Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Advance Fluid Lab Manual
Advance Fluid Lab Manual
Advance Fluid Lab Manual
LAB MANUAL
FALL 2019
SECTION CV-A1
SUBMITTED BY
SUBMITTED TO
1 List of Equipment 3
3 Pelton Turbine
4 Francis Turbine
5 Centrifugal Pump
To measure the head losses (hL), type of flow friction factor (f) and Reynold’s number (R n)
in a smooth pipe of uniform diameter (d)
a) Also plot the relationship between hydraulic gradient (i), velocity of flow (v)
b) Friction factor (f) and Reynold’s number (Rn)
Apparatus
------------------
------------------
------------------
------------------
Objectives
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Theory
Steady flow:-
Conditions of flow are constant w.r.t. time at a particular section of stream.
For example flow through a pipe of constant diameter with constant discharge.
Unsteady flow:-
Conditions of flow are not constant w.r.t time at a particular section of stream.
For example flow through a pipe of constant diameter with fluctuating discharge.
Uniform flow:-
Constant flow from section to section at any instant of time.
For example flow through a pipe of constant diameter with constant discharge.
Non-uniform flow:-
Conditions of flow are not constant from section to section at any instant of time.
Laminar flow:-
The type of flow in which fluid particles move in lamination and path of fluid particles do not
intersect each other.
In laminar flow the velocity of flow is lesser.
Viscous forces are dominant
For laminar flow in pipes, Reynolds’s Number “RN” < 2,000
Turbulent Flow:-
It is a type of flow in which particles of fluid move in disorderly manner and the path of fluid
particles intersect each other. Particles have velocity component in lateral direction also
For turbulent flow in pipes, Reynolds’s Number “RN” > 4,000.
Transitional flow:-
It is type of flow where both laminar and turbulent flows occur at same time.
We have considered transitional flow as turbulent flow because in transitional flow both
laminar and turbulent are present and turbulent produce more losses so it is more critical, for
this reason we have considered transitional flow as turbulent flow.
Critical point:-
It is a point on log-log plot for “� v” at which flow changes from laminar to turbulent for
increasing order of discharge or from turbulent to laminar for decreasing order of discharge
without considering transitional flows.
Critical velocity:-
It is the velocity of flow in the pipe at which flow in the pipe changes from laminar to turbulent
or vice versa or it is the velocity corresponding to critical point.
Critical Reynolds Number:-
Piezometer:-
It is a device to measure the difference of pressure heads b/w the two
sections where it is connected.
Setting of Piezometer:-
The process of removal of air from the tubes of piezometer before its
use is called setting of piezometer.
; Z1 = Z2
Uniform diameter so V1 = V2
Y = m2x + C
Log � =m2 Log v +C
Let
C = Log K
Then the equation becomes
Log � =m2 Log v +Log K
So
Log � = Log K
�=K
Similarly the graph of log ƒ log RN will result in
ƒ=K
Procedure:
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Precautions:
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
To verify Impulse Momentum Principle for a jet of water striking on different deflectors
Apparatus
-------------------------
-------------------------
-------------------------
-------------------------
Objective
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Theory
Precautions:
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Observations and Calculations:
Description Value Units
Diameter of nozzle (d)
X-sectional area of nozzle
Temperature
Density of water (ρ)
Distance b/w nozzle & vane
Distance from center of vane
to pivot point
Jockey weight
EXPERIMENT # 3
Apparatus
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
Objective
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Theory
Turbine:-
It is a machine, which converts hydraulic energy into mechanical energy. Hydraulic
energy is available in the river in the form of head and discharge, whereas rotation of the shaft of the
turbine gives feeling of the mechanical energy.
Impulse Turbine / Velocity Turbine
Reaction Turbine / Pressure Turbine
Impulse Turbine:-
The Pelton wheel is a water impulse turbine. It was invented by Lester Allan Pelton in the 1870s.
A turbine that is driven by high velocity jets of water or steam from a nozzle directed on to vanes or
buckets attached to a wheel. The resulting impulse (as described by Newton's second law of motion)
spins the turbine and removes kinetic energy from the fluid flow. Before reaching the turbine the fluid's
pressure head is changed to velocity head by accelerating the fluid through a nozzle. This preparation of
the fluid jet means that no pressure casement is needed around an impulse turbine.
The jet of water is open to atmosphere, so the pressure energy of the jet is zero. It has only very high
kinetic energy that is why impulse turbine is also called as Velocity Turbine.
Most types of turbine exploit the principles of both impulse turbines and reaction
turbines. However, a few, such as the Pelton turbine, use the impulse concept exclusively.
Splitter of the bucket divides the jet of water into two parts, half jet of water glides on
the one side and half on the other side of the bucket exerting an impulse force on the buckets and
torque on the runner, which will produce the rotation of the wheel. In this way hydraulic energy is
converted into mechanical energy. As the jet of water is divided into two equal parts so shaft of the
turbine is free of any axial thrust.
As jet strikes tangentially to the wheel so it is also known as Tangential Flow Turbine
Turgo Trbine:-
1. ------------------
2. ------------------
3. ------------------
4. ------------------
5. ------------------
6. ------------------
7. ------------------
8. ------------------
Nozzle:-
It is short converging tube fitted at the end of pen-stock. The nozzle is so designed that
contraction ratio is optimum for least losses, hence maximum efficiency.
The function of the spear headed needle is to regulate the flow through the nozzle
keeping constant diameter of the jet.
The splitter of the bucket is to bear full impact of the bucket and hence it is made very
strong.
The runner is made of brass. Its internal surface is made smooth to minimize the
frictional losses. Runner converts the hydraulic energy into mechanical energy and transmits the
mechanical energy into the shaft.
Shaft:-
It is a rotating rod of the turbine supported by the bearings. Runner is keyed to the
shaft which is made of mild steel.
Casing does not maintain any hydraulic pressure and has the following main functions
1. For the safety purpose or to avoid accidents.
2. To accommodates the splashing of water and to guide that water to the tail race channel.
Spring Balances:-
When a jet of water strikes the buckets it starts rotating, it means torque is applied
on the runner. This torque is measured by the spring balances by taking the difference of two scales
reading and multiplying it by the radius of the runner.
Braking Drum:-
Braking drum is used to measure the braking torque and number of revolutions
which are used to calculate the braking horse power.
Bourdon gauge:-
It is a gauge which is used to measure the pressure head of water at the base of the
nozzle.
To perform the experiment on Pelton wheel, plot its characteristics curves and determination of
its efficiency.
Apparatus
------------------------
------------------------
------------------------
------------------------
------------------------
Objective
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Theory
Braking Torque:-
Product of lever arm length and weight or load is called braking power
T = Fx L
Where
T = Braking torque
F = High reading-Low reading (on spring balance)
L = lever arm or radius of drum
Brake Horse power:-
It is the output power available at the shaft of Pelton wheel and is measured by applying
brakes to the rotating braking drum.
Gate Opening:-
It is the opening of the nozzle mouth in %age. Suppose if 6 turns are required in
anticlockwise direction for 100% opening then 3 turns are required for 50% gate opening.
This experiment is being performed on two gate openings that are 100% and 50%.
Characteristic Curves:-
It is the graphical representation of the response of pelton wheel at varying speed
efficiency, output power and braking torque.
Characteristics curves are required to study the behavior of the machine under varying
speed and to determine the important parameters of the machine like, maximum efficiency of the
machine, normal speed, maximum braking torque, maximum power and maximum speed of the turbine
etc.
Normal Speed:-
It is the speed of the shaft of the turbine (rpm) corresponding to its maximum efficiency.
Normal Braking Torque:-
It is the braking torque corresponding to maximum efficiency.
Procedure:
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Precautions:
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
To make the study of Francis reaction turbine and observation of its different parts.
Objective
Apparatus
Reaction turbine is a type of turbine in which water is supplied to the turbine under
pressure.
The pressure at the inlet of casing is very high and at the outlet is very low. The water
while passing through the vanes will exert force on the wheel, which will rotate the wheel of the turbine.
Water flowing over the vanes is always under pressure so the turbine always runs full. The pressure head
of the water while flowing over the vanes is converted into velocity head and finally the pressure reduces
to atmospheric pressure at the tail race.
Types of Reaction Turbines
Kaplan Turbine
Francis Turbine
This is so because the rate of flow along the fluid path in the volute decreases due to
continuous entry of the fluid to the runner through the openings of the guide vanes or stay vanes.
Guide Vanes:-
The basic purpose of the guide vanes or stay vanes is to convert a part of pressure energy
of the fluid at its entrance to the kinetic energy and then to direct the fluid on to the runner blades at the
angle appropriate to the design. Moreover, the guide vanes are pivoted and can be turned by a suitable
governing mechanism to regulate the flow while the load changes. The guide vanes are also known as
wicket gates.
Governor:-
Load on the turbine never remain constant, which will effect the efficiency of the
machine. Governor is a machine attached to the turbine, which keeps the revolution per minute of the
shaft constant equal to normal speed to maintain its maximum efficiency.
Pump
Pen Stock
Scroll
Fixed Guide
Moveable Guide
Objective
Apparatus
Stop watch
Theory
Pump:
A machine which converts mechanical energy into hydraulic energy (Irving 1981). It is used to move
liquids from one point to another point. It produces head (H) and flow (Q) in liquids (increase energy)
Types of Pumps:
There are many types of pumps which are available in the market, following are the common types
Centrifugal Pump
Reciprocating Pump
Pneumatic pump
Rotary Pump
Screw Pump
Chain Pump
Centrifugal pump:
It is a pump which converts mechanical energy into hydraulic energy by the action of centrifugal force
which is produced by rotating the impeller. It is believed that that the idea of lifting water by centrifugal
force was first given by an Italian scientist and engineer L.D.Vinci in the end of 16 th
century(Khurmi,1988). A centrifugal pump consists of an impeller, which carries a number of backward
curve vanes and rotates in the casing. Liquid enters the impeller through the center and work is done as it
passes centrifugally outwards so that it leaves the impeller at high velocity and in the casing part of the
kinetic energy of the fluid is converted into pressure energy.
Classification of the centrifugal pumps based on stages / No. of Impellers
Single stage centrifugal pump.
Multi-stage centrifugal pump
If the centrifugal Pump has more than one impellers keyed to the same shaft then it is called a Multi-
Stage Centrifugal Pump.
Functions
A Multistage Centrifugal Pump can be used:
1. To increase head / energy of water
2. To supply water to high-rise buildings or high levels
3. To lift water from very deep aquifers.
1) Suction Pump:
It is a pipeline connected with the pump on the upstream side. Pressure in this pipe is below
atmospheric and a small opening in this may stop working of the pump. The diameter of suction
pipe is always greater than delivery pipe. Suction pipe consist of
Strainer
Foot valve
Suction Flange
Suction Gauge
Strainer
Its is a grating or screen provided at the foot of the suction pipe, it would not allow entrance of the solid
matters e.g. wooden pieces , fishes and light stones etc. into the suction pipe which otherwise may
damage the pump.
Suction Flange
It is the flange to connect suction pipe with the pump.
Foot Valve
It is a one directional valve provided at the foot of the suction pipe. It permits flow only in one direction
i.e. towards the pump.
Functions
I. Before starting the pump it facilitates to hold the primed water in the suction pipe
and casing.
II. After switching off the pump, it keeps water in the suction pipe and does not
allow to drain (if 100% water tight).
I. Spiral Casing:
It is an airtight chamber, which accommodates the rotating impeller. The area of flow of the
casing gradually increases in the direction of flow of water to convert kinetic energy into pressure
energy.
II. Impellers:
These are rotating wheels in centrifugal pump and consist of series of radial backward curved
blades or vanes in between two circular discs. Water enters at center of impeller and moves more
or less radially outward and then leaves the impeller with very high kinetic energy.
IV. Shaft:
It is a rotating rod supported by the bearings. It transmit mechanical energy from the motor to the
pump.
V. Priming Funnel:
It is the funnel to prime the pump.
3) Delivery Pipe:
A pipeline provided on the downstream or delivery side of the pump is known as Delivery pipe.
The pressure in this pipe is above atmospheric.
It consists of following components.
Delivery Gauge
Delivery Flange
Delivery Valve
Delivery Pipe
A pipeline provided on the downstream or delivery side of the pump is known as Delivery Pipe. The
pressure in this pipe is above atmospheric.
It consists of the following components:
i. Delivery gauge
ii. Delivery Flange
iii. Delivery Valve
1. Delivery Gauge
It is a Bourdon Gauge connected on the delivery side of the pump to measure the pressure on delivery
side.
2. Delivery Flange
These are the flanges to connect the delivery pipe whit the Centrifugal Pump.
3. Deliver Valve
It is a gate valve on the delivery side of the pump to control or regulate the discharge.
Functions
1. To control the flow rate though the pump.
2. It also facilitates to hold the primed water on delivery side.
Underground Reservoir
Strainer
Foot Valve
Suction Pipe
Center of Impeller
Impeller
Casing of Impeller
Delivery Pipe
Diffuser Duct
Center of Impeller
Impeller
Casing of Impeller
Underground Reservoir
Objective
Determine the efficiency of Centrifugal pump & plot its Characteristic Curves
Apparatus
Centrifugal pump with gauges at delivery and suction side.
Discharge Measuring Tank.
Theory
Head
Total Head (H) is the Pressure change across a pump (outlet pressure-inlet pressure)
For Total Head (in Pascal’s), we use the equation
H = p0 – p1
Remember that the pressure displays show pressure in bar, so we multiply our answer by 100000 to give
H in Pascal’s.
Total head is simply the difference between the inlet and outlet pressure.
Hydraulic Power
The hydraulic power (sometimes known as water horse power) of the pump is given by
W2 = (p0 – p1) Q
To calculate the flow rate (Q) (in m3/s) from the pressure drop along the venture, use the formula
Q = CdA1 ﴾2∆p/ ϼ (A12 / A22 – 1) ﴿1/2
Where
A1 = Venturi Inlet Area (m2)
A2 = Venturi Throat Area (m2)
Cd = Coefficient of discharge
ϼ = Water density (kg.m3) – For clean water at room temperature we may use 1000kg.m 3 for calculations
∆p = Pressure drop across the venture (pascals’ or N.m -2
Input Power
The power input to the pump is given by
W1 = 2πNT/60 (where N = rev/min)
Overall Efficiency:
It is the ratio between Hydraulic Power (H.P) and Input Power (I.P) and is expressed in percentage
ŋp = (H.P/I.P)*100 = 100
Characteristics Curves:
These are the curves which give complete response of the centrifugal pump for efficiency, output power
and head against varying discharge from minimum to maximum.
Procedure:
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Precaution:
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
To determine the performance of Positive Displacement Pump module under the effect of
delivery pressures (varied load) at a constant speed.
Objective
Apparatus
Theory
Pump:
A pump is a device that moves fluids (liquids or gases), by mechanical action. Pumps operate by some
mechanism (typically reciprocating or rotary), and consume energy to perform mechanical work by
moving the fluid Mechanical pumps serve in a wide range of applications such as pumping water from
wells in the energy industry for pumping oil and natural gas.
Positive displacement pumps, unlike centrifugal pumps, theoretically can produce the same flow at a
given speed (RPM) no matter what the discharge pressure. Thus, positive displacement pumps are
constant flow machines. However, a slight increase in internal leakage as the pressure increases prevents
a truly constant flow rate.
A positive displacement pump must not operate against a closed valve on the discharge side of the pump,
because it has no shutoff head like centrifugal pumps. A positive displacement pump operating against a
closed discharge valve continues to produce flow and the pressure in the discharge line increases until the
line bursts, the pump is severely damaged, or both. A relief or safety valve on the discharge side of the
positive displacement pump is therefore necessary.
reciprocating
Reciprocating pump:
A reciprocating pump is a class of positive-displacement pumps which includes the piston pump, plunger
pump and diaphragm pump. It is often used where a relatively small quantity of liquid is to be handled
and where delivery pressure is quite large. Reciprocating pumps move the fluid using one or more
oscillating pistons, plungers, or membranes (diaphragms), while valves restrict fluid motion to the desired
direction.
Rotary pump:
These pumps move fluid using a rotating mechanism that creates a vacuum that captures and draws in the
liquid.
Components of Positive Displacement Pump:
Oil Reservoir
Piston pump
Pressure relief valve
Gear-type flowmeter
Electronic pressure transducers
Thermocouple
1) Oil Reservoir:
The oil comes from an oil reservoir, through an inlet valve and through the pump. It then passes through
relief valves and a delivery valve. It then passes through a flowmeter and back to the oil reservoir. The oil
reservoir has a level indicator, so it can be visualized that how much oil it contains.
2) Piston pump:
The pump is a twin piston pump. It has an off-center cam that pushes two small vertically-opposed
pistons up and down alternatively in cylinders. They move oil through one-way valves from the inlet to
outlet. The swept volume of each cylinder determines the volume of fluid moved for every revolution.
Because the pump uses just two pistons, it creates high pressure pulses in the fluid at the output.
This valve used for safety purpose to regulate or pass the pressure without pulsation or disturbance in
flow.
The oval gear framework is perfect for measuring the oil flow in the oil circuit. It works best with viscous
fluids and gives small pressure loss compared with other flowmeters. It is two oval gearwheels that rotate
together, turned by the force of the flow that passes through them. They only allow fixed volume of fluid
to pass for each revolution. A sensor detects the gearwheels rotating.
Electronic pressure transducers in the circuit measure the oil pressure at the inlet to the pump and at the
outlet of the pump. The delivery pressure transducer measures pressure downstream of the pressure relief
valve.
6) Thermocouple:
A thermocouple is attached to a digital display and measures the oil temperature to help find its viscosity.
Mechanical power/Input power:
This is simply the shaft power at the pump. The universal dynamometer couples directly to the shaft of
the pump. So, the shaft power displayed by the motor drive is the shaft power /input power at the pump.
Pinp = Pout + PL
In a real pump, there are losses due to mainly friction. So for real pump, the hydraulic power /output
power it adds to the fluids is always less than the shaft power given to the pump.
Hydraulic/Output power:
The hydraulic power that the pump adds to the fluid is a product of the flow through the pump and the
increase in pressure (head) it gives:
Pout = (p2 – p1)Q
Pump Efficiency:
It is a simple ratio of hydraulic power out against shaft power input to the pump.
ɳp = Pout/ Pinp x 100
Volumetric Efficiency & the Expected (Theoretical) Flow:
Volumetric efficiency is an indication of how well the pump has moved an expected volume of fluid. It is
the ratio of the actual volume of fluid moved in a given time against the expected volume of fluid moved.
So use the total swept volume (Vs) in the pump to find the expected flow.
The flowmeter measures the actual volume flow (Q). The expected volume flow is the product of the
swept volume (cc/rev) and the speed of the pump (Np).
Expected volume flow = Vs x Np
From this, the volumetric efficiency:
ɳv = Q / (Vs x Np) x 100
Plot the characteristic curves of the above observations to determine the response (efficiency, output
power, flow rate and head) of the pump corresponding to varied load.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------