Tangent and normal lines

One fundamental interpretation of the derivative of a function is that it is the slope of the tangent
line to the graph of the function. (Still, it is important to realize that this is not the definition of the
thing, and that there are other possible and important interpretations as well).
The precise statement of this fundamental idea is as follows. Let ff be a function. For
each fixed value xoxo of the input to ff, the value f′(xo)f′(xo) of the derivative f′f′ of ff evaluated
at xoxo is the slope of the tangent line to the graph of ff at the particular point (xo,f(xo))(xo,f(xo))on
the graph.
Recall the point-slope form of a line with slope mm through a point (xo,yo)(xo,yo):
y−yo=m(x−xo)y−yo=m(x−xo)

In the present context, the slope is f′(xo)f′(xo) and the point is (xo,f(xo))(xo,f(xo)), so the equation of
the tangent line to the graph of ff at (xo,f(xo))(xo,f(xo)) is
y−f(xo)=f′(xo)(x−xo)y−f(xo)=f′(xo)(x−xo)

The normal line to a curve at a particular point is the line through that point and perpendicular to
the tangent. A person might remember from analytic geometry that the slope of any
line perpendicular to a line with slope mm is the negative reciprocal −1/m−1/m. Thus, just
changing this aspect of the equation for the tangent line, we can say generally that the equation of the
normal line to the graph of ff at (xo,f(xo))(xo,f(xo)) is
y−f(xo)=−1f′(xo)(x−xo).y−f(xo)=−1f′(xo)(x−xo).

The main conceptual hazard is to mistakenly name the fixed point ‘xx’, as well as naming
the variable coordinate on the tangent line ‘xx’. This causes a person to write down some equation
which, whatever it may be, is not the equation of a line at all.
Another popular boo-boo is to forget the subtraction −f(xo)−f(xo) on the left hand side. Don't do it.
So, as the simplest example: let's write the equation for the tangent line to the curve y=x2y=x2 at the
point where x=3x=3. The derivative of the function is y′=2xy′=2x, which has
value 2⋅3=62⋅3=6 when x=3x=3. And the value of the function is 3⋅3=93⋅3=9 when x=3x=3. Thus,
the tangent line at that point is
y−9=6(x−3)y−9=6(x−3)

The normal line at the point where x=3x=3 is

y−9=−16(x−3)y−9=−16(x−3)

So the question of finding the tangent and normal lines at various points of the graph of a function is
just a combination of the two processes: computing the derivative at the point in question, and
invoking the point-slope form of the equation for a straight line.
Exercises
1. Write the equation for both the tangent line and normal line to the
curve y=3x2−x+1y=3x2−x+1 at the point where x=1x=1.
2. Write the equation for both the tangent line and normal line to the
curve y=(x−1)/(x+1)y=(x−1)/(x+1) at the point where x=0x=0.

Tangent and Normal Lines

The derivative of a function has many applications to problems in calculus. It may be used in
curve sketching; solving maximum and minimum problems; solving distance; velocity, and
acceleration problems; solving related rate problems; and approximating function values.

The derivative of a function at a point is the slope of the tangent line at this point.
The normal line is defined as the line that is perpendicular to the tangent line at the
point of tangency. Because the slopes of perpendicular lines (neither of which is
vertical) are negative reciprocals of one another, the slope of the normal line to the
graph of f(x) is −1/ f′(x).

Example 1: Find the equation of the tangent line to the graph of at the
point (−1,2).

At the point (−1,2), f′(−1)=−½ and the equation of the line is

Example 2: Find the equation of the normal line to the graph of at the
point (−1, 2).

From Example 1, you find that f′(−1)=−½ and the slope of the normal line is −1/ f′(−1) =
2; hence, the equation of the normal line at the point (−1,2) is