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Michael Grossman: The Journal of Political Economy, Vol. 80, No. 2. (Mar. - Apr., 1972), Pp. 223-255
Michael Grossman: The Journal of Political Economy, Vol. 80, No. 2. (Mar. - Apr., 1972), Pp. 223-255
Michael Grossman
The Journal of Political Economy, Vol. 80, No. 2. (Mar. - Apr., 1972), pp. 223-255.
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Mon Dec 3 00:46:51 2007
On the Concept of Health Capital
and the Demand for Health
Michael Grossman
National Bureau of Economic Research
The aim of this study is to construct a model o f the demand for the
commodity "good health." The central proposition o f the model is that
health can be viewed as a durable capital stock that produces an output
o f healthy time. It is assumed that individuals inherit an initial stock
o f health that depreciates with age and can be increased b y investment.
In this framework. the "shadow price" of health depends on many other
variables besides the price of medical care. It is shown that the shadow7
price rises with age i f the rate o f depreciation on the stock of health
rises over the life cycle and falls with education i f more educated people
are more efficient producers o f health. O f particular importance is the
conclusion that, under certain conditions, an increase in the shadow,
price may simultaneously reduce the quantity o f health demanded and
increase the quantity o f medical care demanded.
I. Introduction
During the past two decades, the notion that individuals invest in them-
selves has become widely accepted in economics. At a conceptual level,
increases in a person's stock of knowledge or human capital are assumed
to raise his productivity in the market sector of the economy, where he
produces money earnings, and in the nonmarket or household sector,
where he produces commodities that enter his utility function. T o realize
commodity in the ith period.' Note that, whereas in the usual inter-
temporal utility function n, the length of life as of the planning date, is
fixed, here it is an endogenous variable. I n particular, death takes place
when H i = Hmi,. Therefore, length of life depends on the quantities of
H i that maximize utility subject to certain production and resource con-
straints that are now outlined.
By definition, net investment in the stock of health equals gross invest-
ment minus depreciation:
From the point of view of the individual, both market goods and own
time are scarce resources. The goods budget constraint equates the present
value of outlays on goods to the present value of earnings income over
the life cycle plus initial assets (discounted property income) :4
Here P, and V , are the prices of M iand Xi, Wi is the wage rate, TWi is
hours of work, A,, is discounted property income, and r is the interest rate.
The time constraint requires that Q , the total amount of time available
in any period, must be exhausted by all possible uses:
where T L , is time lost from market and nonmarket activities due to illness
or injury.
Equation ( 7 ) modifies the time budget constraint in Becker's time
model (Becker 1965). If sick time were not added to market and non-
market time, total time would not be exhausted by all possible uses. M y
model assumes that T L , is inversely related to the stock of health: that is,
a T L , / a H , < 0. If Q were measured in days ( Q = 365 days if the year
is the relevant period) and if 4, were defined as the flow of healthy days
per unit of H I , h, would equal the total number of healthy days in a
given year.5 Then one could write
B. Equilibrium Conditions
First-order optimality conditions for gross investment in period i - 1
are:8
xi-1 =
Pi- 1 -
-
wi- 1
g - ti-1 g' g'
The new symbols in these equations are: Uh, = a U / a h , = the marginal
utility of healthy days; A = the marginal utility of wealth; G, = a h , /
a H , = - ( a T L , / a H , ) = the marginal product of the stock of health in
the production of healthy days; and xi-, = the marginal cost of gross
investment in health in period i - I .
Equation (10) simply states that the present value of the marginal
cost of gross investment in period i - 1 must equal the present value of
marginal benefits. Discounted marginal benefits at age i equal
Therefore,
230 JOURNAL O F POLITICAL ECONOMY
stantaneous percentage rate of change of marginal cost at age i. For a proof, see Part
B of the Mathematical Appendix.
l 2 T O avoid confusion, a note on terminology is in order. If health were entirely an
investment commodity, it would yield monetary, but not utility, returns. Regardless of
whether health is investment, consumption, or a mixture of the two, one can speak of
a gross investment j~tnctionsince the commodity in question is a durable.
lWlsewhere, I have used a pure consumption model to interpret the set of phenom-
ena that are analyzed in Sections I11 and IV. I n the pure consumption model, the
marginal monetary rate of return on an investment in health is set equal to zero (see
Grossman 1970, chap. 3 ) .
232 JOURNAL O F POLITICAL ECONOMY
1"ince the gross investment production function is homogeneous of the first degree,
PiM, + lViTHi = nili.
CONCEPT O F HEALTH CAPITAL
the equilibrium stock is given by Hi*, where the supply and demand
curves intersect.
In the model, the wage rate and the marginal cost of gross investment
do not depend on the stock of health. Therefore, the MEC schedule would
be negatively inclined if and only if Gi, the marginal product of health
capital, were diminishing. Since the output produced by health capital has
a finite upper limit of 365 healthy days, it seems reasonable to assume
diminishing marginal productivity. Figure 2 shows a plausible relation-
ship between the stock of health and the number of healthy days. This
relationship may be called the "production function of healthy days." The
slope of the curve in the figure at any point gives the marginal product
of health capital. The number of healthy days equals zero a t the death
stock H,,i,,, so that Q = TLi = 365 is an alternative definition of death.
Beyond H,i,,, healthy time increases a t a decreasing rate and eventually
approaches its upper asymptote of 365 days as the stock becomes large.
In Sections I11 and IV, equation (14) and figure 1 are used to trace out
the lifetime path of health capital and gross investment, to explore the
effects of variations in depreciation rates, and to examine the impact of
changes in the marginal cost of gross investment. Before I turn to these
matters, some comments on the general properties of the model are in
order. I t should be realized that equation (14) breaks down whenever
desired gross investment equals zero. In this situation, the present value
of the marginal cost of gross investment would exceed the present value
of marginal benefits for all positive quantities of gross investment, and
equations (16) and (17) would be replaced by inequalities.15 The re-
mainder of the discussion rules out zero gross investment by assumption,
but the conclusions reached would have to be modified if this were not
the case. One justification for this assumption is that it is observed em-
pirically that most individuals make positive outlays on medical care
throughout their life cycles.
Some persons have argued that, since gross investment in health cannot
be nonnegative, equilibrium condition (14) should be derived by using the
optimal control techniques developed by Pontryagin and others. Arrow
(1968) employs these techniques to analyze a firm's demand for non-
salable physical capital. Since, however, gross investment in health is
rarely equal to zero in the real world, the methods I use-discrete time
maximization in the text and the calculus of variations in the Mathe-
matical Appendix-are quite adequate. Some advantages of my methods
are that they are simple, easy to interpret, and familiar to most econo-
mists. I n addition, they generate essentially the same equilibrium condition
as the Pontryagin method. Both Arrow and I conclude that, if desired
gross investment were positive, then the marginal efficiency of nonsalable
capital would equal the cost of capital. On the other hand, given zero
gross investment, the cost of capital would exceed its marginal efficiency.
The monetary returns to an investment in health differ from the returns
to investments in education; on-the-job training, and other forms of human
capital, since the latter investments raise wage rates.16 Of course, the
amount of health capital might influence the wage rate, but it necessarily
influences the time lost from all activities due to illness or injury. T o
emphasize the novelty of my approach, I assume that health is not a
determinant of the wage rate. Put differently, a person's stock of knowl-
edge affects his market and nonmarket productivity, while his stock of
health determines the total amount of time he can spend producing
money earnings and commodities. Since both market time and nonmarket
time are relevant, even individuals who are not in the labor force have an
incentive to invest in their health. For such individuals, the marginal
product of health capital would be converted into a dollar equivalent by
multiplying by the monetary value of the marginal utility of time.
Since there are constant returns to scale in the production of gross
investment and since input prices are given, the marginal cost of gross
investment and its percentage rate of change over the life cycle are
exogenous variables. In other words, these two variables are independent
of the rate of investment and the stock of health. This implies that con-
sumers r e a ~ htheir desired stock of capital immediately. I t also implies
that the stock r ~ t h e rthan gross investment is the basic decision variable
in the model. By this I mean that consumers respond to changes in the
cost of capital by altering the marginal product of health capital and not
the marginal cost of gross investment. Therefore, even though equation
(14) is not independent of equations (16) and ( 1 7 ) , it can be used to
determine the optimal path of health capital and, by implication, the
optimal path of gross investment.17
Indeed, the major differences between my health model and the human
capital models of Becker (1967) and Ben-Porath (1967) are the assump-
tions made about the behavior of the marginal product of capital and the
marginal cost of gross investment. Both Becker and Ben-Porath assume
that any one person owns only a small amount of the total stock of
human capital in the economy. Therefore, the marginal product of his
stock is constant. T o rule out solutions in which the desired stock of
capital is either zero or infinite, they postulate that the marginal cost of
producing gross additions to the stock is positively related to the rate
of gross investment. Since marginal cost rises, the desired stock of human
capital is not reached immediately. hloreover, since the marginal product
of capital is constant, gross investment is the basic decision variable in
these models.ls I n my model, on the other hand, the marginal product of
health capital falls because the output produced by this capital has a
finite upper limit. Consequently. it is not necessary to introduce the
assumption of rising marginal cost in order to determine the optimal
stock.
T o illustrate how the implications of the health and human capital
models differ, suppose the rate of depreciation on either the stock of health
or human capital rises. This upsets the equality between the cost of
capital and its marginal efficiency. T o restore this equality in the health
model, the marginal product of health capital must rise, which would
occur only if the stock of capital declines. T o restore this equality in the
human capital model, marginal cost must fall, which is possible only if
gross investment declines.'"
l': For a complete discussion of these points, see Becker (1967, pp. 5-12) and Ben-
Porath (1967, pp. 353-61). Tor models oi the demand ior physical capital by firms in
which the marginal cost of investment and the amount o i investment are positively
correlated, see, for esan~ple.Eisner and Strotz (1963) and Gould (1968).
l!'Section I11 demonstratcs t h a t an inclease in the rate oi d~preciation on health
capital might cause gross investment to increase.
236 JOURNAL O F POLITICAL ECONOMY
'O The possibility that death can occur in period 1 is ruled out from now on
CONCEPT O F HEALTH CAPITAL
The absolute value of gi increases over the life cycle because depre-
ciation's share in the cost of capital rises with age.
ai 6, dln G i -
Hi,
Y + 6, dln H,
If 6, grows continuously with age after some point in the life cycle,
persons would choose to live a finite life Since H declines over the life
cycle. it would eventually fall to H,,,. the death stock. When the cost of
health capital is r + 6, in figure 3, H, = H ,,,,,, and death occurs. At
death, no time is available for market and nonmarket activities, since
healthy time equals zero Therefore, the monetary equivalent of sick time
in period n would completely exhaust potential full earnings, W,,Q More-
over, consumption of the commodity 2, would equal zero, since no time
would be available for its production if total time equals sick time.23 Be-
cause individuals could not produce commodities, total utility would be
driven to zero a t death.'"
Having characterized the optimal path of H,, one can proceed to ex-
amine the behavior of gross investment. Gross investment's life cycle
profile would not, in general, simply mirror that of health capital. I n
other words, even though health capital falls over the life cycle, gross
investment might increase, remain constant, or decrease. This follows
because a rise in the rate of depreciation not only reduces the amount of
health capital demanded by consumers but also reduces the amount of
capital supplied to them by a given amount of gross investment. If the
change in supply exceeded the change in demand, individuals would have
an incentive to close this gap by increasing gross investment On the
other hand, if the change in supply were less than the change in demand,
gross investment would tend to fall over the life cycle.
T o predict the effect of an increase in 6, with age on gross investment,
note that the net investment can be approximated by H,H,.2s Since gross
investment equals net investment plus depreciation,
Suppose 6, and ~i were constant. Then from (19) and ( 2 0 ) , the expres-
sion for would simplify to
The above statement assumes that Z i cannot be produced with X i alone. This
would be true if, say. the production function were Cobb-Douglas.
'-'Utility equal zero when H = Hlllillprovided the death time utility function is
such that U ( 0 ) = 0.
" That is,
The use of this approximation essentially allows one to ignore the one-period lag be-
tween a change in gross investment and a change in the stock of health
CONCEPT O F HEALTH CAPITAL =39
-I , = b ( 1 - S,E)( b , - s , E ~ +) s , E ~ ~
.
-
d ,
-
d
,"
2"
6, - s,e6
Since health capital cannot be sold, gross investment cannot be nega-
tive. Therefore, 6, -g,.26 That is, if the stock of health falls over the
life cycle, the absolute value of the percentage rate of net disinvestment
-
cannot exceed the rate of depreciation. Provided gross investment does
not equal zero, the term 6, - s , ~ 6in equation (22) must exceed zero. I t
follows that a sufficient condition for gross investment to be positively
correlated with the depreciation rate is E < l/s,. Thus, 7, would definitely
be positive at every point if E < 1.
The important conclusion is reached that, if the elasticity of the M E C
schedule were less than 1, gross investment and the depreciation rate
would be positively correlated over the life cycle, while gross investment
and the stock of health would be negatively correlated. Phrased differ-
ently, given a relatively inelastic demand curve for health, individuals
would desire to offset part of the reduction in health capital caused by
an increase in the rate of depreciation by increasing their gross invest-
ments. I n fact, the relationship between the stock of health and the num-
ber of healthy days suggests that E is smaller than 1. A general equation
for the healthy-days production function illustrated by figure 2 is
since C > 0.
Observe that with the depreciation rate held constant, increases in
gross investment would increase the stock of health and the number of
healthy days. But the preceding discussion indicates that, because the
''6
-+ ,.
Gross investment is nonnegatile as long as I, = H, ( H I 6 , ) 2 0, or 6, >, - H I .
,
'7 If ( 2 1 ) were the production function, the marginal product of health capital would
be
ci= BCH;'-',
or
I n G i = 1nBC - ( C + l ) l n H i .
since the rate of depreciation and the percentage rate of net investment
do not depend on X.30 Equation ( 2 5 ) indicates that percentage changes
in health and gross illvestment for a one-unit change in X are identical.
Consequently, the effect of an increase in X on either of these two vari-
ables can be treated interchangeably.
A. Wage Effects
Since the value of the marginal product of health capital equals WG, an
increase in the wage rate, W, raises the monetary equivalent of the mar-
ginal product of a given stock. Put differently, the higher a person's wage
rate, the greater the value to him of an increase in healthy time. A con-
sumer's wage rate measures his market efficiency or the rate at which he
can convert hours of work into money earnings. Hence, it is obviously
positively correlated with the benefits of a reductior. in the time he loses
from the production of money earnings due to illness. Moreover, a high
wage rate induces an individual to substitute market goods for his own
time in the production of commodities. This substitution continues until
in equilibrium the monetary value of the marginal product of consump-
tion time equals the wage rate. So the benefits from a reduction in time
lost from nonmarket pioduction are also positively correlated with the
wage.
'!'Strictly
,.,
-
speaking, shifts in X iwould definitely have no effects on H iif and only
if Xi = 0. Even though a uniform $ift in X iimplies that-there is no correlation be-
tween its level and rate of change, H imight be altered if Xi # 0. For a complete dis-
cussion of this point, see Grossmin (1970, p. 49).
"Since the analysis in this section deals with variations in X among individuals of
the same age, time subscripts are omitted from now on. Note also that ( 2 5 ) , like the
expression for I;, ignores the one-period lag between an increase in gross investment
and an increase in the stock of health.
JOURNAL OF POLITICAL ECONOMY
If an upward shift in the wage rate had no effect on the marginal cost
of gross investment, a 1 percent increase in it would increase the rate of
return, y, associated with a fixed stock of capital by 1 percent. I n fact,
this is not the case because own time is an input in the gross investment
function. If K is the fraction of the total cost of gross investment ac-
counted for by time, then a 1 percent rise in W would increase marginal
cost, n, by K percent. After one nets out the correlation between W and
x, the percentage growth in y would equal 1 - K, which exceeds zero as
long as gross investment is not produced entirely by time.
Since the wage rate and the level of the MEC schedule are positively
correlated, the demand for health would be positively related to W.
Graphically, an upward shift in W from W 1 to W 2 in figure 4 shifts the
MEC schedule from MECl to MEC2 and, with no change in the ccst of
health capital, increases the optimal stock from H I to H z . A formula for
the wage elasticity of health capital is31
This elasticity is larger the larger the elasticity of the MEC schedule and
the larger the share of medical care in total gross investment cost
Although the wage rate and the demand for health or gross invest-
ment are positively related, W has no effect on the amount of gross in-
vestment supplied by a given input of medical care. Therefore, the demand
for medical care would rise with the wage. If medical care and own time
were employed in fixed proportions in the gross investment production
function, the wage elasticity of M would equal the wage elasticity of H.
On the other hand, given a positive elasticity of substitution, M would
increase more rapidly than H. This follows because consumers would
have an incentive to substitute medical care for their relatively more ex-
pensive own time. A formula for the wage elasticity of medical care is
c r ~ , a=
- ( 1 - K ) ( E- 0,).
This elasticity is positive only if E > o,.
2 44 JOURNAL O F POLITICAL ECONOMY
the household as well as in the market, and the analysis focuses on this
environmental variable.
The specific proposition to be examined is that education improves
nonmarket productivity. If this were true, then one would have a con-
venient way to analyze and quantify what have been termed the non-
monetary benefits to an investment in education. The model can, however,
treat adverse as well as beneficial effects and suggests empirical tests to
discriminate between the two.33
T o determine the effects of education on production, marginal cost,
and the demand for health and medical care, recall that the gross invest-
ment production function is homogeneous of degree 1 in its two direct
inputs-medical care and own time. I t follows that the marginal product
of El the index of human capital, would be
where g - tg' is the marginal product of medical care and g' is the mar-
ginal product of time.31 If a circumflex over a variable denotes a per-
centage change per unit change in E, the last equation can be rewritten as
1 M(g-tg')] ( gi-tg'P) ( THg'
I )(i).
=[
+
?'HZ--
aE I I g - tg'
(28)
Equation ( 2 8 ) indicates that the percentage change in gross investment
supplied to a consumer by a one-unit change in E is a weighted average
of the percentage changes in the marginal products of M and TH.35
If E increases productivity, then r~ > 0. Provided E raises both mar-
ginal products by the same percentage, equation ( 2 8 ) would simplify to
?'I3 The model developed here is somewhat similar to the one used by Michael (1969).
:'"i I is homogeneous of degree 1 in M and T H , then irom Euler's theorem
For a proof, see Part D of the Mathematical .4ppendix, where the human capital
formulas are developed in more detail.
fl It should be stressed that the model of nonmarket productivity variations pre-
sented here examines the partial effect of an increase in education with the wage rate
held constant. Although these two variables are surely positively correlated, this corre-
lation does not appear to be large enough to prevent one from isolating pure changes
in nonmarket productivity at the empirical level. For some evidence on this point, see
Grossman (1970, chap. 5 ) and Michael (1969, chaps. 4 and 5 ) .
:'X If W and Y+ 6 are fixed and if G depends only on H, then
JOURNAL O F POLITICAL ECONOhlY
schooling might supply him with 3 percent more health. Given this con-
dition, both persons would demand the same amounts of M and TH. AS
this example illustrates, any effect of a change in E on the demand for
~ e d i c a lcare or time reflects a positive or negative difference between
H and Y ~ : ~ ~
"!'The terms 91 and TH are equal because, by the definition of factor neutrality, E
has no effect on the ratio of the marginal product of $1 to the marginal product of TH
CONCEPT O F H E A L T H CAPITAL 247
capital, which relates the marginal efficiency of capital to the stock, and
an infinitely elastic supply curve. The equilibrium stock is determined by
the intersection of these two functions. The demand curve slopes down-
ward due to diminishing marginal productivity of health capital.
Although in recent years there have been a number of extremely in-
teresting explorations of the forces associated with health differentials
(Adelman 1963; Fuchs 1965: Larmore 1967: Newhouse 1968; Auster,
Leveson, and Sarachek 1969), these studies have not developed behav-
ioral models that can predict the effects that are in fact observed. Con-
sequently, the framework I have developed is important because of its
ability to bridge the existing gap betm~een theory and empiricism in the
anzlysis of health differentials. J l y model explains variations in both
health and medical care among persons in terms of variations in supply
and demand curves for health capital. This paper has traced upward
shifts in the supply curve to increases in the rate of depreciation on the
stock of health with ape, and it has traced upward shifts in the demand
curve to increases in the wage rate and education.
One prediction of the model is that if the rate of depreciation increases
with age, at least after some point in the life cycle, then the quantity of
health capital demanded would decline over the life cycle. At the same
time, provided the elasticity of the marginal efficiency of capital schedule
were less than unity, expenditures on medical care would rise with age.
A second prediction is that a consumer's demand for health and medical
care should be positively correlated with his wage rate. A third prediction
is that if education increases the efficiency with which gross investments
in health are produced, then the more educated would demand a larger
optimal stock of health. On the other hand, given a relatively inelastic
demand curve, the correlation between medical outlays and education
would be negative. I t should be noted that one of the advantages of the
model is that it enables one to study the effects of demographic variables
like age and education without assuming that these variables are posi-
tively or negatively correlated with consumers' "tastes" for health. In-
stead, these variables enter the analysis through their impact on either
the cost of health capital or its marginal efficiency, and one can make
strong predictions concerning their effects on health levels or medical
care.
I t must be admitted that this paper has made a number of simplifying
assumptions, all of which should be relaxed in future work. A more gen-
eral model would treat the depreciation rate as an endogenous variable
and would not rule out periods in which the optimal amount of gross
investment is zero. Most important of all, i t would modify the assump-
tion that consumers fully anticipate intertemporal variations in depre-
ciation rates and, therefore, know their age of death with certainty. Since
in the real world length of life is surely not known with perfect foresight,
248 JOURNAL OF POLITICAL ECONOMY
Appendix A
Mathematical Appendix
where Ci = P,MI + +
W I T H Land CIi = V i X i WiTi. Differentiating L with re-
spect to gross investment in period i - 1 and setting the partial derivative
equal to zero, one obtains
ahi dHi
Uhi ---
d~~ d r i P l
+ uhi+i-- dHi+l
dhi+l
Wn(dTL,/dH,)/(dHn/a~i-1)
But
+...-I-
(1 + T)"
dhi aH, aHi+l dHn
-= G,, --- -
- 1, -= (1 - &),---
a~~ a ~ ~ - a I~L - ~ dI$- I
dC,- 1 - d TL,
( I - hl) . .. ( 1 -? i m - 1 ) ) - - -
- n,-,, and -- -
- -Ga.
dl&-1 dH1
Therefore,
B. Time
Utility 112axi~~zisatio~z-Colzti~~oz~s
Let the utility function be
U = J nzi f ( + i H iZi)di,
, (A41
where mi is the weight attached to utility in period i. Equation iA4) defines an
additive utility function, but any monotonic transformation of this function
could he employed.-" Let all household production functions he homogeneous of
degree 1. Then C, = rr,Ii. C,i = qiZi?%nd full wealth can be written as
R = J e-"(x,I, + q,Z, + W,TL,)di. (A51
By definition,
where
41 Strotz (1955-56) has shown, however, that certain restrictions must be placed on
the mi I n particular, the initial consumption plan will be fulfilled if and only if ma=
( m o )& .
*"he variable q, equals the marginal cost of Zi.
250 JOURNAL OF POLITICAL ECONOMY
Consequently,
C . W a g e Ejects
T o obtain the wage elasticities of medical care and the time spent producing
health, three equations must be partially differentiated with respect to the wage.
These equations are the gross investment production function and the two first-
order conditions for cost minimization:
+
l ( M , T H ; E ) = M g ( t ; E ) = (g 6 ) H ,
W = ng',
P = n ( g - tg').
Since I is linear homogenous in M and TH,
0, = ( g - tg')g'
I ( [ d ( g- t g ' ) ]j d T H ) '
-dg' - - -
1 (g-tg'lg'
>
~ T -H t lo,
CONCEPT OF H E A L T H CAPITAL
2~
THM
(zjto,TBM + I X E
Therefore
dM THM
dll' Ix
252 JOURNAL O F POLITICAL ECONOMY
D . T h e Role of Hz~n$anCapital
To convert the change in productivity due to a shift in human capital into a
change in average or marginal cost, let the percentage changes in the marginal
products of medical care and own time for a one-unit change in human capital
be given by
A A A A
A
A
H =M
A
A
+r ~ .
Appendix B
i . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Age
C, . . . . . . . . . . . . Service flow per unit stock or number of healthy days per unit
stock
ai . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rate of depreciation
M i . . . . . . . . . . . . Medical care
W i . . . . . . . . . . . . Wage rate
A , . . . . . . . . . . . . Initial assets
r . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rate of interest
T W , . . . . . . . . . ..Hours of work
R . . . . . . . . . . . . Full wealth
w
xi . . . . . . . . . . . . . Percentage rate of change of marginal cost
by time
a, . . . . . . . . . . . . Elasticity of substitution betwen medical care and own time in
the production of gross investment
254 JOURNAL O F POLITICAL ECONOMY
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[Footnotes]
10
Optimal Advertising Policy under Dynamic Conditions
Marc Nerlove; Kenneth J. Arrow
Economica, New Series, Vol. 29, No. 114. (May, 1962), pp. 129-142.
Stable URL:
http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0013-0427%28196205%292%3A29%3A114%3C129%3AOAPUDC%3E2.0.CO%3B2-I
18
Adjustment Costs in the Theory of Investment of the Firm
J. P. Gould
The Review of Economic Studies, Vol. 35, No. 1. (Jan., 1968), pp. 47-55.
Stable URL:
http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0034-6527%28196801%2935%3A1%3C47%3AACITTO%3E2.0.CO%3B2-9
41
Myopia and Inconsistency in Dynamic Utility Maximization
R. H. Strotz
The Review of Economic Studies, Vol. 23, No. 3. (1955 - 1956), pp. 165-180.
Stable URL:
http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0034-6527%281955%2F1956%2923%3A3%3C165%3AMAIIDU%3E2.0.CO%3B2-%23
References
NOTE: The reference numbering from the original has been maintained in this citation list.
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