (Pig. 4.1.6 b) (vil) On each board, represent the multiples of different numbers, such as 2, 3, 4,5, 6, etc, (vil) Drill the squares which represents the multiples of the number specified. (ix) We paste to the respective headings written on the chart paper on these boards as follows: Multiples of 2 Multiples of 3 Multiples of 4 Multiples of 5 Multiples of 6ACHAEA i ee Base Board Multiples of 2 2T2]4[s [eo] 7 [se] uifiafis|ialis|ieli7]i8|19[ 29] jai) 22]23]29[25|26]27| 28/29] 30} [31] 22]33}s4] 35] 36|37)28|90] a0} a1) v2] 43]44[45|46]47|48|49] 50] 51)32|53]54)55]56|57)5| 59] 60 (61) 62] 65] 64/65 ]66|67)o8]69] 70 '71]72}73|ra|75|r6|77|78|79] 80 1] 82|85|84]85|s0/87] 98 [89] 90 [oi|92)oa}os]os|o6|o7foa|oa fio Tal 0) Multiples of 3 Multiples of 4 rr) a Multiples of 5 Multiples of 6 0 Fig. 4.1.6 e)(Commences See ‘Demonstration (0 Take the base board first. (ii) Place the second board on it which shows the multiples of 2 on the top of the second board, (tu) Now place the third board which shows the multiples of 3 on the top. (iv) Now see the common multiples of 2 and 3 and we can easily find the lowest common multiple of 2 and 3. (v) Smilanly, place the next board, i.c., the multiples of 4 on top oft. (vi) Then place the board containing multiples of 5, multiples of 6.etc. (vil) We see that 60 is the lowest common multiple of 2, 8, 4, 5 and 6. Use = This model can be used in teaching the concept of multiples of specified numbers. * This model can be mainly used to find the common multiples of two or three numbers and then their lowest common multiples.en i a Acriviry 7 [ rractionat wit _| Materials Hardboard, cardboard, glaze paper, adhesive, scale, sketch pen, scissors. Preparation t) Cut out a rectangle from the cardboard sheet. (i) Paste a full cardboard sheet under the remaining portion of the cardboard got in step (i). (i) Cut-out rectangle is a unit which can be fixed in the cardboard frame made in step (ii). (iv) With the help of cardboard, make different parts of the rectangular unit like half (vertically), half (horizontally), one- third, two-thirds, one-fourth, two-fourths, three-fourths, one-sixth, two-sixths, three-sixths, like wise one-eight, two- eights, etc. (0) Make a pocket at the back of the model to keep parts of the model,Demonstration ‘This model demonstrates ( the verification of the result.» (i) the concept of equivalent fractions lilke i 38 8 2°46 12 (iii) addition and subtraction of fractions having same denominators like ale ded, gig and st. ete. (iv) comparison of fractions like (v) multiplication of fractions like dled aren gtee and many other properties relating to fractions. It can be done as follows: A.) Take two halves of the unit, (i) Put both half parts simultaneously and show that they and unit cover each other completely. (ull) Since one part is one out of two equal parts so it is one by twote. + as B. Twohalves (3) cover the whole unit, he, = 1. ‘Three one-thirds (3) cover the whole unit, ie., 3) =. Poo ai] nr et (;)- ‘Six one-sixths (3) cover the whole untt, 1.© Take G) of the unt. Put two (3) of the unit on 3) unit as above ‘They will cover each other completely, which shows that aa D, Take two one-thirds and put them together, i.e. 543. ‘These are two parts out of three equal parts. So these are 2 equalto =. " 5 -and soon, and on comparing by placing one over the other, wewitl find that 4> 454,151, 28 ae 8 F. Take | ofthe unit !, 2 3 ee = one half of one-third Le, one sixth aieUse * Model can be used to explain the concepts of fractions, their ‘comparison and operation on them.i es Activity 8 P Algebraic Identity : (a +b)? = a? + 206+ w | Materials Thermocol sheet, adhesive, thermocol cutter, glaze papers, sketch pens. Preparation f Cut out two squares of sides @.and b units such that a> b from a thermocol sheet (@ can be taken as 7 cm and bas 4cm), (i) From the same thermocol sheet, cut out two rectangles of length a and breadth b units respectively, (ii) The above cut outs can be fixed with the help of the adhesive as showm in figure 4.1.8, > Fig. 4.1.8 Demonstration Model clearly demonstrates the algebraic identity: It Is because area of square PQRS = (a + b)* and il 1s also equal to the sum of, a” , 2 times ab and b’ . Use Model can be used to verify the algebraic identity: (a+b)? = a? +2ab +b*, geometrically.5 mmm a So Activity 9 [Aigebratc 1aentity : (a) = a?-2ab+b | Materials Cardboard, glaze paper, scissors, sketch pen, scale, adhesive, Preparation (@ Take a square with side a. Its area is a’. (i Take a smaller square with side b. Its area is b*. (iii) Take a square of side (a~ b). Its area ts (a~ by”. (tv) Take two rectangles of length aand breadth b. Area of each is ab. (v) Keep smaller square (b’) on the right corner of bigger square (q) as shown in figure 4.1.9. (vi) Make a pocket at the back of the model to keep the parts of the model. i ee be Fig.4.1.9 Demonstration () On the model, show a”and b’. {ii) Take the square of side (a-b) from the pocket (at the back) of the model and put it on a”, The area of this square will be {a= by’ as one side of the square is (a—b). (ii) This square (a bj? will be equal to sum of squares a’ and b* minus two rectangles of arca ab from this sum.ron on nam a (v) Explain that a+ b= (a- Bere Die Oe (a~ by’ + 2ab ™ Model can be used to verify the algebraic identity (a- Woes ~2ab +b?, geometrically.(Ci emecmsssemscenet init see Activity 10 [atgebraic Identity : a"-b? = (a+ bab) | Materials Cardboard, glaze paper, scissors, sketch pen, scale, adhesive. Preparation () Take a cardboard base. (i) Paste a square with side aon the base. Area of this square isa. (iii) Make one more square with side b such that b < a The area of this square is b”, (iv) Paste smaller square b* on the bigger square a”. {v) Cut the remaining portion of the square a? (a - bin the form of two trapezia as shown tn the figure 4.1.10b. (v) Make a pocket at the back of the model to keep the parts of the Model. ab “ ab | 4 | q| a b @ ©) Fig. 4.1.10 Demonstration ( Put the smaller square with side b and area b* on the bigger square. (i) Join the remaining two trepezia covering area of a’ ~ e in such a way that a rectangle is formed as shown in figure 4.1,10b.(i) The breadth and length of this rectangle are {a—b) and (a+ b). ‘Thus, its area is (a— b\(a+ b). (iv) In this way, it can be verified that @—b? = (a~ b)atb) Use # Model can be used to verify the algebraic identity: a’ ~ b? =(a-B (a+ b), geometrically.1 ammmmmmmmmnmsas Soon Activity 11 [Aigotrate Identity : (a+ b+ = a? + b+ + 2ab + Abe + 20a | Materials: Hardboard, adhesive, water colours, knobs of wood cte. Preparation () Take a hardboard to use as base. (i) Make a boundary of a square of side 18 units using hardboard strip. {ti Divide this square into squares/rectangles using the dimensions a= 10 units, b= 6 units and c = 2 units as shown in the following figure. ‘This model verifies the identity : (atbtc}? = + B+ P+ 2ab + 2be + 2ea, which can be easily seen in figure 4.1.11. ‘Use * Model can be used to verify the algebraic identity: (atbtc)’ = a? + b'+ c’ + 2ab+ 2be + 20a, geometrically.sev Od i TS Activity 12 J Parallel Lines intersected by a ‘Transvereal_| Materials Thermocol base, glaze papers (2 colours), drawing pins, steel wires, sketch pens and adhesive. Preparations (i) Take a thermocol base of size 16 units x 20 units, (i) Cover it with a coloured sheet of glaze paper. Cut out a margin of a different colour and paste it on all the four sides, (itt) Cut out three steel wires and arrange two of them in such a way that they are parallel to each other and keep the third in such a way thaf it intersects the other two. (iv) Cut out angles 1, 2, 3, 4 of different colours and paste them as shown in the fire 4.1.12, Fig. 4.1.12 Demonstration Working is as follows: () Measure <1 and 23, It can be verified that Z1 = 23:1e,.a pair of corresponding angles are equal. ii) Measure <2 and 24, It can be verified that 1 = 24; 1e., a pair of alternate interior angles are equal,(Farnese ise nine v Sonos (G4 Measure 22 and 23, It can be verified by adding the 2 that 2+ 23 = 180°. Thus, a pair of interior angles on the same Side of the transversal are supplementary. Thus, it can be ‘observed that if two parallel lines are intersected by a transversal, then each pair of corresponding angles and alternate Interior angles are equal and the interior angles on the same side of the transversal are supplementary. Use ‘This model can be used to demonstrate that if two parallel lines are intersected by a transversal, then = each pair of corresponding angles are equal. = cach pair of alternate interior angles are equal. * each pair of interior angles on the same side of the transversal are supplementary. vertically opposite angles are equal. * iunear pair can be shown.Avo Dr i aramasmae Pa Acriviry 13 F eum of the Angies of a Triangle | Materials Thermocol sheet, hardboard sheet, glaze papers, sketch pens, adhesive. Preparation ( Take a thermocol sheet and draw a (scalene} triangle on it and name it as AABC, (i) Colour the three angles of this triangle with the help of glaze papers of different colours. (ii) Now take a hardboard sheet and cut out the angles with measures the same as of 2A, 2B, ZC and of the same colour as used in the triangle. L/ ae Fig. 4.1.13 Demonstration The cut outs of the three angles A, B and C can be placed adjacent to each other at a point. They will form a line. It shows that sum of the three angles ofa triangle is 180°. Use * Model can be used to verify that sum of the three angles of a triangle is 180°,CFwenmmmemneensce masses ai sven Activity 14 [exterior Angle of a Triangle | Materials Wire, a piece of thermocol sheet, coloured glaze paper, drawing pins, solder iron, adhesive, protractor. Preparation {Take a piece of thermocol sheet and cover it with coloured glaze paper. (i) Take a wire and form a triangle of the wire with the help of solder iron, (i) With the help of the coloured glaze paper. mark the exterior angle and the corresponding interior opposite angles. Fig. 4.1.14 Demonstration (i) 24s an exterior angle of the triangle. (ii) Zand 22 are the two corresponding interior opposite angles. (ii) 21, 22, 23 and 24 can be measured with the help of a protractor. (iv) Exterior angle 1s always greater than either of the interior opposite angles.cr i a ae Use * Model can be used to explain the concept of exterior angle and the corresponding interior opposite angles. * Model can also be used to verify the result that the exterior angle of a triangle is equal to the sum of two interior opposite angles. * The result that sum of the three angles of a triangle is 180° can also be verified experimentally using this model.Farmer is ssw so00 Acrvity 15 [Concurrent Lines in Different Types of Triangles _| Materials Cardboard, saw, scale, transparent sheet, marker pen. Preparation (0 Draw various types of triangles such as equilateral triangle, scalene triangle and isosceles triangle on a cardboard. i) Cut them neatly. (ut) Cut four equilateral triangles of same size on transparent sheet. On one of them, draw medians and centroid (G). On second triangle, draw angle bisectors and incentre (1). On the third triangle, draw perpendicular bisectors of the sides and cireumcentre (0). On fourth, draw altitudes and orthocentre (H with the help of a marker pen. A A A A Fig, 4.1.15(a) (v) Cut four isosceles triangles on transparent sheet of the size equal to that of cardboard isosceles triangle. On first, draw mediens and centroid (G); on second draw angle bisectors and incentre (I). On third, draw perpendicular bisectors ofwns in og mae Ea the sides and circumcentre (0). On fourth, altitudes and orthocentre (H) with the help of a marker pen. Pig. 4.1.15 (0) ( Similarly draw medians, angle bisectors, perpendicular bisectors of the sides and altitudes for scalene triangles on four transparent scalene triangles of same size. De. he. Fig. 4.1.15 (0) rr >>Cessna ais 9 so Demonstration (0 Place all the four equilateral triangles one over the other and observe that G, I, O and H coincide. (ii) Place alll the four isosceles triangles one over the other and observe that G, I, © and Hare collinear. (ii) Place all the four scalene triangles one over the other and observe that G, H and © are collinear. Use ‘This model can be used * togive the concept of different types of triangles. * to show the point of concurrence of medians, angle bisectors perpendicular bisectors of the sides angle bisectors and altitudes of various types of triangles. * to show that centroid, incentre. circumeentre and orthocentre of an cquilateral triangle coincide by overlapping the transparent equilateral triangles. + toshow thal centroid, incentre, cireumcentre and orthocentre of an isosceles triangles all He on the same line which is a median to the base. * to show that centroid, circumeentre and orthocentre of a sealene triangle lie on the same line.sw icc aa Activity 16 [sss Congruency Condition n_| Materials Hard board, coloured glaze papers, transparent sheet, scale, protractor, adhesive, steel wires. Preparation @ Cut two triangles with SSS congruency condition and paste them on the hard board, (ii) Cover these two triangles with coloured glaze papers. (ii) Draw a triangle with same congruency condition and measurement on the transparent sheet. (iv) Cut out the three line-segments from steel wires equal to the sides of the two triangles formed in step (i). (#) Forma pocket to put the cut out line segments and the triangle on the transparent sheet. : , to (a) Fig. 4.1.166 famemecenenrmmnnssaiss ii en Demonstration Working is as shown below: (i) By taking linc-segments from the pocket, it can be verified that AB = DE; BC = EF and CA = FD. (u) By taking transparent triangle, and placing it on both the triangles, it can be verified that both the triangles ABC and DEF are congruent. (ii) Placing the transparent triangle with other corresponding vertices, the idea of corresponding parts can be well explained. Use * Model can be used to show that if in any two triangles, three sides of one triangle are equal to the corresponding three sides of the other triangle, then the triangles are congruent. * This model can also be used to explain the ideas of correspondence of vertices and corresponding parts of two triangles.mm i a SC pal Activity 17 Materials Hard board, coloured glaze papers, transparent sheet, scale, protractor, adhesive, steel wires. Preparation () Cut two triangles with SAS congruency condition and paste them on the hard board. (ii) Cover these two triangles with coloured glaze papers. (ii) Draw a triangle with same congruency condition and measurement on the transparent sheet. liv) Cut out two tine-segments from steel wires and the angie included between these line segments of the same measurement as of the two triangles formed in setp (i. (¥) Form a pocket to put the cut out line segments and the included angle: and the triangle on the transparent sheet. it \ c e (a) ) ie) @ ( Fig. 4.1.176 Se Demonstration Working is as shown below: ( By taking line-segmentg from the pocket, it can be verified that AC = DF and BC = EF (W) By taking angle from the pocket, it can be verified that ak (ii) By taking transparent triangle and placing it on both the triangles, it can be verified that both the triangles ABC and DEF are congruent. (iv) Placing the transparent triangle with other corresponding vertices, the idea of corresponding parts can be well explained. Use ‘* Model can be used to show that if two sides and the included angle of one triangle are equal to the two sides and the included angle of the other triangle, then the triangles are congruent. * Model can also be used to explain the ideas of correspondence of vertices and corresponding parts of two trianglesActivity 18 [asa Congruency Condition | Materials Hard board. coloured glaze papers, transparent sheet, scale, protractor, adhesive, steel wires, Preparation (@ Cut two triangles with ASA congruency condition and paste ‘them on the hard board. (i) Cover these two triangles with coloured glaze papers. ti) Draw a triangle with same congruency condition and measurement on the transparent sheet. liv) Cut out the equal angles from steel wires and the included line segments of the same measurement as of the two triangles formed in step (). (+) Form a pocket to put the cut outs of these angleg and the included line segments and also the triangle on the transparent sheet. AA’ //= Fig. 4.1.18(a cman ew Demonstration Working 1s as shown below: (i) By taking angles from the pocket. it can be verified that C= ZFand ZA= 2D ) By taking line-segment from the pocket, it can be verified that AC=DF (ii) By taking transparent triangle and placing it on both the triangles, it can be verified that both the triangles ABC and DEF are congruent. (iv) Placing the transparent triangle with other corresponding vertices, the idea of corresponding parts can be well explained. Use * Model can be used to show that iftwo angles and the included side of one triangle are equal to the two angles and the included side of the other triangle, then the two triangles are congruent. = This model can also be used to explain the ideas of corresponding vertices and corresponding parts of two triangles.i i i ti em Acriviry 19 [rus congrueney Condition | Materials Hardboard /cardboard, coloured glaze papers, transparent sheet, scale, protractor, adhesive, steel wires. Preparation W Cut two triangles with RHS congruency condition and paste them on the hard board. (i) Cover these two triangles with coloured glaze papers. (i) Draw a triangle with same congruency condition and measurement on the transparent sheet. (tv) Cutout the equal hypotenuse from steel wires, one line segment and right angle as of the two triangles formed in step (i () Form a pocket to put the cut outs of line segments and the right angle and also the cut out triangle on the transparent sheet. te De \ = Fig. 4.1.19Hammers ms Demonstration Working is as shown below: (® By taking line segments from the pocket, it can be verified that CA = FD and BC = EF i) By taking angle from pocket, it can be verified that : ZA=2D (ul) By taking transparent triangle and placing it on both the triangles, it can be verified that both the triangles ABC and DEF are congruent. (v) Placing the transparent triangle with other corresponding vertices, the Idea of corresponding parts can be well explained. Use * Model can be used to show that if in any two right triangles, hypotenuse and a side of one triangle are equal to the corresponding parts of the other triangle, then the triangles are congruent. * This model can also be used to explain the ideas of correspondence of vertices and corresponding parts of two triangles.nit ii aa Dy Activity 20 Pisum of the Angles of a Quadrilateral | Materials Cardboard, sketch pen, adhesive, glaze paper, scale, scissors. Preparation (Take a rectangular eardboard piece. (ii) Make a quadrilateral on the cardboard. (di) Make cut-outs of all the four angles of the quadrilateral with the help ofa transparent sheet. (tv) Make a pocket and put these cut outs in it. Fig. 4.1.20 Demonstration ( Take out the cut outs of angles from the pocket of the model. (Gi) Place the cut outs on the respective angles of the quadrilateral and show that they are equal. (ii) Arrange the cut-outs in such a way that vertex ofeach angle coincide at a point (Fig. 4.1.20). iv Such arrangements of cut outs show that the sum of the angles of a quadrilateral forms a complete angle and hence is, ‘equal to 360°, Use * Model can be used to verify the result that the sum of the angles of a quadrilateral is 360°,Cements cans Activiry 21 T opposite Angles of a Cyclic ‘Quadrilateral | Materials Cardboard base, hard cardboard pieces, wooden pieces. scale. sketch pen, glaze paper, scissors. : Preparation ( Take a cardboard base. (i) Cover the base with glaze paper. {ii) Cut a wooden circle and paste it on the base. (v) In the circle, draw a quadrilateral so that all the four vertices of the quadrilateral lie on the circle. (8) Make the cut outs of the angles of the quadrilateral with the help ofa transparent sheet, (vi) Make a pocket to keep the cut outs. Demonstration (i) Take the cut outs from the pocket and place them on the respective opposite angles to show that they are equal. (i) Arrange the opposite angles in such a way that vertices of these angles coincide at a point (Fig. 4.1.21).‘ces ory i i eS Ey Gi) After arranging the opposite angles, we find that the sum of opposite angles of a cyclic quadrilateral is a straight angle or 180", Use * Model can be used to verify the result that the sum of the opposite angles of a cyclic quadrilateral is 180°,Emmemansiinasauacr isn yim Acrivity 22 [area of a Trapezium | Materials Hardboard, thermocol, coloured glaze papers. adhesive etc. Preparation {i) Take a piece of hardboard for the base of the model. (i) Cut two congruent trapezia of parallel-sides aand b. (ai) Place them on the hardboard such that they form a parallelogram as shown in the figure 4.1.22. Fig. 4.1.22 Demonstration Arrange the congruent trapecia in such a way that they form a parallelogram as shown in figure 4.1.22. ‘Therefore, area of trapezium = i area of parallelogram =hlarvixn Use * Model can be used to determine a formula for the area of a trapezium,Acros Dave i 2 i ay J ahaskara’s proof of Pythagoras Theorem | Materials Hardboard, thermocol, coloured glaze papers, adhesive, Preparation (i) Make a square of side 13 units using thermocol strip, (i) Make four right triangles of sides 12 units x 5 units and 13 units, Le., a= 12 units, b= 5 units and c= 13 units. (iii) Make a square of side a bi.c. 7 units, (tv) Arrange these right triangles and square (of side 7 units) on a square of side 13 units as shown in the figure 4.1.23, Fig. 4.1.25 Demonstration ‘The teacher can show that in this model a square of side cis made of four right triangles of sides aand band a square of side a— b. ‘Therefore, c? =4 (Arca of right triangle) + Area of square of side (a—b) =4x fax b+ (ab? = 2ab + a? +b? —2ab ore? =a? +b? Use * This model can be used to verily Pythagoras ‘Theorem. Note * This method is known as dissection proof for Pythagoras ‘Theorem given by famous Indian Mathematician Bhaskara Il,(C Famnmmnmmmeenearcsner i sacs Activity 24 [ aprooffor Pythagoras Theorem | Materials Cardboard, thermocol, coloured glaze papers, adhesive, ete. Preparation {) Make a square of side a+ b = 17 units using thermocol strip. (ii) Make four right triangles of sides 5 units, 12 units and 13 units, ic., a= 12 units, b= 5 units and ¢= 13 units. (iti) Make a square of side ¢ = 13 units. (iv) Arrange these right triangles and square [of side 13 units) on a square of side a + b = 17 units as shown in figure 4.1.24a. wo) Fig. 4.1.24 ( Place the four right triangles as shown in the figure 4.1.24b. {u) (@) Subtracting the area of the four right triangles from the square ABCD (Fig. 4.1.24a), we get the area of side Ghee (0) Subtracting the area of the four right triangles from the square ABCD as shown in figure 4-1.24b, we get the area asa’ +b’.hove se i RRB But from (a) and (b), area must be the same. ‘Therefore, c’ = a+b’, which varifies the Pythagoras Theorem. (i) From the figure 4.1.24a, we can also write (a+b? = 4 x (Area of right triangle] + area of square of side c. 1 S4xpab+c or a+ 2ab+ b? = 2ab+c* ied +bi=c’, which also varifies Pythagoras Theorem, Use * Model can be used to verify Pythagoras Theorem as above. * Model can also be used to verify the identity (a+b)? = a? + 2ab +b? Note * From the figure 4.1.24 (b), we can also deduce that area of square ABCD =2 x area of rectangle of sides aand b+ area of square of side a+ area of squaere of side b =2ab+ a’ + b* =(a+ by Le. (a+ by’ =a"+b* +2ab1mm i sn Acriviry 25 [rengram_| Plywood board, hardboard, wooden margin. knobs, coloured paper, scissors, glue. Preparation (0 Cuta square of size 40cm x 40cm from the plywood board. (ti) Make a square of size 24cm x 24cm leaving equal margin on the above plywood board. (ui) Cut a square PQRS of size 24cm x 24cm from hardboard such that it exactly fits in the square made by margin in step (ii). 5 6 7 cutout pieces used to draw parallelogram (o) Fig. 4.1.25a Gy) The square in step (if) is cut into 7 pieces along dotted lines as shown in figure 4.1.25 a, with A and B as mid-points of sides SR and RQ. respectively. TU) BQ and PT LAB, where T {is the mid-paint of AB. Also AC 1 SQ. (+) Fix knobs in various geometrical shapes obtained in step liv), at appropriate places as shown by (,) in the figure. Demonstration () From the seven pieces shown in the model, recognition of various geometrical shapes such as triangles, squares, parallelograms, trapeziums, ctc., can be taught. (48) Concept of congruent triangles and similar triangles can be illustrated with the help of this model. Use * Model can be used for the recognition of different geometric shapes and also for recreational purpose as shown in figure 4.1.25. Arrange the 7 cut out pieces on the drawing sheet in the manner as shown in the figure 4.1.25 and c. Now with the help of a pencil make the outline of the picture. Remove all the pieces and finish the drawing with good free hand. * Various designs can be developed using tangrams. = The students should be asked to remove all the geometrical shapes and make the margined square empty. They should be asked to refix all the shapes in the margin so as to again take the shape of a square. © This is, popularly known as famous Chinese Puzzle.(ammmemamrenmancerass os tocoe Activiry 26 F area ofa Cirete_| Materials Hard wood. saw, glaze papers. scissors, adhesive, scale, pencil, eraser, sketch pens, drawing sheets, etc. Preparation ( Cut a circular and a rectangular piece of wood. (i) Make a border on alll the four sides of the rectangular piece of wood. Paste a coloured paper on the circular piece. (ii) Cut the cirele into 16 sectors of equal measurements. liv) Make a trace copy of these sectors and paste them on the rectangular shect as shown in the figure, These sectors so arranged form a rectangle whose dimensions are xrand r. ©) Fig. 4.1.26 Demonstration ‘The formula for the area of the circle can be explained as below: Area of the rectangle = Lx b 1 Here (is 5 circumference of the circle and b= r (radius). So ix 1 2 3X 20x r= nr? square units.vn i ee i a Note () Take one sector which can be taken as a triangle with radius of the circle as approximate height of the triangle. Then Area of triangle = 4% rx b (b= base of the triangle) Therefore, area ofcircle= 16x} rxb= 2 r(I6xb) -i rx 2 nr= nr? sq units Here, (16 x b) is equal to the circumference of the circle, (8) For more accurate result the number of seciors may be taken as large as possible. Use * Mocel can be used for explaining the formula of the area of a circle as shown in figure 4.1.26.fe ee Activity 27 Pet of Cylinder _| Materials Thermocol sheet, transparent sheets, glaze paper, adhesive, scissors, scale, compasses, drawing pins, sketch pen. Preparation () Take a rectangular piece of thermocol sheet. {ii) Cover it with coloured glaze paper. (a) Take a rectangular piece of transparent sheet (22 cm x 19 cm nearly), (v) Cut two circles from the transparent sheet with radius equal to 3. cm nearly the radius of the cylinder. (wi Attach rectangular piece and the two circles of transparent sheet on thermocol sheet, (vi) Two circles will become the top and bottom of the cylinder. (vt) By folding the rectangular sheet, cylinder can be made. (vii) Net of the cylinder is considered as top and bottom (circular in shape) and a rectangular piece of sheet. Fig. 4.1.27() The breadth of the rectangular sheet is equal to height of the cylinder. (W) The length of the rectangular sheet equals 2nr which is the circumference of the circular top or bottom of the cylinder. (if) The Area of the rectangle = Lx b =2nrxh = 2nrh = curved surface arca of the cylinder (iv) Adding xr? +nr? to the above, the whole surface area of the cylinder = Qnrh+Qxr? Use * This model can be used to explain the concept of curved surface and whole surface of a cylinder and their formulae as above.Activity 28 | Relation between the Volumes of a Cylinder and a Cone with same Base Radius and same Height bi Materials ‘Thermocol, transparent sheet, scissors, skeich pen, scale. Preparation () With the help of a transparent sheet, make a cone with height hand radius of the base r. (i) With the similar transparent sheet, make a cylinder with same height 'h’ and radius of base same as that of the cone (Fig. 4.1.28). Fig. 4.1.28 Demonstration (i Take some sand (or water) and fill the cone with it. (ii) Pour the sand (or water) of the cone into the cylinder. (i) Again fill the cone with sand (or water) and pour into the same cylinder. iv) Repeat this process three times. (¥) It will be found that after filling the sand (or water) through the cone three times, the whole cylinder will be filled with sand (or water). Use + Model can be used to verify that volume of the cylinder = 3 (eolume of the cone with same base, radius and height),coms iii em Activity 29 [Some activities by Paper Folding t | Material Hardboard, coloured paper, scale, adhesive and sketch pens, papers Preparation (Take a hardboard of measurement 12cm x 12cm. (i) Take a rectangular paper and draw a line Lon it. Fold the paper so that line [ folds on itself, Unfold the paper and draw a line PQ along the crease (Fig. 4.1.29a). (Qu) Cut out an angle from the paper and fold it so that one ray falls on the other. Unfold the paper and draw a ray AD along the crease (Fig. 4.1.29b), (iv) Draw a line segment on a rectangular paper. Fold the paper to Join the two end points of the segment. Unfold the paper and draw a line LM along the crease (Fig. 4.1.290). aRFig. 4.1.29 (&) Drawa line segment on rectangular paper. Join the end points twice by folding the paper twice. Unfold the paper and draw lines CD, LM. FG along the creases (Fig. 4.1.294). (1 Cut an tsoscles triangular region ABC from the paper. Fold this paper through A so that side BC folds along itself. Draw the line AD from the vertex A to the base BC along the crease (Fig. 4.1.29e), ‘Demonstration li) Explain that PQ is perpendicular to U (Fig. 4.1.29a) (i) Demonstrate that ray AD ts the bisector of the angle BAC, (Fig. 4.1.29b) (i) Explain that the line LM is the perpendicular bisector of the line segment AB (Fig, 4.1.29). Gv) Explain that the line segment AB gets divided into four equal parts, (Fig. 4.1.29d) (v) Explain that AD is the altitude of the triangle ABC (Fig. 4.1.29e) Use * Model can be used to demonstrate different types of activities by paper folding.ivities at the Secondary Stageamericas sons Activity 1 Patgebrate taentity : (a +b) = 0° + b? +80 + 3am | Materials Acrylic Sheet, cutter, glaze paper, wooden board, saw, sketch pens, adhesive. Preparation ( Take a cube of side a= 3 units and one more cube of side b= Lunit as shown in figure 4.2.14 and b using wooden board. (i) Cut out three cuboid of dimensions ax ax bor 3x 3x 1 as shown in figure 4.2.1 (cl, {d) and (e] using wooden board. } @) te0 Fig. 4.2.1 (ul) Cut out three cuboid of dimenstons ax bx bor3x 1x Las shown in figure 4.2.1 (f), (g) and (h) using wooden board. Demonstration () Assemble all the cuboids given in (a), (b), (c), (4), (©), (0, @ and {h) in order as shown in figure 4.2.1 1 which is a cube of side lar bi. Thus, (a+b} (W) By suitable arrangements of cubes and cuboids, identity [a+ bP = a? +b 43% + Sab? can be verified. a? +b? + 3a%b + 3ab* Use * Model can be used to verify algebraic identity (a+ b} = a? +b? 484% + Sab? Note + This model can also be used at the Hlementry Stagefe ee Activity 2 Paigebraic raentity: a?sb?= (ab) a? + (a+b)b* - ab (a+b) = (arb) (a? - ab +b?) Materials Acrylic sheet, cutter, glaze paper, wooden block, saw. Preparation (0 Take a cube of side a = 3 untis and another cube of side b= 1 unit as shown in figure 4.2.2 a and b. (i Cut out the cuboid of dimensions ax ax bor 3x 3x1 (Fig. 4.2.20), (ii) Cut out the cuboid of dimensions ax bx bor 3x 1x1 (Fig. 4.2.24). fa) Cc) @ 0 @ Fig. 4.2.2ci a a em ea Demonstration (i) Assemble all the cuboids (a), (b), (c), (d) on the table as shown in figure 4.2.2 (e). (i) Remove (c) and (d), we are left with a + b%, in figure 4.2.2(0) (i) Join the two cuboids (c) and (¢) as shown in the figure 4.2.2 (@). It is a cuboid of volume (atblab fiv) Remove (a+b) ab from the sum of (a+b) a? and (a+b) b? to. obtain a’ + b*. So that a8 + b® = (atb)e? + (atb)b? ~ ab (atb) = (a+b) (a +b? - ab). Use " Model can be used to verify algebraic identity : @ + bS= (a+b) (a? ab +b’)nen cst sone Activity 3 Patgepratc Identity : a®- b?= (a-b) (a*+ ab+ ») | Materials Acrylic sheet, wooden board, sketch pens, glaze paper, scissors, adhesive, ete. Preparation (i) Take a= 3 units, b= 1 unit so that a- b= (3-1) Le. 2 units (i) Make a cuboid of size (a - b) x ax a cubie units, using wooden board as shown in figure 4.2.3 (a) (ii) Make another cuboid of size (a- bx ax bor 2x3 x 1 cubic units, using same wooden board as shown in figure 4.2.3 (o) (iv) Make one more cuboid of size (@- Bx bx b or 2x 1x1 cubic units as shown in figure 4.2.3 (d) (@) Make a cube of size bx bx b or 1 x1 x1 as shown in figure 42.3 (0) cH ‘a e @ a> am ® (a) @ a z @ 0 Ig. 4.2.3,ci i a (vi) Make a cube of size ax ax aor 3x 3x3 cubic units from acrylic sheet to keep the model safely as shown in figure 4.2.3 (f) Demonstration Assemble all the three cuboids in such a way that they give a cube of size 3x 3 x 3 cubic units. By suitable arrangements of cubes and cuboids, identity a ~ b* = (a—b) (a? + ab+ b*) can be verified as follows: Adding {a), (b), {c) and (d), we get () ic. a =(a-b) x axat(a—b) x ax b+(a—b) x bx b+ bx bxb = (a-B (a? + ab +b) + b® Subtracting b? from both sides, we get a’ b° = (a-b) (a? + ab+ b’) Use ® Model can be used to verify the algebraic identity: a? — b® = (a~b) (a* + ab+ b4) Ecs i lee Sy Use ‘Model can be used to verify that: * Areas of parallelograms on the same base and between same parallels are equal in area. * Area of triangle and a parallelogram on the same base and 1 between same parallels = area of a triangle = 5 area of the parallelogram.7 Flawssmrmressaai mane inca ems Activity 10 T maxing an Isosceles Trapezium ABCD into an Equivalent Area ofaRectangie | Materials Plywood board, hardboard, coloured papers, scale, adhesive, scissors, wooden margins. Preparation () Take a plywood board of size 40cm x 30cm and paste coloured paper on it. (u) Draw an isosceles trapezium ABCD on the plywood board in which AD = BC. (iii) Fix wooden margins along the sides of the trapezium ABCD. (v) Cut a hardboard piece of size ABCD. tv) Draw AE perpendicular to DC and cut right triangular portion ADE from the above hardboard. (vi) Fix wooden margins BF and CF such that BF = DE and AB = CF as shown in the figure 4.2.10. at cons 6em >pdem>p = Dalene. Fig. 4.2.10 Demonstration (0 Take out the triangular hardboard ADE and keep It in such ‘a way as to get the rectangle ABCF. (ii) Explain that the area of the trapezium ABCD is equal to the area of the rectangle AECF. Use * Model can be used to explain equivalence of area of rectangle with isosceles trapezium,ci iii mE Activity 11 [vertnteation of Pythagoras ‘Theorem | Materials Plywood board, hardboard, coloured papers, scissors, wooden margins, adhesive Preparation {) Cut a square of size 60 cm x 60 cm from the plywood board and paste a coloured glaze paper on it. (i) Make a right triangle with sides 24 em, 7 cm and 25 cm of different coloured glaze paper and paste it on the centre of the board and name it as ABC. ail) Fix wooden margins along the sides of the triangle ABC. (lv) Make squares on the sides AB, AC and BC in the triangle ABC using wooden margins as shown in figure 4.2.11. r2 meen ss (0) Cut the squares of sides AB and AC froma hardboard to exaetly ft in the square made in step (is) as shown in figure 4.2.11, (i) Cut the square ABGF of hardboard in four congruent parts in such a way thal these four parts together with the square ACDE exactly fit in the square BCIH. (vi) For thts, follow the steps given below: (a) Through the point of intersection O of diagonals, draw MN || BC. (b) Construct right bisector QP of MN through O. {0 Cut the square ABGF along the lines MN and QP. Demonstration ‘Take out the four pieces of square ABGF together with the square ACDE and arrange them in the square BCIH in such a way that they exactly fit there. This verifies the Pythagoras theorem, Use * Model can be used to verify Pythagoras Theorem.nis i Se ee a Activiry 12 F verification of Thales. Theorem | Materials Hardboard, screws, coloured glaze papers, adhesive, scale, 4 pulleys, thread, marker, scissors, white chart paper. Preparation () Cuta piece of hardboard having size of 40 em x 40 em and paste some white chart paper of same size on it. (ti) Draw a horizontal line, 2 cm above the bottom of the paper pasted in step (\) above. (ii) Draw two perpendicular lines, 84 cm apart on this horizontal line at the points A and 3 (leaving 8 cm on each side of the edge of the paper) and graduate these lines. Fig. 4.2.12(Fammemnrrrnnae issn ai sas (iv) Cuta triangular piece of hardboard and paste coloured glaze paper on it and place it between the perpendicular lines AC and BD such that its base is parallel to the horizontal line as drawn in figure 4.2.12. () Graduate the other two sides of the triangular piece as shown in the figure 4.2.12. {vi) Put the screws along the horizontal line $4 em apart and two ‘more screws on the top of the board at the point C and D (84 cm apart) such that A, B, C and D become four vertices of a rectangle. (vi Take a scale and make four holes on it as shown in the figure 4.2.12 and fix four pulleys at these holes with the help of screws. (vii Fix the scale on the board using the thread tied to nails fixed at point A, B, C, and D passing through the pulleys as shown mthe figure 4.2. 12 so that the scale is parallel to the horizontal line AB and can be moved up and down over the triangular piece freely. Demonstration () Set the scale on vertical lines parallel to the base line of the 4 POR, say. at the points E and F. Measure the distance PE and EQ and also measure the distance PF and FR. It can be easily verified that ‘This verifies Thales Theorem. (i Repeat the activity stated in i) by moving scale up or down parallel to the base and verify the Thales Theorem in different cases, Use * Model can be used to verify Basic Proportionality Theorem (Thales Theorem).i i i Activity 13 [ratio of the Areas of Similar Triangles | Materials Plywood board, hardboard, coloured glaze papers, scale, adhesive, scissors. wooden margin. Preparation (i) Cut a plywood of size 60 cm x 30 cm and paste coloured glaze paper on it, (i) Cut two triangular pieces I and II of hard board of dimensions AB = 6 units, BC = 9 units, CA = 12 units) and GE 3 3 3 7 AB, GP = 3 BC. EF = CA so that they are similar. (Ui Divide both the triangles into smaller similar triangles as shown in figure 4.2.13 and paste different coloured paper on each triangle. Gv) Fix the triangles I and It on plywood taken in step (i) with margins around them.eee ‘Demonstration (@ Count the number of unit triangles ina shown in the model as 1,2,3.., In this case the number of unit triangles is 16. (4) Count the number of unit triangles in b which is 9, (ii) Verify that Area of Triangle 1 16 12° ‘Area of Triangle 9 [: ] =12 4 (Side)"of Triangle 1 = = Ratio of ares of GieaneT the squares of corresponding sides of triangles. Use * Model can be used to verify the result that ratio of the areas of two similar triangles is cqual to the ratio of the squares of their corresponding sides.coin he eR Acnyrry 14 Praia-point Theorem _| Material Plywood, black colour, scale. Preparation (@ Cut out a 4 ABC from plywood. (i Mark the mid points of AB and AC as D and E, respectively and join D to E. Paint A ADE with grey colour. (i) Cut out another triangle CEF congruentto A ADE, Paint this triangle with grey colour. (v) Place this triangle (step ii) as shown in the figure 4.2.14. A Fig. 4.2.14 Demonstration {i) Observe that BCFD isa parallelogram. (i) Also DE = 2 BC as DE = EF and opposite sides. of parallclogram are equal Us * Model can be used to demonstrate mid point theorem.6 mmm iii iv soon Activity 15 Tangles of a Cyclic, Quadrilateral al | Materials Plyboard, cardboard, drawing pins, glaze paper, sketch pens, scissors, adhesive. Preparation (i) Cut out a circle of radius 7 cm on a cardboard and paste yellow glaze paper on it. (ti) Draw a cycitc quadrilateral and extend one of its sides CD to the point E to make an exterior ZADE. (iti) Use four different coloured glaze papers to represent four angles of the quadrilateral. (iv) On a piece of cardboard, cut out three angles of measure equal to that of ZA, 2B and 2C and paste blue, red and black glaze papers, respectively on the cut outs. (W) With the help of drawing pins, fix the red coloured angle on the exterior angle ZADE. (vi) With the help of drawing pins, fix the blue and black coloured angles on ZA and ZC, respectively inside the cyclic quadrilateral. Fig. 4.2.15cc te a Demonstration () Remove the drawing pins and place the red coloured cardboard angle on ZB to show that exterior ZADE is equal to its interior opposite 2B. (i) Again remove the blue and black coloured cardboard angles from the cyclic quadrilateral and place them on a straight Ine to show that the opposite angles ofa cycltc quadrilateral are supplementary. Use Model can be used to verify that: $ * Opposite angles ofa cycite quadrilateral are supplementary. = Exterior angle ofa cyclic quadrilateral is equal to the interior opposite angle.62 emmmmmmneeii nisi asicmn Soons Acnviry 16 [Angles in a circte | Materials Plyboard, cardboard, drawing pins, glaze papers, sketch pens, scissors. Preparation () Draw a circle of radius 7 em on a cardboard sheet and paste a glaze paper on it. Let O be the centre of the circle and AD be one of its chords. (ii) Take points B, E and C on the circle, Join AO, OD, AB, BD, AE, EC, AC and CD. iit) Draw a tangent PQ at the point A of the circle, (iv) Bisect ZAOD, by the line segment OF. (v) On another cardboard sheet, cut out the angles of measures ‘equal to that of ZABD, ZACD and 2CAQ and colour them, (i) With the help of drawing pins, fix these cardboard angles as. shown in the figure,i a a a Demonstration { Remove the coloured cardboard ZABD and ZACD and place them one over the other. As the two angles completely cover each other, we can say that angles in the same segment of a circle are equal. (i) Again, remove the coloured cardboard ZABD and ZACD one ‘by one, and place them on ZAOD so that ZABD and ZACD are adjacent to each other. We will observe that ZAOD is covered completely by these two angles. This shows that the angle subtended by an are at the centre is twice the angle subtended by the same arc at any point on the remaining part of the circle. (ii) Remove the drawing pin and place the yellow coloured cardboard angles ZCAQ on ZAEC. As they completely cover each other, we can say that the angle between the tangent and the chord is equal to the angle subtended by the chord 1m the alternate segment. Use * Model can be used to verify that angle between a tangent and chord of a circle is equal to the angle subtended in the alternate segment.at any Point on the remaining Part ofthe Circle | Material Cardboard, glaze paper, scissors, sketch pen, scale, adhesive, protractor, transparent sheet. Preparation (@ Take a rectangular cardboard, (W) Cover the cardboard with glaze paper and make it base for the model. (ii) Make a circle on the base of the cardboard (iv) By taking an arc, make a wooden cut out of a sector, The sector will be making an angle at the centre of the circle. (v) With the same are, make a cut out of an angle at the remaining part of the circle. (vi) Prepare a pocket to keep the cutouts of the angles. A AY ze Pig. 4.2.17 Demonstration {i) Take the cutouts from the pocket of the model. (ii) With the help ofa transparent sheet or by placing a protractor on the cutouts, explain that the angle subtended at the centre. is double the angle subtended at any point on the remaining part of the circle, Use * Model can be used to verify that the angle subtended at the center is double the angle subtended at any point on the remaining part of the circle.ci i tae [chords and Tangents in a Circle | Materials ‘Plywood, chart paper, coloured glaze paper, nail, thread, adhesive, ete. Preparation ( Take a plywood board of size 50 cm x 40 cm and fix coloured glaze paper on it. (i) Draw a circle of radius 10 cm on a chart paper and cut out the circular region from it, (itt) Fix the circular region with adhesive on the plywood board. (iv) Take any two points A and B on the circle ahd two other points C and D such that line joining C and D crosses the Tine joining A and B at a point P and fix up nail at A, B, C and D. () Ne threads at A and © and extend these upto B and D, respectively and tie them at these places. (vi) Similarly, select the points A’, B’ and C’, D' and graduate ‘space on paper under them. (vi) Fix up nails at C’, D and A’, BY. This results as in figure 4.2.18 (a). fa © Fig. 4.2.18imran is smn (vilt) Take another sheet of chart paper of size 20 cm x 12 em. (9 Draw a circle of a radius 5 cm on it, fx) Take a point P at a distance of 10 em from the centre of the circle. (F c Fig. 4.3.3, Demonstration () The first strip is of length a. (i) Second strip is of length a+ b. (ii) Third strip is of length a4+2 b. () Tenth strip ts of length 2a+ 9b.ceo Di aE (v) Strips arranged look like a stair ease. (vi) The sum of above arithmetic progression =at(arb)+ (ai2B) +... + (a+ 9b) 10a+ 45 b 2 gato =} Hloxwa+9 bi 1 @ (Area of the rectangle ABCD where length Bi and breadth 1s 10 units) 2a+9b Use Model can be used to demonstrate: = concept of arithmetic progression, * sum of arithmetic progression. Note * Ifthe arithmetic progression is a, at b, a+ 2b, ..., a+ (n-1) b, then the sum ofits first nterms \ = F Batiny = 5 nl2arin na = Halfof the area of the rectangle whose length is 2a+(n-1) b and breadth is reuntts.Remmi i Sons Acriviry 4 [Sum of Odd Numbers i.e. D(2n -1)=1 | Material ‘Thermocol sheet, thermocol balls, pins, pencil, scale, adhesive, chart paper. Preparation () Take a square piece of the thermocol, (i) Fix chart paper on the thermocol, (i) Draw horizontal and vertical lines with pencil to mark squares. liv) Take a pin and fix a thermocol ball in it and fix it in the corner of the square () Repeat the same with thermocol balls and pins on the whole board as shown in the figure 4.3.4. Fig. 4.3.4 Demonstration ( For {2n-1) = (2x 1-1) =1= 1’ ie. the square on the top of the right in the figure having one ball. It canbe explained as 1?, (ii) For n= 2 =DQ@n-1) =(2x 2-1) 4 (2 1-1)=341=2 ie, the next square having 1 + 3=4 balls, can be explained as 2”.i i a (i) For n= 3, L(2n-1) = (2x 3-1) 4+ (2x 2-1) +(2x2-= 543+1=9=3' ie. the next square having 9 balls can be explained as 3°, (iv) Taking the sum of all these cases, we get 143454... + (2n- Nant, ( The number n? on the right hand side of the result suggests the perfect square shape of configuration. In the present activity n= 10, Use * Model can be used to explain the sum of odd numbers by taking different values of n, Suggestion * The model can also be prepared from wooden board and nails.(7 aeemmmsrenccsasmnses cassie sms Activiry 5 [rhe sum of Square of the First n Natural Numbers, i.e., ene meee) cy Material Wooden cubes of size (1 x 1 x I}cu unit, adhesive, nails. Preparation (i) Take one wooden cube of size (1x 1 x 1) cu em (Fig. 4.3.5a) (i Take four wooden cubes and fix them together (Fig. 4.3.5b). (ii) Take nine wooden cubes, and fix them together (Fig. 4.3.5¢). (v) Take sixteen wooden cubes and fix them together (Fig. 4.3.54). (¥) Arrange all the blocks to form an echelon type of structure as shown in the figure 4.3.5 (e). (vi) Make six such echelon type of pieces. (vii) Arrange the six pieces to form a bigger cuboidal block and verify that its dimensions are 4x 5x9 cu em, @) (b) © PF & (a) fe)ee] Demonstration () One block (Fig. Se) represents volume b(17+27+3"+4") cucm. GW) Total volume of sixblocks is 6 (17+-2°+37+4") = 4(441) (2x 441). (ii) From this we can visually infer the result. Vaated? +t rt = i n(n 1) 2ne1) Use * Model can be used to explain the sum of squares of first n natural numbers.eemmmmrnorconaanes aie Ws Activity 6 [raphe ot ata end sin'x_| Materials: Wooden strips, wire, soldering wire Preparation () Fix two wooden strips perpendicular to each other and intersecting at O to represent x~ axis and y— axis. (W Draw the graph of sin x with the values given below: it) Take up three wires in the shape of sin x, sin" xand y= cand fix them on the wooden strip. iv) Paint the wires with different colours. Fig. 4.3.6cn iia Ta Demonstration {() sin xcrosses x-axis at the points «2x, 0), (-, 0), (0.0), (t, 0), (2, 0)... sin' xcrosses y-axis at the points -=+ 0, = 2x), (0, =m), (0,0), (0, 1), (0, 2} passes through the origin, (du) C, wire represents the sin x, C, wire represents the sin” x and C, wire represents the y= x. (tv) It may be noted that the sin x and sin' x are symmetrical with respect to y= x. a) and y= x Use * Model can be used to explain the relationship between graphs of sinxand sin! x.(CL emmmmarmmserscreacus ii s Activity 7 F conte Sections _| Materials Transparent sheet, scissors, hardboard, adhesive Preparation () Cuta transparent sheet in the shape of sector of a circle. (i) Form a right circular cone by folding the transparent sheet and using adhesive. (ii Fix the cone on hardboard. (iv) Take the sections of the cone by transparent plane sheet in different positions with respect to axis and generators to obtain circle, ellipse, parabola and hyperbola (if plane cuts both parts of the cone} (Fig. 4.3.7), Fig. 4.3.7 (a) ‘Demonstration ( Take a plane sheet and cut the cone in such a way that it is perpendicular to the axis of the cone, then the section will bea circle (Fig. 4.3.7b i).i) Place the plane such that it is inclined slightly to the axis. The section will be an ellipse (Fig. 4.3.7 b iil, (it) Place the plane such that it is parallel to a generator. The section will be a parabola (Fig, 4.3.7 b ili). (v) Take a double right circular cone and place the plane in such a way that Its parallel to the axis and cuts the upper part as well as the lower pari of the double cone, The section will be hyperbola consisting of two branches of a single curve (Fig. 4.3.7 bm. ewe () Elhpse WY (Ww) Hyperbota Fig. 4.3.7 (b) " Model can be used to explain diflerent type of conic sections,rms [construction of a Parabola | Materials Plywood sheet, coloured chart paper, nails, nylon wire, marker, seale, pencil Preparation () Take a plywood sheet of size 26cm x 25cm. (i) Cover it with coloured chart paper. (ti) Draw two line segments at an angle of about 50°. dv) Divide each line segment into the same number of parts with the help of marker. (x) Join the first division of one line segment to the last division of the other, the second division to the last second, and so on with the help of nylon wire. (vi) Fix nails on the points of division of the two line segments. (vil) Join the foots of the nails with the nylon wire to see the actual shape of parabola. se Fig. 4.3.8i i i ea Demonstration {i) AB and AC are two line segments inclined at an angle 50°. (i) AB and AC are divided in 24 equal parts, Along AB, the points of division are numbered from 1 to 24 where as along AC they are numbered from 24 to 1 as shown in the figure 4.3.8. (lu The equally marked points of division are jotned together. For example, 1 is joined with 1.2 with 2. .... 24 with 24. ‘The shape of a parabola is formed. Use * Model can be used to explain the construction ofa parabola,Activiry 9 J construction of an Ellipse when Major and Minor Axes are given 4 Materials Hardboard, chart paper, nylon wire. Preparation () Take a rectangular sheet of hardboard and cover it with chart, paper. (i) Draw two concentric circles with their radii equal to the semi major and the semi minor axes of the required ellipse, (iii) Draw radii at intervals of 10° or 15°. (iv) Draw a vertical line from a point at which each radius cuts the outer cirele and meet another horizontal line drawn from a point where the same radius cuts the inner circle. (v) Fix the nails at the point of intersection of vertical and horizontal lines drawn parallel to minor and major axes. (i) Join foot of the nails by a nylon wire to get the shape of an ellipse. aa 5, Fig. 4.3.9hii ei ee Demonstration () AB represents the major axis and CD represents the minor axis of the given ellipse. (ii) OB,, OB,, ... represent radii of the bigger circle. (i) OC,, OC,, ... represent radi@f the smaller cirele, (v) Ey, Eq, «.. are the points of intersection of the horizontal and vertical lines. {v) The path of the points E,, By, ... represents the required ellipse. Use * Model can be used to explain the construction of an ellipse with given major and minor axes.Clemmons iain tie Activity 10 F construction ofan Ellipse | ‘Material Rectangular cardboard, coloured chart paper, sketch pen, scale, adhesive. Preparation () Take a rectangular card board and cover it with chart paper. (ii) Take a rectangle ABCD on the one corner of the board. (Gi) Divide BC into 11 parts and join each of them to A. (i) Divide DC also into 11 parts. (v) Draw a series of lines from X through each of the division of DC. In tum, the first meeting the first line from A to BC at ‘Aji: the second one to the second one and 90 on. (vi) Fix nails at the points of contact. and join them with nylon wire to make part of an ellipse. Repeat this process to complete the ellipse. iN ( ABCD represents the rectangle. fi) Ay, Ags + An are the points of division of BC joined with A, (it) D,, D,, «..D,, are the points of division of DC.isa i (fv) XD,, XD,, «.. XD,, are the family of lines meeting the lines drawn from A (0 yA s+, Ay (0) By, By..... By, are the points of contact. Fixing nails at these points and joining them with nylon wire one can get the part of an ellipse. Repeating this process in the other three quadrant, one can construct entire ellipse. Use * Model can be used to demonstrate the construction of an ellipse.(2 mmr sn as Activsrry 11 [construction ot Parabols when Distance between Directrix and Focus is Given _| Material Hardboard, chart paper, hammer, nails, nylon wire, Preparation (i) Take a rectangular sheet of hardboard anc cover it with chart paper. (ii) Draw horizontal line CD as axis on the chart paper and mark focus F on CD. Also draw a vertical line AB through C to denote the directrix. (iii) Bisect CF in V to denote the vertex. (iv) Mark number of points P,, P,. figure 4.3.11. (| Take Fas a centre and radius equal to CP,, draw ares eutting the perpendiculars through P, at A, and A',. (vi) Repeat the process and locate points A, A,’ and A,, A’,ete, on both sides of the axis CD. (vii) Fix nails on these points and join foot of the nails by a nylon wire to get the shape of a parabola. ”, on VF as shown in the Fig.4.3.11cs i i eS Demonstration (CD denote the x-axis (i) AB denotes the directrix (i) V.F denote the vertex and focus, respectively, GA, A\, Ay Also. Ay Al, represent the position of nails. Use " Model can be used to explain that how a parabola can be traced with a given disiance between directrix and the focus.2 Fememenmmeesniais uss ses Activity 12 TVisuslising Ellipse by Paper Folding | Material Hardboard, sketch pen, paper sheet. Preparation (9 Place the paper on the hardboard, cut a circle of radius 20 cm. (W) Marka point F inside the circle but not at the centre. (iti) Make a fold so that a point F’ on the circumference gets mapped onto F. (Fig, 4.3.12). (ix) Take a point P in such a way that the line SF’ passes through it, Fig. 4.3.12 Demonstration ( Explain that PF = PF’ (i) SP + PF = constant (equal to the radius of the circle} i) Explain that by varying F’, the point P will describe an ellipse with S and F as foci, (iv) Explain that the fold will be a tangent to the ellipse. (e) Explain that making a large number of folds (same F, but changing F’), we get a large number of tangents and we can see the shape of ellipse better as the more folds we make. Use = Activity will be suited for a geometrical construction program on the computer.ci i a Acrviry 13 # T rascat's Triangle | Materials ‘Thermocol sheets, chart papers, adhesive, match sticks. Preparation () Take a piece of thermocol sheet and cover itwith chart paper. (ii) Take match sticks and fix on the chart paper with the help of adhesive so as to make Pascal's Triangle (Fig. 4.3.6). Fig. 4.3.13 Demonstration (i) At apex of the Pascal's Triangle ts 1. (i) Each of the lines, which follow, begins (and ends} with 1.All other numbers in a line are the sum of the above two numbers immediately to the left and right in the line.(Gemeente ui) The number series made by each diagonal line are 1.1 1 1 ete: 123 4ete, (lv) Compare cach row of the Pascal's Triangle with the expansion of (a+ by" Power (a+ be (a+b! (a+b? (a+b la+ bf lat bP Expansion 1 lat 1b ld’ + 2ab+ 1b" la’ + Sa b + 3ab’ + 1b° ld +4 @ b+ 6a + dab’ +1 b* Id’ +5 a'b+ 10a°b* + 10 ab’ + Sab‘ + 15 Here we have taken n= 5 (©) The coefficients are those numbers, which are to be found on. the corresponding line of Pascal's Triangle. Use = Model can be used to determine the coefficients of different terms of a binomial expansion.Activity 14 [ Apptication of Series Connection of Switches to Mathematical Logic | Materials ‘Switches, electric wire, battery and lamp, Preparation ( Take two switches S, and S,, first connect these in series as shown in the figure 4.3.14. (W) Connect Battery and Lamp so as to complete the circuit, 8/57 Lamp Pig. 4.3.14 Demonstration () Corresponding to switches S, and S,, make the following logical arrangements. Assign statements p. p/: q, q' to the status of switches S, S,, respectively. (i) Use the statement 1, I’ to the status of the Lamp. Symbolize equivalently to the status of switches, Lamp (or the flow of current) by binary digits 0 and 1 as given below: p = Switch S, 1s closed =1 Pp = Switch S, is open =0 q = Switch §, is closed = 1 = Switch S, is open =0 1 = Lamp is on or the current flows = 1 P = Lamp is off or the current does not flow = 0 O =1and1’=0Bammer it ns (it) Following table may be used for demonstrating status of switches and Lamp’s on or off positions: (iv) Note thatp aq = 1 pag 20 pad =0 ad =0 Use * The activity can be used to explain application of switch connection in series to Mathematical Logic,oi ti am mmm Ta Activity 15 [application of switch Connection in Parallel with Mathematical Logic | Materials Switches S,, S,, electric wire, battery and lamp. Preparation ( Connect switches S,, S, in parallel. i) Connect battery and Lamp so as to complete the circuit as in the figure 4.3.15. BH s, e- Fig. 4.3.15 Demonstration Explain that lamp will glow if atleast one of the switches 1s closed as given in the following flow table:(mamma asin ccinas @ Explain that if ‘+’ operation is identified with switches connected in parallel, we obtain the following table. (i) Explain that = py q=k p’yq=k p'yq=l py d=0 (it It is interesting to note that logical arrangements made in above stated activities, lead to the formulation of Boolean Algebra by taking the set B = (0,1) depicting the states of switches, identifying ‘+’ operation with switches connected in parallel operation, with switches connected in scrics and complementation operation “by taking 0’= 1 and 1’ = Use * The activity can be used to explain application of switch connection in parallel to Mathematical Logic.vm i mmm Activity 16 Tcrapns of e* and log +] Material Wooden strips, wire, colour, Preparation (i) Fix two perpendicular strips intersecting at a point to represent x-axis and y-axis. (ii) Draw the graph of e* by using the values of x and e" as given below: (it) Draw of graph of log , by using the values of xand log , xas given in below:(Cranemmmninscamosisirs sii S000 (iv) Take wires in the shape of the graphs of e* and log, xand fix them on the wooden strips (| Colour the wires with different colours to represent different curve. Demonstration {i Wire C, represents €* (i) Wire C, represents log. x. (ii) Wire C represents y= x. lis) Wire C, crosses y-axis at (0,1) (0) Wire C, crosses x~axls at (1,0). (vi) e“and log, xare mirror reflection of each other with respect to y= x. They are symmetrical with respect to y= Use * Model can be used to demonstrate the graph of e* and log, x. = Model can be used to compare the shape of e’and log, with respect to y= xMaterials ‘Thin sheet of wood, wires, wooden board, Preparation li) Take three thin sheets of wood and cut them in size 80 cm x 30 cm, (i) Fix two sheets in such a way that they intersect orthogonally in the middle of each other (Fig. 4.3.17). (ii) Cut the third sheet into two equal rectangles. (iv) Insert one rectangle from one side in the middle cutting the two orthogonally, and the other rectangle from other side. (#)In this model, three planes are intersecting at right angles ata point and they divide the space into eight parts. Each part is called an octant. (vi) Fix the model on a wooden board. Zz Fig. 4.17(i mmmammrersaisaerastisi v Saton ‘Demonstration (0 In one octant fix scales to show x-axis, y-axis and z-axts. ‘The needle of axis piercing to other side represents XX. Similarly YY and ZZ’ are represented. (i) The point where XX’, YY’ and ZZ’ intersect is origin. {ii The distance of point P on XY plane with coordinates (x. y) from the origin is [x24 y? - (iv) Fix a rod perpendicular to XY plane at P and paralle! to zanis. (0) Fix a wire joining the origin to the upper tip P” of perpendicular rod. (vi) The distance of P* with coordinates (x, y, 2) in space from theoriginis fe2ey?+z? - {vi) In other octant, if we fix a wire perpendicular to any of the planes, then it will represent normal to the plane. (viii) If two normals are drawn to any two of the planes, then normals to two perpendicular planes are perpendicular to each other. Use = Model can be used to visualise the position and coordinates of point in space, = Model can be used to explain the distance between a point in the plane or in space to the origin.Activity 18 [ Vector as a Linear Combination of Vectors | Material Wooden base and wire. Preparation (i) Take three wires of equal length. (ii) Fix the wire perpendicularly to each other at a point to represent three coordinate axes, (lit) Taking the three axcs as the edges of the cuboid, complete the cuboid with the pieces of wire. Fig. 4.3.18 Demonstration @) The lines OA, OB and OC being non coplanar, taken two at a time determine three different planes BOC, COA and AOB. (i) As three vectors OA, OB and OC are non- coplanar, they represent a set of linearly independent vectors. FR hm a Bae (iii) Taking OA = d, OB = B, OC = gand OP =v > > (iv) v= OP > > =OL+LPwy Bead+pBrye (vit) As Visa linear combination of the vectors @. B, ¢ the four vectors % @ B, <, are linearly dependent vectors. Use * Model can be used to explain that three vectors in space are nearly independent and a set of four vectors are always linearly dependent vectors.Actriviry 19 [Discontinuity of a Function | Materials Hardboard plate, eighteen 1.5 volt bulbs, one 2.5-volt bulb, 12 testing screws, electrical circuit. Preparation (9 Take a hard board plate of size 30 om x 30 cm. (i Drill nine holes along the horizontal line at equal lengths. Lable them as -5~ 4, -8, -2,-1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and fix bulbs in these holes. i Drill nine holes along the line, which is inclined at an angle 45° with the horizontal line, Fix bulbs in these holes. fix) Complete the clectrical circuit, “S43210123465 Fig. 4.3.19 Demonstration (9 Bulbsalong the horizontal ine represent the points on the x: axis. {i) Bulbsalong the slope line represent the corresponding points an on the graph of function y= © s t =eeeremremnanmanarassncsains (iil) At x= 4 the bulb does not glow, 1.., y is not defined and showing that y is discontinuous at iv) In the immediate neighborhood of x = 4 (on either side of x= 4), the bulb glows and showing that y is continuous in the neighborhood of x = (#) The existence of left hand and right hand limits can be seen by taking different values of x. Use ‘+ Model can be used to explain the concept of discontinuity of a function at some point.cis i i a a a Acrmiry 20 | Lagrange's Mean Value Theorem | Materials Plywood, wires, wooden bars. Preparation () Take two wooden bars of size 16 cm x20 cm to represent x- axis and y-axis. (i) Take a piece of wire of about 25 om length and bend it in the shape of a curve, (ii) Fix two wires of 10 cm and 13 em length at two different points of the curve parallel to y-axis, Join the two end points of the ordinate on the curve by another piece of wire. (iv) Fix a wire of about 16 cm length at a point of the curve to represent tangent to the curve (¥) Fix the model or a plywood base. Fig. 4.3.20Demonstration ( MN represents a chord joining end points of the ordinates. (ti) PQ represents the tangent to the curve at the point (c, ld). corresponding to the interval (a, 5). (ii ,f(0) represents the siope of the tangent PQ. (a) represents the slope of the chord MN, (v) MN is parallel to PQ so that OO) fo’ Use * Model can be used to explain the Lagrange’s Mean Value ‘Theorem,Actmiry 21 [Maxima and Minima_| Materials Plywood, wires Preparation ( Take two pieces of wires each of 40 cm length to make zaxis and y-axis. (ti) Take another wire of about 75 cm long and bend it in the shape of a curve to show maximum, minimum points and the point of inflection. (iu) Take five wires of 2 cm length and fix them at the points of top and bottom bending position of the wire. (tv) Fix the mode! on a plywood base. y B Fig. 43.21 Demonstration (9 The wires representing tangents at the points A, B, C and D to the curve are parallel to x-axis which means that the first, derivative of the function representing the curve is zero at these points.(Cammmmmmnnnionaiis ice Soca (i) At the points A and B, sign of the first derivative changes from -ve to +ve, so these are the points of local minima. (ii At the points C and D, sign of the first derivative changes from +ve to -ve, so these are the points of local maxima. (iv) At the point P, shape of the curve changes but sign of the derivative does not change, so P is a point of inflection, Use ™ Model can be used to explain the concepts of points of local maxima, local minima and inflection,cw i is ee Acriviry 22 [Probabitity_| Material Cardboard, chart paper, metal dises, marker, adhesive. Preparation ( Take a piece of cardboard and cover it with the chart paper. (i) Fix metal dises on the chart paper, for showing different sample spaces and events. (ii) Take a marker and write ‘H’ and ‘T’ on the discs, where H stands for ‘head’ and T stands for ‘Tail’ on the metal dises. Fig. 4.3.22(2 amma isin ns ‘Demonstration Let S denote the sample space. Then S can be demonstrated in the following manners, (@ Ifa disc is thrown once, the sample space S = {H, T) ty) Ifa discis thrown twice, the sample space S = (HT, TH, HH, TT) ii) Ifa dise 1s thrown thrice, the sample space S = (HHH, HTT, ‘THT, TTH, HHP, HTH, THH, TTT) iv) Take A as a subset of S such that it has at least one head, then A= (HTT, THT, TTH, HHT, HTH, THH, HHH) a If A denotes an event, then P (A) Use (@ Model can be used to demonstrate about the possible outcomes when a metal dise is thrown once, twice and thrice. (i) Model gives exact idea of the sample space, events and their probabilities. (i) Model can be used to demonstrate the formula ~ “If we perform an experiment and the number of outcomes is x and if the same experiment is performed n times, the number of all the outcomes will be *x"*. For example, if a coin is thrown once, the number of outcomes will be 2, But if it is thrown thrice, the number of outcomes will be 2°. (iv) Model can be used to calculate the probability of an event.er i i a Activiry 23 [Geometrical interpretation of Scalar Triple Product [e. @ Bx d) =i Materials ‘Wires, soldering wire, wire cutter. Preparation () Cut four wires of about 20 cm length to show length of @ 9 Cut four wires of about 25 cm length to show length of B? (ii) Cut four wires of about 15 cm length to show length of @ (ix) Construct a parallelopiped with the help of a Band@ (6) Fix a wire perpendicular to the base parallelogram to show length of Bx As ee Lane Yo Ve Fig. 4.5.23 Demonstration @ Band @represent adjacent sides of the base parallelogram. (i) The Line perpendicular to the base parallelogram is along Bre il) Projection of @ along B x ¢ corresponds to the height of the prallelopiped. (wv) @(Bx d represents volume of the parallelopiped. Use * Model can be used to interpret scalar triple product of vectors geometrically.(ammenities icinie voce Activity 24 {rrquation: of a Straight Line in Space passing through a Fixed Point and Parallel to a given Vector m. ad Material ‘Wooden plank, wires. Preparation (9 Take a wooden base of 7em x 6 em. (ii) Take two wires C, and C, to represent arbitrary vector Pand vector @’through the origin in the space. (ii) Fix a wire C, as shown in the figure to represent the given line. (iv) Fix a wire C, to represent the direction of the vector m. By i) C, and ©, wires represent vectors and @ (i) C, wire represents the straight line parallel to the given vector im ’‘cn i i i ama (ii) C, wire represents the given direction of the vector . (iv) C, represents the vector P- @’parallel to vector m’so that Pdamie t= dein Use * Model can be used to explain for a line in space passing through two fixed points with position vectors @and Band parallel to a given vector iit6 srsernmmnnarmicnsce ser sa Activity 25 [quation to the Plane Passing Through a Fixed Point and Perpendicular to the Normal. ie.,(F—a).#=0 | Material Wooden plank of size of about 8cm x10cm, transparent sheet, wires, soldering material. Preparation (0 Take a piece of wood of size Bem x10cm. (i) Take a piece of thin wooden red and fix it in the wooden plank to represent the normal fi, (ii) Take three pieces of wires to represent vectors 7, @ and ee (iv) Jotn three wires in the shape of a triangle. (6) Join the triangle with transparent sheet in such a way that one side touches the sheet and the other two sides of the triangle are in space and vertex at the bottom of wooden plank es shown in the figure 4.3.25, Fig. 4.3.25 Demonstration (i) O represents the origin on the base (a) Prepresents position vector of A with reference to the origin.ci ei oma (ii) @ represents position vector of point P with reference to the origin. liv) PA represents vector r™ a” (v) Vertical wooden rod represents normal to the plane. (vo (P- 2)2? = 0 represents vector equation of plane as the two vectors Pd and 7 are perpendicular and thetr dot product is zero, Use Model can be used to demonstrate * The position vectors of different points. * Vector. * Vector normal to the plane. ™ Equation of plane.7 amenities soos Acrivity 26 T shortest Distance between Two Unes | Materials ‘Wooden base, wooden blocks, wires, adhesive. Preparation (i) Take a wooden base of size 30 cm x 8 cm. (i) Take four wooden blocks of size 10cm x Gem x 3 em, 18cm x 8cmx 3cm, 8cmx8cemx3cmand 15¢emx8em x8.om. i) Fix two blocks of size 10 cm x 8 em x 3.cmand 10cm x 8 cm x8 em on one side of the base. (iv) Fix other two remaining blocks on the opposite side of the base. : () Join lower block in the left hand side to the upper block in the right hand side by a wire AB. (vi) Join upper block in the left hand side to the lower block in. the right hand side by a wire CD. sscw i i Se Demonstration ( AB and CD represent lines , and l, which are skew lines. (i) dis the shortest distance between the skew line |, and I, (it) dis the shortest distance between two lines {, and |, and is perpendicular to both {, and L, (v) If d= 0, the lines are intersecting. () Ift, and barcin the same plane, then they are either parallel or intersecting, Use " Model can be used to explain the concept of shortest distance between two lines in space.( Farmmmemmeneesisise isc 3 so Acriviry 27 P angie between T#0 Planes | Material Plywood pieces, wires, hinges, Preparation ; (i) Take two pieces of plywood of size Sem x Sem and join them with the help of hinges. ii) Fix two vertical wires on each plane to show normals to the planes, (ii) Cut slots in the two planes to fix a third plane. (v) Take the third plane and fix it in the slots of two planes as shown in the figure. P a q Fig. 4.3.27 Demonstration () P, represents the first plane, (u) P, represents the second plane, (iii) Two vertical wires |, and J, represent normals to the planes P,, Pa, respectively. {iv) l, and U, are the lines of intersections of the plane P, with P, and P,, respectively. (¥) Angle between lines f, and {, is the angle between the planes. It is same as the angle between their normals as shown in the figure. Use * Model can be used to explain that the angle between two planes is the same as the angle between their normals.cos wi i a Activity 28 P distance of a Point form a Plane | Materials. ‘Wooden board, hinges, iron rod. Preparation () Take a wooden board of size 22.emx 18 em. ii) Take another piece of wooden board of size18 cm x 15m. (it) Connect the two boards by hinges. (is) Take a triangular lamina and fix it in the board in a groove. (0) Take a point on the wooden board and fix a vertical rod of height equal to the distance between two parallel planes. Fig. 4.3.28ee Demonstration ( P, represents the horizontal plane. (ii) P,represents the vertical plane. (it) P, represents triangular lamina parallel to the plane P. {Wv) Vertical rod OP represents normal to the plane P, with tip Pof the rod as a point. (v) To show the distance of point P from plane P,, the triangular lamina P, is brought in such a way that it passes through the tip P. The length of the rod from O to P represents the distance between a point from a plane, Use * Model can be used to explain the concept of distance of a point froma plane.cw i A RR Activiry 29 [ appucation of the Lami’s Theorem m | Material Plywood, hinges, wire, wooden weight, thread, Preparation (i) Take a thin plywood pigce of size 1em x 1em for making the base of the model. {i1) Take a woaden plane in the shape of a right angled triangle. (itt) Make a stand for this plane by wooden support. (iv) Hang a wooden weight W on the plane with the help of thread. () Support the weight W by other force T represented by wire which is inclined at an angle § with the vertical line. (vi) Take wire through P making an angle a with the vertical line to show resultant R of W and T. R r w Fig. 4.3.29 Demonstration { Wis force represented by hanging wooden weight. (u) T represents support of W, inclined at an angle f} with the vertical.(7 iemmmmmemememiesconsaiais ion nee (ii) R is the resultant force inclined with the vertical line at the ‘same angle as the inclination of the plane with the horizontal line (tv) o¢ ts the Inclination of the plane with the horizontal line, Use = Model can be used to illustrate Lami’s Theorem.ser iii AN Acriviry 30 [Centre of Parallel Force: Material Thick wooden rod, two vertical and three horizonal wooden rods. wires, hinges, small wooden weights. Preparation () Take a wooden rod of size 1.5 mx 8 cm for the base of the model. (ii) Take two vertical wooden support of size lem x 2 cm. (ii) Take one horizontal wooden rod of size 1.5 em x 2 em to support the line of action of forces made by wire. {iv} Take two wooden rods of equal length and hang them at Gy and G, as shown in the figure 4.3.30. () Hang the wooden weights P,, P,, Py and P, at the hinges with the help of thread. Fig. 4.3.30 Demonstration ( P, is the force acting at A, (i P, is the force acting at A,. (u) P, + P, Is resultant of forces P, and P, acting at G,. liv) P+ P, + P, will be the resultant of forces at G, and A, and will be acting at G,.(acme usin soos () P| +P, +P, + P, will be resultant of forces at G, and A, and will be acting. at Gs. G, will be the centre of like parallel forces P,, P,, Paand Py. Use © Model can be used to explain that the centre of parallel forces is a certain unique point through which the resultant of a given system of parallel forces passes.ci i aaa a Acriviry 31 Prtoment of a Force about a Point | Material ‘Thin plywood pieces, hinges, wire. Preparation ( Take a thin plywood piece of size 8” x 8”, (ii) Take another plywood piece of size 8” x 3” (iti) Connect the plywood pieces by hinges. (iv) Take a point P on the bigger plywood piece. () Connect the point P to point O on the axis of rotation with the help of a wire to represent vector 7 (vi) Fix a wire through the polnt P which is not in the bigger plane to represent the force F. (vii) Fix another wire perpendicular to the plane to represent the moment of force as Px FE Fig. 4.3.31 (0 The vector OP from the point O to P represents the vector? (i) The vector PA from the point P to A represent the vector F° (it) The vector OB froin O to B represent the vector r Fwhich gives the moment of force F about point ©. ‘The nature of this moment of force will be to rotate the bigger plane about the axis, Use * Mode! can be used to explain moment ofa force about point.7 acumen tics a0 Acriviry 32 T Projectite Motion | Materials Wooden frame, wire, hinges. Preparation ( Take two perpendicular intersecting wires to represent x- axis and y-axis. (W) Make a trajectory with the help of wire. (iii) Fixa wire at initial point of the trajectory to show the tangent. (v) Fix another tangential wire at any point of the trajectory to show direction of velocity. x N Fig. 4.3.32 Demonstration (i) OX and OY are coordinate axes. lui) The tangent ON represents the direction of initial velocity. (iil The tangent PQ represents the direction of velocity of the particle after time t at the position P(x, y). (wv) Path OM represents the path of the projectile. (vi ais the angle of projection. Use * Model can be used to visualize a projectile motion.i i i a ai Activity 33. Formal Probability Curve and Are: under the Normal Probability Curve _| Material Wires, plywood, adhesive Preparation ( Take two pieces of wires of length 30 cm to make x-axis and yraals. (i Take a piece of wire of length 50 em and bend it in the shape of a curve to show normal probability curve, (ii) Take two pieces of wires of same size and fix them with the normal probability curve. (iv) Fix the model on the plywood base, Demonstration ()c represents normal probability curve (ii) The region A, and A, represent area of the region between x, and x= =x). (it) The area of the region between x = ~x, and x= 0 is equal to the area of the region between x = 0 and x= x). (v) The height of the curve decreases as we proceed to either direction from the mean.(7 Bomemmmmsmnmessecou ws ons Use Model can be used to demonstrate: = the normal probability curve * the area under normal probability curve. * that the range of the normal probability curve is unlimited in either direction; but it never touches x-axis, * that area under the normal probability curve can be found out by using normal distribution table.Be a Bae work in mathematics may be performed individually by a student or collectively by a group of students. These Projects may be in the form of construction such as curve sketching or drawing of graphs, ete. It may offer a discussion of a topic from history of mathematics involving the historical development of the topics or concepts. Students may be allowed to select the topics of their own choice for mathematics projects. The teacher may act as a facilitator by creating interest in various topics. Once the topic has been selected, the student should read as much about the topic as is available and finally prepare the project. Some suggested projects are given below: 5.1 Provecrs on History or ‘Maraemaricians It may include history of Indian mathematicians such as Aryabhata, Brahmagupta, Varahmfhir, Sridhara, Bhaskaracharya, Ramanujan etc., and history of foreign mathematicians such as Cantor, Pythagoras, Thales, Euclid, Appollonius, Descartes, Fermat, Leibnitz, Alkhawarizmi, Euler, Fibonacci, Gauss, Newton, etc.remammmrermnnisnsicnnssnsrsasiain os 5.2 Marsemanics Prosects on Some More Torics 5.2.1 Ancient number systems and algorithms. 5.2.2 Finding the number names and numeral of numbers, say 1 to 20 in any five or more different languages. 5.2.3 Collecting objects of congruent shapes from the environment. 5.2.4 Number game by considering different questions for different numbers. 5.2.5 Geometric Euclid constructions. 5.2.6 Pythagorean triplets. 5.2.7 On lincar programming problem related to day-to-day life, like collecting data trom families of thetr expenditures and requirements from the factories to maximum output. 5.2.8 Collect data from dieticians, transporters, agents and formulate linear programming problem. 5.2.9 Collection of data from a firm about the number of partners, the ratio of their invested capitals and shared, profit. 5.2.10 Chart showing different formulae of annuity. 5.2.11 Make a chart of the formulae of applications of calculus sn commerce. 5.2.12 Probability distribution of number of heads in four/five throws of a coin. 5.2.13 Collect data of rates of five years of different day-to-day commodities and calculate the price index. 5.2.14 Mathematics and physics: application of conte seetions, vectors three dimensional geometry, calculus ete, 5.2.15 Mathematics and chemistry: study structure of organic compounds. 5.2.16 Mathematies and Biology: study of science of heredity ete. 5.2.17 Mathematics and Music 5.2.18 Mathematics and Environment 5.2.19 Mathematics and Arts: construction of shapes using curve 5.2.20 Mathematics and Information and communication technology: writing of mathematical programmes, flow charts, algorithm, circuit diagrams ete.9) a 5.2.21 Collection of statistical data and analysing tt for standard deviation and mean deviation. 5.3 Prosmcre on Recrsariona Matuemarics: Students may prepare small project work on the following: 5.3.1 Forming 3 x3, 4% 4 magic squares with numbers from 1 to 9 and 1 to 16 respectively. 5.3.2 Aryabhata’s method of constructing a 3x3 magic square. 5.3.3. Aryabhata’s method of constructing a5 x 5 magic square, 5.3.4 Geometric dissections such as Tangrams, 5.3.5 Tesselations 5.3.6 Mathematical Embroidery {Fun with Lines) 5.3.7 Number PatternsBevan IE sist loan soon een in our teaching-learning process. Present day teaching is based only on chalk and talk method which 1s without any integration of activity/demonstration work. The greater the integration of activities, the better the outcomes of meaningful learning. Hence activity based teaching has to be so designed so that It can be used as a powerful means of influencing the quality of what teachers teach and what the students lear, This could be possible if some marks for practicals in mathematics are assigned. While emphasising the need of exploration of mathematical facts through experimentation, the National Curriculum Framework for School Education — 2000 states, In terms of scheme of evaluation of such mathematics Teaming, this has to be given weightage ‘equal to that in science. Therefore, in the opinion of the authors and other subject specialists, about 20% marks of the total marks should be kept for the practical work at Elementary and Secondary stages, and 30% marks at Higher Secondary Stage. These marks may be properly distributed towards projects, viva-voce and doing activity at different stages of school education.sabe : erefia fitter orqeiurs ofre after afteq NATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH AND TRAINING ISBN 81.7450-331-8