Engineering Electromagnetics:

Part 3. Electrostatics

Adrian Sutinjo
Curtin University, 2016
Rev. 1, 10 Mar. 2016
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 Revision Notes:
• 15 Dec. 2015 – Started
• 3 Mar. 2016 – Rev. 1 started. Corrected typos on slides: 13, 15, (removed “molecules”)
• 8 Mar. 2016 – Rev. 1 corrected typo on slide 47, 76, added a commentary on water molecules on slide 63
• 10 Mar. 2016 – Rev. 1 corrected missing 1/(4πε) on slides 37, 39, corrected typo on slide 57

3
 Topics:
Introduction: Why Study Electromagnetics
1. Vector Algebra, Coordinate Transformation
2. Vector Calculus
3. Electrostatics
4. Magnetostatics
5. Maxwell’s Equations
6. Plane-Wave Propagation
7. Introduction to Transmission Lines
4
 Part 3 References:
1. F. T. Ulaby, Electromagnetics for Engineers, Pearson, 2005, Chap. 4
2. D. K. Cheng, Field and Waves Electromagnetics, 2nd Ed, Addison-Wesley,
1992, Chap. 3

5
 Maxwell’s Equations [1:4-1]
I

II

: electric flux density

: electric field intensity

directed into the page

increases over time
: electrical permittivity of the material
: electric charge density per unit volume 6
 III

Magnetic charge does not exist

IV
: magnetic flux density

: magnetic field intensity

: magnetic permeability of the material

directed out of the page
: current density per unit area + directed out of the
page increases over time 7
 • Note the coupling between electric and
magnetic field quantities when these
quantities vary with time

Electrostatics
• In the static case:
• Charges are either stationary or move at a
constant velocity
Magnetostatics • Electric and magnetic field quantities are
uncoupled

8
 Charge and Current Distributions [1:4-2]

Electric charge [2:1-2]:

• It is a fundamental property of matter
• It exists only in positive or negative integral multiples
of the charge of an electron

C: Coulomb

9
Conservation of electric charge [2:1-2]:
• Electric charge is conserved; it can neither be created
nor destroyed
• Electric charges can move from one place to another
or be redistributed under the influence of
electromagnetic field; but the algebraic sum of the
positive and negative charges in a closed (isolated)
system remains unchanged.
• The principle of conservation of electric charge must
be satisfied at all times and under any circumstances.

D. K. Cheng, [2:1-2]

10
 Charge Densities [1:4-2.1]

• Electric charge either exists or does not exist at a

point in a discrete manner [2:1-2]
• Electromagnetism is concerned with macroscopic
scales not atomic scales
• At a macroscopic scale it is sufficient to treat charge
distributions as smoothed-out average density
functions [2:1-2]

11
We treat the net charge in an elemental volume as a density
function
Define: volume charge density

[C/m3]
∆ →

is the charge in volume

The total charge in volume

[C]

12
We may also deal with a charge distributions on surface or a
line
Define: surface charge density

[C/m2]
∆ →

is the charge on surface

Define: line charge density

[C/m]
∆→

is the charge on line

13
 Example 4.2 in [1]

Calculate the total charge on a

disk with azimuthally symmetric
surface charge distribution that
increases linearly with from
at the center to 6 C/m2 at r=3 cm
cm

.
[C/m2]

, .

14
 Current Density [1:4-2.2]

Charges move at a mean velocity of

Amount of charge that crosses the cross

section is in time is

Let
Amount of charge that crosses the surface
is in time is (the same as that which
crosses the cross section

∆
The current:
∆
15
 Current density: [A/m2] = (C/m3)(m/s) =(C/s)(1/m2)

Total current flowing through surface S: [A]

Convection current:
• Charged matter physically move at velocity
• Example: movement of a charged cloud
• Does not obey Ohm’s law

Conduction current:
• Atoms do not move; electrons/charges move from atom
to atom.
• The charge entering the wire is not necessarily the same
as the one leaving the opposite end (like pushing a
marble into a straw full of marbles)
• Example: current on a conductive wire
• Obeys Ohm’s law
16
 Coulomb’s Law [1:4-3]
Electric Field Intensity at every point in space due to a
charge

[V/m]

: electrical permittivity of the medium

: electrical permittivity of vacuum =

: relative permittivity (dielectric constant) of the material

Material
Vacuum 1
Air (@ sea level) 1.0006
Distilled water 81
17
 Electric Field Intensity at every point in space due to a
charge

[V/m]

• Note that is inversely proportional to .

• If charge is placed in a dielectric material
with permittivity its atoms become polarized
• Polarization tends to counteract the field due
to the point charge

18
Electric Field Intensity at every point in space due to a
charge

[V/m]
.
Force acting on a test charge

[N]

For material with electrical permittivity , the electric field

intensity and electric flux density are related as follows

For a point charge in a material with relative permittivity

19
In this unit we will only concern ourselves with
materials whose is independent on the magnitude
and direction of .
• A material whose is independent on the magnitude
of is a linear material
• A material whose is independent on the direction
of is an isotropic material
Hence, we will only deal with linear and isotropic
materials.

20
 Electric Field due to Multiple Point Charges [1:4-3.1]

The total electric field is the vector sum of the electric

fields due to the charges.

For N point charges

[V/m]
21
 Exercise 4.4 [1]

Two identical charges are located on the -axis at and . At what point in
space is the net electric field zero?

22
 Electric Field due to a Charge Distribution [1:4-3.2]

Volume contains distribution of charge

with volume charge density (could be a
function of location [x,y,z])

Differential electric field at point P due to

differential charge

The total electric field due to all charges

in
Note: functions of position
•
•
• could be a function of
23
For surface charge distribution

s s

For line charge distribution

24
 Example 4-4 in [1]
An electric ring of charge of radius b
on x-y plane in free space is
characterized with a uniform line = 0,0, ℎ
(positive) charge density . Find the
electric field intensity at point P.
−
=-

Differential electric field intensity due to

charge density at

25
Note that due to symmetry, we expect to only be z-directed

= 0,0, ℎ

/ Total charge on the ring

Read example 4-5 in [1] 26

 Review Questions
Question 3.1
If the electric field is zero at a given point in space, does
this imply the absence of electric charges? [Review
Q4.5 in 1]

If the divergence of electric field is zero at a given

point, does it imply the absence of electric charges at
that point? Does it imply the absence of electric
charges elsewhere?

Use simple plots to illustrate your answers

27
 Gauss’ Law [1:4-4]

Differential or “point” form:

Recall

Integrating over volume , the integral form is

given by

is the total charge contained in

28
 Recall the Divergence Theorem

is the surface that encloses

The total flux through a closed surface S is equal to

the enclosed charge Q

Gauss’s law is convenient when the charge distribution is “symmetrical.” See next
example.

29
What do we get if we apply Gauss’s law to a single
charge surrounded by a sphere of radius R centered
at ?

We expect: i.e., radially outward

, =

=0
,

[V/m] We get Coulomb’s Law!

30
 Example 4-6 in [1]
Use Gauss’s Law to obtain an expression for in
free space due to an infinitely long charge
density along the z-axis.
This problem is invariant in z-direction, so solve
it using Gauss’s law per unit length. Say the
unit length is 1 m for convenience.

, Infinite line of charge

31
 Electric Scalar Potential [1:4-5]
[1:4-5.1]
Consider a positive charge immersed in a uniform
electric field as shown. How much work is required
to move that charge (at a constant velocity) in the +y
direction by an infinitesimal distance ?

We must counteract with an equal and opposite force

Work is performed by applying this counteracting force

along that infinitesimal path . We are working
against that wants to accelerate in the opposite
direction!

32
 [J]

Differential electric potential: work per unit charge

[J/C or V]

The potential difference between any two points is found by

integrating along any path between the two points:

Recall: we are dealing with

electrostatics (time-invariant
fields) 33
 What’s the potential difference between the same
point?

For electrostatics

In electrostatics:
• Closed path integral of field is zero
• We call such field conservative
• Recall that electrostatic field is irrotational:
From Stokes’s Theorem

Hence, irrotational fields are conservative, vice versa

Important: the above holds for electrostatics. If fields are time varying:
, i.e., rotational and non-conservative! 34
Electric potential is defined between two points.
What if we want to define the potential of a single point in
space? We reference it to a point at infinity.

[V]

The amount of work required per unit charge to move

that charge from ∞ to point P

[1:4-5.2]
Let’s apply that concept to find the electric potential due to point
charges. For a single point charge at the origin:

[V]
35
If the point charge is located at a position denoted by
position vector

[V]

For N point charges located at positions denoted by

position vectors …

[V]

36
[1:4-5.3]
Extend the concept electric potential to
continuous distribution of charges (volume,
surface, or line)

Volume distribution

Surface distribution

Line distribution

37
[1:4-5.4] Electric Field as a Function of Electric Potential

We stated earlier:

Let’s find the inverse relationship:

Recall from the definition of the gradient of a scalar function:

where

Hence,

38
This relationship allows us to find due to any charge distribution by a
two-step process:
1. Calculate using or the surface/line
counterparts as
appropriate

2. Calculate

Note that step 1 is easier to compute (scalar integral) than

Coulomb’s law (vector integral)

39
 Example 4-7 [1] .

An electric dipole consists of two point

charges of equal magnitude and opposite
polarity separated by a small distance d. Find
and at any point in space at a distance
. Let the medium be free space.

40
 .
is the distance vector
from –q to +q

Define dipole moment:

Hence,
-

(electric dipole)

Finding

41
Finding

[V/m]

Valid for: R>> d, assuming

Sketch on the y-z plane

42
 Poisson’s Equation [1:4-5.5]
Knowing

We can write as

Using , we can write

(Poisson’s equation)

If the medium under consideration contains no free charges

(Laplace’s equation) =0

= · = + +
43
 Review Questions
[1:Q4.11] Why is the electric potential at a point in
space always defined relative to the potential at some
reference point?

[1:Q4.12] Explain why is a mathematical

statement of Kirchhoff’s voltage law (“voltage drop
around a closed loop is zero”)

44
 Electrical Properties of Materials [1:4-6]

Constitutive parameters Symbol Role

Electrical permittivity

Magnetic permeability
Conductivity

Material Behaviour
Homogeneous Constitutive parameters are
the same at every position
(x,y,z) in the material
Isotropic Constitutive parameters are
independent of field direction.
E.g. the same for ,

45
Isotropicity and homogeneity:
• In this unit we only concern ourselves with isotropic &
homogeneous materials.
• Certain crystals are anisotropic
• Question 3.2: name examples of non-homogeneous materials
we encounter everyday.

Conductivity:
• A measure of how easily electron travels under the influence
of electric field applied in the medium
• Conductors: electrons travel easily, e.g., in metals
• Insulators: electrons do not travel easily, e.g., in dielectrics
(glass, plastics, etc.)

46
Conductor:
• Large numbers of loosely bound electrons at the outermost
shell of the atoms
• By applying an external electric field, the electrons move from
atom to atom in the direction opposite to the applied field
• The movement of the electrons in a conductor is characterized
by electron drift velocity,
• In a perfect conductor, conductivity

Dielectric:
• Electrons are tightly held to the atoms
• In a perfect dielectric, conductivity ; no current flows.

47
 Table 4-1 in [1]
Material Conductivity, (S/m)
Conductors
Silver
Copper
Carbon
Semiconductors
Pure germanium
Pure silicon
Insulators
Glass
Paraffin

Review question Q4.16 in [1]: What classifies a material as a conductor,

semiconductor, or dielectric?
48
 Conductors [1:4-7]
• In a conductor, the drift velocity is related to the externally applied electric
field by electrons drift in a direction
opposite to the applied

[m/s]
electric field

: electron mobility (m2/V s)

• In a semiconductor, current flow is due to movement of holes and

electrons. The hole drift velocity is
holes drift in the same
[m/s] direction as the applied
electric field

: hole mobility

49
• Mobility describes the effective mass of charged particle and the average
distance it accelerates (under the influence of applied electric field) before
it collides with an atom. This process then repeats itself.

-
− −
- -

• Electron drift velocity is very low even for very good conductors
m/s [2:5-1]

50
• Current density in a medium with volume charge density moving at
velocity is ([C/m3][m/s]=[A/m2])

• When both electrons and holes are involved, the total conduction current
density is

(A/m2)

, where is the number of free electrons per unit volume

, where is the number of free holes per unit volume

C is the absolute charge of a single hole or electron

51
• Define conductivity,

(Siemens per meter: S/m)

(semiconductor)

• For a good conductor,

(S/m)

• We can write as

(A/m2)
This is called the point form of
Ohm’s law.

Medium Conductivity, Consequence

Perfect dielectric 0 (regardless of )

Perfect conductor (regardless of )̅

52
 Medium Conductivity, Consequence
Perfect dielectric 0 (regardless of )

Perfect conductor (regardless of )̅

• In a good conductor, S/m. In a good conductor, we may set

.

• In a perfect conductor, . The potential between any two points in

such a medium is 0 (equipotential)

• Under static condition, if charges are introduced in the interior of a good conductor, the charges will
move away from each other until they reach the surface of the conductor in such a way that =0
and = 0 within the conductor [2:3-6]. Hence, = 0 in a good conductor with finite conductivity.
53
The higher the conductivity, the more quickly charge re-distribution occurs [2:5-4].
 Example 4-8 in [1]
Conduction current in a copper wire

A 2-mm diameter copper wire with conductivity of S/m and electron

mobility of 0.0032 (m2/V s) is subjected to an electric field of 20 mV/m. Find

a. The volume charge density of free electrons

(C/m3)

“-” sign because it is

electron density

b. The current density

(A/m2)

54
c. The current flowing in the wire

d. The electron drift velocity

(m/s)

Question 3.3: does this strike you as really slow? How come when you flick a
switch ON, the light turns ON immediately?

e. The volume density of free electrons

. ×
electrons/m3
. ×

So in every 1 mm3, we have free electrons. Does it help us answer

Question 3.3?
55
 Resistance [1:4-7.1]

Find the resistance of a conductor of

length and uniform cross section :

Finding V

Finding I

56
Hence:

Conductance:
or Siemens, S)

For an arbitrary resistor

57
 Conductance of a Coaxial Cable; Example 4-9 in [1]

A coaxial cable of inner radius and

outer radius is filled with an insulation
material with conductivity . Find the
expression for the conductance per unit
length of the insulation layer.
Let be the current flowing from the inner to
outer conductor. At any radial distance , the
distributed current flows through a surface
area = 2 . The current density is

From

58
Voltage difference between the inner and
outer conductors

Hence, Conductance per unit length

(S) (S/m)

59
 Joule’s Law [1:4-7.2, 2:5-5]
Let’s consider the power dissipated in a conducting medium in the presence of
electric field .
What causes power to be dissipated in the conductor? Collision between the
electrons an the atoms generates thermal vibration.

-
− −
- -

Work done by electric field in moving a charge a distance is

The corresponding power is

∆ ∆ ̅
∆ ∆

60
Suppose the charge density in an elemental volume is

Recall , we can write

Integrating over volume

(W) (Joule’s law)

Since

61
 Resistor example

Using

Review Question [1: Q4.19]

What is the power dissipated in the coaxial cable in

Example 4.9 in [1]?

62
 Dielectrics [1:4-8] Polarized atom/molecule
Positive surface charge
• In a dielectric, the application of an
external field can polarize the
atoms or molecules*.

• Polarization field is weaker and

opposite in direction to

• The net electric field in the material

Negative surface charge
is less than
Polarization
• In free space field
• In a dielectric material
*Water molecules are permanently polarized. With no applied
field, the molecules are randomly oriented. When a static
electric polarization field electric field is applied, the polarized molecules align
accordingly. 63
• Again, we limit our discussion to
linear and isotropic materials Polarized atom/molecule
• Polarization field is proportional to Positive surface charge

: electric susceptibility of the

material
• Hence,

Negative surface charge

• The permittivity Polarization
field

• See Table 4-2 in [1] for example

values of permittivity
64
Dielectric breakdown:

• If exceeds a certain value, (dielectric strength),

electrons will be freed and flow as conduction current

• Sparking and permanent damage can occur

• This is called dielectric breakdown

• For example:

– Dielectric strength for air is 3 MV/m

– Dielectric strength for glass is 25 to 40 MV/m

• See Table 4-2 in [1] for example values of

65
 Electric Boundary Conditions [1:4-9]
Electric boundary conditions: how do electric
fields behave across boundaries of dissimilar Medium 1
materials?

Consider the boundary of media with two

different permittivities.

Consider the loop abcda with

Medium 2
Perform a line integral around this closed loop

66
Contributions due to and segments are zero.

Medium 1

(V/m)

Medium 2

67
 Now apply Gauss’s law to the Note: and are defined in the
outward direction away from that
“pillbox” (shown on the right) with medium.

Medium 1

(C/m2)

Medium 2

Question 3.4: If there is no surface charge, state the electric boundary conditions for
two dielectric materials with dissimilar permittivities.
68
 Example 4-10 in [1]
The x-y plane is a charge-free boundary
plane
separating two media with dissimilar
permittivities. Medium 1

a. Find
plane

Tangential electric fields are continuous Medium 2

,

For a charge free boundary, electric flux

densities are continuous

69
Hence,

plane
b. Find and
Medium 1

plane

Medium 2

70
 Dielectric-Conductor Boundary[1:4-9.1]
Let medium 2 be a perfect conductor (i.e.,
and ) Medium 1

Tangential electric field vanishes at

the surface of a perfect conductor

Only the normal component is Medium 2

left!

is outward normal from the conducting surface

field is always normal to the surface of a conducting boundary because the

tangential component vanishes.
This is also the case for good conductors under static condition since = 0 within the conductor. 71
 Capacitance [1:4-10, 2:3-10]

• A capacitor consists of two conductors Conductor 1 Conductor 2

separated by free space or a dielectric
medium [D. K. Cheng, 2:3-10] Surface

• The capacitance:

(C/V or F)

• Applying Gauss’s law to surface S:

DC voltage

72
• Charges on each conductor redistribute
themselves on the surface such that
in the conductor.
• Consequently, the surface of conductor 1 is
the at the same potential because
in the conductor.

where is any path in the conductor or a path

from any point to another point on the surface of the
conductor.

• The surface of conductor 2 is the at the

same potential by the same argument.

73
• The capacitance:

Conductor 1 Conductor 2
• To obtain
Surface

where and are any two points on

conductor 1 and 2, respectively (each
conductor is at the same potential).
• is a path from Conductor 2 (-Q) to
Conductor 1 (+Q)

74
• Let the dielectric material be
imperfect with conductivity
• Recall
Conductor 1 Conductor 2

Surface

75
 Example [1:4-11]
Obtain an expression for a parallel plate
Area
capacitor comprised of two parallel plates
each with surface area A and separated by
distance d. The capacitor is filled with
material with permittivity .
“Fringing field” may
Gauss’s law on the top plate: be neglected if
plate dimensions
are >>d

is normal to the conductor’s surface and

invariant in

76
 Parallel plate capacitor
Area

Determine the breakdown voltage if d = 1 cm

and the material is quartz “Fringing field” may
be neglected if
plate dimensions
are >>d

77
 Example [1:4-12]
Recall example [1:4-9]. The insulation
material has conductivity and
permittivity Find the expression for
the capacitance.
From example [1:4-9].

Capacitance per unit length

(F/m)

78
 Example [1:4-12]: Alternate Method
Find the expression for the capacitance
of a coaxial line filled with a dielectric
material with permittivity .

Apply Gauss’s law to the inner conductor:

is normal to the conductor’s surface and is invariant

in

79
Capacitance:

80