Multiculturalism


Dr. Ramesh Chandra Sethi

Assistant Professor (Pol. Sc.)
School of Law
KIIT University, Bhubaneswar, Odisha
About Multiculturalism
• Origin and development of Multiculturalism
• Understanding Multiculturalism

• Core themes of Multiculturalism: Diversity within unity

Politics of Recognition
Culture & Identity
Minority Rights: Self Government, Polyethnic & Representation rights
Diversity

• Bhikhu Parekh’s Idea on Multiculturalism

• Three Common Features of Multicultural Society
• Bhikhu Parekh’s Views on the Political Structure of Multicultural Society
• Conclusion followed by Q & A
Origin and development of concept - Multiculturalism
The term “Muticulturalism” is relatively recent origin, started in early 19th century
onwards.

• It was first used in 1965 in Canada describe a distinctive approach to tackling the issue of
cultural diversity.

• In 1971, multiculturalism was formally adopted as public policy in Canada, through

introduction of Multiculturalism Act-1988.

• Later on Australia officially declared itself as a multicultural country & committed

multiculturalism in the early 1970s.

• But the term “multiculturalism” has been more prominent in wider political debate since
1990s

•In the late 1960s & 1970s witnessed the growing political assertiveness among minority
groups named “ethnocultural nationalism” in many parts of the western Europe & in North
America, & Canada (among the French speaking people)

•Ethnocultural nationalism - A form of nationalism based on a keen sense of ethnic &

cultural distinctiveness & the desire to preserve it.
Problems for emergent forms of ethnic politics
• Desire to challenge to economic & social marginalization &
racial oppression (Blacks in North America & Western Europe)

• Ethnic politics is a vehicle for political liberation from a

structural disadvantaged and ingrained inequality

• Establishment of ethnic identity by confronting a dominant

white culture that had traditionally emphasized their inferiority
& demanded subservience

• In 1945, there was growing assertiveness among established

minority groups which created a trends in international
migration that significantly widened cultural diversity in many
western societies
What is culture?
•According to Bhikhu Parekh (Rethinking Multiculturalism-Cultural
Diversity & Political Theory, Macmillan Press Ltd, London, 2000):
Culture is articulated in several ways - At the most basic level it is
reflected in the language including the syntax, grammar & vocabulary
divide up & describe the world; proverbs, myths, rituals, symbols,
collective memories, jokes, body languages, customs, traditions,
manners of greetings, & communications etc.

•It also reflected through arts, music, oral and written literatures, moral
life, ideal of excellence, exemplary individuals, & the vision of good
life.

•Structure & order of human life - Societal rules & norms that govern
basic activities, & social relations including the treating your
neighbors, elder, younger, friends, relatives, the practices of food
habits, dressing pattern, & celebrations festivals etc.
What is multiculturalism?

• Multiculturalism is more an arena for ideological debate that an ideology in its own rights.

• As an arena for debate, it encompasses a range of views about the implications of growing
cultural diversity & in particular, about how cultural differences can be reconciled with
civic unity.

• It has developed out of belief that group marginalization often has deeper origins.

• It is not merely a legal, political or social phenomenon but is a cultural phenomenon, one
that operates through stereotypes & values that structure how people see themselves & are
seen by others

• It is a key theme, therefore diversity within unity & emphasizes difference than equality.

• So, multiculturalism gives importance on beliefs, values & ways of life in establishing a
sense of self-worth for individual & groups a like.

• A multiculturalist stance implies a positive endorsement of communal diversity based on

the right of different cultural groups to recognition.
• Core themes of multiculturalism: Diversity within unity

The term has been used in both descriptive & normative ways

• As a descriptive term, it refers to cultural diversity that arise from the

existence within the society of two or more groups whose belief &
practices generate a different sense of collective identity.

• Multiculturalism in this sense is invariably reserved for communal diversity

that rises from racial, ethnic, & languages differences

• The govt. response to such communal diversity through its public policy
(education, healthcare, housing or any distinctive needs of the group) or in
design of institutions (ethnic, religious & other divisions).

• Govt. should ensure equality of opportunity between & among the groups
to restore communal harmony and healthy relations within the groups.
As a normative term, multiculturalism implies a positive
endorsement, even celebration of communal diversity,
typically based on either right of different cultural groups to
respect & recognition, or to the alleged benefits to the larger
society of moral & cultural diversity.

• It is more an ideological “space” than a political ideology in

its own right

• It is an arena within which increasingly important debates

about the balance in modern societies between cultural
diversity & civic unity are conducted.
Most significant (Core) themes of multiculturalism

1. Politics of recognition & politics of rights - How you recognize to

the individuals, people or community within your country & those
who are from other countries.

• Example- For Republicanism, they are concerned for the problem

of legal & political exclusion, the denial to certain groups of
rights that are enjoyed by their fellow citizens.

• Principle of universal citizenship - the belief that all members of

society should enjoy a similar status & entitlements.

• Social advancement can be brought about largely through the

establishment of formal equality.
1. Politics of Recognition

• Multiculturalists argue that minority cultural groups are

disadvantaged in relation to majority groups & that remedying
this involves significant changes in society’s rules & institutions.

• Need of shift from conventional approach to social advancement

• Three different approach can be adopted based on respectively,

on the ideas of rights, redistribution & recognition

• The key idea of social reformism is shift from legal

egalitarianism to social egalitarianism through social engineering
that redistributes wealths to alleviate poverty & overcome
disadvantage.
2. Culture & Identity

•Multiculturalism’s politics of recognition is shaped by a larger body of thought

which holds that culture is basic to political & social identity. so, it is politics of
cultural self-assertion.

•Cultural identity gives people a sense of social & historical rootedness

•A weak or fractured sense of cultural identity leaves people feeling isolated &
confused.

•For example - Rohingya minority (Muslim) ethnic group of Rakhine State of

Myanmar
•They have their own language & culture. They are descendants of Arab traders &
other groups who have been in Myanmar since generations
•But the Govt. of Myanmar, a predominantly Buddhist country, denies the
Rohingya citizenship & even excludes them from the 2014 census refusing to
recognize them as their people. They see them as illegal immigrants from
Bangladesh.
• The latest exodus began on 25th August, 2017 after Rohingya Arsa
militants attacked more than 30 Myanmar police posts

• Consequences of militant action (According to BBC News & Others)

At least 288 villages were partially to totally destroyed by fire

At least 6,700 people including 730 children U5 were killed

Amnesty International says the Myanmar military also raped & abused
Rohingya women and girls

The Govt. claims that it was a “clearance operation” against the militants
& officially reported death of 400 Rohingya people.

The UN says the Rohingya situation is the “World’s fastest growing

refugee crisis”
•According to Herder, the German Poet & Philosopher, portrays human beings
as culturally defined creatures.
•In modern form, cultural politics has been shaped by two main forces:
communitarianism & identity politics

•Communitarianism-The belief that people’s identity & values are constituted

through the community (same ‘inner’ identity) in the sense that there are no
hindrances for themselves.

•Identity means - links the personal to the social, & sees the individuals as
embedded in a particular cultural, social, institutional or ideological context.

•Therefore, Multiculturalist accept the communitarian view of human nature,

that stresses that people cannot be understood outside of society but are
intrinsically shaped by the social, cultural & other structures within which they
live & develop.
• Identity politics - It is based on a wide range of political trends & ideological
developments ranging from ethnocultural nationalism & religious
fundamentalism.
• Ethnocultural nationalism-A form of nationalism that is based on ethnic &
cultural distinctiveness & the desire to preserve it.
• The culture of liberal society is constructed i line with the values & interests
of its dominant groups: wealthy, whites & dominate group (Hindu) in India
• Identity politics does not only view culture as a source of oppression; it is also
source of liberation & empowerment, particularly when it seeks to cultivate a
“pure” or “authentic” sense of identity.
• Embracing such an identity is therefore a political act, a statement of intent &
a form of defiance. This is how the identity politics attempts fuse the personal
& the political.
3. Minority Rights

• Multiculturalism recognizes the minority rights, or called multicultural rights. According to Will
Kymlicka (Canadian political philosopher), there are two kinds of minorities: National Minorities
& Immigrant Groups.

• According to Kymlicka, within a nation-state, there will be majority group & minority group of
people

• He argues that the national minorities will have group specific rights i.e. special representation
with Govt. While immigrant groups need to be granted “poly-ethnic rights” that would enable
retaining those aspects of culture that would allow them for “fair terms of integration”

• According to Kymlicka there are 3 types of minority rights:

Self-government rights -belongs to national minorities, indigenous people who are territorially
concentrated, posses a shared language & characterized by a meaningful way of life across the full
range of human activities.

Polyethnic rights -helps ethnic groups & religious minorities, that have developed through
immigration to express & maintain their cultural distinctiveness, for example Native Americans.

It provides the basis for legal exemption, such as the exemption of Jews and Muslims from
animal slaughtering laws, the exemption of Muslim girls from school dress codes.
Representation Rights- It attempts to redress the under representation of
minority or disadvantaged groups in education & in senior positions of political
& public life.

•As It ensures the full & equal participation of all groups in the life of their
society.

•It ensures that public policy reflects the interests of diverse groups & people &
not merely those of traditional dominant groups.

•Minority rights are often thought of as special rights.

•So, according to liberal multiculturalist, minority rights are viewed as a

guarantee of individual freedom & personal autonomy.

•Minority rights are seen as the way of counting oppression.

•So, representation rights fulfill their special cultural needs & recognize on the
basis of specific character of their religion
• Minority rights redress the social injustice i.e. compensation for unfair
disadvantages & for under representation through “affirmative action”or special
assistance.

4. Diversity

• Multiculturalism has much in common features with nationalism

• Multiculturalism emphasizes to generate social & political cohesion, & both seek to
bring political arrangements into line with patterns of cultural differentiation.

• It shared cultural identity, coincides with citizenship & comparable with political
cohesion.

• It is based on diversity with unity & strictly refuses to link diversity to conflict or
instability.

• Multiculturalist argue that cultural recognition underpins political stability & people
are free to participate in any social activity as they have a form & secure identity
rooted in their own culture.
• The denial cultural recognition results in isolation & powerlessness,
provide a breeding ground for extremism & the politics of hate, for
example - growing support for Islamism, religious fundamentalism
• Multiculturalists do not just believe that diversity is possible, they
believe it is desirable & should be celebrated.
• The idea of diversity provides stronger sense of cultural identity &
belonging, diversity is a value to a society at large.
• It provides vigor & vibrancy to a society where there people maintain
variety of life-style, cultural practices, traditions & beliefs as per their
choices.
• Cultural diversity is seen to benefit society in the same way that
biodiversity benefits the ecosystem.
• It promotes cultural exchange between groups, fosters cross-cultural
toleration & understanding & therefore willingness to respect the
difference.
• So, diversity is the antidote to social polarization & prejudice.
Bhikhu Parekh is a fellow of the Royal Society of Arts and of the
Academy of the Learned Societies for Social Sciences, and a Emeritus
Professor of political philosophy at the University of Westminster, UK.

He was chair of the Runnymede Commission, whose report, The Future

of Multi-Ethnic Britain, was published in 2000.

He is vice-chairman of the Gandhi Foundation, a trustee of the Anne

Frank Educational Trust, and a member of the National Commission on
Equal Opportunity.

Bhikhu Parekh has received the Sir Isaiah Berlin Prize for Lifetime
Contribution to Political Philosophy by the Political Studies Association
in the UK (2002), the Distinguished Global Thinker Award by the India
International Centre, New Delhi (2006), the Interdependence Prize from
the Campaign for Democracy, New York (2006), and the Padma
Bhushan (2007).

His main academic interests include political philosophy, the history of

political thought, social theory, ancient and modern Indian political
thought, and the philosophy of ethnic relations.

Parekh is the author of seven books, such as: Hannah Arendt and the
Search for a New Political Philosophy (1981), Karl Marx’s Theory of
Ideology (1981), Contemporary Political Thinkers (1982), Gandhi's
Political Philosophy (1989), Colonialism, Tradition and Reform (1999),
Rethinking Multiculturalism: Cultural Diversity and Political Theory
(2000) and Gandhi (2001).
Bhikhu Parekh’s Idea - On Multiculturalism/Cultural Diversity from
a Pluralist Perspectives (Chapter-7: The Political Structure of Multicultural Society,
pp. 196-238)

• According the Bhikhu Parekh, people from different groups (indigenous people,
national minorities, old & new immigrants, feminists, gay-men & lesbians) will have
variety of cultural practices as per their life style, belief system, & different views as
ways of their life that are different from majority sections & dominant culture of the
society.

• Their demand is that the society has to recognize the legitimacy of their differences as
their views are not incidental & trivial but spring from & constitute of their identities.

• They ask for acceptance, respect, & even public affirmation of their difference.

• Some of them want that they should be treated equally with the rest of the society.

• For example - the Marxism attacked Capitalism in the name of a new civilization
based on the kind of universalist identity represented by the proletariat.
• They argue while accepting their difference, there is need for change in the
legal arrangements of society & respect for them requires changes in its
attitudes and ways of thought as well.
• They need a wider recognition that is politics of recognition based on social
justice or economic redistribution.
• Cultural minorities & others cannot express & realize their identities without
the necessary freedom of self-determination, a climate conducive to diversity,
material resources & opportunities, suitable legal arrangements, & so on,
needed for profound changes in their areas of life.
• Bhikhu Parekh considers all the above stated are as new movements & part of
multiculturalism.
• So, according to Bhikhu Parekh, multiculturalism is not about difference &
identity per se but about those that are embedded in and sustained by culture; a
body of beliefs & practices in terms of which a group of people understand
themselves & the world & organize their individual and collective life.
• He said multiculturalism is about cultural diversity (derived from
differences), or culturally embedded differences.
• Cultural diversity in modern society takes many form of which there are
three most common features:
Subcultural diversity -Some groups follows relatively distinct ways of
life of their own for example -Gays, lesbians maintain unconventional
lifestyle or family structure, where as fisherman community & artists
follow society’s dominant system. They don’t represent an alternative
culture but seek to pluralize the existing one, so, he said it is subcultural
diversity within the dominant culture.
Perspectival diversity - Feminist (attacked on deeply ingrained patriarchal
bias), religious groups (secular orientation) & environmentalist
(anthropocentric & technocratic bias)
Communal diversity - Territorially concentrated cultural groups as
indigenous people for example - Jews, & indigenous tribal groups etc.
• Subcultural diversity is embedded in a shared culture which it wishes to open
up & diversify & not replace with others.
• Perspective diversity represents a vision of life the dominant culture either
rejects altogether or accepts in theory & ignores in practice. It is more radical &
comprehensive than subcultural diversity & can not be so easily accommodated.
• Communal diversity is is quite different & it springs from & is sustained by a
plurality of long-establish communities.

•So, according to Bhikhu Parekh, the term “multicultural society” &

“multiculturalism” are generally used to refer to a society that exhibits all three
& other kinds of diversity.
•A multicultural society is one that includes two or more cultural communities.
It might respond to its cultural diversity in one of two ways through respecting
cultural demands of its constituents communities or assimilate these
communities into its mainstream culture either wholly or substantially.
• The term “multicultural” refers to the fact of cultural diversity & the term
“multiculturalism” to a normative response to that fact.
•
How to addresses the challenges of a multicultural society?
The Indian Debate
• The minorities those who are territorially concentrated and other
group of minorities
• Case of Kashmir in India-Kashmir is culturally distinct & anxious to
preserve its identity. Article 370 of the Indian Constitution gave it
powers & protections not available to other Indian States. The similar
case also observed in the North Eastern region.
• Their personal laws will not change without their consent.
• In this situation (Kashmir, Punjab-Sikh identity & NE States-Tribal
Identity, Muslims, Christians & Parsis & other national minorities
have distinct identity & different ways of life), how to preserve and
promote multi-culture where each State has different & unique
identity?
• Differential treatments are complex in nature. Most of the Hindu
trust the State & allow it to act as their reformist arm.
• State has a watch dog monitoring system towards religious
institutions (belongs to majority groups) but not for minority
community.
• All this has aroused considerable opposition among many militant
or Hindu fundamentalists & by some of the liberals.
• It is argued that the State should be based on single or uniform set
of fundamental principles that it should have uniform legal system
(Uniform Civil Code).
• This creates a problem & sometimes forces the State to compromise
the sovereignty of the State that the State should take no cognizance
of religious, ethnic, & other identities.
• The Indian case illustrate once again difficulties of applying the dominant
theory of the State (State behaviour and a set of policy prescriptions for the
destabilizing elements) to the societies characterized by deep diversity.

The Political Structure of Multicultural Society

• According to Bhikhu Parekh, a multicultural society faces two conflicting
demands (demands of unity & diversity). It needs to adopt a political structure
that enables it to settle them in a just & collectively acceptable manner.
• It should foster a strong sense of unity & common belonging among its
citizens.
• The greater & deeper the diversity in a society, the greater the unity &
cohesion it requires to hold itself together & nurture its diversity.
• As a custodian of society’s way of life, the State is assumed to have right &
duty to ensure that its cultural minorities assimilate into the prevailing national
culture & shed all vestiges of their separate culture.
• The assimilationist (a person who advocates/participates in
racial or cultural integration) argues that if the minorities wish
to become part of society & treated like the rest of their
fellow-citizens, they should assimilate.
• If the minorities freely decide to assimilate into the dominant
culture, their decisions should be respected & they should be
given every opportunity & help to do so.
• If they will not agree to do so, what will be the situation?
• If the society refuses to accommodate the legitimate demands
of it’s cultural minorities, then what will be the situation?
• The religionization of culture takes place in the political
process.
Modes of Political Integration
• There are three modes of political integration to reconcile the demands of
unity & diversity.
• Proceduralist (those who advocates of doing something in official way)-
According to their view, the deep moral & cultural difference to be found
in multicultural societies cannot be rationally resolved. The sole concern is
to ensure peace & stability.
• This requires a largely formal & neutral State laying down the minimally
necessary general rules of conduct, subject to which citizens remain free
to lead their self-chosen lives.
• If the State has to substantive goals of its own, it would violate the moral
autonomy of, & discriminate against, those taking different views of the
good life.
• They say the formal & minimal State combines maximum political unity
with maximum diversity.
•Civic Assimilationist -They say political community requires agreement not only
on its structure of authority but also on a shared culture.

•The unity of political community lies in its shared political culture that includes its
public & political values, ideals, practices, institutions, mode of political discourse
& self-understanding.

•Unless its citizens share such a culture, they cannot engage in a meaningful
dialogue, formulate & resolve their differences & pursue common goal.

•Subject to the constraints of the shared political culture, citizens should be free to
lead their self-chosen lives in the private realm.

•For them, the public realm represents uniformity, & the private realm, that includes
the family & the civil society, represents diversity. The former ensures unity,
provides principles to determine the permissible range of diversity & gives society
the confidence to tolerate & even welcome deep differences in the private realm.
• Millet Model
• They consider human beings are above all cultural beings embedded in their
communities. They are deeply engaged with their customs, practices, values,
system of meaning, sense of identity, historical continuity, norm , behavior
& patterns of family life-are derived from the culture.
• As an legal & administrative institution, the State has no moral status, but
the sole aim should to uphold & nature its constituent cultural communities.
• The State is a union or a loose federation of communities, a bare framework
within which the communities should be free to pursue their traditional ways
of life & engage in necessary social, political & economic interactions.
• The State is expected not only to refrain from interfering with their internal
affairs, but also to recognize & institutionalize their autonomy, enforce their
customs & practices & so on.
• Individuals are are expected to owe their primary loyalty to their respective
communities & secondary to the State.
• In addition to the above three stated models, Bhikhu Parekh also emphasizes on some of
the major functions/role of the State for a multicultural society.

Structure of Authority - The Constitution that shapes the structure of the society &
stabilizes the wider political process. It is a source of all legal authority with the
community. It provides the guidelines for basic structure of the civil authority, its areas of
jurisdiction & mode of operation.
Justice - The institutions of the State should function impartially in their treatments to the
members of the different communities. For example- the role of the police. Equal
treatments & justice in different significant areas of life including, employment, criminal
justice, education & public services
Collective Rights - Various rights needed for a particular cultural community to maintain
their collective identity. For example - the rights of trade unions, & clubs & son.
Common Culture - Multicultural society needs a shared culture to sustain it. the shared
culture can only grow out of their interactions & should both respect 7 nurture their
diversity & unite them around a common way of life.
Multicultural education - To understand the historical perspective of each & every cultural
community.
National Identity - National identity is a vehicle to silence the dissident voice & moulding
the entire society in a particular image.
 Conditions of Success - These include a consensually grounded
structure of authority, a collectively acceptable set of constitutional
rights, a just & impartial State, a multiculturally constituted common
culture & multicultural education, & a plural & inclusive view of
national identity..

• It is not possible if all those will not have legitimate basis, & State
should ensure its citizens the basic conditions of good life.

• There is need of full acceptance & feeling at home, & justice which is
about rights & interests of the individual. Justice satisfies the
preconditions of a balanced society. It balanced against the requirement
of social harmony, integration of the excluded groups into the
mainstream society, a rich & vibrant cultural life & a sense of social
solidarity & finally a shared sense of national identity.

• When these & the related conditions will be obtained in a multicultural

society, it is likely to develop a common sense of belonging among its
diverse communities and creates a collective feeling of “WE”.