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Quarter II: AFRO-LATIN AMERICAN
AND POPULAR MUSIC
Traditional Music of Africa
Some Types of African Music
Afrobeat is a term used to describe the fusion
of West African with black American music.
Apala is a musical genre from Nigeria in the
Yoruba tribal style to wake up
the worshippers after fasting
during the Muslim holy feast
of Ramadan. Percussion
instrumentation includes the
rattle (sekere), thumb piano
(agidigbo), bell (agogo), and two or three talking drums.
Axe is a popular musical genre
from Salvador, Bahia, and
Brazil. It fuses the Afro-
Caribbean styles of the marcha,
reggae, and calypso.
Jit is a hard and fast percussive Zimbabwean dance
music played on drums with guitar accompaniment,
influenced by mbra –base guitar style.
Jive is a popular form of South
African music featuring a
lively and uninhibited variation
of jitterbug a form of a swing.
Juju is a popular music style
from Nigeria that relies on the
traditional Yoruba rhythms, where
the instruments in Juju are more
Western in origin. A drum kit,
keyboard, pedal steel guitar, and
accordion are used along with the
traditional dun-dun (talking drum or squeeze drum).
Kwassa Kwassa is a dance style
begun in Zaire in the late 1980’s,
popularized by Kanda Bongo Man. In
this dance style, the hips move back
and forth while the arms move
following the hips.
Marabi is a South African three-chord
township music of the 1930s-1960s
which evolved into African Jazz.
Latin American Music Influenced by African Music
Reggae is a Jamaican sound
dominated by bass guitar and drums.
It refers to a particular music style
that was strongly influenced by
traditional mento and calypso music,
as well as American jazz, and rhythm and blues.
Salsa music is Cuban, Puerto Rican,
and Colombian dance music. It
comprises various musical genres
including the Cuban son montuno,
guaracha, chachacha, mambo and
bolero.
Samba is the basic underlying
rhythm that typifies most Brazilian
music. It is a lively and rhythmical
dance and music with three steps to
every bar, making the Samba feel
like a timed dance.
Soca is a modern Trinidadian and Tobago pop music
combining “soul” and “calypso” music.
Were This is Muslim music performed often as a wake-
up call for early breakfast and prayers during Ramadan
celebrations. Relying on pre-arranged music, it fuses the
African and European music styles with particular usage
of the natural harmonic series.
Zouk is fast, carnival-like hythmic
music, from the Creole slang word
for ‘party,’ originating in the
Carribean Islands of Guadaloupe
and Martinique and popularized in
the 1980’s.
Vocal Forms of African Music
Maracatu first surfaced in the African state of
Pernambuco, combining the strong rhythms of African
percussion instruments with Portuguese melodies. The
maracatu groups were called “nacoes” (nations) who
paraded with a drumming ensemble numbering up to
100, accompanied by a singer, chorus, and a coterie of
dancers.
Blues is a musical form of the late 19th century that has
had deep roots in African-American communities. These
communities are located in the so-called “Deep South”
of the United States. The slaves and their descendants
used to sing as they worked in the cotton and vegetable
fields.
Soul music was a popular music genre of the 1950’s and
1960’s. it originated in the United States. It combines
elements of African-American gospel music, rhythm and
blues, and often jazz. The catchy rhythms are
accompanied by handclaps and extemporaneous body
moves which are among its important features. Other
characteristics include “call and response” between the
soloist and the chorus, and an especially tense and
powerful vocal sound.
The term spiritual, normally associated with a deeply
religious person, refers here to a Negro spiritual, a song
form by African migrants to America who became
enslaved by its white communities. This musical form
became their outlet to vent their loneliness and anger,
and is a result of the interaction of music and religion
from Africa with that of America. The texts are mainly

religious, sometimes taken from psalms of Biblical
passages, while the music utilizes deep bass voices.
The call and response method is a succession of two
distinct musical phrases usually rendered by different
musicians, where the second phrase acts as a direct
commentary on or response to the first.
Musical Instrument of Africa
Classification of Traditional African Instruments
A. Idiophones
These are percussion instruments that are either struck
with a mallet or against one another.
1. Balafon - The balafon is a West
African xylophone. It is a pitched
percussion instrument with bars
made from logs or bamboo.
The xylophone is originally an
Asian instrument that follows the
structure of a piano. It came from
Madagascar
2. Rattles - Rattles are made of seashells, tin,
basketry, animal hoofs,
horn, wood, metal bells,
cocoons, palm kernels, or
tortoise shells. These
rattling vessels may range
from single to several
objects that are either joined or suspended in such
a way as they hit each other.
3. Agogo - The agogo is a single bell or multiple bells
that had its origins in traditional Yoruba music and also
in the samba baterias
(percussion) ensembles. The
agogo may be called “the
oldest samba instrument based
on West African Yoruba
single or double bells.” It has the highest pitch of any of
the bacteria instruments.
4. Atingting Kon - These are slit gongs used to
communicate between villages.
They were carved outof wood to
resemble ancestors and had a “slit
opening” at the bottom. In certain
cases, their sound could carry for
miles through the forest and even
across water to neighboring islands.
A series of gong “languages” were
composed of beats and pauses, making it possible to
send highly specific messages.
5. Slit drum - The slit drum is a hollow percussion
instrument. Although known as a
drum, it is not a true drum but is an
idiophone. It is usually carved or
constructed from bamboo or wood
into a box with one or more slits in
the top. Most slit drums have one
slit, though two and three slits (cut into the shape of an
“H”) occur. If the resultant tongues are different in width
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or thicknesses, the drum will produce two different
pitches.
6. Djembe - The West African djembe (pronounced
zhem-bay) is one of the best-
known African drums is. It is
shaped like a large goblet and
played with bare hands. The body
is carved from a hollowed trunk
and is covered in goat skin.
7. Shekere - The shekere is a type of gourd and shell
megaphonefrom West Africa, consisting of a dried gourd
with beads woven into a net covering
the gourd. The agbe is another gourd
drum with cowrie shells usually
strung with white cotton thread. The
axatse is a small-gourd, held by the
neck and placed between hand and
leg.
8. Rasp - A rasp, or scraper, is hand percussion
instrument whose sound is
produced by scraping the
notches on a piece of wood
(sometimes elaborately
carved) with a stick, creating a
series of rattling effects.
Membranophones
Membranophones are instruments which have vibrating
animal membranes used in drums. Their shapes may be
conical, cylindrical, barrel, hour-glass, globular, or
kettle, and are played with sticks, hands, or a
combination of both. African drums are usually carved
from a single wooden log, and may also be made from
ceramics, gourds, tin cans, and oil drums. Examples of
these are found in the different localities – entenga
(Ganda), dundun (Yoruba), atumpan (Akan), and ngoma
(Shona), while some are constructed with wooden staves
and hoops.
1. Body percussion -
Africans frequently use
their bodies as musical
instruments. Aside from
their voices, where many of them are superb singers,
the body also serves as a drum as people clap their
hands, slap their thighs, pound their upper arms or
chests, or shuffle their feet.
2. Talking drum - The talking
drum is used to send messages to
announce births, deaths,
marriages, sporting events,
dances, initiation, or war.
Sometimes it may also contain gossip or jokes. It is
believed that the drums can carry direct messages to the
spirits after the death of a loved one.
Lamellaphone One of the most popular
African percussion instruments is the
lamellaphone, which is a set of plucked
tongues or keys mounted on a sound
board. It is known by different names
according to the regions such as mbira,
karimba, kisaanj, and likembe.

Mbira (hand piano or thumb piano)
- The thumb piano or finger
xylophone is of African origin and
is used throughout the continent. It
consists of a wooden board with
attached staggered metal tines (a
series of wooden, metal, or rattan
tongues), plus an additional
resonator to increase its volume.
Chordophone
Musical Bow- is the oldest and
one of the most widely-used string
instruments of Africa. It consists
of a single string attached to each
end of a curved stick, similar to a
bow and arrow.
2. Lute (konting, khalam, and the nkoni) - The lute,
originating from the Arabic
states, is shaped like the modern
guitar and played in similar
fashion. It has a resonating
body, a neck, and one or more
strings which stretch across the
length of its body and neck. The
player tunes the strings by
tightening or loosening the pegs at the top of the lute’s
neck.
3. Kora - The kora is Africa's most sophisticated harp,
while also having features similar to
a lute. Its body is made from a
gourd or calabash. A support for the
bridge is set across the opening and
covered with a skin that is held in
place with studs. The leather rings
around the neck are used to tighten
the 21 strings that give the
instrument a range of over three octaves. The kora is
held upright and played with the fingers.
4. Zither - The zither is a
stringed instrument with varying
sizes and shapes whose strings
are stretched along its body.
Among the types of African
zither are the raft or Inanga
zither from Burundi, the tubular
or Valiha zither from Malagasy,
and the harp or Mvet zither from Cameroon.
5. Zeze - The zeze is an African fiddle played with a
bow, a small wooden stick, or plucked with the fingers.
It has one or two strings,
made of steel or bicycle
brake wire. It is from
Sub-Saharan Africa. It is
also known by the names
tzetze and dzendze, izeze
and endingidi; and on Madagascar is called lokanga (or
lokango) voatavo.
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Aerophones are instruments which are produced
initially by trapped vibrating air columns or which
enclose a body of vibrating air. Flutes in various sizes
and shapes, horns, panpipes, whistle types, gourd and
shell megaphones, oboe, clarinet, animal horn and
wooden trumpets fall under this category.
1. Flutes - Flutes are widely used
throughout Africa and either
vertical or side-blown. They are
usually fashioned from a single tube
closed at one end blown like bottle.
2. Panpipes consist of cane pipes
of different lengths tied in a row
or in a bundle held together by
wax or cord, and generally closed
at the bottom. They are blown
across the top, each providing a
different note.
3. Horns - Horns and trumpets, found almost
everywhere in Africa, are
commonly made from elephant
tusks and animal horns. With
their varied attractive shapes,
these instruments are end-
blown or side-blown and range
in size from the small signal
whistle of the southern cattle herders to the large ivory
horns of the tribal chiefs of the interior.
4. Kudu horn - This is one type of horn made from the
horn of the kudu antelope. It releases a mellow and
warm sound that adds a unique African accent to the
music.
5. Reed pipes - There are single-reed pipes made from
hollow guinea corn or sorghum stems, where the reed is
a flap partially cut from the stem
near one end. It is the vibration of
this reed that causes the air within
the hollow instrument to vibrate,
thus creating the sound.
6. Whistles - Whistles found
throughout the continent may be
made of wood or other materials.
Short pieces of horn serve as
whistles, often with a short tube
inserted into the mouthpiece.
7. Trumpets - African trumpets are made of wood,
metal, animal horns, elephant tusks,
and gourds with skins from snakes,
zebras, leopards, crocodiles and
animal hide as ornaments to the
instrument.

MUSIC OF LATIN AMERICAN
INFLUENCES ON LATINAMERICAN MUSIC
1. Indigenous Latin-American Music
Before the arrival of the Spanish, Portuguese, and other
European colonizers, the natives were found to be using
local drum and percussion instruments such as the guiro,
maracas, and turtle shells, and wind instruments such as
zampona (pan pipes) and quena (notched-end flutes)
remain popular and are traditionally made out of the
same aquatic canes, although PVC pipe is sometimes
used due to its resistance to heat, cold, and humidity.
Generally, quenas only are played during the dry season.
Materials came from hollow tree trunks, animal skins,
fruit shells, dry seeds, cane and clay, hardwood trees,
jaguar claws, animal and human bones, and specially-
treated inflated eyes of tigers.
Quena Turtle shells Guiro Maracas
The indigenous music of Latin America was largely
functional in nature, being used for religious worship
and ceremonies. The use of instruments as well as
singing and dancing served to implore the gods for good
harvest, victory in battles, guard against sickness and
natural disasters, and of course provide recreation.
2. Native American/Indian Music
The ethnic and cultural groups of the principal native
Americans share many similar yet distinctive music
elements pertaining to melody, harmony, rhythm,
form, and dynamics. Short musical motives from
descending melodic lines were a common feature, where
tempo, rhythm, and tone colors vary with the specific
occasion or ritual.
3. Afro-Latin American Music
The African influence on Latin American music is most
pronounced in its rich and varied rhythmic patterns
produced by the drums and various percussion
instruments. Complex layering of rhythmic patterns was
a favorite device, where fast paced tempos add to the
rhythmic density.
4. Euro-Latin American Music
The different regions of Latin America adopted various
characteristics from their European colonizers. Melodies
of the Renaissance period were used in Southern
Chile and the Colombian Pacific coasts, while step-wise
melodies were preferred in the heavily Hispanic and
Moorish-influenced areas of Venezuela and Colombia.
Alternating dual meters, such as and, known as
“sesquialtera” found in Chile and adopted in Cuba and
Puerto Rico, were immortalized in the song I Wanna Be
in America from Leonard Bernstein’s Broadway hit West
Side Story.
5. Mixed American Music
The diversity of races and cultures from the Native
Americans, Afro-Latin Americans, and Euro-Latin
Americans account for the rich combinations of musical
elements including the melodic patterns, harmonic
combinations, rhythmic complexities, wide range of
colors and dynamics, and various structural formats.
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6. Popular Latin American Music
Latin America has produced a number of musical genres
and forms that had been influenced by European folk
music, African traditional music, and native sources.
Much of its popular music has in turn found its way to
the many venues and locales of America, Europe, and
eventually the rest of the world. Some of these Latin
American popular music forms are tango, bossa nova,
samba, son, and salsa.
a. Samba
The samba is a dance form of African origins
around 1838 which evolved into an
African-Brazilian invention in the
working class and slum districts of
Rio de Janeiro. Its lively rhythm,
consisting of a meter but containing
three steps each that create a
feeling of a meter instead, was
meant to be executed for singing,
dancing, and parading in the
carnival. Samba has a number of
variations, so that there is no clear-cut definition of a
single samba form. Its most adventurous kind is known
as the batucada, referring at once to a large percussion
ensemble of up to a hundred players, a jam session, or an
intensely polyrhythmic style of drumming.
b. Son
The son is a fusion of the popular music or canciones
(songs) of Spain and the African rumba rhythms of
Bantu origin. Originating in Cuba, it is usually
played with the tres (guitar), contrabass, bongos,
maracas, and claves (two wooden sticks that are hit
together). Although the son is seldom heard today, its
most important legacy is its influence on present-day
Latin American music, particularly as the forerunner of
the salsa.
c. Salsa
The salsa is a social dance with
marked influences from Cuba and
Puerto Rico that started in New
York in the mid 1970’s. Its style
contains elements from the swing
dance and hustle as well as the
complex Afro-Cuban and Afro-
Carribean dance forms of
pachanga and guaguanco.
MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS OF LATIN AMERICA
The varied cultures developed in Latin America gave
rise to different types of wind and percussion
instruments. As with the African continent, their rich
history dating back thousands of years ago with the
Aztec, Maya, and other prehistoric cultural groups
in Latin America understandably generates their own
brands of creativity in making music.
Tlapitzalli
The tlapitzalli is a flute
variety from the Aztec
culture made of clay with
decorations of abstract
designs or images of their deities.
 5

a. Pitus
Teponaztli The pitus are side-blown cane
The teponaztli is a Mexican slit drum hollowed flutes that are played all
out and carved from a piece of year round.
hardwood. It is then decorated
with designs in relief or carved
to represent human figures or b. Wooden Tarkas
animals to be used for both The tarkas are vertical duct flutes
religious and recreational with a mouthpiece similar to that of
purposes. a recorder, used during the rainy
Conch season.
The conch is a wind instrument
made from a seashell usually of a c. Quenas
large sea snail. It is prepared by The quenas are vertical cane
cutting a hole in its spine near the flutes with an end-notched made
apex, then blown into as if it were from fragile bamboo. They are
a trumpet. used during the dry season.

Rasp d. Charango
The rasp is a hand percussion The charango is a ten-
instrument whose sound is stringed Andean guitar
produced by scraping a group of notched sticks with from Bolivia. It is the size
another stick, creating a series of rattling effects. of a ukulele and a smaller
version of the mandolin, imitating the early guitar and
Huehueti lute brought by the Spaniards. It produces bright sounds
The huehueti is a Mexican upright tubular drum used by and is often used in serenades in Southern Peru.
the Aztecs and other ancient
civilizations. It is made of wood opened Mariachi
at the bottom and standing on three legs The Mariachi is an extremely popular band in Mexico
cut from the base, with its stretched skin whose original ensemble consisted of violins, guitars,
beaten by the hand or a wooden mallet. harp, and an enormous
guitarron (acoustic bass
Whistles guitar). Trumpets were later
Whistles are instruments made added, replacing the harp.
of natural elements such as bone Mariachi music is extremely
from animals. The eagle-bone passionate and romantic with
whistle is the most common their blended harmonies and characterized by catchy
whose function is to help rhythms. Its musicians are distinctly adorned with wide-
symbolize the piece’s purpose. brimmed hats and silver buttons.
Incan Instruments VOCAL AND DANCE FORMS OF
Among the Incas of South America, two instrumental LATINAMERICAN MUSIC
varieties were most common:
1. Cumbia
a. Ocarina Originating in Panama and Colombia, the cumbia
The ocarina was an ancient vessel became a popular African courtship dance with
flute made of clay or European and African
ceramic with four to 12 finger holes instrumentation and
and a mouthpiece characteristics. It contained
that projected from the body. varying rhythmic meters
among the major locations –
b. Panpipes (Zamponas) 2/4 meter in Colombia; 2/4, 4/4, and 6/8 meters in
The zamponas were ancient Panama and 2/2 meter in Mexico. Instruments used are
instruments tuned to different the drums of African origin, such as the tabora (bass
scalar varieties, played by blowing drum), claves, which are hard, thick sticks that sets the
across the tube top. Typical beat, guitar, accordion, clarinet, modern
models were either in pairs or as flute, and caja, a type of snare drum.
several bamboo tubes of different
lengths tied together to produce 2. Tango
graduated pitches of sound. The word tango may have been
of African origin meaning
Andean Instruments “African dance” or from the
The Andean highlands made use of several varieties of Spanish word taner meaning “to
flutes and string instruments that include the following: play” (an instrument). It is a

foremost Argentinian and Uruguayan urban popular
song and dance that is related to the Cuban contradanza,
habanera, and Cuban tango, and remains a 20th century
nationalistic Argentinian piece of music that is most
expressive.
3. Cha Cha
The cha cha is a ballroom dance the originated in Cuba
in 1953, derived from the mambo
and its characteristic rhythm of 2
crochets – 3 quavers – quaver rest,
with a syncopation on the fourth
beat. The cha cha may be
danced with Cuban music, Latin
Pop, or Latin Rock. The Cuban cha
cha, considered more sensual that
may contain polyrhythmic patterns, has a normal count
of ‘two-three-chachacha’ and ‘four and one, two, three’.
4. Rumba
The rumba popular recreational dance of Afro-Cuban
origin, performed in a
complex duple meter
pattern and tresillo,
which is a dotted quaver
– dotted quaver – dotted
semiquaver rhythm. It is
normally used as a
ballroom dance where a
solo dancer or couple
would be in an embrace
though slightly apart, with the rocking
of the hips to a fast-fast-slow sequence and often
containing cross rhythms.
5. Bossa nova Bossa nova originated in 1958-59 as a
movement effecting a radical change in the classic
Cuban samba. The word bossa comes from the Brazilian
capital of Rio de Janeiro, which means either “trend” or
“something charming,” integrating melody, harmony,
and rhythm into a swaying feel, where the vocal style is
often nasal. The nylon-stringed classical guitar is the
most important instrument of this style. Bossa nova
contains themes centering on love, women, longing,
nature, and youthfulness.
6. Reggae
Reggae is an urban popular music and dance style that
originated in Jamaica in the mid
1960’s. It contained English text
coupled with Creole expressions
that we’re not so familiar to the
non-Jamaican. It was a synthesis
of Western American (Afro-
American) popular music and the
traditional Afro-Jamaican music, containing a western-
style melodic-harmonic base with African sounds and
characteristics, American pop and rock music
mannerisms, and a preference for a loud volume in the
bass.
7. Foxtrot
The foxtrot is a 20th century
social dance that originated after
1910 in the USA. It was executed
as a one step, two step and
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syncopated rhythmic pattern. The tempo
varied from 30 to 40 bars per minute and had a simple
duple meter with regular 4-bar phrases. There was no
fixed step pattern, instead borrowing from other dance
forms and having a simple forward/backward sequence.
The foxtrot gave rise to other dances such as the black
bottom, Charleston, and shimmy.
8. Paso Doble
The paso doble (meaning “double
step”) is a theatrical Spanish dance
used by the Spaniards in bullfights,
where the music was played as the
matador enters (paseo) and during
passes just before the kill (faena).
JAZZ
The arrival of the jazz genre did not come overnight. It
was an offshoot of the music of African slaves who
migrated to America. As music is considered a
therapeutic outlet for human feelings, the Africans used
music to recall their nostalgic past in their home country
as well as to voice out their sentiments on their desperate
condition at that time.
RAGTIME
Ragtime is an American popular musical style mainly
for piano, originating in the Afro-American communities
in St. Louis and New Orleans. Its style was said to be a
modification of the “marching mode” made popular by
John Philip Sousa, where the effect is generated by an
internally syncopated melodic line pitted against a
rhythmically straightforward bass line. Its music is
written unlike jazz which is mainly improvised, and
contains regular meters and clear phrases, with an
alternation of low bass or bass octaves and chords.
BIG BAND
The term ‘Big Band” refers to a large ensemble form
originating in the United States in the mid 1920’s closely
associated with the Swing Era with jazz elements.
Relying heavily on percussion
(drums), wind, rhythm section
(guitar, piano, double bass,
vibes), and brass instruments
(saxophones), with a lyrical
string section (violins and other
string instruments) to accompany a lyrical melody.
BEBOP
Bebop or bop is a musical style of modern jazz which is
characterized by a fast tempo, instrumental virtuosity,
and improvisation that emerged during World War II.
The speed of the harmony, melody, and rhythm resulted
in a heavy performance where the instrumental sound
became more tense and free.
JAZZ ROCK
Jazz rock is the music of 1960’s and 1970’s bands that
inserted jazz elements into rock music. A synonym for
“jazz fusion,” jazz rock is a mix of funk and R&B
(“rhythm and blues”) rhythms, where the music used
amplification and electronic effects, complex time
signatures, and extended instrumental compositions with
lengthy improvisations in the jazz style.

POPULAR MUSIC
Popular music literally means “music of the populace,”
similar to traditional folk music of the past. As it
developed in the 20th century, pop music (as it has come
to be called) generally consisted of music for
entertainment of large numbers of people, whether on
radio or in live performances. From the standard songs
and ballads of the legendary Cole Porter, George
Gershwin, and Frank Sinatra to the rock and roll craze of
Elvis Presley and the Beatles and the present day idols in
the alternative music and disco modes, popular music is
now shared by the entire world.
BALLADS
The ballad originated as an expressive folksong in
narrative verse with text dealing typically about love.
The word is derived both from the medieval French
“chanson balladee” and “ballade” which refers to a
dancing song. Used by poets and composers since the
18th century, it became a slow popular love song in the
19th century.
1. Blues Ballads
This is a fusion of Anglo-American and Afro-American
styles from the 19th century that deals with the anti-
heroes resisting authority. The form emphasizes the
character of the performer more than the narrative
content, and is accompanied by the banjo or guitar.
2. Pop Standard and Jazz Ballads
This is a blues style built from a single verse of 16 bars
ending on the dominant or half-cadence, followed by a
refrain/chorus part of 16 or 32 bars in AABA form.
The B section acts as the bridge, and the piece normally
ends with a brief coda.
3. Pop and Rock Ballads
A pop and rock ballad is an emotional love song with
suggestions of folk music, as in the Beatles’ composition
“The Ballad of John and Yoko” and Billy Joel’s “The
Ballad of Billy.” This style is sometimes applied to
strophic story-songs, such as Don McLean’s “American
Pie.”
STANDARDS
In music, the term “standard” is used to denote the most
popular and enduring songs from a particular genre or
style, such as those by Irving Berlin, Cole Porter, and
Rodgers and Hart. Its style is mostly in a slow or
moderate tempo with a relaxed mood. It also features
highly singable melodies within the range and technical
capacity of the everyday listener.
ROCK AND ROLL
Rock and roll was a hugely popular song form in the
United States during the late 1940’s to the 1950’s. It
combined Afro-American forms such as the blues, jump
blues, jazz, and gospel music with the Western swing
and country music. The lead instruments were the piano
and saxophone, but these were eventually replaced by
modern instruments.
DISCO
The 1970s saw the rise of another form of pop music
known as “disco.” Disco music pertained to rock music
7
that was more danceable, thus leading to the
establishment of venues for public dancing also called
discos. The term originated from the French word
“discotheque” which means a library for phonograph
records.
HIP HOPAND RAP
Hip hop music is a stylized, highly rhythmic type of
music that usually (but not always) includes portions of
rhythmically chanted words called “rap.” In rapping, the
artist speaks along with an instrumental or synthesized
beat. Hip hop arose in the 1970s within the Afro-
American and Latino youth in the Bronx area of New
York City. But by the 1980s, it had spread to many other
countries. It has since evolved into a subculture that
encompasses music (rapping, DJing, scratching, and
beatboxing); a nearly acrobatic style of dancing, called
break dancing; a distinct manner of dress; and graffiti-
style artwork.
ALTERNATIVE MUSIC
Alternative music was an underground independent form
of music that arose in the 1980’s. It became widely
popular in the 1990’s as a way to defy “mainstream”
rock music. Thus, it was known for its unconventional
practices such as distorted guitar sounds, oppressive
lyrics, and defiant attitudes. It was also characterized by
high energy levels that bred new styles such as new
wave, punk rock, post-punk, indie rock, gothic rock,
jangle pop, noise pop, C86, Madchester, Industrial Rock,
and Shoegazing. Examples of alternative music are You
Belong with Me, Shake It Off.
PHILIPPINE POPULAR MUSIC
The one word that comes to mind when we think of
contemporary Philippine music is the type commonly
termed as Original Pinoy Music or Original Philippine
Music, or OPM for short. It was originally used to refer
only to Philippine pop songs, particularly ballads, such
as those popular after the collapse of its predecessor, the
Manila Sound, in the late 1970s up until the present.
In the 1960s to 1970s, Nora Aunor, Pilita Corrales,
Eddie Peregrina, Victor Wood, Asin, APO Hiking
Society, and others were highly popular OPM singers. In
the 1970s to 1980s, the major commercial Philippine
pop music artists were Claire dela Fuente, Didith
Reyes, Rico Puno, Ryan Cayabyab, Basil Valdez,
Celeste Legaspi, Hajji Alejandro, Rey Valera, Freddie
Aguilar, Imelda Papin, Eva Eugenio, Nonoy Zuñiga, and
many others.
PHILIPPINE JAZZ
Philippine musicians have also been inspired by jazz
music. Among them are jazz pianist and recording artist
Boy Katindig, who comes from the well-known clan of
musicians that includes jazz piano legend Romy
Katindig and saxophonist Eddie Katindig. The Katindig
family pioneered Latin jazz in Manila. Other notable
Filipino jazz musicians include Lito Molina, Angel
Peña, Emil Mijares, and internationally known jazz
pianist Bobby Enriquez.
PHILIPPINE ALTERNATIVE FOLK MUSIC
The Philippines also saw the rise of alternative folk
music which was different from the traditional and
popular form. This new form combined ethnic

instrumentation with electronic accompaniment, while
presenting themes or issues of society and the
environment. Some of the Filipino composers who
championed this style were Joey Ayala, Grace Nono,
and Edru Abraham of Kontragapi (“Kontemporaryong
Gamelan Pilipino”). Among other Filipino composers
whose styles ranged from folk to semi-ethnic werewere
Freddie Aguilar, best known for his song Anak; Yoyoy
Villame, composer of Magellan;
PHILIPPINE ROCK
The year 1973 saw the birth of Philippine or “Pinoy”
rock music which successfully merged the rock beat
with Filipino lyrics. This new sound was introduced by
the legendary Juan de la Cruz Band (with their song Ang
Himig Natin) which had for its members Joey “Pepe”
Smith, Wally Gonzales, and the originator of Jeproks,
Mike Hanopol, who later became a major symbol of
Pinoy rock. Other early exponents of Pinoy rock
included the band Maria Cafra; Sampaguita, the female
rocker; and folk-rock singer Heber Bartolome and his
Banyuhay band, whose songs expressed strong messages
of nationalism. Continuing this legacy of Pinoy rock
today are vocal groups and bands that include River
Maya, The Dawn, True Faith, The Eraserheads,
Wolfgang, Bamboo, Parokya ni Edgar, Hale, Sandwich,
SugarFree, Sponge Cola,and others.
PINOY RAP
In the Philippines, rap was also made popular by such
composers and performers as Francis Magalona (Mga
Kababayan Ko and Watawat) and Andrew E (Humanap
Ka ng Pangit). Francis Magalona was born on October
4, 1964 and died on March 6, 2009. He is also known as
FrancisM, “Master Rapper,” and “The Man From
Manila.” He was a Filipino rapper, songwriter, producer,
actor, director, television host, and photographer. He is
often hailed as the “King of Pinoy Rap” and is
considered a legend in the Philippine music community.
With the success of his earliest albums, Magalona was
the first Filipino rapper to cross over to the mainstream.
He is also credited for having pioneered the merging of
rap with Pinoy rock, becoming a significant influence on
artists in that genre as well. He was later awarded a
posthumous Presidential Medal of Merit “for his musical
and artistic brilliance, his deep faith in the Filipino, and
his sense of national pride that continue to inspire us.”
ART EDUCATION
Quarter II: TECHNOLOGY-BASED ART
INTRODUCTION
Technology has literally taken over every aspect of life
in the 21st century, and the creative and visual arts have
not been spared. In fact, for the younger generations, art
as you know it is defined by technology—from its
creation, to its manipulation, to its reproduction, and
even to its distribution.
Technology-based art is essentially computer-generated
and/or manipulated. Through the centuries, visual artists
used actual brushes and palettes, and a whole array of
paints, inks, and natural pigments applied to paper,
canvas, fabric, stucco walls and ceilings. Today’s
computer artists employ the ever-expanding powers of
8
image manipulation programs and applications to create
their works which can appear in an entire range of
media—whether as a physical output or a virtual
experience.
Computer/Digital Arts
Origin and Early Stages
Computer art or digital art first came on the scene in the
early 1960s. Understandably, this was due to the
technology that was constantly developing and that
became available at that time. Thus, the early
experimenters were not necessarily artists, but engineers
and scientists who had access to and experience with the
hardware needed. It was they who began to recognize
the potential of artistic expression through the
application of scientific and mathematical principles. In
fact, even in the sample works we present here, you will
note a strong scientific or mathematical look and feel to
the creations of many digital artists. Geometric forms
and repeating patterns appear frequently. More
traditional subjects like human beings, landscapes,
animals, and still life elements are simply incorporated
as part of those forms and patterns—rather than as the
main focus. Also understandable was the initial reaction
of the public to computer-generated art. There were
questions as to whether it was, in fact, “true art” since it
made use of electronic and mechanical devices, rather
than the artist’s own hand, to produce the images and
effects. Within a few years, however, there was a general
acceptance of digital art as an exciting and thought-
provoking form of modern art. Exhibits of computer art
became highly popular and critically acclaimed, as
digital artists or computer art masters or “superstars”
came to the fore in Europe, Russia, and the United
States.
Frieder Nake Georg Nees
- Polygon Drawing -Schrotter (Gravel)
Vera Mornal Ronald Davis
-Des (Ordres) -Mountain and Staurolytes
Some digital artists have even used their works to
express their views on political, social, and cultural
issues; as well as to advocate causes that are critical to
modern life, such as the environment and climate
change. Others even explore the philosophical
relationship between science and technology and the
arts.
 9

The Philippine Scene Pic Collage – allows you to make collages

In our country, Filipino artists were likewise influenced
by the technology trend in art. However, this was more
in the commercial sphere. From the 1960s to the 1990s,
their computer-generated works were primarily geared
towards illustrating for international comic books. In
fact, Filipino illustrators earned quite a reputation for
their talents and were highly in demand in this field.
They eventually became equally sought after as
animators for some of the major film production
companies in the United States, as well as animated
television series produced in different countries.
Cityscape
-Antonio Gorordo
There are also institutions offering training courses on
the digital arts, such as the First Academy of Computer
Arts, the Philippine Center for Creative Imaging
(PCCI), as well as the Technical Education and Skills
Development Authority (TESDA) through scholarships
given by the Animation Council of the Philippines
(ACPI). Courses such as these open up an array of career
opportunities for young Filipinos in the fields of
advertising, animation design, multimedia
communication, and web development.
incorporating photos, stickers, text, and frames
Photo Grid – a downloadable application for android
phones that allows you to make collages out of images
from your photo gallery
Doodle Booth – an iPad application (with a free
downloadable version) that enables you to ‘doodle’ on
your images using available stickers
Photo Booth – an application for taking photos and
videos using an iPad or iPad mini (a version for the
iPhone, called Simple Booth, is also available)
Magic Mirror Booth – an iPhone application that
allows you to take amusing, distorted images, simulating
camera effects
Pic Monkey – a free online photo editing tool that
provides filters, frames, text, and effects to manipulate
your images
Flipagram – a downloadable application that allows
you to ‘bring your photos to life’ in short videos set to
music of your choice
Picsart – a free photo editor and drawing application,
as well as a social network for you to share your art with
others
Snapseed – a photo application that enables you to
enhance, transform, and share your photos; a free
downloadable version for android phones is available
Instagram – a fast and fun way to share images with
others; snap a photo, choose from among the available
filters, and share via Facebook, Twitter, Tumblr, and
more.

Digital Art in the Hands of Everyone

Computer technology has by now invaded
Every aspect of modern
life. It was, therefore,
inevitable that it would
develop into forms and
devices that could be -Original Copy - Modified with cropping,
mass produced, mass superimposed text, and a
distributed, and therefore ‘silk’ texture
widely accessible to
everyone. In other words, anyone with a computer
device— from a desktop PC to a laptop, to a tablet or
android phone can now capture and edit images and
videos.

Mobile Phone Art / Computer-generated Images

Mobile Phone Art
The mobile phone that you constantly hold has evolved
from a mere communication
tool, into a creative device
-Mirror Photo - Modified to a multi-image
that allows you to generate
collage in different tints
original works of art for an
entire range of purposes.
These could be personal Computer Generated Images
If you want to create original images from scratch, you
photographs and videos that
may make your own illustrations using specialized
you can manipulate with a myriad special effects, both
programs for image generation and manipulation.
visual as well as sound and music. They could also be
Examples of these would be Adobe Illustrator and Corel
school projects or reports that require you to combine
Draw. These are, however, designed to run on desktop
images, incorporate text, even include simple animation.
computers and laptops, so you would need to have
You are probably already familiar with the following
access to these larger and more complex devices.
image manipulation programs and applications that run
There are scaled-down versions of such programs
on today’s android devices:
specifically developed for use on smaller, handheld units
Pixlr – a powerful, free online image editor

like your personal tablet or android phone. These enable
you to perform virtually all of the tasks that a program
like Illustrator performs but, almost literally, in the palm
of your hand. Many of these come at a fraction of the
cost of the more complex programs or, in some cases,
even for free.
Digital Photography
Another means of generating an original image is to
capture it first as a digital file. In the case of today’s
electronic technology, that would mean recording the
image using a digital camera or a device with a built-in
camera, like your mobile phone, android device, or
tablet. Prior to the development of digital photography,
cameras were essentially sealed boxes that would allow
a split-second entry of light to strike a section of light
sensitive film inside it. The result was that whatever was
in front of the camera at the precise instant that the light
entered it would be imprinted on that exposed section of
film as a photographic image. The photographer (or a
commercial developing service) would then have to
process the exposed film in a special enclosed space
known as a “dark room”—and only then would the
recorded images be seen.
Point-and-shoot vs. DSLR
The multi-step process described above has since been
overtaken by the magic of digital photography. Today’s
users have the option of a “point-and-shoot” type of
digital camera which automatically makes all the
adjustments in lighting, focus, zoom-in and zoom-out,
even removal of “red eye” with the user being given
some leeway for slight adjustments. It offers image
enhancement features like adjusting color and brightness
imbalances, as well as sharpening or blurring the image.
It may even offer unique effects like “fish eye” or filters
that allow pre-setting of the photo to be taken with a
colored tint or a special texture.
Basic Tips for Taking Good Photographs
Whether you are using a point-and-shoot camera or a
DSLR, there are basic guidelines for capturing a good
quality photographic image:
1. Choose a good location. An interesting location can
sometimes make the difference between a good and a
great photo.
2. Check that the available background is relatively
simple and not too cluttered, so that the focus will be on
your chosen subject.
3. Natural light in the outdoors or near a window is
usually the most flattering or effective for any kind of
subject. Ideally, the best light for photos is within the
first hour after sunrise and the last hour before sunset.
4. Avoid taking shots facing the light, as this would
make your subject back-lit and most of the details would
be lost in shadow.
5. If you intend to take a posed shot, position your
subject where you want in relation to the location,
background, and source of light.
6. If you intend to take a candid shot, position yourself
where you can capture the most interesting, amusing,
touching, or engaging moment or expression.
7. Take a variety of shots—ranging from far shots
showing the surroundings, to medium-distance shots
concentrating on the main subject, to tight or close-up
shots that focus on details of the subject. You can then
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choose from among all these for the best photo or
photos.
Video Games / Digital Painting / Imaging Videos
Video Games
For today’s younger generation that grew up in a
digital world, even entertainment now comes
courtesy of computer devices. A major component of
such entertainment is in the form of video games of
every conceivable genre, subject matter, and skill level.
These range from educational games and mind twisters,
to building and construction
games, to ones that entail
physical interaction by the users
(sports, fitness, dance). Then
there are the tremendously
popular games of strategy, war,
science fiction, and mythical worlds that employ
amazingly complex and realistic graphics, motion,
sound, and other special effects.
Digital painting is a method of creating an artwork
using a computer. This is, however, different from the
image generating devices and programs discussed above,
which create, modify, store, and share images entirely on
a laptop, tablet, or android phone. Digital painting still
makes use of traditional painting mediums such as
acrylic paint, oils, ink, and water color and also applies
the pigment to traditional surfaces, such as canvas,
paper, polyester etc. But it does so by employing
computer software that drives a type of robot device
(such as a plotter) or an office machine (such as a
printer) that takes the place of the artist’s hand.
Video Technology / Imaging Videos
Social media purposes - Another tremendously powerful
and innovative field that
digital technology has
revolutionized is that of
creating and presenting
videos. The explosion of
social media in recent
decades has provided a new
platform for video materials
targeting the “netizens” of
today. Not only are there online advertisements that
continuously bombard the users’ computer screens and
mobile phone displays.
Medical/scientific purposes – Another extremely
valuable use of today’s video technology is that of
imaging videos in the fields of medicine and science.
You may be familiar with Magnetic Resonance Imaging
(MRI), Computerized Tomography (CT scans), and the
like which are used to create and record visual images of
a patient’s internal anatomy in order to diagnose and
treat diseases and injuries. There are also ultrasound
tests or sonograms, which translate sound waves
bouncing off physical objects into images that can be
studied—whether a baby developing in the womb (in
2D, 3D, and 4D options), growths or malformations
inside the body, structural flaws in buildings, as well as
objects in outer space, underground, and deep
in the ocean.