Chlamydomonas

Systematic Position
Occurrence
• Chlamydomonas is frequently found free swimming in freshwater of all
types such as in ponds, pools and lakes.
• A few species occur in brackish and marine waters.
• C. braunii is a fresh-water species, whereas C. perpusilla is found in
brackish waters. C. ehrenbergii occurs in marine waters. C. reinhardtii is
common in both fresh water and brackish water.
• Some species of Chlamydomonas form a green scum above the surface of
water.
• Chlamydomonas generally prefers habitat rich in ammonium compounds.
• Some species are also found in terrestrial habitats such as moist soil, in snow
and ice. C. nivalis occurs on snow and can colour the snow red due to the
accumulation of pigment known as haematochrome or astaxanthin (red
carotenoid) in its cells.
• A few species of Chlamydomonas are epizoic, living symbiotically on the
external surface of animals (e.g., C. hydrae on the surface of fresh-water
• polyp).
Morphology and Ultrastructure
• Chlamydomonas thallus is a
unicellular, green, motile, biflagellate
structure.
• Chlamydomonas cell could be oval,
spherical, ellipsoidal, oblong or pear
shaped in different species.
• Dimensions of the Chlamydomonas
vegetative cell: about 30 μm in length
and about 20 μm in diameter.
• Flagella emerge through pores in the
cell wall.
• Inner to the cell wall is present a
protoplast which is differentiated into
a plasma membrane, a single distinct
nucleus, cytoplasm, two contractile
vacuoles, a massive cup shaped
chloroplast, pyrenoid, an eyespot and
other cell organelles such as
mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum,
Golgi bodies, and true vesicles.
Vacuoles and numerous dense
granules called volutin granules
(polyphosphate bodies) are present in
the cytoplasm.
 Cell Wall
• The cell is delimited by a definite cell wall.

• It is pinched out anteriorly into a papilla in several species.

• Early reports referred to Chlamydomonas cell wall as cellulosic.

• The multilayered cell wall is not composed of cellulose, but rather the
major constituents are hydroxyproline rich glycoproteins.

• In C. reinhardtii , the wall is a complex structure containing seven

layers.
• When growing in conditions in which liquid water is limiting, cells may
occur as palmelloid stages that are groups of nonflgellate cells held
together by common mucilage rich in hydroxyproline and sugars.

• When palmelloid aggregates are exposed to water, the mucilage gets

dissolved and the cells typically transform to flagellates.
 Flagella

• The anterior side of the cell has two whiplash type (the flagella with a smooth surface
without hairs) of flagella which are of equal length (Fig. 3 )
• . Each flagellum originates from a basal granule/body or blepharoplast and shows a typical
9 + 2 arrangement of microtubules.
• The flagella of motile cells have a tendency to be shed under several circumstances. This
abscission of flagella is termed as ‘Autotomy of flagella’ which is a common phenomenon
among the Volvocales.
• Abscission occurs at a precise site at the base of shaft immediately before the transition
zone. Two contractile vacuoles are present at the anterior end of the cell, one near the
base of each flagellum.
Neuromotor Apparatus
• Flagella are associated with
neuromotor apparatus which
provides a connection between
the flagella and the nucleus.
• Flagella are connected with the
nucleus through the neuromotor
apparatus of the cell (Fig. 4 ).
• The neuromotor apparatus
consists of three main parts: (1)
Basal body or blepharoplast (2)
Paradesmos, a transverse fibre
connecting the two
blepharoplasts (3) Rhizoplast, a
delicate, descending thread
connecting one of the
blepharoplasts with the
centrosome.
• The centrosome stays connected
with the nucleolus by many thin
fibrils. Centrosome could be
intranuclear or may be situated
outside the nucleus.
Chloroplast
• Chloroplast in Chlamydomonas is usually
single, massive and cup-shaped and is
needed for photosynthesis.

• Chloroplast is parietal in position (located

in the peripheral part of the cytoplasm).

• It occupies the lower broader part. It is

generally of cup-shaped and parietal.

• (However, the chloroplast is variable in

shape, such as H-shaped in C. biciliata;
parietal in C. mucicola; reticulate in C.
reticulata and stellate in C. arachne).

• Chloroplast has single pyrenoid with a

starch sheath. The number is also variable
and it may be two (C. debaryana) to many
(C. gigantae). Sometimes they may be
numerous and distributed irregularly
inside the chloroplast (C. sphgnicola).
Pyrenoid and Eyespot
• In Chlamydomonas , the pyrenoid is located in the lower part of the chloroplast. Usually a
single pyrenoid is present, however, it may be two to several in some species.
Chlamydomonas cells are phototactic. The motile vegetative and reproductive cells of
Chlamydomonas have a small pigmented bright reddish or brownish red eye-spot or stigma
which senses light.

• Eyespot is an oval photoreceptive organ and is present on the anterior side of the chloroplast.

• Eyespot remains embedded in the chloroplast.

• The eyespot of Chlamydomonas reinhardtii is composed of two ordered layers of lipid
(carotenoid) globules surrounded by the chloroplast. The outermost carotenoid rich globule
layer is in contact with the specialized regions of the two surrounding chloroplast membranes
and the bordering plasma membrane.. The plasma membrane and the surrounding outer
chloroplast membrane above the eyespot are characterized by the presence of numerous
intramembrane particles. The photoreceptors are believed to be situated in that plasma
membrane patch.

• Phototaxis is accomplished by the modulation of intensity of light reaching to its

photoreceptors present in the eyespot apparatus.
 Reproduction
• Chlamydomonas reproduces by asexual and
sexual methods.
 Asexual Reproduction

• Asexual reproduction in Chlamydomonas takes

place mainly by zoospores but can also occur
through aplanospores, hypnospores and palmella
stage.
 Zoospore formation:
• Generally zoospores are formed
during the night.
• At the time of zoospore formation
parent cell comes to rest,
withdraws its flagella, contractile
vacuoles disappear and the
protoplast withdraws from the cell
wall.
• In this immobile state the
cytoplasm, chloroplast and the
nucleus divide longitudinally into
two daughter protoplasts.
• The second division is at right
angles to the first division.
• In this way 4, 8 or 16 uninucleate
protoplasts are formed by
successive mitotic divisions within
the parent cell wall.
 Zoospore formation (Contd.)
• After mitosis and the cytokinesis takes place
• Cytokinesis occurs by furrowing
• Each daughter protoplast secretes a new cell
wall, develops flagella, contractile vacuoles and
a neuromotor apparatus.
• The flagellate daughter cells are similar to the
parent cell in shape and structure but are
smaller in size.
• The parent cell wall ruptures or gelatinizes and
the daughter cells are released.
• The daughter cells are released from the
parental cell wall by production of specific wall
autolysins that digest the cell wall.
• These daughter cells are called zoospores or
mitozoospores.
• The liberated zoospores increase in size and
are capable of producing new zoospores after
24 h, hence the process is repeated.
• Under certain conditions zoospores fail to
escape from the gelatinous parent cell wall and
remain clustered together. This stage is known
as palmella stage.
 Aplanospore Formation
• Under unfavorable conditions
such as drought, the
Chlamydomonas cells come to
rest and withdraw their flagella.
• The protoplast withdraws from
the parent wall and rounds up.
• Protoplast divides into daughter
protoplasts and each daughter
protoplast secretes thin wall
around itself but does not
develop flagella.
• Each aplanospore germinates
into a new individual resembling
the parent. To survive severe
drought conditions aplanospore
secretes a thick wall around it.
This thick walled resting spore is
called a hypnospore.
Palmella Stage
• Under certain unsuitable conditions the protoplast of the
parent cell divides to form 4–8 daughter cells and they do
not develop flagella.

• These non-motile cells stay clustered together within the

mucilaginous matrix formed by gelatinization and swelling
of the parent cell wall. This assemblage of cells in a
common gelatinous matrix is called ‘palmella stage’. This
stage is temporary perennating stage and is of brief
duration.
• Under favorable conditions (e.g., presence of water) the
individual cells in these palmelloid phases readily
develop flagella and return to the motile condition.
• These cells then escape out from the mucilaginous
matrix and mature into large vegetative cells.
• Sometimes in severe drought conditions the individual
cells of the palmella stage secrete a thick wall around
them and develop into red non-motile resting spores
called the hypnospores.
• Contents of hypnospores include a red pigment called
haematochrome which imparts red colour to the
hypnospore. Palmella stage is very common in C. kleinii
and C. braunii
Sexual Reproduction
 Isogamy
• Isogamous reproduction is characterized by a
similarity in size, form and structure between
the fusing gametes.
• The sexual reproduction starts with the
division of the cell protoplast into 8, 16, 32 or
64 daughter protoplasts.
• Each daughter protoplast acquires two flagella
and is called a gamete or isogamete.
• The biflagellate gamete is usually naked and
has no cell wall.
• These gametes are smaller than zoospores.
• The gametes are released from the parental
cell wall by production of specific wall
autolysins that digest the cell wall.
• The liberated gametes swim in the surrounding
water for a while. The flagellar surface of
gametes is covered by linear glycoprotein
molecules called agglutinins. These chemical
substances are involved in the recognition of
gametes of the opposite strains and promote
the adhesion of flagella of cells of opposite
mating types. These molecules are absent in
the flagella of the vegetative cells.
 Isogamy (contd.)
• In isogamous forms mating types are usually designated
as mt + and mt − .
• Tips of the flagella adhere initially; afterwards the flagellar
pairs become attached through their whole length.
• The gametes of both the strains fuse at their anterior
ends.
• Isogamous sexually reproducing species can be classified
into homothallic ( C. debaryanum , C. longistigma , C.
media ) and heterothallic ( C. reinhardtii , C. moewusii ).
• In homothallic species fusion takes place between the
gametes produced in the same parent cell. Once the
gametes are released from the parent cell wall they swim
for a while in the surrounding water and then fuse in pairs
to form a zygote.
• In heterothallic species fusion takes place between the
gametes produced in two different parent cells of
opposite mating strains.
• One of these is designated as a plus strain (+) and the
other as minus (−) strain. Once the gametes of plus strain
get into contact with a minus strain they fuse to form a
zygote. Hence the isogametes are morphologically similar
but functionally different as one belongs to the plus strain
and the other to the minus strain
 Anisogamy: fusion takes place between dissimilar gametes, the anisogametes.
• Chlamydomonas can be
categorized into physiological
anisogamy and morphological
anisogamy.
• In physiological anisogamy (e.g.,
C. monoica ) the fusing gametes
are morphologically identical
but different in their behavior
i.e., one gamete may be more
active than the other.
• Physiological anisogamy is a
primitive type of anisogamy,
whereas morphological
anisogamy is an advanced type
of anisogamy.
 Anisogamy (contd.)
• In morphological anisogamy the fusing gametes
(male and female) differ noticeably in size e.g., C.
braunii . The anisogametes differing in their size
can be designated as male and female.

• Gametes are produced in specialized cells called

gametangia.
• The male gamete is small and active, whereas the
female gamete is large and passive.
• These anisogametes come in contact with each
other through their anterior end and the wall at
the point of fusion dissolves.
• Fusion of the gametes takes place externally in the
surrounding water.

• The protoplast of one of the gamete

(microgamete) escapes from its cell wall and flows
entirely into the envelope of the other gamete
(the macrogamete) to fuse with it.

• A zygote is formed in the cell envelope of the

macrogamete.
• The anisogamous species are all heterothallic or
dioecious.
 Oogamy
• Oogamous sexual reproduction is the most advanced
type of sexual reproduction and has been observed in
C. coccifera and C. ooganum .
• Distinct male and female sex organs are formed.
• The female mother cell withdraws its flagella and its
protoplast rounds off to form a single globose
macrogamete or female gamete which is considered
equivalent to egg cell. The large globose macrogamete
does not have any flagella and is immobile.
• Male parent cell divides by 4 divisions to form 16
spherical biflagellate microgametes or male gametes.
• Both microgamete and macrogamete have a cell wall.
• The male gametes or microgametes on maturity are
released in the surrounding water. The active male
gamete swim in the direction of immobile female
gamete and the two unite at their anterior ends.
• The intervening walls at the point of union between
the two gametes dissolve and the flagella of the male
gamete are resorbed.
• The protoplast of the male gamete detaches from its
cell wall and moves into the envelope of female
gamete.
• Plasmogamy and karyogamy occurs and the two
protoplasts fuse to form a non-motile zygote.
• It is a primitive type of oogamy as the motile male
gametes or microgametes are not typical
spermatozoids.
 Zygospore
• The newly formed zygote in isogamy remains motile for few hours
to several days depending upon the species.
• The zygote has four flagella, two chloroplasts, two nuclei and two
eyespots.
• Shortly the flagella are withdrawn and the zygote comes to rest by
settling down on some substratum.
• Soon the cytoplasm, nuclei and chloroplast of the gametes fuse.
• The non-motile zygote secretes a primary and a secondary wall
around it and is converted into a resting zygospore.
• The zygote or zygospore is the only diploid structure in the life
cycle. Zygote always passes through a resting stage.
• The zygote accumulates fats and reserve food materials and turns
orange red in colour.
• Zygote can endure drought and waits for the return of favorable
conditions for germination.
 Germination of Zygospore
• When the zygospore encounters
favorable conditions (water) it
germinates.
• The red colour of the zygospore changes
to green before germination.
• The diploid nucleus of the zygospore
undergoes meiosis resulting into the
formation of four to eight haploid nuclei.
• In the heterothallic species + and –
strains become distinct at this point by
segregation of the nuclei of opposite
mating types (+ and −).
• Each haploid nucleus is incorporated into
some protoplast and forms a biflagellate
meiozoospore which is motile.
• Each meiozoospore secretes a cell wall
around it.
• At this stage the inner wall of the
zygospore gets dissolved and the outer
wall splits open, liberating the
meiozoospores.
• Each released meiozoospore grows into a
fully developed Chlamydomonas cell.
Life Cycle
Volvox
Systematic Position
 Volvox is a large, green,
motile colonial alga. An
integrated colony having a
definite number of cells
arranged in a precise
manner is called a
coenobium
Habitat
• Volvox (chlorophytes), is a green,
free floating algae.
• Occurs in fresh water habitats
(ponds, ditches, shallow
puddles)
• Occurs as green rolling balls of
pin head sized coenobia
• It forms spherical colonies of up
to 50,000 cells.
• The colony is comprised of
many single, bi-flagellated cells
connected together by
protoplasmic strands.
 Occurrence
• Motile coenobia grow vigorously in the rainy season
forming blooms.
• It perennates in winter with the help of resting
stages such as zygospore or oospore.
• The genus has around 20 described species
worldwide. Some common Indian species are—
Volvox globator, V. aureus, V. prolificus, V. africanus
and V. rousseletii.
• Single colony looks like a small ball about 0.5 mm in
diameter. In rainy season the colour of the ponds
becomes greenish due to rapid growth of Volvox.
 Structure of Volvox:
• Volvox thallus is a motile colony with definite shape and number of cells. This habit of thallus is
called coenobium. The colony is hollow, spherical or oval in shape and the size of colony is about
the size of a pin head.

• The number of cells in a colony is fixed. Depending upon the species of Volvox the cells can be
500-50,000.

• The central part of colony is mucilaginous and the cells are arranged in a single layer on periphery
of the colony.
• These cells are interconnected by protoplasmic bridges. The protoplasmic bridges are the extended
remnants of protoplasm of incompletely separated protoplasts.

• Hence the cytoplasm of all the cells are continuous with each other through protoplasmic bridges.
This allows the cells to coordinate with each other and trigger the flagellar motion in an organized
manner. As the coenobia approach the reproductive phase these bridges are withdrawn.
Volvox colonies have polar organization, and the cells in the anterior region have larger eyespots,
suggestive of their enhanced phototactic ability. Each cell of the coenobium is biflagellate. Flagella
project out from the surface of the coenobium and keep it motile. Each cell of the coenobium has its
individual gelatinous sheath. Cells in a young coenobium are green and somatic or vegetative in
function. In most species, adjacent flagellate vegetative cells or somatic cells are interconnected by
protoplasmic strands. Somatic cells cannot divide and are differentiated at the anterior region of the
coenobium. The flagellar activity of these somatic cells is crucial to keep the large coenobium motile
in order to provide all cells with light and mineral resources.
 Reproduction of Volvox:

• Volvox reproduces both asexually and sexually.

• Asexual reproduction takes place during favourable
condition, but the sexual reproduction occurs during
unfavourable condition i.e., towards the end of the
summer months.
 Asexual Reproduction:
• A few cells at the posterior side of the coenobium enlarge about 10 times. The cells
withdraw their flagella and become more or less round. They are pushed inside the
colony during their development. These cells are called gonidia or parthenogonidia
or autocolony initials. The gonidium is separated from the vegetative cells by its
position and size.

Development of Daughter Colony:

• The gonidium undergoes repeated divisions of about 15 or more times and can
develop more than 3,200 cells. Those cells ultimately form a colony.
• Initially the gonidium undergoes longitudinal division with respect to the colony
and form 2 cells .
• The second division is at right angle to the first one and forms 4 celled stage .
• These ceils again divide longitudinally (3rd division) and form 8 celled stage. The
cells are arranged in such a pattern that their concave inner surface faces towards
the outer side of the colony.This stage is called plakea stage or cruciate plate.
• The 4th division forms 16 celled stage and at that time it becomes a hollow sphere
with an opening towards the outer side, called phialopore.
• The division of cells continues up to the number specific for a particular species.
The cells now face towards the centre . This group of cells then undergoes inversion
through the phialopore, by which normal pattern of the colony is achieved.
Inversion:
• During inversion a constriction appears at a point opposite to phialopore. This
constricted region becomes pushed gradually towards the phialopore .
Simultaneously the phialopore becomes enlarged, through which the lower part
comes out and the edges of phialopore hang backwards.

• With the help of inversion the anterior side of the cells changes their position
from inner to the outer side and the position of phialopore becomes reversed
i.e., changes its position from outer to inner side.

• The phialopore gradually closes down and a complete hollow sphere is formed.
After completion of inversion, the cells secrete their own gelatinous cell wall and
each develops two flagella. Thus the daughter colony is formed.

• Many such colonies may develop in a coenobium and they swim freely inside the
gelatinous matrix of the mother coenobium .

• Later on the daughter coenobia come out by rupture or disintegration of the

mother colony. In some species like V. carteri and V. africanus daughter colonies
of 2-4 generations may remain within the mother coenobium.
• Sexual Reproduction:
• Volvox reproduces sexually during unfavourable
condition i.e., towards the end of growing season
(late summer). The sexual reproduction is oogamous.
Some species (V. globator) is monoecious and others
(V. aureus) are dioecious.
• Most of the monoecious species are of protandrous
type (i.e., antheridia develop and mature earlier than
oogonium).
• Some cells of the posterior region of the colony
withdraw their flagella and develop into reproductive
bodies called gametangia. The male gametangia are
called antheridia and the female as oogonia.
• Development of Antheridium:
• During development of antheridium, an antheridial initial becomes
differentiated from the colony. It is like a gonidium, which is nonflagellated,
larger in size than vegetative cells and contains dense cytoplasm with a
single nucleus.
• The cell undergoes repeated longitudinal divisions like the asexual stage and
forms generally about 64-128 cells (though the number varies from 16-512,
depending on species). Like the asexual stage the cells are arranged in
groups and then undergo inversion by which the anterior side of the cells
faces towards outer side (Fig. 3.54).
• Each cell develops into unicellular, elongated, fusiform, naked and
biflagellate antherozoid. The antherozoids are released individually. In some
species they are also released in groups.
• Development of Oogonium:
• Single vegetative cell of the colony at the posterior side withdraws its
flagella, enlarges in size and become a more or less flask-shaped
oogonium. The entire protoplast without undergoing any division, forms
an uninucleate non-flagellated egg or female gametophyte.
• The egg or female gametophyte is spherical, uninucleate, non-flagellated,
green in colour and has parietal chloroplast. It has many pyrenoids and
large amount of reserve food. The mouth of the flask- shaped oogonium
opens towards the outer surface of the colony.
• Fertilization:
• After maturation, the anthrozoids (= spermatozoids) are liberated from
the antheridium either singly or in mass. They move in water and get
attracted by the chemotactic stimulation to the surface of the oogonium.
• A few antherozoids enter near the egg by breaking the oogonial wall
with the help of proteolytic enzyme probably secreted by the
antherozoids.
• Out of many antherozoids entered into the oogonium only one succeeds
to fertilize the egg and forms a zygote.
Zygote:
• The zygote secretes a thick wall around itself. It
accumulates the haematochrome and becomes
red in colour. The wall of the zygote may be
smoothl, (V. monanae, V. globator etc.) or spiny
(V. spermatophora ). Zygote is liberated by the
disintegration of the mother wall and remains
dormant for a long period.
Germination of Zygote:
• During favourable condition the zygote
germinates. Before germination, the diploid (2n)
of the zygote undergoes meiotic division and
forms 4 haploid cells.
Life Cycle of Volvox:
Chlorella
Systematic Position
 Occurrence
• Chlorella occurs on damp soils,
walls, bark of trees, in
freshwater pools and sewage.
• Some species of Chlorella live
as symbionts in invertebrates
such as Hydra , Paramecium
and sponges and are described
as Zoochlorella.
• These Chlorella cells have an
ability to escape digestion.
Zoochlorellae utilize the CO2
released during the respiration
of animal tissue,
photosynthesize and oxygen is
released.
• Some common species of
Chlorella include C. vulgaris , C.
variegata , C. lobophora , C.
parasitica , C. conglomerata ,
and C. conductrix .
 Morphology and Ultrastructure
• Chlorella is an extremely simple alga. The cells are non-
motile, small (2–10 μm in diameter), spherical to ellipsoid,
solitary or occasionally in small colonies of irregular shape.
• Each cell is surrounded by a cellulose cell wall.
• The protoplast of the cell is enclosed in a cell membrane.
• A single parietal cup shaped chloroplast is present with or
without a pyrenoid.
• The thylakoids are present in the stacks of 2–6.
• Starch and some small electron dense granules accumulate
between the stacks of thylakoid.
• A single nucleus is present in the central cytoplasm in the
cavity of the chloroplast.
• Stigma and contractile vacuoles are usually absent.
• Tubular and branched mitochondria, dictyosomes, a few
vacuoles, endoplasmic reticulum and lipid bodies are
present in the cytoplasm.
• The cells of Chlorella are small, spherical, rarely
ellipsoid. Each cell has a thin wall enclosing a single
cup-shaped parietal chloroplast with or without
pyrenoids, and a nucleus which is centrally placed
 Reproduction
• Chlorella reproduces exclusively by
asexual means i.e., autospore
formation.
• Sexual reproduction is not known.
• Chlorella is non-motile and it does
not produce zoospores or gametes
i.e., motile cells.
• Each cell produces by successive
divisions, 2, 4, 8 or 16 daughter
protoplasts.
• Each daughter protoplast rounds
off to form an autospore (a non-
motile spore).
• These autospores escape out by
the rupture of the parent cell wall.
• On release each autospore grows
into a new individual.
 Life Cycle
• The life cycle of Chlorella indicates that there is no
distinct alternation of generations.
• The cells are haploid and reproduce asexually by
bearing haploid autospores which ultimately develop
into non-motile mature cells.
• Four phases have been recorded in the life cycle of
Chlorella .
– (1) Growth phase in which the autospores grow larger in size
– (2) Mature stage when the cell prepares for cell division
– (3) The cell undergoes cell division
– (4) The parent cell wall ruptures and releases the autospores.
Ulothrix
Systematic Position
 Occurrence of Ulothrix:
• The genus Ulothrix includes about 30 species. Most of
them are found in fresh water of tanks, ponds, lakes etc.
• The common fresh water species are U. aequalis, U.
zonata etc.
• Some grow in saline water (marine) such as U.
pseudoflacca and U. flacca. Species like U. flaaca grows in
the intertidal region.
• Another member U. implexa grows as lithophytes. They
prefer to grow in cold water and are available from rainy
season to spring. They disappear during summer months.
 Thallus Structure
• The thallus of Ulothrix
is filamentous, long,
unbranched and
multicellular, where
the cells are arranged
in a single row (i.e.,
uniseriate).
• The filaments are
bright green in color
and remain attached
at one end with the
substratum such as
stones, rocks or some
other solid objects
 Cell Structure of Ulothrix:
• All the cells except the basal holdfast can divide and their wall is
composed of outer pectin and inner cellulose.
• Inner to the cell wall is the cell membrane. The cell membrane
encloses the protoplast. It consists of cytoplasm, chloroplast and
nucleus.
• The cytoplasm forms a lining layer and is adjacent to the cell
membrane.
• Single nucleus remains embedded inside the cytoplasm. The central
region is occupied by the vacuole, which contains cell sap.
• In the peripheral region of the cytoplasm near the cell wall, single
girdle or band-shaped chloroplast is present. (Other type of
chloroplasts are c-shaped, collar-shaped or ring-shaped.)
• The chloroplast contains one (U. rorida) to many (U. zonata)
pyrenoids.
 The plant body is differentiated into
three regions:
• 1. Basal cell,

• 2. Apical cell, and

• 3. Middle cells
 Basal Cell:
• It is the lowermost cell of the filament, commonly long,
gradually narrowed downwardly and towards the basal
end it expands and forms a disc-shaped structure. The
cell is hyaline or brownish in color, which performs the
function of fixation to the substratum and called
holdfast or rhizoidal cell.
Apical Cell:
• It is the topmost cell of the filament, which is dome-
shaped and green in color.
Middle Cells:
• All the cells in between basal and apical cells are alike.
The cells are broader than its length i.e., rectangular in
shape. (The cells may be quadrangular e.g.,
U.moniliformis or it may be much longer than its breath
e.g., U. subconstricta.)
 Reproduction of Ulothrix

• Ulothrix reproduces by all the three means:

Vegetative, Asexual and Sexual:
 1. Vegetative Reproduction:

• It takes place by fragmentation.

• Fragmentation:
• In this process the filament breaks up into a number of
parts. Each part is capable of developing a new plant
like its parent.
 2. Asexual Reproduction:

• Asexual reproduction takes place in winter, during its

active growth.
• It takes place by the formation of zoospores,
aplanospore, akinetes and palmella stage.
Zoospore Formation:
• Zoospores are formed during favourable condition with proper growth of the plant. Any
cell except holdfast is capable of producing zoospores. During zoospore formation the
protoplast becomes slightly contracted from the cell wall.
• The protoplast either develops into single zoospore (U. fimbriata) or undergoes division
and form 2, 4, 8, 16 or 32 units. Each unit contains single nucleus and cytoplasm. These
small units form zoospores.
The zoospores are of different types:
• Types of Zoospores:
• Species of Ulothrix with narrow cells produce quadriflagellate
zoospores of one kind. But species with broader cells like U.
zonata produces 3 types of zoospores
• These are:
• i. Quadriflagellate macrozoospores usually 4 per cell,
• ii. Quadriflagellate microzoospores usually 8 per cell, and
• iii. Biflagellate microzoospores usually 16-32 per cell.

• The zoospores are morphologically almost alike but differ in

size, number of flagella, and position of the eye-spot. They
also vary in their swimming period.
• The macrozoospores can swim for few to 24 hours, but the
micro- zoospores (both types) can swim for 2-6 days.
• The macrozoospores are pear-shaped with tapering at
posterior end, while the microzoospores are narrowly ovoid
with rounded posterior end.
• Germination of Zoospores:
• After maturation the zoospores are liberated through a pore
developed on the side wall and initially remain in a delicate mucilage
vesicle. The vesicle soon dissolves and zoospores are liberated. The
zoospores can swim for different period of time (few hours to even 6
days).
• Coming in contact with suitable substratum they lose their flagella
and get attached. The cell divides horizontally. The lower attached
cell develops into holdfast and the upper cell forms the filament
through repeated divisions.
Aplanospores:
• With the sudden change of
environment towards
unfavourable condition during
zoospore formation the
protoplast units do not form
flagella and remain inside the
mother cell as non-motile
units.
• These unicellular; uninucleate,
thin walled nonmotile units
are called aplanospores .
During favourable condition
they germinate after or before
liberation from parent cell.
Akinetes:
• Akinetes are formed during extreme
unfavourable condition. During this
process the cell becomes enlarged,
protoplast accumulates food material
and then forms thick wall around itself.
This thick walled resting vegetative cell is
called akinetes . It is found in U. zonata,
U.acrorhiza, U. oscillarina etc.
Palmella Stage:
• Sometimes the wall of the aplanospore
mother cell becomes mucilagenous.
Consequently the wall of aplanospores
also gets enveloped by mucilaginous
substance. These coverings protect the
aplanospores against desiccation.
• In this way -many green round bodies
become enclosed in a mucilaginous
mass, called palmella stage . During
favourable condition these green bodies
come out by the dissolution of the
mucilage covering and germinate into
new plants.
• Sexual Reproduction
• Towards the end of growing season
they reproduce by sexual means.
• The sexual reproduction is isogamous
i.e., the union between similar
gametes.
• The fusion takes place between the
gametes developed in different
filaments i.e., they are heterothallic
or dioecious (U. rorida is
monoecious).
• Morphologically gametes are similar
to the microzoospores. They are
produced in the gametangium
,similar to zoosporangium.
• Depending on species the number of
gametes may be 8, 16, 32 or 64.
• Like microzoospores, they are
uninucleate and biflagellate but
smaller in size.
• Though the gametes are
morphologically similar, they are
physiologically different and
designated as + and – strains.
• Liberating from the gametangium, the gametes swim for some time.
The gametes of opposite strain (+ and -) fuse and form a
quadriflagellate spindle shaped zygote .
• Initially the zygote keeps on swimming but later it settles down on
some substratum, withdraws its flagella and becomes round off.
• The zygote takes rest for about 5-9 months. After rest the nucleus of
zygote (2n) undergoes meiosis and forms 4 haploid nuclei of different
strains (2+ and 2- type). The mitosis may follow the meiosis and forms
8 to 16 haploid nuclei.
• The nuclei along with some cytoplasm form spores, called
meiospores. The meiospores are haploid and quadriflagellate. On
germination they develop into haploid Ulothrix filaments either + or –
type.

• Parthenogenesis:
• Sometimes, the gametes fail to fuse, lose their flagella, and secrete a
thick wall around them and are called parthenospores. After rest,
each parthenospore germinates directly into a new plant.
Life Cycle of Ulothrix
Ulva
Systematic Position
Occurrence
• Ulva is an essentially marine alga generally
found in rocky shores where it occurs attached
to stones, rocks etc.
• Some species of Ulva are also found in brackish
water and polluted estuaries.
• The genus Ulva has around 30 described
species, of which U. lactuca is the most
common species.
 Thallus Structure
• Ulva is commonly known as ‘sea lettuce’
as the blades constituting the thallus are
expanded leaf like structures which
resemble garden lettuce in appearance.

• Thallus is conspicuous, macroscopic and

consists of broad and flat blades. Blades
are composed of two cell layers. Each
cell is isodiametric in shape,uninucleate
with one parietal laminate to cup shaped
chloroplast and a single pyrenoid.

• Blades of Ulva can be as long as 1 m.

Ulva is attached to substrates in marine
coastal waters by means of rhizoidal
branches, and it also occurs in free
floating masses.

• These blades arise from zoospores. The

blade is narrowed into a short basal
stalk. Stalk is attached to the substratum
with the help of an attaching disc. The
attaching disc is formed by the rhizoidal
outgrowths of the cells present on the
lower side of the thallus.
 Reproduction of Ulva

• Ulva reproduces by all the three means:

Vegetative, Asexual and Sexual:
 1. Vegetative Reproduction:

• It takes place by fragmentation.

• Fragmentation:
• In this process the filament breaks up into a number of
parts. Each part is capable of developing a new plant
like its parent.
 2. Asexual Reproduction:
• Asexual reproduction occurs by
quadriflagellate zoospores .
• These zoospores are produced
only in the sporophytic (2n)
plants.
• Zoospores are formed by the
division of protoplasts into 4–8
daughter protoplasts.
• The first division is a reduction
division hence the daughter
protoplasts are haploid.
• These daughter protoplasts
develop into uninucleate and
quadriflagellate zoospores.
• After liberation these zoospores
settle down on some
substratum and germinate to
produce the haploid
gametophytic thalli.
Sexual Reproduction
• Ulva is heterothallic or dioecious and gametes from plants of different mating types fuse with each
other.

• Gametes are produced only in the haploid gametophytic thalli. Gametes are biflagellate, pyriform and
are produced in the marginal cells of the thallus. Hence reproduction can occur without complete
breakdown of the parental thallus.

• Gametes are formed by the successive mitotic divisions of the cell protoplast. Each daughter protoplast
develops into a biflagellate uninucleate gamete.

• The male gametes are narrower and smaller and possess a yellowish green chloroplast with an
indistinguishable pyrenoid. The female gametes are larger and possess a green chloroplast with a
distinct pyrenoid.

• The gametes escape through an apical aperture formed at the tip of the gametangium. The fusion takes
place between the gametes coming from plants of different mating types in the surrounding water. The
freshly formed zygote is motile at first and has four flagella, one diploid nucleus and two chloroplasts.

• One of the chloroplasts disintegrates during maturity. After a short period of activity, zygote comes to
rest, retracts its flagella and secretes a wall around it. The diploid zygote germinates within a few days. It
does not undergo reduction division on germination.

• By repeated transverse divisions which are all mitotic, in a single direction, a simple filament is formed.
It is attached to the substratum by a basal holdfast and is diploid. During further growth the cells of the
filament divide both by transverse and vertical divisions to form the leaf like thallus of Ulva .
 Life Cycle
• There are two types of Ulva thalli:
• (i) haploid gametophytic or sexual plants and
• (ii)diploid sporophytic or asexual plants.

• The gametophytic plants produce haploid gametes by repeated mitotic divisions.

Fusion between two gametes takes place and a diploid quadriflagellate zygote is
formed which settles on a substratum and develops into diploid sporophytic
thallus of Ulva . The morphology of these diploid plants resembles exactly with
the haploid gametophytic plants.

• Diploid sporophytic plants produce many spores and the first division of the
diploid nucleus during spore formation is a reduction division resulting into the
formation of haploid quadriflagellate zoomeiospores. These spores after
liberation develop into haploid gametophytic thalli of Ulva .

• The life cycle is thus diplohaplontic showing isomorphic alternation of

generations and the diploid sporophytic and haploid gametophytic generations
come alternately.
Acetabularia
Systematic Position
• Name of the genus is derived from the latin word “ acetabulum ” (a
broad, shallow cup used for dipping bread);

• The inverted cap of Acetabularia bear a resemblance to such a cup and

is popularly known as ‘ mermaid ’s wineglass ’.

• Acetabularia plant is shaped like an umbrella because of the unique

shape of their disks and hence it is also called ‘umbrella algae’.

• Acetabularia is one of the largest single-celled organisms (ranges from a

few mm to 10 cm), and also has an extraordinarily large nucleus.

• Plant body is large in size and has a complex structure. These features
make it an excellent model system for studying morphogenesis, cell
biologyand gene expression.

• Joachim Hammerling (1930s–1950s) studied the morphogenetic and

biochemical aspects of Acetabularia , and demonstrated that nucleus of
a cell contains the genetic information and directs the development,
differentiationand general metabolism of the eukaryotic cell.
Occurrence

• Acetabularia is a warm water alga found attached to

stones, in shallow protected lagoons, on shell
fragments, on the borders of seagrass beds,
mangrove swamps and in shallow protected areas of
coral reefs. The plant body of Acetabularia may grow
singly or in groups.
 Morphology and Ultrastructure
• The unicellular plant body of Acetabularia
is composed of three parts:
• 1) a lobed rhizoidal holdfast which anchors
the plant to the substrate;
• 2) a middle upright tubular stalk; and
• 3) a cap at the top which is composed of
slightly concave disc of fused rays having
crenulate edge.
• The single nucleus of Acetabularia is
located in the rhizoidal holdfast during
the vegetative growth of the thallus and
allows the cell to regenerate completely
if its cap is removed.
• The middle long stalk grows out from the
holdfast and produces a whorl of rays at
its apex. The rays radiate from the center
and a whorl of vertically arranged sterile Acetabularia cell contains two types of
hairs occur on the middle of the disc (Fig. chloroplasts: long and globular. The long
17 ). type of chloroplast is simple and has an
• The stalks and rays are lime encrusted or external double membrane with peripheral
calcified. Stalks grow upto 7.5 cm tall,
andthe discs can grow upto 2 cm in lamellae and polysaccharide grains in the
diameter. interior. The thylakoids of the globular
(round type) of chloroplasts are poorly
developed.
 Reproduction

• Acetabularia reproduces by all the three

means:
Vegetative, Asexual and Sexual:
Vegetative Reproduction
• Vegetative reproduction occurs by
regeneration, fragmentation or development
from basal rhizoid.
• Acetabularia can regenerate from sections of
the parent plant.
Asexual Reproduction

• Species of the Acetabularia reproduc asexually

through cysts, which release flagellated,motile
zoospores.
Sexual Reproduction
• Sexual reproduction is the principal method of propagation in Acetabularia .
• A mature plant body forms many gametangial rays attached together at the apex of
the thallus.
• Once the gametangial rays have reached full size, the single nucleus located in the
rhizoidal lobe enlarges in size, undergoes meiosis and divides repeatedly resulting
into the formation of many small secondary nuclei.

• These nuclei reach the gametangial rays by cytoplasmic streaming. In the

gametangial rays cytoplasm contracts around each nucleus and a wall is synthesized
resulting into the formation of a cyst.

• Mature plants release gamete filled bright green cysts from the rays of the umbrella-
shaped reproductive cap into the water column.

• The cysts have a small operculum that opens only when the gametes are ready to be
liberated. Each cyst has biflagellate gametes of only one strain (+ or −).

• The cyst nuclei possess the same amount of DNA as the gametes, but half the
amount as the zygote, showing that meiosis occurs prior to gamete formation.

• Gametes of + or − strains (from the same thallus) fuse to form the zygote. The
resulting zygote is able to germinate and form a new Acetabularia plant, its nucleus
gradually swell and develop into the giant primary nucleus.
Life Cycle
• The life cycle of Acetabularia consists of haploid and diploid phases.
• Acetabularia has a dominant diploid generation. The unicellular plant body is diploid.
The single diploid nucleus enlarges in size and the gametangial rays develop at the
top of the cell.

• The nucleus undergoes meiosis and then divides repetitively resulting in the
formation of many haploid nuclei (secondary nuclei) that reach the gametangial rays
by cytoplasmic streaming.

• There, they secrete some cytoplasm and wall to form haploid cysts (the
gametophyte), which undergo further mitotic divisions to form around 20 haploid
nuclei.

• Mature rays, each with many bright-green cysts, release the cysts into the water
column. The cysts have biflagellate gametes, which liberate through an operculum.

• The zygote is formed by the fusion of the biflagellate isogametes of different strains
(+ and −) which are produced in the same thallus.

• Hence Acetabularia has a sexual life history that is isogamous. The zygote germinates
to make a diploid uninucleate sporophyte.

• The life cycle of Acetabularia having a dominant diploid phase and a haploid phase
which is only restricted to the gametes (gametic meiosis) is described as diplontic.