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Lectures 1-2 Time-Domain Characterization of LTI Discrete-Time Systems
Lectures 1-2 Time-Domain Characterization of LTI Discrete-Time Systems
Lectures 1-2 Time-Domain Characterization of LTI Discrete-Time Systems
Time-Domain Representation
Tania Stathaki
811b
t.stathaki@imperial.ac.uk
What is a signal ?
• Biomedicine
EEG, ECG, MRI, X-Rays, Ultrasounds
• Seismology
tectonic plate movement, earthquake prediction
• Economics
stock market data
What is DSP?
Mathematical and algorithmic manipulation of discretized and
quantized or naturally digital signals in order to extract the most
relevant and pertinent information that is carried by the signal.
What is a signal?
What is a system?
What is processing?
Signals can be characterized in several ways
Continuous time signals vs. discrete time signals (x(t), x[n]).
Temperature in London / signal on a CD-ROM.
Continuous valued signals vs. discrete signals.
Amount of current drawn by a device / average scores of TOEFL in a school
over years.
–Continuous time and continuous valued : Analog signal.
–Continuous time and discrete valued: Quantized signal.
–Discrete time and continuous valued: Sampled signal.
–Discrete time and discrete values: Digital signal.
Real valued signals vs. complex valued signals.
Resident use electric power / industrial use reactive power.
Scalar signals vs. vector valued (multi-channel) signals.
Blood pressure signal / 128 channel EEG.
Deterministic vs. random signal:
Recorded audio / noise.
One-dimensional vs. two dimensional vs. multidimensional
signals.
Speech / still image / video.
Systems
• For our purposes, a DSP system is one that can mathematically
manipulate (e.g., change, record, transmit, transform) digital
signals.
• Furthermore, we are not interested in processing analog signals
either, even though most signals in nature are analog signals.
Various Types of Processing
Modulation and demodulation.
Signal security.
Encryption and decryption.
Multiplexing and de-multiplexing.
Data compression.
Signal de-noising.
Filtering for noise reduction.
Speaker/system identification.
Signal enhancement –equalization.
Audio processing.
Image processing –image de-noising, enhancement,
watermarking.
Reconstruction.
Data analysis and feature extraction.
Frequency/spectral analysis.
Filtering
• By far the most commonly used DSP operation
Filtering refers to deliberately changing the frequency content of the signal,
typically, by removing certain frequencies from the signals.
For de-noising applications, the (frequency) filter removes those frequencies
in the signal that correspond to noise.
In various applications, filtering is used to focus to that part of the spectrum
that is of interest, that is, the part that carries the information.
256x256 64x64
Discrete (Sampled) and Digital (Quantized) Image
Discrete (Sampled) and Digital (Quantized) Image
Discrete (Sampled) and Digital (Quantized) Image
n
N1
A right-sided sequence
N2
n
A left-sided sequence
• Multiplication operation
A
– Multiplier x[n] y[n] y[n] = A ⋅ x[n]
Basic Operations
• Time-shifting operation: y[n] = x[n − N ]
where N is an integer
• If N > 0, it is a delay operation
– Unit delay y[n] = x[n − 1]
x[n] z −1 y[n]
x[n]
Combinations of Basic
Operations
• Example -
x[n] L xu [n]
Sampling Rate Alteration
• An example of the up-sampling operation
Input Sequence Output sequence up-sampled by 3
1 1
0.5 0.5
Amplitude
Amplitude
0 0
-0.5 -0.5
-1 -1
0 10 20 30 40 50 0 10 20 30 40 50
Time index n Time index n
Sampling Rate Alteration
• In down-sampling by an integer factor
M > 1, every M-th samples of the input
sequence are kept and M − 1 in-between
samples are removed:
y[n] = x[nM ]
x[n] M y[n]
Sampling Rate Alteration
• An example of the down-sampling
operation
Input Sequence Output sequence down-sampled by 3
1 1
0.5 0.5
Amplitude
Amplitude
0 0
-0.5 -0.5
-1 -1
0 10 20 30 40 50 0 10 20 30 40 50
Time index n Time index n
Classification of Sequences
Based on Symmetry
• Conjugate-symmetric sequence:
x[n] = x * [− n]
If x[n] is real, then it is an even sequence
An even sequence
Classification of Sequences
Based on Symmetry
• Conjugate-antisymmetric sequence:
x[n] = − x * [− n]
If x[n] is real, then it is an odd sequence
An odd sequence
Classification of Sequences
Based on Symmetry
• It follows from the definition that for a
conjugate-symmetric sequence {x[n]}, x[0]
must be a real number
• Likewise, it follows from the definition that
for a conjugate anti-symmetric sequence
{y[n]}, y[0] must be an imaginary number
• From the above, it also follows that for an
odd sequence {w[n]}, w[0] = 0
Classification of Sequences
Based on Symmetry
• Any complex sequence can be expressed as a
sum of its conjugate-symmetric part and its
conjugate-antisymmetric part:
x[n] = xcs [n] + xca [n]
where
xcs [n] = 12 ( x[n] + x * [−n])
ε x,K
K
= ∑ x[n]
n=− K
2
Classification of Sequences:
Energy and Power Signals
n
–4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
n
–4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Basic Sequences
• Real sinusoidal sequence -
x[n] = A cos(ωo n + φ)
where A is the amplitude, ωo is the angular
frequency, and φ is the phase of x[n]
Example - ω = 0.1
o
2
1
Amplitude
-1
-2
0 10 20 30 40
Time index n
Basic Sequences
• Complex exponential sequence -
n
x[n] = A α , − ∞ < n < ∞
where A and α are real or complex numbers
( σo + jωo ) jφ
• If we write α = e , A = A e ,
then we can express
jφ ( σo + jωo ) n
x[n] = Ae e = xre [n] + j xim [n],
where
xre [n] = A eσon cos(ωo n + φ),
σo n
xim [ n] = A e sin(ωo n + φ)
Basic Sequences
• xre [n] and xim [n] of a complex exponential
sequence are real sinusoidal sequences with
constant (σo = 0 ), growing (σo > 0 ), and
decaying (σo < 0 ) amplitudes for n > 0
Real part Imaginary part
1 1
0.5 0.5
Amplitude
Amplitude
0 0
-0.5 -0.5
-1 -1
0 10 20 30 40 0 10 20 30 40
Time index n Time index n
π
x[n] = exp(− 12
1
+ j 6 )n
Basic Sequences
• Real exponential sequence -
x[n] = Aα n , − ∞ < n < ∞
where A and α are real or complex numbers
α = 1.2 α = 0.9
50 20
40
15
Amplitude
Amplitude
30
10
20
10 5
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time index n Time index n
Basic Sequences
• Sinusoidal sequence A cos(ωo n + φ) and
complex exponential sequence B exp( jωo n)
are periodic sequences of period N if ωo N = 2πr
where N and r are positive integers
• Smallest value of N satisfying ωo N = 2πr
is the fundamental period of the sequence
• To verify the above fact, consider
x1[n] = cos(ωo n + φ)
x2 [ n] = cos(ωo (n + N ) + φ)
Basic Sequences
• Now x2 [ n] = cos(ωo (n + N ) + φ)
= cos(ωo n + φ) cos ωo N − sin(ωo n + φ) sin ωo N
which will be equal to cos(ωo n + φ) = x1[n]
only if
sin ωo N = 0 and cos ωo N = 1
• These two conditions are met if and only if
ωo N = 2π r or 2 π N
ωo = r
Basic Sequences
1.5
Amplitude
1
0.5
0
0 10 20 30 40
Time index n
• Here ωo = 0
2π r
• Hence period N = = 1 for r = 0
0
Basic Sequences
ω = 0.1π
0
2
Amplitude
0
-1
-2
0 10 20 30 40
Time index n
• Here ωo = 0.1π
2π r
• Hence N = = 20 for r = 1
0.1π
Basic Sequences
• Property 1 - Consider x[n] = exp( jω1n) and
y[n] = exp( jω2 n) with 0 ≤ ω1 < π and
2πk ≤ ω2 < 2π(k + 1) where k is any positive
integer
• If ω2 = ω1 + 2πk , then x[n] = y[n]
0.5
Amplitude
-0.5
-1
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
time
Amplitude
4
-2
0 10 20 30 40 50
Time index n
7
s[n]
6 y[n]
5
Amplitude
0
0 10 20 30 40 50
Time index n
Discrete-Time Systems:Examples
• Linear interpolation - Employed to estimate
sample values between pairs of adjacent
sample values of a discrete-time sequence
• Factor-of-4 interpolation
y[n]
3 4
n
0 1 2 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Discrete-Time Systems:
Examples
• Factor-of-2 interpolator -
• Consider
2
y[n] = x [n] − x[n − 1]x[n + 1]
• Outputs y1[n] and y2 [n] for inputs x1[n]
and x2 [n] are given by
y1[n] = x12 [n] − x1[n − 1]x1[n + 1]
will be ∞
y[n] = ∑ x[ k ] h[n − k ]
k = −∞
which can be alternately written as
∞
y[n] = ∑ x[n − k ] h[k ]
k = −∞
Convolution Sum
• The summation
∞ ∞
y[n] = ∑ x[k ] h[n − k ] = ∑ x[n − k ] h[n]
k = −∞ k = −∞
is called the convolution sum of the
sequences x[n] and h[n] and represented
compactly as
y[n] = x[n] * h[n]
Convolution Sum
• Properties -
• Commutative property:
x[n] * h[n] = h[n] * x[n]
• Associative property :
(x[n] * h[n]) * y[n] = x[n] * (h[n] * y[n])
• Distributive property :
x[n] * (h[n] + y[n]) = x[n] * h[n] + x[n] * y[n]
Simple Interconnection
Schemes
• Two simple interconnection schemes are:
• Cascade Connection
• Parallel Connection
Cascade Connection
h1[n] h2[n] ≡ h2[n] h1[n]
h3[n] +
h4[n]
Simple Interconnection Schemes
h1[n] +
h2[n] h1[n] +
≡
h 3[ n ] + h 4[ n ] h 2[ n ] * ( h3[ n ]+ h 4[ n ])
Simple Interconnection Schemes
(
h2 [n] * h4 [n] = ( 1 δ[n] − 1 δ[ n − 1]) * − 2( 12 ) n µ[n]
2 4
)
= − ( 12 ) n µ[ n] + 12 ( 12 ) n −1µ[n − 1]
= − ( 12 ) n µ[n] + ( 12 ) n µ[ n − 1]
= − ( 12 ) n δ[n] = − δ[n]
• Therefore
h[n] = δ[n] + 12 δ[n − 1] + δ[n] − 12 δ[n − 1] − δ[n] = δ[n]
BIBO Stability Condition of an
LTI Discrete-Time System
• BIBO Stability Condition - A discrete-
time is BIBO stable if the output sequence
{y[n]} remains bounded for all bounded
input sequence {x[n]}
• An LTI discrete-time system is BIBO stable
if and only if its impulse response sequence
{h[n]} is absolutely summable, i.e.
∞
S= ∑ h[n] < ∞
n = −∞
BIBO Stability Condition of an
LTI Discrete-Time System
• Proof: Assume h[n] is a real sequence
• Since the input sequence x[n] is bounded we
have
x[n] ≤ Bx < ∞
• Therefore
∞ ∞
y[n] = ∑ h[k ]x[n − k ] ≤ ∑ h[k ] x[n − k ]
k = −∞ k = −∞
∞
≤ Bx ∑ h[k ] = Bx S
k = −∞
BIBO Stability Condition of an
LTI Discrete-Time System
• Thus, S < ∞ implies y[n] ≤ B y < ∞
indicating that y[n] is also bounded
• To prove the converse, assume y[n] is
bounded, i.e., y[n] ≤ B y
• Consider the input given by
sgn(h[− n]), if h[−n] ≠ 0
x[n] =
K, if h[−n] = 0
BIBO Stability Condition of an
LTI Discrete-Time System
where sgn(c) = +1 if c > 0 and sgn(c) = − 1
if c < 0 and K ≤ 1
• Note: Since x[n] ≤ 1, {x[n]} is obviously
bounded
• For this input, y[n] at n = 0 is
∞
y[0] = ∑ sgn(h[k ])h[k ] =S ≤ B y < ∞
k = −∞
• Therefore, y[n] ≤ B y implies S < ∞
Stability Condition of an LTI
Discrete-Time System
• Example - Consider a causal LTI discrete-time
system with an impulse response
n
h[n] = (α ) µ [n]
• For this system
∞ ∞ n 1 ,
S = ∑ α µ[ n] = ∑ α =
n
α <1
n = −∞ n =0 1− α
• Therefore S < ∞ if α < 1 for which the system is
BIBO stable
• If α = 1, the system is not BIBO stable
Causality Condition of an LTI
Discrete-Time System
• Let x1[n] and x2 [n] be two input sequences
with
x1[n] = x2 [n] for n ≤ no
• The corresponding output samples at n = no
of an LTI system with an impulse response
{h[n]} are then given by
Causality Condition of an LTI
Discrete-Time System
∞ ∞
y1[no ] = ∑ h[k ]x1[no − k ] = ∑ h[k ]x1[no − k ]
k = −∞ k =0
−1
+ ∑ h[k ]x1[no − k ]
k = −∞
∞ ∞
y2 [no ] = ∑ h[k ]x2 [no − k ] = ∑ h[k ]x2 [no − k ]
k = −∞ k =0
−1
+ ∑ h[k ]x2 [no − k ]
k = −∞
Causality Condition of an LTI
Discrete-Time System
• If the LTI system is also causal, then
y1[no ] = y2 [no ]
• As x1[n] = x2 [n] for n ≤ no
∞ ∞
∑ h[k ]x1[no − k ] = ∑ h[k ]x2 [no − k ]
k =0 k =0
• This implies
−1 −1
∑ h[k ]x1[no − k ] = ∑ h[k ]x2 [no − k ]
k = −∞ k = −∞
Causality Condition of an LTI
Discrete-Time System
• As x1[n] ≠ x2 [n] for n > no the only way
the condition
−1 −1
∑ h[k ]x1[no − k ] = ∑ h[k ]x2 [no − k ]
k = −∞ k = −∞
will hold if both sums are equal to zero,
which is satisfied if
h[k ] = 0 for k < 0
Causality Condition of an LTI
Discrete-Time System
• An LTI discrete-time system is causal
if and only if its impulse response {h[n]} is a
causal sequence
• Example - The discrete-time system defined
by
y[n] = α1x[n] + α 2 x[n − 1] + α3 x[ n − 2] + α 4 x[n − 3]
is a causal system as it has a causal impulse
response {h[n]} = {α1 α 2 α3 α 4}
↑
Causality Condition of an LTI
Discrete-Time System
• Example - The discrete-time accumulator
defined by
n
y[n] = ∑ δ[l] = µ[n]
l = −∞
is a causal system as it has a causal impulse
response given by
n
h[n] = ∑ δ[l] = µ[n]
l = −∞
Causality Condition of an LTI
Discrete-Time System
• Example - The factor-of-2 interpolator
defined by
y[n] = xu [n] + 1 ( xu [n − 1] + xu [n + 1])
2
is noncausal as it has a noncausal impulse
response given by
{h[n]} = {0.5 1 0.5}
↑
Causality Condition of an LTI
Discrete-Time System
• Note: A noncausal LTI discrete-time system
with a finite-length impulse response can
often be realized as a causal system by
inserting an appropriate amount of delay
• For example, a causal version of the factor-
of-2 interpolator is obtained by delaying the
input by one sample period:
y[n] = xu [n − 1] + 1 ( xu [n − 2] + xu [n])
2
Finite-Dimensional LTI
Discrete-Time Systems
• An important subclass of LTI discrete-time
systems is characterized by a linear constant
coefficient difference equation of the form
N M
∑ d k y[n − k ] = ∑ pk x[n − k ]
k =0 k =0
• x[n] and y[n] are, respectively, the input and
the output of the system
• {d k } and { pk } are constants characterizing
the system
Finite-Dimensional LTI
Discrete-Time Systems
• The order of the system is given by
max(N,M), which is the order of the difference
equation
• It is possible to implement an LTI system
characterized by a constant coefficient
difference equation as here the computation
involves two finite sums of products
Finite-Dimensional LTI
Discrete-Time Systems
• If we assume the system to be causal, then
the output y[n] can be recursively computed
using
N d M p
y[n] = − ∑ k y[n − k ] + ∑ k x[n − k ]
k =1d 0 k =1d 0
provided d0 ≠ 0
• y[n] can be computed for all n ≥ no ,
knowing x[n] and the initial conditions
y[no − 1], y[no − 2], ..., y[no − N ]
Classification of LTI Discrete-
Time Systems
Based on Impulse Response Length -
• If the impulse response h[n] is of finite
length, i.e.,
h[n] = 0 for n < N1 and n > N 2 , N1 < N 2
then it is known as a finite impulse
response (FIR) discrete-time system
• The convolution sum description here is
N2
y[n] = ∑ h[k ]x[n − k ]
k = N1
Classification of LTI Discrete-
Time Systems
• The output y[n] of an FIR LTI discrete-time
system can be computed directly from the
convolution sum as it is a finite sum of
products
• Examples of FIR LTI discrete-time systems
are the moving-average system and the
linear interpolators
Classification of LTI Discrete-
Time Systems
• If the impulse response is of infinite length,
then it is known as an infinite impulse
response (IIR) discrete-time system
• The class of IIR systems we are concerned
with in this course are characterized by
linear constant coefficient difference
equations
Classification of LTI Discrete-
Time Systems
• Example - The discrete-time accumulator
defined by
y[n] = y[ n − 1] + x[n]
is seen to be an IIR system
Classification of LTI Discrete-
Time Systems
• Example - The familiar numerical
integration formulas that are used to
numerically solve integrals of the form
t
y (t ) = ∫ x(τ)dτ
0
can be shown to be characterized by linear
constant coefficient difference equations,
and hence, are examples of IIR systems
Classification of LTI Discrete-
Time Systems
• If we divide the interval of integration into n
equal parts of length T, then the previous
integral can be rewritten as
nT
y (nT ) = y ((n − 1)T ) + ∫ x(τ)dτ
( n −1)T
where we have set t = nT and used the
notation nT
y (nT ) = ∫ x(τ)dτ
0
Classification of LTI Discrete-
Time Systems
• Using the trapezoidal method we can write
nT
∫ x ( τ) d τ = T {x ((n − 1)T ) + x ( nT )}
2
( n −1)T
• Hence, a numerical representation of the
definite integral is given by
= ∑∞
m = −∞ y[m + l]x[m] = rxy [−l]
• Thus, ryx [l] is obtained by time-reversing
rxy [l]
Correlation of Signals
• The autocorrelation sequence of x[n] is
given by
∞
rxx [l] = ∑n = −∞ x[n]x[n − l]
obtained by setting y[n] = x[n] in the
definition of the cross-correlation sequence
rxy [l]
∞
• Note: rxx [0] = ∑ 2
n = −∞ [n] = E x ,
x the energy
of the signal x[n]
Correlation of Signals
• From the relation ryx [l] = rxy [−l] it follows
that rxx [l] = rxx [−l] implying that rxx [l] is
an even function for real x[n]
• An examination of
∞
rxy [l] = ∑n = −∞ x[n] y[n − l]
reveals that the expression for the cross-
correlation looks quite similar to that of the
linear convolution
Correlation of Signals
• This similarity is much clearer if we rewrite
the expression for the cross-correlation as
∞
rxy [l] = ∑n = −∞ x[n] y[−(l − n)] = x[l] * y[−l]
• The cross-correlation of y[n] with the
reference signal x[n] can be computed by
processing x[n] with an LTI discrete-time
system of impulse response y[− n]
x[n ] y[ − n ] rxy [n ]
Correlation of Signals
• Likewise, the autocorrelation of x[n] can be
computed by processing x[n] with an LTI
discrete-time system of impulse response
x[−n]
x[n ] x[ − n ] rxx [n ]
Properties of Autocorrelation and
Cross-correlation Sequences
• Consider two finite-energy sequences x[n]
and y[n]
• The energy of the combined sequence
a x[n] + y[n − l] is also finite and
nonnegative, i.e.,
∞ 2 ∞
∑n=−∞ (a x[n] + y[n − l]) = a ∑n=−∞ x [n]
2 2
∞ ∞
+ 2a ∑ n = −∞ x[n] y[n − l] + ∑ 2
n = −∞ [n − l ] ≥ 0
y
Properties of Autocorrelation and
Cross-correlation Sequences
• Thus
2
a rxx [0] + 2a rxy [l] + ryy [0] ≥ 0
where rxx [0] = E x > 0 and ryy [0] = E y > 0
• We can rewrite the equation on the previous
slide as
rxx [0] rxy [l] a
[a 1] r [l] r [0] 1 ≥ 0
xy yy
for any finite value of a
Properties of Autocorrelation and
Cross-correlation Sequences
• Or, in other words, the matrix
rxx [0] rxy [l]
r [l] r [0]
xy yy
is positive semidefinite
2
• rxx [0 ]ryy [0 ] − rxy [l] ≥ 0
| rxy [l] | ≤ rxx [0]ryy [0] = E xE y
Properties of Autocorrelation and
Cross-correlation Sequences
• The last inequality on the previous slide
provides an upper bound for the cross-
correlation samples
• If we set y[n] = x[n], then the inequality
reduces to
|rxx [l]| ≤ rxx [0] = E x
Properties of Autocorrelation and
Cross-correlation Sequences
• Thus, at zero lag ( l = 0 ), the sample value
of the autocorrelation sequence has its
maximum value
• Now consider the case
y[n] = ±b x[n − N ]
where N is an integer and b > 0 is an
arbitrary number
2
• In this case E y = b E x
Properties of Autocorrelation and
Cross-correlation Sequences
• Therefore
2 2
E xE y = b Ex = bE x
• Using the above result in
| rxy [l] | ≤ rxx [0]ryy [0] = E xE y
we get
− b rxx [0] ≤ rxy [l] ≤ b rxx [0]
Correlation Computation
Using MATLAB
• The cross-correlation and autocorrelation
sequences can easily be computed using
MATLAB
• Example - Consider the two finite-length
sequences
x[n] = [1 3 − 2 1 2 − 1 4 4 2]
y[n] = [2 − 1 4 1 − 2 3]
Correlation Computation
Using MATLAB
• The cross-correlation sequence rxy [n]
computed using Program 2_7 of text is
plotted below
30
20
Amplitude
10
-10
-4 -2 0 2 4 6 8
Lag index
Correlation Computation
Using MATLAB
• The autocorrelation sequence rxx [l]
computed using Program 2_7 is shown below
• Note: At zero lag, rxx [0] is the maximum
60
40
Amplitude
20
-20
-5 0 5
Lag index
Correlation Computation
Using MATLAB
• The plot below shows the cross-correlation
of x[n] and y[n] = x[n − N ] for N = 4
• Note: The peak of the cross-correlation is
precisely the value of the delay N
60
40
Amplitude
20
-20
-10 -5 0 5
Lag index
Correlation Computation
Using MATLAB
• The plot below shows the autocorrelation of
x[n] corrupted with an additive random
noise generated using the function randn
• Note: The autocorrelation still exhibits a
peak at zero lag
80
60
Amplitude
40
20
0
-5 0 5
Lag index
Correlation Computation
Using MATLAB
• The autocorrelation and the cross-
correlation can also be computed using the
function xcorr
• However, the correlation sequences
generated using this function are the time-
reversed version of those generated using
Programs 2_7 and 2_8
Normalized Forms of
Correlation
• Normalized forms of autocorrelation and
cross-correlation are given by
rxx [l] rxy [l]
ρ xx [l] = , ρ xy [l] =
rxx [0] rxx [0]ryy [0]
• They are often used for convenience in
comparing and displaying
• Note: | ρ xx [l]| ≤ 1 and | ρ xy [l]| ≤ 1
independent of the range of values of x[n]
and y[n]
Correlation Computation for
Power Signals
• The cross-correlation sequence for a pair of
power signals, x[n] and y[n], is defined as
1 K
rxy [l] = lim ∑ x[n] y[n − l]
K →∞ 2 K + 1 n = − K
M −1 ~
= M ∑n =0 ( x[n] + d [n])( x[n − l] + d [n − l])
1 ~
M −1 ~ M −1
= M ∑n =0 x[n]x[n − l] + M ∑n =0 d [n]d [n − l]
1 ~ 1
M −1 ~ M −1
+ M ∑n =0 x[n]d [n − l] + M ∑n =0 d [n]x~[n − l]
1 1
= rxx
~ ~[l ] + r [l ] + r~ [l ] + r ~[l ]
dd xd dx
Correlation Computation for
Periodic Signals
• In the last equation on the previous slide, rxx
~ ~ [l ]
Amplitude
0
-20
-40
-60
-20 -10 0 10 20
Lag index
6
Amplitude
4
-2
-20 -10 0 10 20
Lag index