Chapter 6: Volcanoes and Other

Mountains
The Volcano Commandos

1,500 active volcanoes worldwide

− a third have records of previous eruptions

− 2 or 3 eruptions per decade are major disasters

− Volcanic mudflows from the eruption of Nevado del Ruiz volcano, Colombia killed
more than 23,000 people

VDAP scientists traveled to Congo to examine eruption of Nyiragongo volcano (2002)

− Lava flowed through the nearby city of Goma (450,000 residents)

− Fortunately, toxic volcanic gases trapped in Like Kivu were not released

Magma Viscosity

Escaping gases drive volcanic eruptions

How easily gases escape from magma is controlled by magma viscosity

− Magma – molten rock below the surface

− Lava – molten rock at the surface

Viscosity = resistance to flow

− Viscosity depends upon temperature and magma composition

− Magma composition varies with plate tectonic setting

− Viscosity = resistance to flow

− Viscosity of materials decreases with increasing temperature

− Viscosity varies with composition

Escaping volcanic gases drive eruptions

Gases are dissolved in magma

− Water vapor, carbon dioxide, sulfur dioxide

Pressure on magma decreases as magma rises toward surface

Gases are released as pressure decreases

− Carbonated drink analogy

− Viscosity depends upon magma composition (silica content)

Silica is combination of oxygen and silicon that combines with other elements (e.g., sodium,
potassium) to form minerals
 − Elements combine to form simple structures in minerals with less silica = low
viscosity

− Elements combine to form more complex structures in minerals with more

silica = high viscosity

− More viscosity = More violent eruptions

− Gases escape easily during mild eruptions with low viscosity magma, e.g., Hawaii

− Gases escape explosively from high viscosity magma, e.g., Alaska

−  Mild or violent eruption?

Most active volcanoes (top) found near convergent plate boundaries (bottom)

− Others associated with divergent boundaries (Iceland, East Africa) or form

above hot spots (Hawaii)

Magma Sources and Magma Composition

Different plate settings generate magma from melting different source rocks

1. Basaltic magma – partial melting parts of asthenosphere below oceanic ridge or hot
spots

− also at continental divergent boundary and hot spot

2. Rhyolitic magma - melting of parts of continental crust

3. Andesitic magma – partial melting of mantle rocks (with water) at subduction zone

Silica content is controlled by partial melting of rocks at magma source

Partial melting occurs when some minerals in a rock melt while others remain solid

− Minerals with lowest melting temperatures will melt first

− Silica-rich minerals have lowest melting temperatures

Partial melting generates a more silica-rich magma than the parent rock

• Cascade Mountains – volcanic arc in Pacific Northwest

− Major cities within 100 km of active volcanoes

− Mount St. Helens eruption of May 18, 1980

• Cascade Mountains

− Volcanoes formed above subduction zone where Juan de Fuca plate slides
beneath North America

− Mount St. Helens is most active volcano in conterminous US

Prior Activity
 • Early (March) unrest featured

− Minor eruptions

− Earthquakes

− Release of volcanic gases

• Followed by change in shape of cone (bulge on North flank)

• Increasing frequency of earthquakes

May 18 Eruption

• A moderate earthquake triggered a massive landslide (debris avalanche) on the north

side of the volcano

− Debris clogged streams

− Pressure released on near-surface magma

− Lateral blast produces an initial sideways eruption to North

− Later vertical eruption

Measuring the Eruption

• Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI) measures volume of erupted material

− 8 divisions on log scale (x10 increase between divisions)

Measuring the Eruption

• Mount St. Helens May 18 eruption had a VEI = 5

• Later eruptions were much smaller

• Eruption of VEI 5 or higher approximately every 22 years

− Loss of life from eruptions often associated with associated mudflows,

tsunami

• Eruption of Mount St. Helens reduced height of volcano by 400 meters

• Features near volcano were blown over or carried away by products of eruption

Airborne Eruption Products

• Rare lateral blasts can destroy objects up to 12 km away and knock down trees more
than 25 km distant

− Effect of lateral blast only seen on North flank of Mount St. Helens

• Tephra represents particles blasted into air by eruption

− Volcanic bombs and ash are found near and far from eruption source,
respectively

• Tephra represents particles blasted into air by eruption

 − Volcanic ash (particles of <2 mm diameter)

− Measurable ash deposits found hundreds of km from volcano

− Compare Mt. St. Helens ash fall to the Yellowstone super-eruption 640,000
years ago.

• Volcanic gases (water vapor, sulfur dioxide, carbon dioxide) may affect climate
patterns

− Sulfur dioxide may block insolation, temporarily (up to 1 year) reducing global
temperatures

− Widespread release of carbon dioxide and higher temperatures due to faster

rates of volcanic activity approximately 120-80 million years ago

• Low viscosity lava can flow up to 50 km from its source

− Lava transported to front of lava flows in long lava tubes

− Lava flows build up in a series of layers

• Low viscosity lava can flow up to 50 km from its source

− Lava transported to front of lava flows in long lava tubes

− Lava flows build up in a series of layers

• Higher viscosity lava remains within volcano crater

− Lava dome formed in crater of Mount St. Helens

• Pyroclastic flow – dense cloud formed from combination of tephra and volcanic gases

− Fast moving, up to 700 C

• Lahars – mudflows formed when volcanic debris mixes with streams or melting ice

− Often confined to stream channels

Three types of volcanoes

Shield, stratovolcanoes, cinder cone

Composed of different materials

Volcano type and eruption style varies with plate setting

Different sizes (note size of trees on volcano slopes)

Shield volcanoes (e.g., Hawaiian Islands)

Broad, gentle slopes

Built from many low viscosity lava flows (basalt)

Relatively mild eruptions associated with hot spots, divergent plate boundaries

Stratovolcanoes (e.g., Osorno, Chile)

Most common volcano type

Steeper slopes built from alternating layers of tephra and medium viscosity lava (andesite)

Form on plates overriding subduction zones at convergent plate boundaries

Cinder cone volcanoes

Smallest volcanoes, up to 400 meters elevation

Built from more viscous magma products (coarse tephra)

May form on slopes of shield or stratovolcanoes

Other Volcanic Landforms - Caldera

Giant crater formed from collapse of volcano into underlying magma chamber

e.g., Yellowstone, Wyoming

Other Volcanic Landforms – Lava Plateau

Hundreds of low viscosity lava flows stack up to on top of each other

Individual layers of basalt 10-20 meters thick

Plateau thousands of meters thick

Form from some of the largest volcanic eruptions

e.g., Columbia River plateau

Lava Plateau

Massive basalt eruptions formed lava plateaus and elevated atmospheric levels of carbon
dioxide 120-80 Myrs ago to produce global “hothouse” conditions

Geysers, Hot Springs, Fumeroles, Mud Volcanoes

Form when water circulates near magma chamber

− Geyser – water heated under pressure with volcanic gases

− Hot spring – heated groundwater rises to surface

− Mud volcano – chemical reactions convert rock to clay

− Fumerole – volcanic gases escape in absence of water

− Thickest crust found below mountains along convergent plate boundaries

− Higher, younger mountains along present convergent boundaries (e.g., Himalayas)

− Lower, older mountain belts represent ancient convergent boundaries (e.g.,

Appalachians)

− Reverse faults stack up and thicken the crust along convergent plate boundaries

− Additional thickening of crust where the northern margin of Indian continental

crust wedged below southern margin of Eurasia
Density = mass per unit volume

− Density of water = 1 g/cm3

− Density of pine wood = 0.5 g/cm3

− Wood floats because it is less dense than water

− Density of pine is half (50%) the density of water

− Half of the pine block lies below the water surface

− Density of oak is 80% density of water

− 80% of oak blocks lies below the surface

− Smaller blocks don’t float as high but don’t extend as far below surface

− Much of the difference in the size of the blocks is in the submerged “root”

− Density of continental crust is 80% density of mantle

− Thicker continental crust rises higher but also extends farther below the
surface

− Much of the difference in the thickness of the continental crust is in the crustal
“root”

− Similar to deeper foundation for taller buildings

− Elevation of mountains depends on

− Thickness of crust

− Density contrast with underlying mantle

− Isostasy – balance between topography of Earth’s surface and thickness and density
of underlying rocks

− Higher mountains with thicker or less dense rocks

− Changes in elevation depends on the relative density of crust and mantle

− Isostasy compensates for added material by building a bigger root or for lost material
by raising the pile

− For every 1,000 meters of rock eroded from mountains, isostasy results in just 200
meters decrease in elevation

− 800 meters of change accommodated by raising the crustal root

− Evenly distributed erosion causes uniform lowering of mountains

− Erosion concentrated in valleys, can cause peaks to become higher

• Mountains are long-lived features on Earth

− Still forming Himalayas began to form ~50 Myrs ago

 − Lower Appalachian Mountains formed ~300 Myrs ago

• Mountains are long-lived features on Earth

− Approximate erosion rates  0.1-0.2 mm/year

− Rate depends of rock types, climate, other factors

− 5-10 Myrs to erode 1 km of rock

− But isostasy will replace 80% of this erosion

− 200 meter change in elevation every 5-10 Myrs

− 25-50 Myrs to lower mountains by 1 km

• Mountains ranges will persist on the landscape for hundreds of millions of years

• Erosion of the Himalayan Mountains

− Warm, moist air from Indian Ocean rises over Himalayas to form monsoon
rains

− Rain feed rivers that erode mountains

− Sediment deposited in Bay of Bengal and Arabian Sea

• Mountains influence climate patterns

− Monsoon rains strip carbon dioxide from atmosphere

− Removal of CO2 has been going on for 20 Myrs

− Reduction of this greenhouse gas has lowered global temperatures by ~5 oC