COMPUTER NETWORKS

-POOJA PATIL
 Computer Network
• The term Computer Network means collection
of autonomous computers interconnected by
single technology. Two computers are said to
be interconnected if they are able to exchange
information.
• The connection need not to be via copper
wire; It can be by the use of fiber optics,
microwaves, infrared and communication
satellites.
 Data Communication (DC)
• The term telecommunication means
communication at a distance. The word data refers
to information presented in whatever form is
agreed upon by the parties creating and using the
data. Data communications are the exchange of
data between two devices via some form of
transmission medium such as a wire cable.
• Characteristics of data communication:
1. Correct Delivery
2. Accurate Delivery
3. Timely Delivery
 Components in DC

• Transmitter ( Sender, source)

• Receiver (Destination)
• Message to be communicated
• Medium ( how message is carried)
 Protocols
• Protocol is a set of rules that govern all aspect of
data communication between computers on a
network.
• These rules include guidelines that regulates the
following characteristics of network: access
method, allowed physical topologies, types of
cabling and speed of data transfer.
• A protocol defines what, how and when to
communicate.
• The key element of protocol are syntax,
semantics and timing.
 Protocols
• Defines the following:
1. Syntax (what is to be communicated)
2. Semantics (how it is to be communicated)
3. Timing (When it should be communicated)
 Elements of Protocols
1.Syntax
• Structure of format of data

2.Semantics
• Meaning of each section bits

3.Timing
• When to send and how fast..
 Standards
• Data Communication standards can be classified into
two categories:
1. Defacto (which means by convention)
a. Proprietary (closed): Invented and own by an
organization who first uses them. Close because they
close for communication with other device system of
other vendors.
b. Non-proprietary (open): They are developed by an
organization/ committee and group, which become
popular and vendors start supporting them. Open
because anybody adhering to those automatically gain
access to others following those standards.
 Standards
2. Dejure ( which means by law or regulations)
They are generally supported by government/
government appointed Agencies.
 Standard Creation Committees
• There are number of SCC but few main names
are:
1. International Standard Organization (ISO)
2. International Telecommunication Union-
Telecommunication Standard Sector (ITU-T)
3. American National Standard Institute (ANSI)
4. Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
(IEEE)
5. Electronic Industries Association (EIA)
 Benefits of Computer Networks
• Sharing Information ( File sharing, email)
• Sharing resources (printers, application)
• Backing up data

Application of Computer Network

• Business application (online shopping)
• Home application (mail, chat)
 Types of Computer Network
• Local Area Network (LAN)
• Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
• Wide Area Network (WAN)
• Metropolitan Area Network - MAN
• Metropolitan Area Network - MAN
 LAN
• When the computers in a network are located
close together (usually less than 1 or 2kms)
the network is called as a LAN.
• LAN size is limited to few kilometers.
• LAN will use only one type of transmission
media.
• LANs have the data rate in the 4 to 16 Mbps
range. Today, however speeds are increasing
and can reach 100 Mbps.
 MAN
• A MAN is a network that interconnects users with
computer resources in a geographical area larger
than that covered by even a large LAN but smaller
than the area covered by a WAN.
• A MAN is designed to extended over a entire city.
It may be a single network such as cable
television network or it may be a means of
connecting a number of LANs into a larger
network so that resources may be shared LAN-to-
LAN as well as device-to-device.
• MAN may be owned and operated by a private
company or it may be a service provided by a
public company such as local telephone company.
 WAN
• When the computers in a network are separated
by a long distance( from a few kilometers to
global distances) the network is called as WAN.
• WAN is telecommunication network which covers
a large geographical area and uses
communication circuits to connect the
intermediate nodes.
• The transmission rate are typically 2Mbps, 34
Mbps, 45 Mbps, 155 Mbps, 625 Mbps or
sometimes even more.
 Network Topology
• A Topology is a schematic description of the
arrangement of a network including its nodes
and connecting lines. The physical topology of
a network is the actual geometric layout of
workstations. There are several common
physical topologies.
 BUS
• A linear bus topology consist of a main run of
cable with a terminator at each end. All
nodes( file server, workstations and
peripherals) are connected to the linear cable
called as Bus.
 STAR
• In the star network topology, there is a central
computer or server to which all the workstations
are directly connected. Every workstations is
indirectly connects to every other through the
central computer.
 RING
• In a ring topology the workstations are
connected in a closed loop. Adjacent pairs of
workstations are directly connected. Other
pairs of workstations are indirectly connected,
the data passing through one or more
intermediate nodes.
 TREE
• The tree network topology uses two or more star
networks connected together.
• A tree topology combines characteristics of linear
bus and star topologies.
• It consists of groups of star-configured workstations
connected to a linear bus backbone cable.
• Tree topologies allow for the expansion of an
existing network.
 MESH
• In a mesh topology, each of the network node,
computer and other devices, are interconnected
with one another. Every node not only sends its
own signals but also relays data from other nodes
that is it must collaborate to propagate the data in a
network.
• It is commonly used in wireless networks.
HYBRIDE
 Networking and Internetworking
Devices
• Network devices are components used to
connect computers to other electronic devices
together so that they can share files or
resources like printers or fax machines.
Devices used to setup a Local Area Network
(LAN) are the moat common types of network
devices used by the public.
• An internetwork is a collection of individual
network connected by intermediate
networking devices that function as a single
large network.
 Connecting Devices

Internetworking
Networking Devices
Devices

Repeaters Bridges Routers Gateways

 Devices
1. Hub, a distributor that has a lot of ports which
connected to computers.
2. Switches, like a hub but it transmit packets to its
destination.
3. Bridge, it is used to connect two similar LANs
4. Routers, choose the best path to transmit the
packet.
5. Gateway, it is use to connect two different LANs
and connect different application protocols.
6. Repeaters, repeats signals that travels via long
distance.
 Transmission Mode
• The direction of signal flow between two linked devices is called transmission
modes. There are three types of transmission mode.

• 1. Simplex: In this type of transmission mode, data can be sent only in one
direction i.e. communication is unidirectional. We cannot send a message back to
the sender. Examples of simplex Mode are loudspeakers, television broadcasting,
television and remote, keyboard and monitor etc.

• 2. Half-duplex data transmission means that data can be transmitted in both

directions on a signal carrier, but not at the same time. Example of half duplex is a
walkie- talkie in which message is sent one at a time but messages are sent in both
the directions.

• 3. Full duplex system we can send data in both the directions as it is bidirectional at
the same time in other words, data can be sent in both directions simultaneously.
Example of Full Duplex is a Telephone Network in which there is communication
between two persons by a telephone line, using which both can talk and listen at
the same time.
 Digital Data Transmission
• The transmission of binary data across a link can be
accomplished either in parallel mode or serial mode.
• In parallel mode, multiple bits are sent with each
clock pulse.
• In serial mode, one bit is send with each clock pulse.
 Parallel Transmission
• When data is sent using parallel data transmission, multiple
data bits are transmitted over multiple channels at the
same time. This means that data can be sent much faster
than using serial transmission methods.
• The advantage of parallel transmission is speed but its
disadvantage is cost.
 Serial Transmission
• When data is sent or received
using serial data transmission, the data bits are
organized in a specific order, since they can only be sent
one after another.
• It is a reliable data transmission method because a data
bit is only sent if the previous data bit has already been
received.
 Asynchronous Transmission
• In asynchronous Transmission, the timing of a
signal is not important.
• Information is received and transmitted by
agreed-upon patterns.
• patterns are based upon grouping the bit
stream into bytes.
• The sending system handles each group
independently, relaying to the link whenever
ready, without regard to a timer.
 Asynchronous Transmission
• To alert the receiver to the arrival of new group,
an extra bit called start bit is added to the
beginning of each byte.
• To let the receiver know that the byte is finished,
one or more additional bits called stop bits are
appended to the end of the byte.
• This mechanism is called asynchronous because
at the byte level, sender and receiver do not have
to be synchronized.
• But within each byte, the receiver must still be
synchronized with the incoming bit stream.
 Asynchronous Transmission
• When the receiver detects a start bit, it sets a
timer and begins counting bits as they come
in.
• After n bits, the receiver looks for a stop bit
and after the stop bit is detected , it ignores
any received pulses until the new start bit.
 Synchronous Transmission
• In synchronous transmission the bit stream is
combined into longer frames which may
contains multiple bytes.
• Each byte is introduced onto the transmission
link without a gap between it and the next
one.
• It is a responsibility of the receiver to
reconstruct the information.
 Synchronous Transmission
• Without gaps and start/stop bits, timing
becomes very important therefore the
accuracy of the received information is
completely dependent on the ability of the
receiver to keep an accurate cont of the bits as
they come in
 Interfacing
• Data processing devices ( or data terminal
equipment, DTE) do not (usually) include data
transmission facilities.
• Need an interface called data circuit
terminating equipment (DCE). E.g modem, NIC
• DCE transmit bits on medium.
• DCE communicates data and control into with
DTE.
 DTE
• Includes any unit that functions as a source or
a destination for binary data
• At the physical layer, it can be
– A terminal
– A computer
– A printer
– A fax machine, etc.
• DTEs do not communicate with other DTE
directly
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 DCE
• Includes any functional units that transmits or
receives analog/digital signal through a
network
• At the physical layer, ex. Modems
• Sending and receiving DCEs must use the
modulating method (e.g. FSK)

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 DTE-DCE Interface

• DTE : Data Terminal Equipment

• DCE : Data Circuit-terminating Equipment

network

DTE DCE DCE DTE

41
 DTE-DCE Interface
• Sending End
• The DTE
– generates the data and passes them to a DCE
• The DCE
– converts the signal to a format appropriate to a
transmission medium
– Sends it onto the network
• Receiving End
– This process is reversed

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 DTE-DCE Interface Standards

DTE-DCE standards try to define the mechanical,

electrical, and functional characteristics of the
connection between the DTE and the DCE

network

DTE DCE DCE DTE

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 Modulation
• Μodification of a carrier wave’s fundamental characteristics in
order to encode information
– Carrier wave: Basic sound wave transmitted through the circuit
(provides a base which we can deviate)
• Βasic ways to modulate a carrier wave:
– Amplitude Modulation (AM)
• Also known as Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)
– Frequency Modulation (FM)
• Also known as Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)
– Phase Modulation (PM)
• Also known as Phase Shift Keying (PSK)

Copyright 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Inc 3 - 44

 Amplitude Modulation (AM)
• Changing the height of the wave to encode data

• One bit is encoded for

each carrier wave
change
– A high amplitude
means a bit value
of 1
– Low amplitude
means a bit value
of 0

• More susceptible noise than the other modulation methods

Copyright 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Inc 3 - 45

 Frequency Modulation (FM)
• Changing the frequency of carrier wave to encode data
• One bit is encoded for each carrier wave change
– Changing carrier
wave to a higher
frequency
encodes a bit
value of 1
– No change in
carrier wave
frequency means
a bit value of 0

Copyright 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Inc 3 - 46

 Phase Modulation (PM)
• Changing the phase of the carrier wave to encode data
• One bit is encoded for each carrier wave change
– Changing
carrier wave’s
phase by 180o
corresponds to
a bit value of 1
– No change in
carrier wave’s
phase means
a bit value of 0

Copyright 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Inc 3 - 47