Body composition and physical

exercise
Is there an Optimal Body Weight for
Performance ?
Health ?
Role of physical practice ?

Number of diet, exercise, and diet/exercise articles as a percent of total articles in six
women's magazines, 1959-1988. Wiseman, C.V., J.J. Gray, J. E. Mosimann, and A. H.
Aherns. Cultural expectations of thinness in women: an update. Int. J. Eating Disord.
11:85-89, 1992,

Average percent of expected weight of Playboy

centerfolds and Miss America contestants, 1959-1988.

From 1959 to 1978 there was a steady decrease in average weight of the images portrayed in
the media, with a concomitant rise in the body weight of American women

1
In the United States today, 33-40% of adult women and 20-
24% of adult men are trying to lose weight, and another 28% of
each group is trying to maintain weight.

Frequently cited reasons for losing weight include concerns for

future and current health, fitness, and appearance. Health
concerns are most frequently cited by those with higher body
mass index (BMI). Persons with lower BMI attempt weight loss
for appearance and fitness concerns.

Whereas women cite appearance as more important than

fitness, the reverse is true for men. Biener and Heaton
confirmed this finding in that 33% of the women subjects in
their study who were at an apparently healthy BMI (< 25)
dieted strictly to improve appearance.

Body Build, Size, and Composition

Body build is the form or structure of the body.
 Muscularity
 Linearity Morphotype

 Fatness
Body size is determined by height and weight.
Body composition refers to the chemical composition of the
body.
 Fat mass
 Fat-free mass

Body weight / body composition

Part of Anthropometric Assessments
Body composition is a better indicator of fitness than
body size and weight. Being overfat (not necessarily
overweight) has a negative impact on athletic
performance. Standard height-weight tables do not
provide accurate estimates of what an athlete should
weigh because they do not take into account the
composition of the weight. An athlete can be
overweight according to these tables yet having very
little body fat.

2
Body Composition Assessment

Body’s relative amount of fat and fat-free mass

Fat-free mass = muscle, bone, water, connective tissue,

organ tissue, teeth

Fat = essential fat, non-essential fat

Fat-free mass is composed of all of the body's non fat tissue

including bone, muscle, organs, and connective tissue.

Lean body mass includes all fat-free mass along with

essential fat. Lean body mass is difficult to measure so the
fat mass/fat-free mass model is most often used.

Typical Body Composition of

an Adult Man and Women

45% Muscle 36%

Essential
3% fat 12%
12% Nonessential 15%
fat
15% Bone 12%

25% Other 25%

3
 Body Composition
Proportionate amounts of fat tissue and nonfat tissue in the body.

% Body Fat Lean Body Mass

Adipose tissue as a percent Nonfat tissue made up of muscle,
of total body tissue. bone, and organs (heart, brain,
liver, kidneys).

Essential Fat Storage Fat

Body fat needed for normal Fat found beneath the skin and around
physiological functioning. major organs that acts as an insulator,
as padding, and as a source of energy.

Behnke’s theoretical model for the

body composition of the reference
man (A) and reference woman
(B). Values in parenthesis indicate
percentage of total body mass.

Body composition models

Composition can be measured at different levels

Atomic – molecular – cellular – tissue - whole body

4
 Essential vs. Non-Essential Fat

Essential = fat in brain, nerves, heart, lungs,

liver, and mammary glands
3-5% of body weight in men,
10-12% in women

Non-essential = storage fat, located just below skin

around major organs

Important Considerations
-What is Percentage Body Fat?

- Overweight
Total body weight above recommended range

- Obesity
More serious degree of overweight
Generally given in terms of % body fat

Which Would You Rather Be?

Same body weight

5
 Gynoid ???
Android

Patterns of fat distribution

Obesity

Handicap ????

6
 Thinness

Illness ????

W om e n
Recomm en d ed (o ver 5 6 years) Ob ese
M in im al
2 5– 3 8 %
10– 1 2% Reco mmend ed (3 5–55 years) Ob ese

2 3–3 8 %
Reco mmen ded (34 years o r less) Ob ese

2 0– 3 5 %

Fat mass and normal range

Ath l et ic

1 2–2 2 %
Essent ial fat

8– 1 2 %

Women 0 10
Men20 30 40 50

M en
W om e n Reco mmen ded (over 5 6 years) Ob ese
Recomm en d ed (o ver 5 6 years) Ob ese
M in imal
M in im al 10– 25 %
2 5– 3 8 % 5 % Reco mmen ded (35–5 5 years) Ob ese
10– 1 2% Reco mmend ed (3 5–55 years) Ob ese
10– 2 5 %
2 3–3 8 %
Recomm en d ed (3 4 years o r l ess) Ob ese
Reco mmen ded (34 years o r less) Ob ese

2 0– 3 5 % 8– 22 %
Ath l et ic At hl et ic

1 2–2 2 % 5– 1 3%
Essent ial fat Essent ial fat

8– 1 2 % 3– 5%

0 10 20 30 40 50 0 10 20 30 40 50
Percen t b od y f at
M en
Reco mmen ded (over 5 6 years) Ob ese
M in imal Percent body fat
10– 25 %
5 % Reco mmen ded (35–5 5 years) Ob ese

10– 2 5 %
Recomm en d ed (3 4 years o r l ess) Ob ese

8– 22 %
At hl et ic

5– 1 3%
Essent ial fat

3– 5%
0 10 20 30 40 50
Percen t b od y f at

Rating body fat percentage

Fat level Men Women
Very low 7 to 10 14 to 17
Low 10 to 13 17 to 20
Average 13 to 17 20 to 27
High 17 to 25 27 to 31
Very High above 25 above 31

7
 The Statistics
Obese:
12.0% in 1991 to 17.9% in 1998

Overweight:
50% of American adults

Why??!!
Decreased activity levels (job, games, leisure)
Increased caloric intake
Intake > Output

Health Issues in Body Composition

Obese = Double mortality rate
5 times more likely to develop diabetes
Role of location: Pears vs. Apples

Diabetes
Type 1 vs. Type 2

Female Athlete Triad

Can result from extreme quest for “thinness”

Body Composition
Defining obesity
 Many define obesity based upon appearance
alone or the number of pounds one is
“overweight”

 Body composition
 Amount of lean body tissue vs. fat

8
Body Composition
Growth trends in adipose tissue
 Birth ~ 13% fat in boys and 15% in girls
 Fat at birth is stored in 5 billion adipocytes
 The number of fat cells continues to increase in
childhood

Body Composition
Two growth spurts in fat tissue
 1 yr ~ fat % in boys = 20-25%; in girls = 21-
26%
 Puberty for boys; prepuberty and puberty for
girls
With age, fat’s contribution to overall body
composition depends upon the size of fat
cells, not the number of cells

Body Composition
General growth trends
 Body weight reaches its peak at about 45 years
of age
 Body weight is not a good indicator of body
composition
A sedentary lifestyle leads to the observed
decrease in lean body mass and an increase
in fat mass

9
Body Composition

Gender & Age Prevalence in % of Prevalence in % of

overweight at 85th overweight at 95th
tile tile
Girls and boys 22% 10.9%
6-17 yr
Men & women 33.4% --------------
> 20 yr

Body Composition

Association between childhood and

adulthood obesity
 Children with a BMI value at the 95th tile for
their age and gender have a greater than 60%
chance of being obese at age 35

Body Composition
Relationship of obesity to motor development
and performance
 In general, greater amounts of fat are negatively
related to activities where the body has to be
projected or lifted (tests of vertical jumping,
running/walking, running)

10
 Body composition for a young reference
man and woman
Male Female
Age (years) 20-24 20-24
Stature (cm) 170.0 163.8
Mass (kg) 70 56.7
Total %fat 15.0% 27.0%
% storage fat 12.0% 15.0%
Evaluation and % essential fat 3.0% 12.0%
Regulation of Body Muscle 44.8% 36.0%
Build and Composition Bone 14.9% 12.0%
(p. 123) A.R. Behnke and Remainder 25.3% 25.0%
J.H. Wilmore 1974. Englewood
LBM (kg) 61.7 48.5
Cliffs NJ. Prentice Hall
essential fat 3.0% 14.0%
muscle 50.0%
42.0%
bone 17.0% 14.0%

Body Composition Changes Over the

Adult Lifespan

Normal Fat mass in men and women with

respect to age
Age (Years) Fat mass percentage

Women Men

15 - 19 20 - 24 13 - 16

20 - 29 22 - 25 15 - 20

30 - 39 24 - 30 18 - 26

40 - 49 27 - 33 23 - 29

50 - 59 30 - 36 26 - 33

60 - 69 30 - 36 29 - 33

11
Body Composition Considerations

 Body weight measurements do not reveal

actual changes in body fat or muscle levels.
 Muscle weighs more than fat and burns
more calories at rest.
 Exercise can increase muscle and decrease
body fat.
 Dieting can decrease precious muscle in our
bodies.

Regulation of lean and fat

masses
Lean mass

Endocrine Regulation of Skeletal Muscle

Several hormones are important regulators of skeletal muscle mass
Anabolic hormones
 Insulin: inhibits protein breakdown
 Gonadal Steroids: promote protein synthesis
 Growth Hormone: promote protein synthesis
 Insulin-like growth factor: promote protein synthesis & perhaps,
inhibit breakdown
 Epinephrine: inhibits protein breakdown
Catabolic hormones
 Thyroid Hormone: exact role unknown, but is implicated in both
protein breakdown & synthesis
 Glucagon/cortisol: promotes protein breakdown

12
Anabolic Hormones: Insulin

Insulin deficient or insulin-resistant conditions (i.e.,

diabetes mellitus or trauma) results in muscle wasting
 Resulting from increased pro turnover with
breakdown exceeding synthesis
 Control with insulin results in restoration of
muscle mass via inhibition of breakdown
 Little evidence for insulin-induced pro synthesis

Anabolic Hormones: Growth Hormone

GH treatment in deficiency results in an increase in
muscle mass and function
Growth hormone both increases pro synthesis and
inhibits breakdown
Reduction in FFA oxidation
GH effects are likely mediated via IGF-1, but some
may be independent

Anabolic Hormones: IGF-1

• Growth hormone induces both endocrine and

autocrine IGF production in muscle

• IGF-1 stimulates protein synthesis

• May inhibit breakdown in supraphysiologic doses

Side effects

13
 GH Deficiency: Muscle Effects
 GH deficiency is associated with reduced lean body mass
and muscle mass
 GH resistance in conditions such as trauma, burn, cancer,
infection
 Treatment with recombinant GH (rhGH) increases protein
synthesis and muscle mass in most conditions
 However, cancer patients appear to only respond to
very high dose treatments
 The side effects of GH treatment include: carpal tunnel
syndrome, diabetes, electrolyte imbalance, water retention
 Combination therapy with GH/IGF/nutrition may
provide an efficacious alternative

Anabolic Hormones: Sex steroids

 Gonadal hormones have an important impact on
skeletal muscle
 Insufficient levels of gonadal steroids lead to loss
of muscle mass and function
Gonadal steroid levels are reduced with hypogonadism,
aging and perhaps excessive exercise

 Treatment of deficiency usually restores muscle

mass

Effect of Steroid Treatment

Gonadal steroid treatment increases protein synthesis and muscle mass

Effects on strength are less clear

14
Catabolic Hormones: Counterregulatory
Hormones

Because certain amino acids may serve as precursors

for glucose synthesis, counterregulatory hormones
(those that counter declines in plasma glucose)
stimulate muscle catabolism
Glucagon, cortisol, catecholamines (?)
These hormones may also inhibit insulin action

Exercise & hormonal changes

 Resistance exercise results in acute increases in T, GH and IGF-1 in young adults
 These hormonal changes may mediate training induced increases in muscle
mass and strength
 However, these hormonal responses appear to be blunted in the elderly under the
same training conditions
Combination treatment of GH + resistance training suggests no additive effect of
GH + exercise
 Both acute and chronic intense endurance training may result in cortisol and
epinephrine levels
 Due to increased demand/defense of glucose homeostasis
 Increased lean tissue catabolism and increased risk of muscle damage, unless
 Dietary protein intake adequately offsets losses
 RDI for endurance athletes is 1.0-1.2 g/kg BW

Regulation of lean and fat

masses
Fat mass

15
Hormones and Fat
metabolism.
The rate of fat breakdown into Fat Free Acid and glycerol may partly
determine the rate at which muscles use fat as a fuel source during
exercise.The rate of FFA uptake and use by the active muscle correlates
highly to the plasma FFA concentration
Lipolysis
 Catecholamines (Epinephrine, Norepinephrine)
 Growth hormone Increases mobilization (lipolysis) and utilization
(oxidation)of fat
 Testosterone, adrenaline
 Cortisol, glucagon (causes lipolysis in adipose tissue)
Lipogenesis
Insulin enhance synthesis of fat tissue
Leptin

Plasma Levels of hormones during

exercise

Body Mass Index

16
 Body Mass Index

• Definition: an index of a person’s weight in

relation to height.
• Body composition or fat distribution are not
considered!

BMI = weight (kg) / [height (m)] 2

Body Mass Index

What Do The Numbers Mean?

Miss America - Undernourished Role Models?

17
 Curve of
corpulence in
boys aged 0
to18 years old

Curve of
corpulence in
girls aged 0
to18 years old

Adiposity rebound

18
 Adiposity rebound

Mortality Risk Versus

Body Mass Index (BMI)

A.Multivariate relative risk of death

from all causes among men and
women according to body mass
index (BMI), smoking status, and
disease status.

Data from four mutually exclusive

subgroups. Nonsmokers had never smoked.

19
B. Multivariate relative risk of death from
cardiovascular disease, cancer, and all other
causes according to BMI among men and
women who had never smoked and had no
history of disease at enrolment. Subjects with
BMIs of 23.5 to 24.9 composed the reference
category in both figures.

(From Calle EE, et al. Body-mass index and

mortality in a prospective cohort of U.S.
adults.. N Engl J Med 1999;341:1097.)

Examples

20
 Fabien Galthié, captain of the french rugby
team: 1.82 m, 83 kg, BMI: 25 (overweight ?)

Anna Kournikova, tenniswoman, 140 ATP

173 cm, 55.5 kg, BMI=18.5 (underweight ?)

Re-examination of the BMI Guidelines

for Ideal Body Weight
Black Male White Male
Black Female White Female
50
45
Mean BMI (kg/m2)

40
35
30
25
20
15
10
10-20% 21-30% 31-40% >40%
Percent Body Fat by Hydrodensitometry
A.J. Evenski, L.M. Whetstone, W. Pories, J. Houmard, J.P. Garry East Carolina University, Greenville, NC

21
 PREVALENCE OF OVERWEIGHT/OBESE

Males Females
(n=2591) (n=634)
Overweight & Obese

BMI > 25 68.6% 27.3%

%BF 66.6% 35.5%

(M>20%, F>30%)

BMI > 30 20.4% 8.0%

%BF 41.6% 20.8%
Obese

(M>25%, F>35%)

*White men and women only

Relationship between Fat mass (DXA) and BMI

in a cohort of 273 females aged 7 to 52 yrs
Fat mass (kg)

35.00

30.00

25.00

20.00

15.00 Fat mass = 1.3794 x BMI - 16.297

R2 = 0.85

10.00

5.00

0.00
10.00 15.00 20.00 25.00 30.00 35.00 40.00

BMI

Relationship between Fat % (DXA) and BMI in a

cohort of 273 females aged 7 to 52 yrs
Fat % (DXA)

50.00

45.00

40.00

35.00

30.00

25.00

20.00
Fat % = 1.1501 x BMI - 1.2409
15.00
R2 = 0.53
10.00

5.00

0.00
10.00 15.00 20.00 25.00 30.00 35.00 40.00

BMI

22
23
24
 Is BMI enough to classify people ??

Somatotyping
Somatotyping is a quantification
of the shape and composition of
the human body

Somatotyping
Endomorphy – relative fatness
(… characterized by a roundness and softness of the body,
featuring a predominance of the abdomen over the chest /
thorax, high square shoulders, and a short neck)

Mesomorphy – relative musculoskeletal robustness

(… characterized by a square body with hard, rugged, and
prominent muscularization. The bones are large and
covered with thick muscles. The chest / thorax is large and
the waist relatively slender.

25
Somatotyping
Ectomorphy – relative linearity
(The « leanness component » … characterized by linearity,
fragility, and delicacy of the body. Bones are small and
muscles thin. Limbs are long and trunk short. The shoulder
girdle lacks support and the scapulae « wing out »)

A somatotype rating provides and overview of the total

physique that is independent of size.
Carter, et al., Am J Human Biol 1997

Endomorph Mesomorph Ectomorph

Somatotyping is a system of classifying body shape with respect to three basic

categories related to genetically determined tissue types

26
27
Ideal body weight
It exists a notion of ideal body weight that is a theoretical
weight based on statistical norms taking into account body
height and weight.
« de Broca » Formula :
Weight (kg) = Height (cm) - 100
« Lorentz » Formula :
Weight (kg) = Height (cm) - 100 - (Height - 150) / a
with a = 4 for male and a = 2.5 for female

Determining an “ideal” Body Weight

Desirable Body Weight = LBM / [ 1 - Ideal % Body Fat]

FEMALE JUDOKA (competes in -56kg wt. Class)

Weight = 56.8 kg Body Fat = 21%
(note: female judoka normally have 15% body fat)
Fat Weight = 0.21 X 56.8 ll.9 kg
Lean Body Mass = Total Weight - Fat Weight
LBM = 56.8 - 11.9 or 44.9 kg
Desirable Body Weight = 44.9 kg / [1 - 0.15] = 52.82 kg

Family practice calculation

Calculation: Male Ideal Weight in Kg

Weight = 50 + 0.91 x (height in centimetres - 152.4)

Calculations: Female Ideal Weight in Kg

Weight = 45.5 + 0.91 x (height in centimetres - 152.4)

28
Comparison between adults male and
female

Female versus male

Height - 13 cm
Weight - 14 à - 18 kg
Fat free mass - 18 à - 22 kg
Fat mass + 3 à + 6 kg
% Fat mass + 6% à + 10%

DETERMINING BODY FRAME-SIZE FROM

STATURE AND TWO BONE DIAMETERS
Body frame-size (BFS) becomes a useful measure for evaluating “normalcy” of body
weight with standardized charts that categorize weight by frame size (bony structure). A
combination of stature and bony widths (bone diameter measurements) adequately
defines BFS, because BFS relates to the fat-free body mass (bone and muscle) and not to
body fat.
MEASUREMENTS
1. Stature (height [Ht]) measured in cm
2. Biacromial diameter (cm) measured as the distance between the most lateral
projections of the acromial processes (see figure)
3. Bitrochanteric diameter (cm) measured as the distance between the most lateral
projection of the greater trochanters (see figure)
CALCULATIONS
Regression analyses determines BFS values for women and men from Ht and the sum of
the biacromial and bitrochanteric bone diameters (Bia Bitroc) with the following
equations:

Female: BFS = Ht x 10.357 + ( Bia + Bitroc)

Male: BFS = Ht x 8.239 + ( Bia + Bitroc)

29
 Methods for Assessing
Body Composition

Body composition: levels of measurement

Direct technique Measurement?

 Cadaver studies
vs
Indirect techniques Prediction?
 Hydrostatic weighing
Doubly indirect techniques Accuracy
 Skinfolds vs.
Validity

Methods used to measure body

composition
TECHNIQUE DIRECTLY MEASURED APPLICATION
PROPERTY
HYDROSTATIC Fat has a lower mass density
WEIGHING Total body tissue density (0.9g/cm2) than non-fat (1.1g/cm2)
(DENSITOMETRY)
There is a correlation between the
SKINFOLD Thickness of the amount of subcutaneous fat
TECHNIQUES subcutaneous fat layer at (thickness) and total body fat content
specific locations

Fat is basically non-conductive,

BIO-IMPEDANCE Electrical impedance of the whereas the water and electrolytes of
ANALYSIS (BIA) body between the left hand the lean compartment are highly
and the right foot conductive

NEUTRON Fat contains no nitrogen, while the

ACTIVATION Total amount of nitrogen in proteins and amino acids of the lean
ANALYSIS (NAA) the body compartment contain a rather fixed
fraction of nitrogen
Fat is potassium-free. The lean
TOTAL BODY Total amount of radioactive compartment contains a rather
POTASSIUM (TBK) K-40 in the body constant fraction of potassium and
thus of potassium-40

30
Methods used to measure body
composition
TECHNIQUE DIRECTLY MEASURED APPLICATION
PROPERTY
The ratio of the attenuations at two x-
DUAL-ENERGY X- Relative attenuation of two ray energies is different for high
RAY energies in an x-ray beam atomic number elements which are
ABSORPTIOMETRY present as electrolytes only in lean
compartment tissue
The absorption spectrum varies with
NEAR-INFRARED Proportion of light energy the substance and the wave length.
INTERACTANCE transmitted that returns to a Fat peaks at 930nm and Water at
detector 970nm. Muscle is high in water so the
relative absorption at two wave
lengths is indicative of the relative
proportions of fat and muscle.

Indirect techniques
Most of indirect techniques result in the
primary assessment of body density.
Body
Body fat % ? Body density ? measurements ?

A variety of equations for body fat

e.g. Siri equation
% body fat= (495/body density)-450)

A variety of equations for body density

Equations currently used for body fat

SIRI Equation (1956):
% Fat Mass = (4.95 / Body density) - 4.50
BROZEC Equation (1963) :
% Fat Mass = (4.57 / Body density) - 4.142
These equations have been validated using a small number of cadavers. They assume:

 density of 0.9 g/mL for fat

 density of 1.1 g/mL for FFM
Body density must be highly precise:
If BD = 1.035 and you use a round measurement at 1.03, FM %
become 30.58% instead of 28.26%.

31
Assessment of body density

Hydrostatic weighing

Archimedes principle
 A submerged object, is buoyed up by a force
equal to volume of water displaced
 Measure weight lost when submerged to
measure volume

Hydrostatic Weighing Technique

Gold standard for body composition analysis

Requires time, skill, space, and special equipment
Not feasible for large groups or aquaphobic individuals

32
 Assessment
techniques;
Hydrostatic
weighing

Calculates whole body density

as
density=mass / volume

Densitometry
Description: This method uses Archimedes principle which states that when
a body is submerged in water, there is a buoyant counter force equal to the
weight of the water which is displaced. Because bone and muscle are more
dense than water, a person with a larger percentage of fat free mass will
weigh more in the water and have a lower percent body fat. Conversely, fat
floats. Therefore, a large amount of fat mass will make the body lighter in
the water and have a higher percent body fat.

Body volume = measured using hydrostatic (underwater)

weighing accounting for water density and air trapped in lungs

If each test is performed correctly according to the recommended guidelines, there is

a +/- 1.5% error. (Note: Accuracy depends on the client’s ability to blow all the air out
of their lungs both during a pre-test screening with a spirometer, and during the test
itself)
Advantages:
 This method is considered the "gold standard" in percent body fat
measurement
 Repeat measures usually prove consistent, and can be used to chart progress
Disadvantages:
 This method usually requires a lot of equipment and space
 Testing is time consuming and involved
 Requires in-depth knowledge to administer the tests and compute the
calculations
 Being submerged under water may be difficult and produce anxiety for some
Cost: Usually hydrostatic weighing will cost anywhere from $10-$75 due to the
involved nature of the test.

33
Air Displacement The Bod Pod

Description: One of the newest forms of

body composition testing involving state of
the art technology, developed by Life
Measurements Instruments, Concord, CA.
The use of Bod Pod correlates nicely with
the concept of hydrostatic weighing
(underwater weighing). Instead of using
water to measure body volume, the Bod
Pod uses air displacement to measure
body volume. Measurement time takes
roughly 5 to 8 minutes per individual.

If each test is performed correctly according to the recommended guidelines, there is

a ± 3% error. The Bod pod has a validity of r = .93 using hydrostatic weighing as the
criterion measure.
Factors that may affect accuracy of the Bod Pod
 Hydration status and increases in muscle temperature can adversely affect
calculation results
 Also, it is imperative to breath normal, remain still, and keep hands in lap while
being assessed by the Bod Pod (any slight movement or change in breathing
pattern may affect results)

Advantages
 Does not require getting wet
 Not difficult to operate
 Measurement time is short
 Well suited for special populations (children, obese,
elderly, and disabled persons)
Disadvantages : Very expensive ($30,000 - $40,000)

Skinfold measurement
Assumes interrelationships between
 Subcutaneous fat
 Internal fat
 Whole body density

Huge variety of sites

Huge variety of equations

34
 Skinfold Thickness

Method used to assess body composition by

measuring a double thickness of skin at specific body
sites
3 caliper measurements on the right side of the body
Men : Chest, abdomen and thigh
Women : Triceps, suprailium and thigh

Trained technician for pre- and post-test

measurements, and similar time of day

Anatomical Skinfold Landmarks

Skinfold Technique

Biceps body site …

Suprailiac body site …

35
Durnin and Rahaman method
Durnin et Rahaman (1967) : 4 Skinfolds
 biceps, triceps, suprailiac and subscapular
Predictive Equations :
 Man : Y = 1.1610 - 0.0632 X
 Woman : Y = 1.1581 - 0.0720 X
 Boy : Y = 1.1533 - 0.0643 X
 Girl : Y = 1.1369 - 0.0598 X
Y = body density and X = log  Skinfolds (mm)

Brook (1971) adapts equations for children

aged 1 to 11 years old.

 Boys : Y = 1.1690 - 0.0788 X

 Girls : Y = 1.2063 - 0.0999 X

Y = body density and X = log  Skinfolds (mm)

Parizkova Equations
D = a - b log X - c log Y
where X : triceps skinfold
Y : subscapular skinfold measured with the
Best ‘s calliper
a, b, c linked to sex and age.
Sex Age a b c
Boy 9 - 12 1.108 0.027 0.0388
13 - 16 1.130 0.055 0.026
Girl 9 - 12 1.088 0.014 0.036
13 - 16 1.114 0.031 0.041

36
 Different callipers

Best skinfold calliper :

30 g.mm-2, 7mm2 area
Harpenden skinfold calliper :
10 g.mm-2, 90 mm2 area
Differences between results
obtained by the two devices
are very small : none to 1 - 2
% depending on the authors.

Calculation of % BF from skinfold

Formulas for converting body density to percent body

fat (children and adolescents, by sex)

37
Body imaging
Body imaging
 Computed tomography
 uses x-rays
 Magnetic Resonance Imaging

Bioelectrical impedance

Dual Energy X-ray

Absorptiometry
DXA

38
Description: DEXA is a fairly new technology. It is based on the three
component model of body composition. DEXA uses two X-ray energies to
measure body fat, muscle, and bone mineral. When having the scan done,
one must lay still in the supine position on what looks like an x-ray table.

The results may be viewed as whole body estimates of body fat,

muscle, and bone mineral as well as regional body estimates.
DEXA takes bone mineral content into consideration when
estimating body fat and muscle, therefore it is considered to be
more accurate and valid than a two component model of body
composition such as underwater weighing.

Advantages:
Radiation exposure is low
DEXA is quick
There is no special preparation on the part of the participant

Disadvantages: DEXA is costly

39
 Male, 151 cm, 12 yrs old, 61 kg, Male, 152 cm, 12 yrs old, 36.3 kg,
41.6 % FM, BMI: 26.75 13.6 % FM, BMI: 15.71

Female, 11 yrs old, 144 cm, 33.4 kg, Female, 9 yrs old, 142 cm, 54.5 kg,
19.7 % FM, BMI: 16.1 47.2 % FM, BMI: 27.02

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 Bioelectrical Impedance

Bioelectrical Impedance: A technique to assess body composition by

measuring running a weak electrical current through the body.

Description: Since fat is a very poor conductor of electricity, a lot of fat will
impede the current more so than a lot of lean tissue. By measuring the
resistance to the current, the machine estimates the percent body fat.

Accuracy is dependant upon several client-based variables. It is recommended the

following guidelines be followed:
 Avoid exercising within 12 hours of the test
Abstain from eating and drinking within 4 hours of the test
 Void (urinate) completely prior to testing
 Do not drink alcohol within 48 hours of the test
 Avoid taking diuretics prior to testing unless instructed by your physician
Advantages:
 Requires little or no technical knowledge of the operator or the client
 Testing itself takes less than a minute
 The unit can be easily transported from place to place
 Requires only an electrical outlet and the machine itself
Disadvantages:
 This method has a higher standard error range than most people desire
 Tends to consistently overestimate lean people and underestimate obese people

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Waist-to-Hip Ratio : The Pear versus the Apple
Men’s Goal:
Men < 0.95
Definition:
waist circumference
measurement divided
by the measurement
of the widest
circumference around
the hips.

Women’s Goal:
Women < 0.80

Waist-to-hip Circumferences Ratio:

norms for men and women
Risk
Age Low Moderate High Very high
Men 20-29 < 0.83 0.83 – 0.89 - 0.94 > 0.94
0.88
30-39 < 0.84 0.84 – 0.92 - 0.96 > 0.96
0.91
40-49 < 0.88 0.88 – 0.96- 1.00 > 1.00
0.95
50-59 < 0.90 0.90 – 0.97 - 1.02 > 1.02
0.96
60-69 < 0.91 0.91 – 0.99 - 1.03 > 1.03
0.96

Women 20-29 < 0.71 0.71 – 0.78 - 0.82 > 0.82

0.77
30-39 < 0.72 0.72 – 0.79 - 0.84 > 0.84
0.78
40-49 < 0.73 0.73 – 0.80 - 0.87 > 0.87
0.79
50-59 < 0.74 0.74 – 0.72 - 0.88 > 0.88
0.81
60-69 < 0.76 0.76 – 0.84 - 0.90 > 0.90
0.83

Adapted from Bray and Gray (1988)

Nomogram for waist-to-hip ratio

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Cone shaped index (conicity)
The body shape of a human may change from that of a cylinder to
that of a double cone shaped model with the storage of fat mass
around the waist.
Equation
C-index = Waist C / 0.109 (body_ weight/body_ height

waist Circumference (m), body weight (kg) and body height(m)

Normality is 1 (perfect cylinder) to 1.73 (perfect double cone).

Double cone vs. perfect cylinder models to depict shape of human body with increased
abdominal adiposity

Physical activity and body

composition

43
 Main concern
Does physical practice induce a loss of weight ?
Does physical practice change fat mass into lean mass ?

Is low fat mass a factor to better performance ?

Is high fat mass a handicap for performance ?

The effect of diet on energy balance

components
Diet
Food
+ Ingested

- Basal or resting Severe restriction causes a

metabolic rate 10-20% decrease
- Thermogenesis Fewer calories ingested
depends on meal composition
- Exercise energy
expenditure

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 Weight cycling!

The effect of acute exercise on energy

balance components
Acute Exercise
Food No clear effect;
+ Ingested appetite not reduced!
Basal or resting Unchanged
- metabolic rate rate elevated post exercise

- Thermogenesis No consistent effect

- Exercise energy
expenditure

The effect of chronic exercise (training) on energy

balance components
Chronic Exercise

Food Increases in trained

+ Ingested when training stops decrease may be less than
decrease in energy expenditure
Basal or resting
- metabolic rate Unchanged
Inverted U-response
- Thermogenesis high levels decrease thermogenesis

- Exercise energy
expenditure A cumulative increase

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 Diet Exercise Training

These factors can interact!

Body Composition Changes as a Result of

Frequent Dieting Without Exercise

Effects of endurance training on body

composition (Bouchard et al., 1990)

Body composition Non active before Non active after World class Long
training training distance runner
Body weight (kg) 79 77 68

Fat mass (kg) 12.6 9.6 5.1

Lean mass (kg) 66.4 67.4 62.9

% Fat mass 16 12.5 7.5

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Effects of a 6-week Aerobics Exercise
Program on Body Composition

Changes in selected skinfolds of a young

woman during a 16-week exercise program

Skinfolds Before After Absolute Percentage

(mm) percentage change

Triceps 22.5 19.4 -3.1 -13.8

Subscapular 19.0 17.0 -2.0 -10.5
Suprailiac 34.5 30.2 -4.3 -12.8
Abdomen 33.7 29.4 -4.3 -12.8
Thigh 21.6 18.7 -2.9 -13.4

Sum 131.3 114.7 -16.6 -12.6

The Roles of Diet and Exercise in Weight Loss

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Effects of Daily Energy Expenditure on Weight
Regain Following a Weight Reduction Program

What is the role of Exercise?

Enhanced muscle mass and reduced body fat levels.

Increased metabolic rate.
Better quality of sleep and enhanced energy levels.
Lowered blood pressure and cholesterol levels.
Lower risk of diabetes and heart disease.
Maintenance of flexibility, mobility and coordination.
Improved body image and confidence.
Reduced incidence of depression and anxiety.

Low vs. High Intensity Exercise

Low Intensity Exercise
Burns a greater proportion
of calories from fat.
Must be done for a longer
period of time to reap
health benefits.
Recommended for
individuals new to exercise
or restarting an exercise
program
High Intensity Exercise
Burns more total fat
calories with a smaller
proportion coming from
fat calories.
Can be performed for
shorter periods of time to
reap health benefits.
Recommended for
individuals who are fit and
have medical clearance.

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Low vs. High Intensity Exercise

How Long Should Your Exercise Sessions Last?

Goal:
‘health fitness’
30 minutes most
days of the week
Goal:
Goal:
‘weight loss’
45-60 minutes
‘cardiorespiratory fitness’
5-6 days/week 20-30 minutes
3-5 days/week

Changes in Body Composition as a Result of a

Combined Aerobic and Strength Training Program

1. Strength training increases the contractile tissue in the muscle fiber.

2. The muscles appear larger (hypertrophy) and metabolism increases.
3. If combined with an aerobic exercise program, body fat levels
decrease.

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The effects of the single and combined influences of Food
restriction, Fluid deprivation and Thermal dehydration on
selected parameters
Parameters Effects

Performance factors Decreased

Aerobic power No change
Muscular strength Decreased
Muscular endurance Unknown
Muscular power Unknown
Speed of movement Decreased
Run time to exhaustion Decreased
Work performed Decreased

Physiological factors
Cardiac output Decreased
Blood volume Decreased
Plasma volume Decreased
Heart rate Increased
Stroke volume Decreased
Core temperature Increased
Sweat rate Decreased
Muscle water Decreased
Muscle electrolytes Decreased
Adapted from Tipton and Oppliger (1984)

50
Risks with severe weight loss
Dehydration
Chronic fatigue
Eating disorders
Menstrual dysfunctions Female Athlete Triad
Bone density disorders

Dehydration
Fasting leads to rapid weight loss, primarily through
dehydration. Athletes use rubberized sweats, sauna bath,
eliminate body water (diuretic use) and avoid drinking.
Consequences are:
 decreased blood volume and pressure
 decreased submaximal and maximal stroke volume
 decreased blood flow onto and through the kidneys
 impaired thermoregulation

Chronic fatigue
When body weight drops below a certain level, tha athlete
experiences an increased incidence of illness and injury.

The performance decrements can be due to:

 chronic fatigue that accompanies weight losses. The

symptoms mimic those seen with overtraining. Neural and
hormonal components are involved (inhibition of sympathetic
nervous system and domination of parasympathetic system).

 substrate depletion. Liver and muscle glycogen levels

decrease, which reduce blood glucose level. Muscle proteins
may be depleted. The performance declines.

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Female Athlete Triad
Elite female athletes (90%) are prone subjects to eating
disorders. They are open to a triad of disorders that are linked:
 anorexia or bulimia nervosa
 menstrual dysfunction (oligomenorrhea, amenorrhea and
delayed menarche. It is observed in sports that emphasize
low body weight or low body fat (gym, dance, skating …)
 bone mineral disorders. There is a relationship between
athletic-induced amenorrhea and low bone mineral density.
The lack of normal bone density (BMD) at the age when
BMD should be at the peak may induce a major risk of
precocious osteoporosis later in life.

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