The Good Earth

Introduction to Earth Science

Fourth Edition

Chapter 7
Rocks and
Minerals

© McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. Authorized only for instructor use in the classroom. No
reproduction or further distribution permitted without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
 Contents
1. Earth Scientists: Nature Detectives
2. Elements and Atoms: Basic Building Blocks
3. Minerals
4. Igneous Rocks
5. Sedimentary Rocks
6. Metamorphic Rocks
7. The Rock Cycle and Mineral Resources

© McGraw-Hill Education. 7-2

 Earth Scientists: Nature Detectives
(1 of 14)
Are the rocks on Mars the same as rocks on Earth?

NASA
© McGraw-Hill Education. 7-3
Earth Scientists: Nature Detectives
(2 of 14)
Understanding rocks enables scientists to
• Locate mineral resources (e.g., copper,
gypsum)
• Find fossil fuels (e.g., oil, gas, coal)
• Assess the risk from natural hazards such as
volcanic eruptions and tsunami
• Learn about Earth processes such as plate
tectonics
• Discover the history and origins of other
planets

© McGraw-Hill Education. 7-4

Earth Scientists: Nature Detectives
(3 of 14)
Original ideas about how rocks formed
Neptunism
• Rocks formed in a global ocean when material
sank to ocean floor or was precipitated from
chemical reactions
Plutonism
• Heat from Earth’s interior melted rocks or
caused them to fuse together

© McGraw-Hill Education. 7-5

 Earth Scientists: Nature Detectives
(4 of 14)
Examination of the production of bricks –
manufactured materials with some of the same
characteristics as rocks - can provide clues to
rock formation processes

© McGraw-Hill Education. 7-6

Earth Scientists: Nature Detectives
(5 of 14)
Bricks are made from raw materials such as shale
or fireclay found at Earth’s surface

a: © David McConnell
© McGraw-Hill Education. 7-7
 Earth Scientists: Nature Detectives
(6 of 14)
Variations in the composition of raw materials
produces different brick colors. Red bricks contain
more iron.

b: © David McConnell
© McGraw-Hill Education. 7-8
 Earth Scientists: Nature Detectives
(7 of 14)
Where do bricks come from?
Raw materials smashed into smaller pieces in
crusher.
Crushed materials ground to smaller size by
grinding wheel.
Resulting particles passed through a series of
screens to sort materials by size.
Sugar- and flour-sized particles mixed with water
and other ingredients.
Small particles mixed with water and other
ingredients.
© McGraw-Hill Education. 7-9
Earth Scientists: Nature Detectives
(8 of 14)
Wet mixture forced through brick-shaped form.
Wet “bar” cut into smaller brick-sized pieces.
Excess water removed by passing wet bricks
slowly through long dryers (200oC).
Final stage is “firing” of bricks in kiln at high
temperatures (1,100oC).

© McGraw-Hill Education. 7-10

Earth Scientists: Nature Detectives
(9 of 14)

a. Fist-sized rock fragments enter plant after crushing

© David McConnell

© McGraw-Hill Education. 7-11

Earth Scientists: Nature Detectives
(10 of 14)

b. Fine particles on conveyor after grinding

© David McConnell
© McGraw-Hill Education. 7-12
Earth Scientists: Nature Detectives
(11 of 14)

c. Long “chocolate bar” of wet clay mixture

© David McConnell
© McGraw-Hill Education. 7-13
Earth Scientists: Nature Detectives
(12 of 14)

d. Finished bricks exit kiln

© David McConnell
© McGraw-Hill Education. 7-14
 Earth Scientists: Nature Detectives
(13 of 14)
Brick making, like rock formation, involves:
• Physical disintegration of raw materials
• Chemical changes
• Thermal effects
And brick making is influenced by the composition
of the raw materials, just like the formation of
rocks

© McGraw-Hill Education. 7-15

 Earth Scientists: Nature Detectives
(14 of 14)
Rocks are made of minerals
• ~20 common minerals
• Example: The rock granite (below) is
composed of 4 key minerals - feldspar,
quartz, mica, amphibole - and minor
amounts of others.

© McGraw-Hill Education. 7-16

Elements and Atoms: Basic Building
Blocks (1 of 24)

© PhotoLink/Getty Images

© McGraw-Hill Education. 7-17

Elements and Atoms: Basic Building
Blocks (2 of 24)
Minerals are made of elements
8 common elements compose 98% of continental
crust rocks
Some minerals (e.g., quartz) are composed of just
two elements
Others (e.g., amphibole) are made up of several
elements
Some elements occur more frequently than others
The most common minerals in granite are quartz,
feldspar, mica, and amphibole.

© McGraw-Hill Education. 7-18

 Elements and Atoms: Basic Building
Blocks (3 of 24)
Table 7.1 Common Elements in Continental Crust

Element Ion Percent by Weight Also Found in

Oxygen O O2  46.6 Air
Silicon Si Si4  27.7 Window glass, computer chips
Aluminum Al Al3  8.1 Cans, aircraft
Iron Fe  Fe2  , Fe3  5.0 Meat, cornflakes, your car
Calcium Ca Ca2  3.6 Milk, cheese, cement, antacids
Sodium Na Na 2.8 Salt, bacon, cheese
Potassium K  K 2.6 Fish, fruit, nuts, fertilizer
Magnesium Mg Mg2  2.1 Bread, nuts, salt
Others NA 1.5 NA

© McGraw-Hill Education. 7-19

Elements and Atoms: Basic Building
Blocks (4 of 24)
Atom – smallest particle that retains the
characteristics of an element

© McGraw-Hill Education. 7-20

Elements and Atoms: Basic Building
Blocks (5 of 24)
Atoms are made up of protons, neutrons, and
electrons
Protons and neutrons in atomic nucleus
Electrons in surrounding “cloud”

© McGraw-Hill Education. 7-21

Elements and Atoms: Basic Building
Blocks (6 of 24)
Atom – smallest particle that retains the
characteristics of an element

(a-b): Adapted from Charles (Carlos) Plummer, Physical Geology 11e © 2007, reproduced
with permission of McGraw-Hill Education
© McGraw-Hill Education. 7-22
Elements and Atoms: Basic Building
Blocks (7 of 24)
Atomic number – the number of protons in the
nucleus
Each element has a different number of protons
in the atomic nucleus
Example: Neon has 10 protons, Helium has 2
protons

© McGraw-Hill Education. 7-23

 Elements and Atoms: Basic Building
Blocks (8 of 24)
Atoms may have negative or positive charge if
they gain or lose electrons
Ions – atoms with different numbers of protons
(positive) and electrons (negative)
• Oxygen can gain two electrons to fill vacant sites
• 8 protons, 10 electrons  -2 (negative charge, O2-)
• Silicon may lose 4 electrons  +4 (positive charge,
Si4+)

© McGraw-Hill Education. 7-24

Elements and Atoms: Basic Building
Blocks (9 of 24)

© McGraw-Hill Education. 7-25

Elements and Atoms: Basic Building
Blocks (10 of 24)
Elements bond together to form minerals
Ionic bonds – balance of negative and positive
charges of different ions (e.g., rock salt)
Covalent bonds – sharing of electrons between
elements (e.g., diamond) to achieve a stable
atomic structure

© McGraw-Hill Education. 7-26

Elements and Atoms: Basic Building
Blocks (11 of 24)
Ionic bonds – balance of negative and positive
charges
• Sodium atom loses extra electron to yield a
positive charge (Na+)
• Chlorine ion gains extra electron to produce a
negative charge (Cl-)
Sodium and chlorine bond together to form rock
salt (halite)
• Ionic bond – balance of positive sodium ions
with negative chlorine ions (NaCl)

© McGraw-Hill Education. 7-27

Elements and Atoms: Basic Building
Blocks (12 of 24)

a. Sodium (Na+)
a: Adapted from Charles (Carlos) Plummer, Physical Geology 11e © 2007, reproduced with
permission of McGraw-Hill Education
© McGraw-Hill Education. 7-28
Elements and Atoms: Basic Building
Blocks (13 of 24)

b. Chlorine (Cl-)
b: Adapted from Charles (Carlos) Plummer, Physical Geology 11e © 2007, reproduced with
permission of McGraw-Hill Education

© McGraw-Hill Education. 7-29

 Elements and Atoms: Basic Building
Blocks (14 of 24)

c. Adapted from Francis Carey, Organic Chemistry 5e © 2003, reproduced with permission of
McGraw-Hill Education
© McGraw-Hill Education. 7-30
 Elements and Atoms: Basic Building
Blocks (15 of 24)
Covalent bonds – sharing of electrons between
elements

Adapted from Francis Carey, Organic Chemistry 5e © 2003, reproduced with permission of
McGraw-Hill Education

© McGraw-Hill Education. 7-31

Elements and Atoms: Basic Building
Blocks (16 of 24)
Hydrogen and oxygen bond together to form water
(H2O)
• Covalent bond – sharing of electrons between
atoms ions

© McGraw-Hill Education. 7-32

Elements and Atoms: Basic Building
Blocks (17 of 24)

a. Arrangement of atoms in silica tetrahedron

a: Adapted from Charles (Carlos) Plummer, Physical Geology 11e © 2007, reproduced with
permission of McGraw-Hill Education

© McGraw-Hill Education. 7-33

Elements and Atoms: Basic Building
Blocks (18 of 24)

b. Diagrammatic representation of a silica tetrahedron

(a-b): Adapted from Charles (Carlos) Plummer, Physical Geology 11e © 2007, reproduced
with permission of McGraw-Hill Education
© McGraw-Hill Education. 7-34
Elements and Atoms: Basic Building
Blocks (19 of 24)
Multiple bonds – silicon and oxygen join
together by a combination of ionic and covalent
bonding
4 oxygen and one silicon atom combine by
covalent bonds to form a silica tetrahedron
(SiO4)
• Tetrahedron has a negative charge (4-) and forms
ionic bonds with atoms of other elements

© McGraw-Hill Education. 7-35

Elements and Atoms: Basic Building
Blocks (20 of 24)
Silicate minerals – contain both silicon and
oxygen
Silicon and oxygen are most common elements in
crust
Silicates are the most common mineral group
• Examples: quartz, feldspar, mica, amphibole

© McGraw-Hill Education. 7-36

 Elements and Atoms: Basic Building
Blocks (21 of 24)
Different types of bonds result in minerals of
different strengths
Type of bonds determine strength of minerals,
rocks
• Ionic bonds – Velcro analogy, weaker bonds
• Covalent bonds – Rope analogy, stronger
bonds
Minerals formed with covalent bonds are stronger
and more resistant to destructive forces at Earth’s
surface
• Silicates form more resistant rocks than most
other mineral groups
© McGraw-Hill Education. 7-37
Elements and Atoms: Basic Building
Blocks (22 of 24)

Adapted from Charles (Carlos) Plummer, Physical Geology 11e © 2007, reproduced with
permission of McGraw-Hill Education

© McGraw-Hill Education. 7-38

Elements and Atoms: Basic Building
Blocks (23 of 24)
Silica tetrahedra combine together in different
patterns in different silicate minerals
Minerals with low silica content have simple
structures
• Olivine, amphibole
Minerals with high silica content have more
complex structures
• Quartz, feldspar

© McGraw-Hill Education. 7-39

Elements and Atoms: Basic Building
Blocks (24 of 24)
Rocks and Minerals Conceptest
Which of the following mineral formulae
represents a silicate?

A. FeS2
B. KAlSi3O8
C. Fe2O3
D. CaSO4  2H2O

© McGraw-Hill Education. 7-40

 Minerals (1 of 13)

Minerals: Naturally occurring, inorganic solids of

one or more elements that have a definite
chemical composition with an orderly internal
arrangement of atoms

a: © David Steer

© McGraw-Hill Education. 7-41

 Minerals (2 of 13)

b: © David Steer

c: © McGraw-Hill Education/Doug Sherman, photographer

© McGraw-Hill Education. 7-42

 Minerals (3 of 13)

d: © McGraw-Hill Education/Doug Sherman, photographer

e: © McGraw-Hill Education/Doug Sherman, photographer

© McGraw-Hill Education. 7-43
 Minerals (4 of 13)

f: © McGraw-Hill Education/Bob Coyle, photographer

© McGraw-Hill Education. 7-44

 Minerals (5 of 13)
Diversity of minerals.
a. Quartz;
b. muscovite mica;
c. orthoclase feldspar;
d. galena;
e. pyrite;
f. halite. Galena, pyrite, and halite all exhibit a
cubic crystal form. Galena and pyrite have a
metallic luster.

© McGraw-Hill Education. 7-45

 Minerals (6 of 13)
Mineral Characteristics
Crystal form – the arrangement of the faces of
a crystal to form a particular shape
• Common shapes are
• Prisms
• Pyramids
• Needles
• Cubes
• Sheets

© McGraw-Hill Education. 7-46

Minerals (7 of 13)

a: © medaacek/iStock/Getty Images

© McGraw-Hill Education. 7-47

Minerals (8 of 13)

b: © RF Company/Alamy

© McGraw-Hill Education. 7-48

 Minerals (9 of 13)

Mineral Characteristics
Hardness – minerals ranked by their relative
hardness using Mohs Hardness Scale
• Harder minerals can scratch softer minerals
• Softer minerals more likely to break down at
Earth’s surface
• More resistant minerals more likely to be
preserved (e.g., quartz sand on beaches)

© McGraw-Hill Education. 7-49

 Minerals (10 of 13)
Table 7.3 Hardness Scales

Mohs Hardness Absolute Hardness

Mineral
Scale Scale
1 Talc 1
2 Gypsum 2
3 Calcite 9
4 Fluorite 21
5 Apatite 48
6 Feldspar 72
7 Quartz 100
8 Topaz 200
9 Corundum 400
10 Diamond 1,500

© McGraw-Hill Education. 7-50

 Minerals (11 of 13)
Mineral Characteristics
Color – minerals have characteristic colors
• Dark minerals (black, brown, dark green)
• Olivine, amphibole, pyroxene, biotite mica
• Light minerals (white, gray, pink)
• Quartz, feldspar, muscovite mica, calcite
• Careful, some minerals have many colors

© McGraw-Hill Education. 7-51

 Minerals (12 of 13)
Mineral Characteristics
Other – luster, streak, reaction to acid
• Streak – color of mark on unglazed porcelain
• Example: brown streak of hematite (iron
mineral)
• Luster: how light reflects from mineral
• Example: metallic luster of iron pyrite
• When weak hydrochloric acid is added to the
mineral calcite, a characteristic reaction
becomes visible.

© McGraw-Hill Education. 7-52

Minerals (13 of 13)

a: © David Steer

b: © David Steer
© McGraw-Hill Education. 7-53
 Types of cleavage (1 of 2)
Cleavage – minerals break along planes of
weakness defined by atomic structure
a. One direction
b. two directions that intersect at 90° angles
c. two directions that do not intersect at 90°
angles
d. three directions, intersecting at 90° angles
e. three directions, not intersecting at 90° angles
f. four directions (for example, diamond)
g. six directions. Some minerals have no
cleavage planes (for example, quartz), while
others may have several.
© McGraw-Hill Education. 7-54
 Types of cleavage (2 of 2)

(a-g): Adapted from Charles (Carlos) Plummer, Physical Geology 11e © 2007, reproduced
with permission of McGraw-Hill Education
© McGraw-Hill Education. 7-55
Atoms to rocks: How they fit together

© Charles C. Plummer; (inset): © Charles C. Plummer

© McGraw-Hill Education. 7-56
Origin of Rocks

© McGraw-Hill Education. 7-57

 Igneous Rocks (1 of 8)
Examine these objects
On the basis of observations only, how could you
classify these objects into different groups?

© David McConnell
© McGraw-Hill Education. 7-58
 Igneous Rocks (2 of 8)
Two types of igneous rocks are classified based
on texture and composition
The same magma can form both rock types
1. Volcanic rocks – form when magma rises to
Earth's surface
• Produces volcanoes, lava flows, tephra
• Molten rock cools rapidly

© McGraw-Hill Education. 7-59

 Igneous Rocks (3 of 8)

Adapted from James Zumberge, Laboratory Manual for Physical Geology 12e © 2005,
reproduced with permission of McGraw-Hill Education

Examples of Plutons
Batholith, stock, sill, dike, laccolith
© McGraw-Hill Education. 7-60
 Igneous Rocks (4 of 8)

2. Plutonic rocks – form when magma solidifies

below Earth's surface
• Produces plutons that remain hidden until
exposed by erosion
• Molten rock cools slowly
Texture
Size of crystals of minerals in igneous rocks
depends on rate of cooling of magma
• Rapid cooling produces microscopic crystals
• Slow cooling produces large, visible crystals
Crystal size interpreted to learn where rocks
formed
© McGraw-Hill Education. 7-61
 Igneous Rocks (5 of 8)

Adapted from James Zumberge, Laboratory Manual for Physical Geology 12e © 2005,
reproduced with permission of McGraw-Hill Education

© McGraw-Hill Education. 7-62

 Igneous Rocks (6 of 8)

(granite, diorite, rhyolite, basalt): © Charles C. Plummer; (gabbro): © Larry Davis;

(andesite): © David Steer.
© McGraw-Hill Education. 7-63
 Igneous Rocks (7 of 8)
Rock Types and Magma Types
Less viscous, low silica magma likely to reach
surface to form volcanic igneous rocks (e.g., basalt)

D. A. Swanson/USGS

Basalt lava, Hawaii

© McGraw-Hill Education. 7-64
 Igneous Rocks (8 of 8)
More viscous, high silica magma likely to cool below
surface to form plutonic igneous rocks (e.g.,
granite)

© McGraw-Hill Education/Doug Sherman, photographer

Granite batholiths, Sierra Nevada Mountains,

California
© McGraw-Hill Education. 7-65
Crystallization of silicate minerals from
magma

Adapted from Charles (Carlos) Plummer, Physical Geology 11e © 2007, reproduced with
permission of McGraw-Hill Education
© McGraw-Hill Education. 7-66
 Sedimentary Rocks (1 of 13)
Sedimentary rocks form as horizontal layers
(beds)
• identified based on composition, thickness
• oldest beds at bottom, youngest at top
Three types of sedimentary rocks
Clastic, Chemical, Biochemical
• Identified by materials that make up the rock
and/or the process by which they formed

© McGraw-Hill Education. 7-67

Sedimentary Rocks (2 of 13)

USGS

USGS
© McGraw-Hill Education. 7-68
Sedimentary Rocks (3 of 13)

USGS

USGS
© McGraw-Hill Education. 7-69
 Sedimentary Rocks (4 of 13)
Clastic Sedimentary Rocks
1. Generation
• Physical and chemical breakdown of any rock
at Earth’s surface (weathering) to form
sediment
2. Transportation
• Erosion  Sediment moved from place of
origin by streams, wind, glaciers

© McGraw-Hill Education. 7-70

 Sedimentary Rocks (5 of 13)

a: NASA

Sediment generated by weathering of Himalayas and

transported in rivers
© McGraw-Hill Education. 7-71
 Sedimentary Rocks (6 of 13)

b: NASA

Sediment (dust) transported by prevailing winds from

Africa toward the Atlantic Ocean
© McGraw-Hill Education. 7-72
 Sedimentary Rocks (7 of 13)
Clastic Sedimentary Rocks
3. Lithification
• Sediment deposited when velocity of transport
medium decreases
• Larger grain sizes deposited first, finest grains
remain in suspension and are deposited last
• Over time, sediment is slowly compacted and
grains are cemented together to form a new rock
(lithification)

© McGraw-Hill Education. 7-73

 Sedimentary Rocks (8 of 13)

U.S Park Service

Deposited sediment of contrasting grain sizes.

© McGraw-Hill Education. 7-74
 Sedimentary Rocks (9 of 13)
Clastic Sediment and Clastic Sedimentary Rocks
• Rock names reflect grain size
• Mudstone, Shale made of clay, silt-sized grains
• Sandstone composed of sand-sized particles
• Conglomerate made of gravel and larger
fragments

© McGraw-Hill Education. 7-75

Sedimentary Rocks (10 of 13)

(a-b): © David Steer

© McGraw-Hill Education. 7-76

 Sedimentary Rocks (11 of 13)
Clastic Sediment and Clastic Sedimentary Rocks
• Rock names reflect grain size (see Table 7.5)
• Transportation process sorts grains so deposits
may have characteristic grain size (e.g., sand
on a beach)

© McGraw-Hill Education. 7-77

 Sedimentary Rocks (12 of 13)

Table 7.5 Clastic Sediments and

sedimentary Rocks

Sediment Grain Size (diameter) Rock Grain Size Comparisons

Less than 0.0039 mm (less

Clay Shale, mudstone Smaller than granulated sugar
than 0.00015 in)

0.0039 to 0.0625 mm
Silt Siltstone Smaller than granulated sugar
(0.00015 to 0.0025 in)

0.0625 to 2 mm (0.0025 to
Sand Sandstone Ranges from sugar to coarse salt
0.079 in)

More than 2 mm (more than

Gravel Conglomerate Ranges from rice grains to oranges
0.079 in)

© McGraw-Hill Education. 7-78

 Sedimentary Rocks (13 of 13)
Clastic Sediment and Clastic Sedimentary Rocks
Transportation process sorts grains so deposits
may have characteristic grain size (e.g., sand on
a beach)
Sedimentary rocks hold clues to the environment
where they were formed:
• Example: river channels
• High velocity flow in floods - gravels (conglomerate)
• Moderate speed flow – sand (sandstone)
• Slow flow - muds (shale)

© McGraw-Hill Education. 7-79

 Rocks and Minerals Checkpoint
What observations can you make about the grain
size and arrangement of these clastic sediments
that would help determine their origin?

USGS
© McGraw-Hill Education. 7-80
 Sedimentary Rocks (1 of 10)
Chemical Sedimentary Rocks
Form when minerals precipitate (crystallize) from
a solution as a result of changing physical
conditions
• Solutions = fresh water in lakes, groundwater
or seawater
• Changing conditions commonly = increased
temperatures (evaporation)

© McGraw-Hill Education. 7-81

 Sedimentary Rocks (2 of 10)

© Dennis Flaherty/Science Source

Salt deposited on floor of ancient Lake Bonneville,

Utah
© McGraw-Hill Education. 7-82
 Sedimentary Rocks (3 of 10)
Can be readily dissolved in water and
transported to oceans
Rocks are typically indicative of shallow, coastal
marine conditions in geologic past
• Termed evaporites as most form by
precipitation due to evaporation

© McGraw-Hill Education. 7-83

 Sedimentary Rocks (4 of 10)
Biochemical Sedimentary Rocks
Link the biosphere and geosphere
Form due to actions of living organisms that cause
minerals to be extracted from solution
OR
From the remains of dead organisms

© McGraw-Hill Education. 7-84

Sedimentary Rocks (5 of 10)

© Purestock/SuperStock

© McGraw-Hill Education. 7-85

 Sedimentary Rocks (6 of 10)
Biochemical Sedimentary Rocks
May form from the remains of dead organisms
• Coquina  limestone formed from broken shell
fragments
• Coal  carbon-rich rock formed from
compacted plant remains

© McGraw-Hill Education. 7-86

Sedimentary Rocks (7 of 10)

a: © David Steer

b: © AdShooter/iStock/Getty Images
© McGraw-Hill Education. 7-87
 Sedimentary Rocks (8 of 10)
Biochemical Sedimentary Rocks
May form from the remains of dead organisms
• Chalk formed from billions of coccoliths, round
plates of calcite from microscopic (clay-sized)
coccolithophore organisms
• Chalk is a type of limestone

a: NASA
© McGraw-Hill Education. 7-88
Sedimentary Rocks (9 of 10)

b: © Bob Krist/Corbis

© McGraw-Hill Education. 7-89

Sedimentary Rocks (10 of 10)

c: NASA
© McGraw-Hill Education. 7-90
Sedimentary Rocks and Fossil Fuels
(1 of 4)
The world is heavily dependent on oil and natural
gas
• Form from buried organic-rich sediments.
• Chemical reactions convert organics with
increased pressures and temperatures of 50-
100 ºC.
• Over time (Myrs), oil and gas can form.
• Oil and gas may be trapped to form
hydrocarbon reservoirs.

© McGraw-Hill Education. 7-91

Sedimentary Rocks and Fossil Fuels
(2 of 4)

© McGraw-Hill Education. 7-92

Sedimentary Rocks and Fossil Fuels
(3 of 4)
US has some of the largest coal reserves in the
world.
• Form from buried plants.
• Over time (Myrs), coal can form.
• Coal type (rank) depends on organic content of
parent material, burial depth and heat.
• Lignite (low grade); bituminous (medium);
anthracite (high).

© McGraw-Hill Education. 7-93

Sedimentary Rocks and Fossil Fuels
(4 of 4)

© McGraw-Hill Education. 7-94

 Metamorphic Rocks (1 of 9)
Metamorphism
Changes in mineral composition and texture that
can occur in any solid rock
Changes due to increasing temperature and/or
pressure and/or the presence of fluids.
• Temperatures high enough to promote chemical
reactions but not high enough to cause melting
• Approximately 200oC 1100oC, depending on rock
type and conditions
• Similar temperatures found deep in crust or near
magma chambers

© McGraw-Hill Education. 7-95

 Metamorphic Rocks (2 of 9)
Two types of metamorphism
1. Contact metamorphism
• Changes due to increases in temperature where
rocks come in contact with heat source (e.g.
magma chamber)
• Example: limestone around a magma chamber is
baked by heat to form marble

© McGraw-Hill Education. 7-96

 Metamorphic Rocks (3 of 9)

(all): © David Steer

Marble (above) and limestone have similar

composition but marble typically has a larger
grain size
© McGraw-Hill Education. 7-97
 Metamorphic Rocks (4 of 9)
2. Regional metamorphism
Increased heat and pressure associated with
plate tectonic processes that form mountains
• Increased pressures and temperatures cause
tabular minerals to take on a preferred
orientation, known as foliation, perpendicular
to direction of pressure

© McGraw-Hill Education. 7-98

 Metamorphic Rocks (5 of 9)

Foliation is produced when tabular minerals grow

perpendicular to the direction of pressure.
© McGraw-Hill Education. 7-99
 Metamorphic Rocks (6 of 9)
Unmetamorphosed, non-foliated original rock
(granite) with random distribution of minerals
Metamorphic rock (gneiss) with foliation illustrates
parallel alignment of minerals

© McGraw-Hill Education. 7-100

Metamorphic Rocks (7 of 9)

a: P.D Rowley, USGS Photo Library, Denver. CO

© McGraw-Hill Education. 7-101

Metamorphic Rocks (8 of 9)

b (top): © Joyce Photographics/Science Source

b (bottom): © David Steer

© McGraw-Hill Education. 7-102

Metamorphic Rocks (9 of 9)

c (top): © Joyce Photographics/Science Source

c (bottom): © Andrew J. Martinez/Science Source

© McGraw-Hill Education. 7-103

The Rock Cycle and Mineral Resources
Rock cycle links igneous, sedimentary, and
metamorphic rocks together.
• Any rock can become any other rock under the
appropriate conditions.

© McGraw-Hill Education. 7-104

 Mineral Resources (1 of 5)
Mineral resources result from specific geologic
processes associated with formation of rocks.
• Can result from chemical reactions driven by
changing temperatures and movement of
fluids through rocks.

© McGraw-Hill Education. 7-105

Mineral Resources (2 of 5)

b: USGS
© McGraw-Hill Education. 7-106
 Mineral Resources (3 of 5)
Mineral resources result from specific geologic
processes associated with formation of rocks.
• Can result when minerals crystallize at different
temperatures.
• Can result from concentration of various types of
rocks and minerals during erosion,
transportation and deposition

© McGraw-Hill Education. 7-107

Mineral Resources (4 of 5)

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Mineral Resources (5 of 5)

b: © Stephen Reynolds

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 Rocks and Minerals Concept Map
(1 of 2)
Complete the concept map to evaluate your
understanding of the interactions between the
earth system and rocks and minerals.
Label as many interactions as you can using
information from this chapter.

© McGraw-Hill Education. 7-110

Rocks and Minerals Concept Map
(2 of 2)

© McGraw-Hill Education. 7-111

 End of Presentation

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