PH8151 ENGINEERING PHYSICS

Properties of Matter
Unit I- Properties of Matter
Elasticity-Stress strain diagram and its uses. Factors affecting elastic modulus
and tensile strength- torsional stress and deformations twisting couple- trosion
pendulum theory and Experiment -bending of beams bending moment –cantilever;
theory and experiment-uniform and non-uniform bending;Theory and experiment-I-
Shaped girders-Stress due to bending in beams.

1.Introduction Elasticity is the property by which a body resists change in its size or
shape when an external force is acting on it and returns to the original state after the
removal of the deforming force.

1.1 CLASSIFICATION OF ELASTIC MATERIALS

Elastic materials are classified into two types:

➢ Perfectly elastic
➢ Plastic

Materials which recover their original state after the removal of the deforming
force are called perfectly elastic materials. Materials which do not recover their original
state even after the removal of deforming force are called as plastic materials. A
material which does not undergo any relative displacement of its parts when an
external force acts on it, however large it may be, is called a perfectly rigid material.

No substance is perfectly elastic or perfectly plastic, since every

substance tends to regain its equilibrium condition at least partially.

A quartz fibre which recovers most of its original state after a large
deforming force is removed can be considered as perfectly elastic body. But a perfectly
plastic body like putty can recover its original state only if the deforming force applied is
very small.

1.2 Fundamental Definitions

1.2.1 Restoring Force
When an external force acts on a body to cause deformation, forces of
reaction comes into play internally and tends to restore the body to its
original condition. These internal forces are called restoring forces.

1.2.2 Stress
The restoring force or recovering force per unit area is called stress.
 Stress = Restoring force = F
Area A
-2
Stress is expressed in Nm or Pascal.

1.2.3 Strain
The ratio of the change in dimension produced by an external force to its
original dimension is known as strain. The nature of the strain depends on
the nature of the deforming forces. Strain has no unit and dimension.
The ratio of change in length per unit length is known as linear strain
or longitudinal strain. It is created by longitudinal stress.
When equal and opposite forces act tangentially along two opposite
faces of a cube, a change in shape is produced. Such a strain is called
shearing strain.
When an equal inward or outward force is applied normal to each
face of a cube, a change in volume is produced. The ratio of the change
in volume per unit volume is known as volume strain.

1.3 Hooke’s Law

Robert Hooke, in 1679, proposed a relation between stress and strain.
The maximum value of the stress within which a body completely
regains its original condition of shape and size when the deforming
forces are removed is known as the elastic limit.
Hooke’s law states that within the elastic limit, the ratio of the stress
to the strain is constant. This constant is called the modulus of elasticity
of the material.

Stress α strain
Stress = a constant X Strain

=Constant

The constant is a proportionality constant which is known as modulus

of elasticity.

1.3.1 Types of Moduli of Elasticity

There are three modulus of elasticity:
• Young’ modulus (Y)
• Bulk modulus (K)
• Rigidity modulus (n)

1.3.2 Young’s Modulus of Elasticity (Y)

It is the ratio of longitudinal (tensile) stress to longitudinal strain. It is
denoted by Y.
Longitudinal or linear stress
Young’s modulus Y = (1.1)
Longitudinal or linear strain
 Consider a wire of length L and area of
cross section A. One end of it is fixed while
the other end is loaded as shown in Figure
2.1. Let l be the extension produced in the L Wire

wire for the given load.

F –2
Longitudinal stress = Nm
A F
l
l
L
Figure 2.1 Young’s
Young’s modulus of elasticity modulus of
F / A FL –2 elasticity
Y= = Nm or Pascal
l/L Al
(1.2)

1.3.3 Bulk Modulus(K)

Suppose euqal forces act perpendicular to the six faces of a cube of volume V as shown
in Due to the action of these forces, let the decrease in volume be dV.
Now, Bulk stress = Force/Are = F/ A
Bulk Strain = change in volume / original volume = -dV/V
(The negative sign indicates that volume decreases.)
Bulk modulus of the material of the object is defined as the ratiobulk stress to bulk
strain.
It is denoted by k
Bulk modulus = Bulk stress / Bulk strain
K = -PV/dV

1.3.4 Rigidity Modulus

Consider a solid cube ABCDEFGH whose lower face EFGH is fixed. A
tangential force F is applied on the upper face ABCD . Due to the application of
the force, an equal and opposite force comes into play on the lower fixed face
EFGH. These two forces form a couple, which makes the layers parallel to the
two faces to move one over the other. Thus, the point A shifts to A¢, B to B¢, C
to C¢ and D to D¢ (Figure 2.3).
The line joining the two faces turn through an angle q. The face ABCD
is said to be sheared through an angle q.
The shearing stress is the tangential force per unit area of the face
ABCD.
Shearing stress
Rigidity modulus n = (1.5)
Shearing strain
F –2
Sharing stress = A Nm
l
Sharing strain = tan q = L

As q is very small, tan q can be written as q.

Shearing strain = q = l
L F/A F –2
Rigidity modulus of elasticity n = q = Aq Nm or Pascal
 ¢
B B C C¢
F
l l
A A¢ q D D¢ q

L E H
q F q

F G
Figure 1.3 Rigidity modulus of elasticity

1.4 Stress-Strain Diagram

Consider a body subjected to a uniformly increasing stress which results
in a change in its dimension. The elastic behavior of a material is
studied from the graph plotted between different stresses applied to the
material and the corresponding strain produced in it. This graph, as
shown in Figure 1.7, is called stress-strain curve.

Figure 1.7 Stress-strain curve

Stress strain curve has different regions and points. These regions and points are:
(i). Proportional limit
(ii). Elastic limit
(iii). Yield point
(iv). Ultimate stress point
(v). Fracture or breaking point.

(i). Proportional Limit: It is the region in the strain curve which obeys hookes law i.e. within
elastic limit the stress is directly proportion to the strain produced in the material. In this limit
the ratio of stress with strain gives us proportionality constant known as young’s modulus. The
point OA in the graph is called the proportional limit.

(ii). Elastic Limit: It is the point in the graph upto which the material returns to its original
position when the load acting on it is completely removed. Beyond this limit the material
cannot return to its original position and a plastic deformation starts to appear in it. The point
A is the Elastic limit in the graph.

(iii). Yield Point or Yield Stress Point: Yield point in a stress strain diagram is
defined as the point at which the material starts to deform plastically. After the yield
point is passed there is permanent deformation develops in the material and which is
not reversible. There are two yield points and it is upper yield point and lower yield
point. The stress corresponding to the yield point is called yield point stress. The point
B is the upper yield stress point and C is the lower yield stress point.
(iv) Ultimate Stress Point: It is the point corresponding to the maximum stress that a
material can handle before failure. It is the maximum strength point of the material
that can handle the maximum load. Beyond this point the failure takes place. Point D
in the graph is the ultimate stress point.
(v). Fracture or Breaking Point: It is the point in the stress strain curve at which the
failure of the material takes place. The fracture or breaking of material takes place at
this point. The point e is the breaking point in the graph.

Uses of stress –strain diagram

1. It is used to measure the elastic strength yield strength and tensile strength of
metals
2. It is used to estimate the working stress and safety factor of an engineering
material.
3. This diagram is also used to identify the ductile and brittle materials.
4. The area under the curve in the elastic region gives the energy required to
deform it elastically. The area under the curve upto Ultimate Tensile
strength(UTS) gives the energy required to deform it plastically.

1.5 Factors Affecting Elasticity

The following are some of the important factors which affect the elastic
properties of solids.
• Stress: The action of large constant stress or the repeated number of
cycles of stresses acting on a body affect the elasticity of the body gradually.
Considering this fact, the working stress on an engineering material is kept
well below its ultimate tensile strength.
• Temperature: The elasticity of material decreases with the increase
of temperature. A carbon filament which is highly elastic at normal
temperatures becomes plastic when it is at high temperatures. Lead is not a
good elastic material but at low temperatures it becomes a very good elastic
material. Creep resistance is a property by which the material can withstand
 its elastic property without fracture at high temperatures and during quick
loading. Dispersion hardened materials and coarse hardened materials have
better creep resistance at high temperature. Hence they can withstand their
elastic properties even at high temperatures.
• Impurities: The elastic property of a material may increase or
decrease due to the addition of impurities. If we add carbon in minute
quantities to molten iron, the elastic properties of iron are increased
enormously. But when the carbon content is more than 1% in iron, then the
strength of iron decreases. Similarly, the addition of potassium in gold
increases the elastic properties of gold.
If any addition of impurity atoms distorts the lattice structure of the base
metal, then the elastic property of the base metal decreases. This kind of
impurity atoms generally have different atomic radii
and electronic structures from those of the base metal atoms and therefore act
as centres of distortion which decrease the elastic properties of the base metal.
• Crystalline nature: For a given metal, the modulus of elasticity is
more when it is in single crystal form. But in the polycrystalline state, its
modulus of elasticity is comparatively small, while its mechanical properties
like ductility, malleability, machinability, etc., increase. Hence,
polycrystalline form of metals is used in most of the engineering works.
• Heat treatment and metal processing: A grain of elastic material
con-sists of many small interlocking crystals. Various heat treatment pro-
cesses are adopted to get the desired physical and mechanical proper-ties
through the changes in micro constituents of the material. Anneal-ing (heating
and then slow cooling) is adopted to increase softness and ductility in the
materials. But it decreases the tensile strength and yield point of the material
due to formation of large crystal grains.
Hammering and rolling are metal processing techniques to make thin
plates and sheets. They break the grains into fine grains and increase its
elastic properties. Metals with fine grains are stronger than metals with large
or coarse grains. However for high temperature applications, materials with
large grains are used since they have high creep resistance.

1.6 Twisting Couple on a Cylinder (or Wire)

The twisting of a structural member about its longitudinal axis by two equal and
opposite torques is expressed through a certain angle.
The stress seen in this situation is not tensile or compressive, it is said
to be shearing or shear stress.
The strain in this case is measured by an angle in unit of radians
Twisting couple on a cylinder or wire:
Consider a short cylinder(or wire) of length land radius a clamped at the upper end
AB. Let a twisting couple be applied to the face A’B’ as shown by the arrow head in a
direction perpendicular to the length of the cylinder .
As a result of this external twisting couple, the radius of each circular cross-section of the
cylinder is turned about the axis of cylinder through an angle θ, called the angle of twist.
Hence the radius O’P’ is twisted through and angle θ to the position O’P’ as shown in
figure. This is called pure shear since there is no change in length or radius and only
the shape of the cylinder is changed. Due to elasticity of the material, a restoring
couple is set up inside the cylinder which is equeal and opposite to the twisting couple
under equilibrium.
A line CP on the rim of the cylinder parallel to OO’ is displaced to CP; through
an angle φ, called angle of shear, due to twisting couple. The displacement PP’ is
maximum for the points lying on the rim and goes on decreasing as we move towards
O’ , the centre of the cylinder. Let us calculate the value of the twisting couple on this
cylinder. Imagine this solid cylimnder consisting of coaxial cylindrical shells.
Consider one such cylindrical shell of radius x and thickness dx
The angle of shear φ will have the maximum value when x=a and least at O’.
But the angle of twist ‘θ’ will be the same for all shells. Since φ is small, RR’=l φ
Similarly RR’=xθ
Therefore l φ= xθ or xθ/l
Rigidity modulus N=T/ φ = where T is the shearing stress acting on the
cylinder.
T=N xθ/l
The base are of the hollow cylindrical shell of thickness dx=2πxdx
Therefore, the shearing force acting on this area = – x2.x dx

= x3 dx

Moment of this force about OO’ (axis of cylinder)= x3 dx

This expression gives the magnitude of the couple required to twist an infinitesimally
thin cylindrical shell of radius x through and angle θ. Hence th total couple, required
to twist the whole cylinder of radius ‘a’ about its own axis OO’, may be obtained by
integrating the above expression between the limits, x=0 tox=a.
Thus total couple= x3 dx = =
In the above expression if θ=1 radian, then we get,
Twisting couple per unit twist ‘C’=

This twisting couple required to produce a twist of unit radian in the cylinder is called
the torsional rigidity or modulus of torsion for the material of the cylinder.

1.7 Moment of inertia of a Torsion Pendulum

A body suspended by a thread or wire which twists first in one direction and then in the
reverse direction, in the horizontal plane is called a torsional pendulum.The first torsion
pendulum was developed by Robert Leslie in 1793.

A simple schematic representation of a torsion pendulum is given below,

The period of oscillation of torsion pendulum is given as,

Where I=moment of inertia of the suspended body; C=couple/unit twist

But we have an expression for couple per unit twist C as,

Where l =length of the suspension wire; r=radius of the wire; n=rigidity modulus of the
suspension wire
Substituting (2) in (1) and squaring,we get an expression for rigidity modulus for the
suspension wire as,

We can use the above formula directly if we calculate the moment of inertia of the disc,I as
(1/2)MR2.

Now, let I0 be the moment of inertia of the disc alone and I 1 & I2 be the moment of inertia
of the disc with identical masses at distances d 1&d2 respectively.If I1 is the moment of
inertia of each identical mass about the vertical axis passing through its centre of gravity,
then

But from equation (1) ,

Where T0,T1,T2 are the periods of torsional oscillation without identical mass,with identical
pass at position d1,d2 respectively.

Dividing equation (6) by (9) and using (5),

Therefore, the moment of inertia of the disc,

 1.8 Bending of Beams
Beams: A beam is defined as a rod or bar. Circular or rectangular of uniform cross
section whose length is very much greater than its other dimensions, such as breadth
and thickness. It is commonly used in the construction of bridges to support roofs of
the buildings etc. Since the length of the beam is much greater than its other
dimensions the shearing stresses are very small.
BENDING OF BEAMS

Beams: A beam is defined as a rod or bar. Circular or rectangular of uniform

cross section whose length is very much greater than its other dimensions, such as breadth
and thickness. It is commonly used in the construction of bridges to support roofs of the
buildings etc. Since the length of the beam is much greater than its other dimensions the
shearing stresses are very small.
Assumptions:
While studying about the bending of beams, the following assumptions have to be
made.
1. The length of the beam should be large compared to other dimensions.
2. The load(forces) applied should be large compared to the weight of the
beam
3. The cross section of the beam remains constant and hence the geometrical
moment of inertia ig also remains constant
4. The shearing stresses are negligible
5. The curvature of the beam is very small

2 Bending of a Beam and neutral axis

Let us consider a beam of uniform rectangular cross section in the figure.
A beam may be assumed to consist of a number of parallel longitudinal metallic
fibers placed one over the other and are called as filaments as shown in the figure.
 Let the beam be subjected to deforming forces as its end as shown in the
figure. Due to the deforming force the beam bends. We know the beam consist of
many filaments. Let us consider a filament AB at the beam. It is found that the
filaments(layers) lying above AB gets elongated, while the filaments lying below
AB gets compressed. Therefore the filaments i.e layer AB which remains unaltered
is taken ass the reference axis called neutral axis and the plane is called neutral
plane. Further, the deformation of any filaments can be measured with reference to
the neutral axis.

3 EXPRESSION FOR BENDING MOMENT

Let us consider a beam under the action of deforming forces. The beam bends into a
circular arc as shown in the figure. Let AB be the neutral axis of the beam. Here the
filaments above AB are elongated and the filaments below AB are compressed. The
filament AB remains unchanged.

Let PQ be the chosen from the neutral axis. If R is the radius of curvature of the
neutral axis and ᶿ is the angle subtended by it at its center of curvature’C’
Then we can write original length
PQ=Rᶿ ………………………………………………………. 1
Let us consider a filament P’Q’ at a distance ‘X’ from the neutral axis.
We can write extended length
P’Q’=(R+x)ᶿ ………………………………………………2
From equations 1 and 2 we have,
Increase in length=P’Q’-PQ
On increase in its length=(R=x)θ-Rθ
Increase in length=xθ …………………………………….3
We know linear strain=increase in length\original length
Linear strain=xθ\Rθ=x\R ………………………………4
We know, the youngs modulus of the material
Y=stress\linear strain
Or
stress=y*linear strain …………………….5
Substituting 4 in 5, we have
Stress=Yx\R
If δA is the area of cross section of the filament P’Q’, then,
The tensile force on the area δA=stress*Area
Ie. Tensile force=(Yx\R ).δa
We know the memont of force= force*Perpendicular distance
Moment of the tensile force about the neutral axis AB
or

The moment of force acting on both the upper and lower halves of the neutral axis
can be got by summing all the moments of tensile and compressive forces about the
neutral axis

SPECIAL CASES
a) Rectangular Cross section
If ‘b’ is the breadth and ‘d’ is the thickness of the beam, them

b) Circular Cross Section

1.9 NON-UNIFORM BENDING-DEPRESSION OF THE MID POINT OF A

BEAM LAODED AT THE MIDDLE THEORY
Let us consider a beam of length ‘l’ (distance between the two knife edges)
supported on the two knife edges A and B as shown in the figure. The load of weight
‘W’ is suspended at the centre ‘C’. It is found that the beam bends and the maximum
displacement is at the point ‘D’Where the load is given.
Due to the load (W) applied, at the middle of the beam the reaction W/2 is acted
vertically upwards at each knife edges. The bending is celled Non-Uniform bending
The beam may be considered as two cantilevers, whose free end carries a load of
W/2 and fixed at the point ‘D’.
Hence we can say the elevation of A above D as the depression below ‘A’. We know
the depression of a cantilever

Therefore substituting the value l and l/2 and was W/2 in the expression for the
depression of the cantilever we have

5 UNIFORM BENDING-ELEVATION AT THE CENTER OF THE BEAM

LOADED AT BOTH THE ENDS THEORY:
Let us consider a beam of negligible mass, supported symmetrically on the
two knife edges A and B as shown. Let the length between A and B is’l’. Let equal
weights W; be added to either end of the beam C and D.

Let CA=BD
Due to load applied the beam bends from position F and e into an arc of a circle and
produces as elevation ‘x’ from position F and E. Let ‘W’ be the reaction produced at
the points A and B acts vertically upwards as shown in figure.
Consider a point ‘P’ on the cross section of the beam. Then the forces acting on the
part PC of the beam are
a) Force W at ‘C’ and
b) Reaction W at A as shown in the figure

Here the clockwise moment is taken as negative and anticlockwise moment is taken
as positive.
External bending moment about P can be written as

External bending moment = Internal bending moment

We can write Equation 1 = Equation 2

Since for a given load (W) Y, Ig and R are constant the bending is called Bending.
Here it is found that the elevation ‘x’ forms an arc of the circle of radius ‘R’, as
shown in the figure.
6 DEPRESSION OF A CANTILEVER WHEN LOADED AT ITS END
CANTILEVER:
A cantilever is a beam fixed horizontally at one end loaded to the other end.
THEORY:
Let us consider a beam fixed at one end and loaded at its other end as shown in the
figure.
Due to load applied at the free end, a couple is created between the two forces
a. Force (load ‘W’) applied at the free end towards downward direction and
b. Reaction(R) acting in the upward direction at the supporting end
The external bending couple tends to bend in the clockwise direction. But since one
end of the beam is fixed, the beam cannot rotate. Therefore external bending couple
must be balanced by another equal and opposite couple, created due to elastic nature
of the body
i.e. called as internal beading moment.
Under equilibrium condition
External bending moment = Internal bending Moment

1.10 DEPRESSION OF A CANTILEVER – LOADED AT ITS ENDS

THEORY:
LET ‘I’ be the length of the cantilever OA fixed at ‘O’. Let ‘W’ be the weight
suspended (loaded) at the free end of the cantilever. Due to the load applied the
cantilever moves to a new position OA’ as shown in this figure.
Let us consider an element PQ of the beam of length dx, at a distance OP=x from the
fixed end. Let ‘C’ be the center of curvature of the element PQ and let ‘R’ be the
radius of the curvature.
Due to the load applied at the free end of the Cantilever, an external couple
(Distance between the two equal and opposite forces) is (l-x).

We know under thermal equilibrium

External bending moment = Internal bending Moment
Therefore, we can write Eqn 1 = Eqn 2

Two tangents are drawn at points P and Q, which meet the vertical line AA’ at T and
S respectively
Let the smallest depression produced from T to S = dy and
Let the angle between the two tangents = dƟ
Then we can write
Total depression at the end of the cantilever can be derived by integrating the
equation 7 within the limits ‘0’ to ‘1’.
 SPECIAL CASES:
a. RECTANGULAR CROSS SECTION
If ‘b’ is the breadth and ‘d’ is the thickness of the beam then we know

Substituting the value of Ig in equation 8 we can write

The depression produced at the free end for a rectangular cross section

b. CIRCULAR CROSS SECTION

If ‘r’ is the radius of the circular cross section, then

Substituting the value of Ig in equation 8 we can write

1.10.1 Experiment for cantilever

The experimental arrangement used to find the Young’s modulus by cantilever
is shown in Figure 2.11. One end of the given beam is fixed while the other
end is left free. A load W is suspended at the free end of the beam and a pin is
fixed vertically above it. Using a microscope, the tip of the image of the pin is
coincided at the point of cross-section. The main scale and Vernier scale
readings are noted from the microscope. Then the load is gradually increased
step by step and the corresponding readings are noted. The readings are also
taken by decreasing the load as above. The observed readings are tabulated.
From the observation, the depression y of the given beam for a load M is
determined.
 Figure 1.11 Cantilever experiment

The length of the beam from the fixed end to the weight hanger is
measured as l. The Young’s modulus of the cantilever is given by:
Wl3
Y=
3YIg
We know that W = mg (2.56)
Substitute W value in Eq. (2.56)
3
Y = Mgl (2.57)
3yIg

Table 1.1 Determination of the depression of the beam

Microscope reading Depression y for

Load M kg (m)
Loading (m) Unloading (m) Mean (m)
W
W + 50
W + 100
W + 150
W + 200
W + 250
1.11.1 Experiment for Uniform Bending
The given beam is symmetrically placed on two knife edges and loaded at
both the ends as shown in the Figure 1.14. A pin is fixed vertically at the
centre of the beam using wax. The image of the pin is obtained in the field
of view of the microscope and its tip is coincided at the centre of cross-
wire. The readings are noted in the vertical scale for the dead load W.

Figure 2.14 Uniform bending experiment

Equal weights are added on both the hangers step by step and the
readings are noted as above.
The experiment is repeated by unloading the weight. The observed
readings are tabulated in the tabular column as shown in Table 2.2.

Table 1.2 Determination of the elevation of the beam

Microscope reading Elevation y for

Load M kg (m)
Loading (m) Unloading (m) Mean (m)
W
W+50
W + 100
W + 150
W + 200
W + 250

Young’s modulus of the material of the given beam is calculated

using the expression
Y = MgXl2
8yIg

where Ig = r4 for rod shape and Ig = bd3 for rectangular shape of the
4 12
beam.
1.12 I Shaped Girders

Consider a very heavy girder supported at

its ends. Then it will bend at its centre due to
its own weight. This is an example for non-
uniform bending. The depression produced
in non-uniform bending for a rectangular
Mgl3
shape girder is given by y = 4Ybd 3 where Figure 2.15 I-shape girder
M, l, b and d are the mass, length, breadth
and thickness of the girder respectively. Y is the Young’s modulus of the
material of the girder.
It is evident from the above equation that the depression produced in
3
a girder is inversely proportional to d . A small increase in the thickness
d of the girder produces the same depression as a larger change in b.
When a beam is used as a girder, it should have minimum depression
under its own weight. Further, depression of the girder should be small for a
given load. This can be achieved by decreasing l, increasing Y, b and d.
If l is decreased to get minimum depression, it is not economical in
many respects. By selecting the girder material with high Young’s
modulus, one can get small depression. It is more economical to have a
large thickness and a small breadth.
For the purpose of stability, the upper and lower parts of the cross-
section will be made broader so that the section will have the shape of I.
When a girder is supported at its ends, its middle part is depressed
and the surfaces above and below its neutral surface are compressed
and extended respectively. Compression is maximum at the upper face
and extension is maximum at the lower face. Hence the upper and
lower faces must be much stronger than its middle portion. The middle
portion of the girder may be made of a small breadth than the upper and
lower faces, thus saving a good amount of material with no loss in its
strength. This makes the girder to get the shape of I (Figure 2.15).

Advantages of I-shaped Girders

• They have very small depression even for a large dynamical load.
• There is a good amount of material saving with no loss in its
strength. Therefore, they are cheaper than the solid girders.

Applications of I-shaped Girders

• They are used in the construction of bridges over the rivers.
• They are employed in railway tracks.
• They are used in the construction of buildings and dams.