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Liquefied Natural Gas

At atmospheric pressure, the liquid density at the normal boiling point of methane is approximately

610 times greater than that of the gas at ambient temperature and pressure. Therefore, a given volume

of liquid contains over 600 times the heating value as the same volume of ambient gas. This density

increase at ambient pressure makes it attractive to liquefy, transport, and store natural gas in large

quantities and makes technically feasible the transport of the equivalent of several Bcf of gas per ship

load from “stranded” gas fields to markets.

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GAS TREATING BEFORE LIQUEFACTION

Production of LNG requires temperatures as low as −258°F (−161°C), the normal boiling point of

methane, and, consequently, the allowable impurity levels in a gas to be liquefied are much lower than

that of a pipeline-quality gas. For example, gas to be pipelined and sold to residential or industrial

customers may contain a maximum of 3 to 4 mol% carbon dioxide, but gas for liquefaction should

have a carbon dioxide content of less than 50 ppmv.

Gas processed for LNG must have much more aggressive removal of water, nitrogen, and carbon

dioxide than does gas destined for pipelines. The tight specifications on all the above components,

except for nitrogen and mercury, are needed to avoid solids deposition that will plug the heat

exchangers.

Nitrogen is a volatile diluent which, at higher concentrations, can raise the potential for stratification

and rollover. Elemental mercury presents serious problems in cryogenic operations.

LIQUEFACTION CYCLES

For the liquefaction of natural gas the low temperature was produced either by Joule-Thomson

expansion or by expansion in an engine doing external work.

JOULE-THOMSON CYCLES

The Joule-Thomson coefficient is the change in temperature that results when a gas is expanded

adiabatically from one constant pressure to another in such a way that no external work is done and no

net conversion of internal energy to kinetic energy of mass motion occurs. Thermodynamically, it is

an irreversible process that wastes the potential for doing useful work with the pressure drop.

The Joule-Thomson coefficient is given by

No temperature change occurs when an ideal gas undergoes a Joule-Thomson expansion. For a real

gas, the Joule-Thomson coefficient may be positive (the gas cools upon expansion), negative (the gas

warms upon expansion) or zero.

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A simple Joule-Thomson system suitable for natural gas liquefaction is shown in figure. The

liquefaction cycle begins with natural gas being compressed and sent through the heat exchanger and

expansion valve. Upon expansion, the gas cools (approximately 84°F [47°C] if the gas is principally

methane and the expansion is from 1,500 to 14.7 psia [101 to 1 bar]), but none liquefies because a

temperature drop of approximately 338°F (188°C) is required to convert the gas to a liquid. Thus, all

of the chilled low-pressure gas is recycled through the heat exchanger for recompression. This cold

low-pressure gas lowers the temperature of the high-pressure gas stream ahead of the expansion valve,

which results in a lower temperature upon expansion.

As long as all of the gas being expanded is recycled through the counterflow heat exchanger to cool

the high-pressure gas stream, temperatures will be progressively lower upon expansion. The process

continues until liquid is formed during the expansion from high to low pressure. The liquid formed is

separated from the low-pressure gas stream in the liquid receiver and is ultimately withdrawn as the

product.

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Considerable improvement can be achieved in this simple Joule-Thomson cycle, but at the expense of

added equipment and complexity of operation. The addition of an external source of refrigeration

markedly improves efficiencies, as does the use of a double expansion of the high-pressure gas instead

of a single expansion. Although both of these techniques are extensively used in air liquefaction

plants, only the dual-expansion process has found favor in LNG processing.

EXPANDER CYCLES

The point was made during the discussion of the Joule-Thomson expansion that it was a

thermodynamically irreversible process. Expansion of high-pressure gas to the lower pressure in a

reversible or nearly reversible manner provides two distinct improvements over the Joule-Thomson

expansion. First, in the reversible expansion, a large fraction of the work required to compress the gas

can be recovered and used elsewhere in the cycle. This property provides an increase in cycle

efficiency. Second, the reversible process will result in a much larger cooling effect. For example,

reversibly and adiabatically expanding methane gas from 75 psia and 80°F (5.1 bar, 27°C) to 14.7

psia (1.01 bar) cools the gas to −94°F (−70°C), a temperature drop of 174°F (97°C). A Joule-

Thomson expansion between the same pressure limits cools the gas approximately 4°F (2.2°C).

Adiabatic reversible turboexpansion provides the most cooling possible over a given pressure range.

Expanders are basically compressors with the flow reversed and, as with compressors, positive

displacement and dynamic expanders are available. Reciprocating machines are rarely used in LNG

facilities.

Several options are available in the type of expander cycle. All expander cycles fall into two groups:

closed cycles and open cycles. Note that most expander cycles have J-T valves as well as

turboexpanders.

Closed Cycles

In a closed expander cycle, the fluid being expanded is not the fluid to be liquefied; the expander

simply acts as an external source of refrigeration, similar to the propane refrigeration. In LNG

production, nitrogen may be used in a closed expander system to liquefy natural gas. The compressed

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nitrogen is expanded, and the cold gas is then used to cool and liquefy the natural gas stream. Actual

cycles for producing LNG are far more complex.

The closed cycle has several advantages over the open cycle, in which the natural gas itself is

expanded. First, if nitrogen is used, safety is enhanced, because the closed cycle reduces the number

of processing steps in which flammable natural gas is used. Second, the closed nitrogen cycle has

been reported to require simpler and less expensive shutdown procedures than its open cycle

counterpart and appears to be the most economical process under many conditions. Finally, because

the natural gas is not passing through the expander, the process purification system is not so critical.

Gas passing through the high-speed expander must be free of condensed phases and any components

that solidify at the expander exhaust temperature, because deposition on the rotor will destroy it.

Open Cycles

An open expander cycle uses the gas being liquefied as the expanding fluid and has the advantage

over the closed cycle of being less complex. The cold exhaust stream from the expander is simply

used as a source of refrigeration, and the high-pressure gas is liquefied as it expands through the

Joule-Thomson valve. The first law of thermodynamics for a steady-state flow system applied to the

two heat exchangers, the expander, and the liquid receiver.

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STORAGE OF LNG

LNG storage facilities are normally divided into two major categories: aboveground and in-

ground. Also, LNG storage involves a feature peculiar to the storage of cryogenic liquid

mixtures, stratification.

Cryogenic Aboveground Storage

Three basic types of aboveground storage vessels are in use:

• Steel

• Pre-stressed concrete

• Hybrid (combinations of steel and concrete)

Steel

Three typical configurations are single-, double-, and full-containment steel tanks. Storage of

LNG in aboveground metal tanks is a widely accepted method for both baseload and peak

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shaving uses. Nine percent−nickel steel is the most widely used metal for large LNG tanks.

Because of its high cost, stainless steel is generally used only for small vessels, LNG plant

piping, and heat exchangers. The conventional configuration is a double-walled, flat-

bottomed tank, with the annular space between the walls filled with an insulating material.

Figure: Single-containment tank

Figure : Double-containment tank

There are two types of 9% nickel steel construction, the single-containment and the double-

containment tank. The single-containment tank is obviously less expensive to build but has

the obvious disadvantage of only one containment wall that is compatible with LNG.

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Figure: Full-containment tank

Although additional cost of secondary impoundment or additional fire protection necessary

for the single-containment design. Consequently, double-containment tanks may actually be

the most economical choice. In a full-containment tank, the roof is also constructed of

concrete.

Concrete

Hundreds of prestressed concrete tanks and reservoirs have been built for many uses,

including the storage of liquid oxygen, which is both heavier and colder than LNG.

Prestressed concrete tanks may be constructed at grade, below ground, or partially below

ground, depending on site conditions or other factors.

Figure: Prestressed concrete storage tank for LNG

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Prestressed concrete tanks may be constructed at grade, below ground, or partially below

ground, depending on site conditions or other factors.

Figure shows typical installation of a prestressed concrete storage tank. The tank was

constructed with its base at grade but was completely surrounded by an earthen berm. The

tank had a capacity of approximately 2 billion cubic feet of gas (approximately 600,000

barrels [95,000 m3]) and was built for a peak shaving facility. The reinforced concrete walls

were insulated on the inside of the tank with polyurethane. The LNG was isolated from the

insulation with a thin laminate film that had additional protective insulation. The anticipated

boil-off was 0.06% per day of the tank volume. Two centrifugal blowers, each capable of

handling 2 MMcfd (60 MS m3/d) at atmospheric pressure and −200°F (−129°C) suction,

were used to compress the boil-off vapors to 10 psig (0.7 barg), and the boil-off was

subsequently reliquefied. The normal operating tank pressure was 4 inches (10 cm) of water,

and a system of diaphragm-operated valves was used to add or release gas rapidly in the

event of abnormal atmospheric conditions, such as those caused by a hurricane.

Hybrid Construction

Storage tanks constructed using both prestressed concrete and steel are popular. The different

arrangements of concrete and steel are as follows:

1. The structure consists of an inner tank of 9% nickel steel, an outer prestressed-concrete

tank, with a cryogenic insulation between the two tanks.

2. The novel concept for an aboveground tank that features a 1.2-mm thick stainless-steel

membrane combined with a prestressed concrete outer wall. In this configuration, the

membrane acts to contain the LNG, but all the hydrostatic load is taken by the concrete.

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CRYOGENIC IN GROUND STORAGE

Three basic types of in ground storage have been used:

• Conventional concrete or steel tanks in an underground configuration

• Tanks formed around a frozen-earth cavity

• Mined caverns

Conventional Tankage

In aboveground tank storage, the walls must supply all of the mechanical strength. In ground

tanks may use either the surrounding earth to provide mechanical support or an in-pit

construction in which the tank is built as a separate unit and the pit provides containment in

case of leakage or rupture.

Frozen-Earth Cavities

Figure: Sketch of frozen-earth LNG storage container.

Figure shows a sketch of a frozen-earth storage container. The cavity is initially cooled by

spraying LNG into the vapor space. The roof reaches its steady-state temperature rapidly.

Because of the low thermal conductivity of the frozen earth, the surrounding soil may take

several years to reach its steady-state temperature. The final effective thermal conductivity

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attained by the frozen earth depends strongly on the type of geologic formation and the

moisture content of the earth.

Mined Caverns

In this storage concept, a subterranean cavity is created to hold the LNG, with the cavity

walls either in direct contact with the liquid or separated by an insulating wall.

TRANSPORTATION

Three options are possible for transporting LNG:

• Truck transport

• LNG pipelines

• Marine carriers

The main emphasis is on marine carriers because they are the most important.

TRUCK TRANSPORT

Cryogenic liquids, including liquid helium, liquid hydrogen, liquid nitrogen, and liquid

oxygen, are routinely moved by truck transport. Thus, over-the-road movement of LNG is a

relatively simple, straight-forward process that requires no new technology. The major

consumers of trucked LNG are vehicle fueling stations and “stranded local utilities,” those

who are not connected to the national network of natural gas pipelines

PIPELINES

The concept of long-distance LNG pipelines are convenient as pumping liquid instead of

compressing gas is more comfortable. The study of LNG pipeline concluded that en route

refrigeration, primarily for removing heat generated by friction losses, make pipelining

economically feasible only in certain situations, at distances less than 200 miles (320 km).

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MARINE TRANSPORT

Several basic design criteria for LNG carriers:

1. The low density of LNG and the requirement for separate water ballast containment

require a large hull, with low draft and high freeboard*.

2. The low temperature of LNG requires the use of special and expensive alloys in tank

construction. For free-standing tanks, only aluminum or 9% nickel steel are suitable,

whereas for membrane tanks, stainless steel or Invar is used.

3. The large thermal cycling possible in the storage tanks demands special supporting

arrangements for free standing tanks and membrane flexibility in membrane designs.

4. The hull of the vessel is carbon steel, so good thermal insulation is required between the

tanks and the hull. In addition, for membrane tanks, the insulation must be capable of

supporting the full weight of the cargo.

5. The cargo handling equipment must be carefully designed to account for thermal

expansion and contraction.

Application of these principles in the design of LNG carriers resulted in a number of different

LNG containment concepts, but today only three systems are in general use, and they may be

grouped into two designs, independent tanks and membrane tanks, which use different

membrane configurations.

Presently, all LNG carriers are double-hulled. They use steam-powered turbines fueled by

boil-off natural gas. Movement has begun toward use of duel-fuel diesel engines, with

efficiencies of 38 to 40%, compared with steam-powered turbines, with efficiencies of 28%.

Diesel engines also have lower NOX emissions.

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Independent Tanks

Independent tanks are self-supporting, do not form part of the ship’s hull, and are not

essential to the hull strength (Marshall, 2002). The principal system in use today is the Moss

system, originally designed by Moss Rosenberg Verft. This system uses spherical aluminum

tanks.

Figure: Spherical LNG storage tank before installation on carrier hull; Ship with three of four

storage tanks installed.

The figure shows a tank ready to be placed in the ship’s hull and a view of the vessel with

three of the four tanks installed. The tanks are insulated on the external surface by an

insulation composed of phenol resin and polyurethane foam and are designed for a boil-off

rate 0.15% per day.

Membrane Tanks

Membrane tanks are non self-supporting and consist of a thin metal membrane, stainless steel

or Invar (35% nickel steel), supported by the ship’s hull through the thermal insulation.

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Figure: Gaz transport and Technigaz containment systems

Presently, the Invar membrane (Gaz Transport) is more popular than the stainless steel

(Technigaz) membrane. Invar owes its popularity to the fact that it has a very small

coefficient of thermal expansion in the operating ranges of the tanks, which are

approximately −260 to +180°F (−162 to +82°C). Figure shows some details of both the Gaz

Transport and the Technigaz containment systems.

UNDERGROUND STORAGES OF NATURAL GAS

Basically, two types of storage facilities exist for natural gas: (1) relatively small capacity (to

15 MMscf [400,000 Sm3]) aboveground, floating-roof gas holders that operate near ambient

pressure and (2) much larger underground facilities (depleted oil and gas fields, salt caverns,

and aquifers) that operate at elevated pressures. Overall, underground storage is more

important.

The United States Geological Survey first proposed use of underground storage for natural

gas in 1909. The first North American facility was a depleted gas reservoir in Welland

County, Ontario, Canada converted to storage use in 1915. Underground storage is prevalent

throughout the world, with two exceptions, Japan and Korea. In these two countries, gas

storage is primarily in the form of LNG.

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Aquifers are underground natural water reservoirs that can, under the right circumstances, be

used for gas storage. However, aquifer storage is usually the most expensive and, thus, the

least desirable underground storage method for six reasons:

1. Geologic characteristics of a specific aquifer are generally not well known, which is

usually not the case with a depleted gas or oil field, and, consequently, considerable

resources must be expended to determine the suitability of the aquifer for gas storage.

2. Infrastructure (wells, pipelines, dehydration facilities, compression equipment, etc.) is

unavailable at the aquifer site, whereas a depleted gas reservoir would have most of this

infrastructure in place.

3. Considerable injection pressure may be required to displace the water with gas.

4. Withdrawn gas requires dehydration.

5. Aquifer formations generally require a much higher level of cushion or base gas (up to

80% of the total gas volume) than do depleted fields or salt caverns, and, thus, less of the

reservoir volume is usable.

6. Environmental regulations govern the use of aquifers for gas storage.

All of the above factors increase both the capital cost and time necessary for development of

aquifer storage. Consequently, depleted fields and salt caverns are normally preferred.

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Figure: Generating underground-storage salt caverns by leaching with fresh water.

A common and relatively inexpensive technique for creating large storage facilities is

solution mining of underground salt beds. After the salt bed has been located and the

appropriate well or wells drilled, a coaxial pipe is inserted in the well bore. Water is then

pumped down the annulus of the pipe, and the dissolved brine is withdrawn through the inner

pipe. The cavern formed tends to be free from fractures that would permit gas leaks and is

well suited for pressurized gas storage.

Dr. T. Saikia