Navigation and Guidance: Dr. Shashi Ranjan Kumar

Navigation and Guidance
Dr. Shashi Ranjan Kumar
Assistant Professor
Department of Aerospace Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Bombay
Powai, Mumbai, 400076 India
Dr. Shashi Ranjan Kumar IITB-AE 410/641 Lecture 4 Navigation and Guidance 1 / 33
Ring Laser Gyro
RLG is a triangular or square cavity filled with gas, in which two oppositely
traveling light waves are generated by stimulated emission of radiation.
Active laser gyro: A two-mode, continuous wave (cw)
Passive laser gyro: Lasing medium is external to the cavity.
Laser gyro combines the properties of an optical oscillator and general
relativity to produce the function of the conventional mechanical gyroscopes.
Components of RLG
Block material
Mirrors
Gain medium (He-Ne plasma cavity)
Readout mechanism
Associated electronics
Ring Laser Gyro
Active Ring Laser Interferometer: Example
RLG: Example
Consider an equilateral triangular RLG with its side length and height given by
7.239 and 6.2687 cm. Assume input angular velocity is 1 deg/h. The operating
wavelength is assumed to be 0.6328 µm. Compute measurable beat frequency.
Total optical length = 3(7.29)=21.717 cm

Area of triangle A = (1/2)bh = 3.1695(6.2687) = 22.6895 cm2
Ω = 1 deg/h = 4.85×10−6 rad/s
Measurable beat frequency
4(2.27 × 10−3 )(4.85 × 10−6 )

4A
∆ν = Ω=
Lλ 2.172 × 10−1 (0.6328 × 10−6 )
= 0.32 Hz
Active Ring Laser Interferometer
How can we increase scale factor sensitivity of RLG?

Ideal RLG equation

4A
∆ν = SΩ = Ω
Lλ

Sensitivity of scale factor
Increase enclosed area A
Decrease wavelength λ or optical length L
How does geometric form of the closed path affect scale factor?
For equilateral triangle and square shape

√ 2
4 3 L 1 L
SET = = √
Lλ 4 3 λ 3 3

4 LL 1 L
SSQ = =
Lλ 4 4 λ 4
For a general shape of closed path
1
S= (Diameter of inscribed circle)
λ
Accuracy of RLG ∝ Area enclosed by the path and inversely proportional to

path length.
A square laser gyro encloses a greater area for a given path length than
triangular one, thus having greater potential accuracy.
Square configuration: package into a smaller-sized inertial navigation unit.
Equivalent circular RLG: One that gives the same ideal scale factor as the actual
polygonal ring laser.
Laser Gyro Error Sources
Error source: Any effect that causes the input/output relationship to deviate
from the ideal case.
Null shift
Lock-in
Mode pulling
Potential causes: inherent EM properties, optical instrument imperfections,
properties of materials used to construct the instrument, and detector
limitations
Backscatter: Reflection of light from one laser beam back along the path
where it interacts with the oppositely traveling beam
Lock-in: A zero beatnote for a nonzero rotation
A fundamental physical phenomenon associated with all oscillating devices
Scale factor S becomes a function of the rotation rate Ω

0 Ω2 ≤ Ω2L
∆ν = 4A p
 Ω2 − Ω2L Ω2 > Ω2L
Lλ
where, ΩL is lock-in threshold (typically 0.1 deg/s).
A bias must be added to achieve sufficient frequency difference for low input
angular rate
With added bias ΩB for zero input rate,
s 2
ΩL
∆ν = S(Ωin − ΩB ) 1 − , ΩL < (Ωin − ΩB )
Ωin − ΩB
Dither Technique
Dither: Used to improve the performance by introducing a rotational bias so

that the gyro operates outside the lock-in band or region.
Mechanical dither is a sinusoidal, symmetric signal, alternating the bias about
the zero-input rate.
Bias averages to zero over each cycle.
The frequency and amplitude of the dither are such that the laser gyro now
becomes responsive to very low angular input rates.
Typical values of dither-frequency are on the order of 100-500 Hz and
amplitudes are between ±100 and 500 arcsec.
Simplified expression for output
ψ̇ =Ω − ΩL sin(ψ + β)
where, ψ is the instantaneous phase difference between the two

counterrotating beams (including input and null shifts), Ω is input rotation
rate, ΩL is the lock-in rate, and β is the effect of backscattering phase shift.
Dither Technique
Mathematical model of the laser gyro, including dithering effects
ψ̇ =Ω − ΩL sin(ψ + β) + ΩD sin ωD t
where, ψ̇, ΩL , ωD are beat frequency, bias magnitude, and dither rate.
Easiest approach: Rotation with constant frequency above lock-in threshold.
Why don’t people use this to avoid lock-in?
Dither eliminates the deadband and nonlinearity associated with lock-in.
Rotation rate periodically passes through zero where lock-in occurs, resulting
in random-walk angular position error.
Vibration of the gyro body may affect other components or the gyro may be
affected by other vibration sources.
Ring Laser Gyro Error Model
RLG error model
Ωout = ΩB + (1 + )[Ωin + γz Ωy − γy Ωz ]
= 0 + f (|Ωin |) + g(Ωin )
ΩB = B 0 + n 1 + n 2
where,
Ωout ,Ωin Laser gyro output and input rate
ΩB , Gyro bias and scale factor errors
Ωy , Ωz Angular rate normal to input axis
γy , γz Misalignment of gyro lasing plane relative to nominal
gyro input axis
B0 , 0 Fixed bias and scale factor errors
f (|Ωin |), g(Ωin ) Symmetrical and general linearity errors
n1 , n2 Random bias errors with bounded and unbounded
integral values
Ring Laser Gyro Error Model
Simplest error model: Ωout = SΩin + Ωbias

Other RLG error model
Ωout =B + Ωin + γΩa

√
B =B0 + Bt ∆T + B∇ ∇T + Bm M + Ba A + NRW (t) t
√
γ =γ0 + γt ∆T + γ∇ ∇T + γm M + γa A + NRW (t) t
Ωout ,Ωin Laser gyro output and input rate

B,, γ Gyro bias, scale factor errors and input axis misalignment
Ωa Rotation rate about input axis ⊥ gyro input axis
(.)0 Fixed component
(.)t error due to temperature difference from nominal
(.)∇ , (.)m , (.)a Error due to temperature gradients, magnetic field,
acceleration along input axis
M, ∇ Magnetic field strength and temperature gradient
NRW (t) Random component consisting of angular random walk
and bias random walk
Multioscillator Ring Laser Gyros
Is there a way to avoid lock-in without using compensation?

Two independent, two-frequency laser gyros sharing the same cavity and
having a common optical path, but biased in opposite senses
Multioscillator laser gyros produce four laser beams at four separate
frequencies.
Two of the beams, one traveling in each direction, are left circularly
polarized, while the other two are right circularly polarized
Due to the orientation of the quartz, the beam of the left-hand circular
polarization (LHCP) and the beam of the right-hand circular polarization
(RHCP) see nominally different path lengths and consequently different
optical lasing frequencies.
Addition of a Faraday polarization rotator introduces a reciprocal
(direction-independent) polarization anisotropy.
Orthogonally polarized modes propagating in the same direction experience

slightly different optical path lengths during traversal of the same path.
Polarization rotator splits the frequencies of the resulting RHCP and LHCP
modes.
Individual laser gyro equations, with ideal scale factor S
∆νL = ν2 − ν1 = − SΩ + Faraday Bias

∆νR = ν4 − ν3 = SΩ + Faraday Bias
Bias is normally chosen to be positive and at the same time much greater
than |SΩ|, so that the gyro operates far from the lock-in region.
Measured beat frequency
8A
∆ν = ∆νR − ∆νL = (ν4 − ν3 ) − (ν2 − ν1 ) = 2SΩ = Ω
Lλ
Fiber Optic Gyro
Fiber-optic gyros (FOG) use optical fiber as the light path, in contrast to
RLGs where light is beamed around a cavity.
FOG is an angular rate sensor that uses optical fiber as the propagation
medium for light waves.
Paths of the clockwise and counterclockwise traveling beams are identical.
Sagnac effect: Differential phase shift is induced by rotating an optical
system in which light travels clockwise and counterclockwise directions.
Only possible source of the phase difference is inertial rotation of the fiber.
FOG measures rotation rates about an axis ⊥ to the plane of fiber-optic coil
by means of ring interferometry.
This type of gyros are called as interferometric FOG (IFOG).
Typical length: 50 m-1 km.
Fiber Optic Gyro
Fiber Optic Gyro
With fiber ring rotation, the transit times are different, resulting in relative
phase shift between the beams.
Phase difference causes the interference of the two beams to change in
intensity.
Change in the intensity of the interference signal is converted into an
electrical signal by photodetector.
Digital electronics process this analog signal into a digital signal proportional
to the rotation rate.
Relative phase shift

2π∆L 2π 4AΩ 8πA 4πRL
∆φ = = = = Ω
λ λ c λc λc
where, L, λ, R, Ω, and c are the fiber length, diode laser-wavelength, coil

radius, inertial rotation rate and velocity of light, respectively.
IFOG: A rate gyroscope unlike RLG, which is a rate-integrating gyro.
Fiber Optic Gyro
IFOG avoids difficulties with RLG, lock-in and scale factor limitations
In IFOGs, the light source is normally placed outside the sensing cavity.
Gain medium does not amplify any effects from backscatter resulting in the
lock-in phenomenon.
Scale factor can be raised by simply adding more turns of fiber and increasing
the mean area enclosed by each.
Signal losses in the fiber impose a practical limit to the fiber coil’s length.
FOG achieve optimum performance using light source dominated by
spontaneous rather than stimulated emission.
FOG can use cheaper and more rugged solid-state light sources, such as a
superradiant diode.
Phase shift in an IFOG is analogous to the frequency shift in an RLG.
IFOG has advantage in terms of size, weight, power, packaging flexibility, and
assembly.
Accelerometers
Requirements for navigation

Coordinate frames
Gyroscope
Accelerometers
Navigation equations
Accelerometers provide measurements (component of acceleration in different
directions) required for navigation.
Can we directly measure the velocity or position of a vehicle?
Velocity and position measurements require an external reference whilst the
acceleration can be measured internally.
Sensor types
Mechanical
Solid-state
Accelerometers
Acceleration of a body of mass m w.r.t. inertial space, subjected to force F
F = ma
Not practical to determine the acceleration of a vehicle by measuring the

total force acting upon it.
Possible to measure force acting on a proof mass contained within vehicle,
which is constrained to move with vehicle.
When instrument case is subjected to an acceleration along its sensitive axis,
the proof mass tends to resist the change owing to its own inertia.
Total force (F ) acting on a proof mass in space
F = ma = mf + mg
where, f is acceleration produced by forces other than gravity and g is the

gravitational acceleration.
Accelerometers
Accelerometers
An accelerometer is insensitive to the gravitational acceleration.

It provides an output proportional to the non-gravitational force per unit
mass to which the sensor is subjected along its sensitive axis.
Consider an accelerometer falling freely within a gravitational field.
Output of the instrument will remain at zero. (why?)
Acceleration of the instrument w.r.t. an inertially fixed set of axes, a = g and
f = 0.
If instrument is held stationary, a = 0, the accelerometer will measure the
force acting to stop it from falling.
mf + mg = 0 ⇒ f = −g
Knowledge of the gravitational field is essential to enable the measurement

provided by the accelerometer to be related to the inertial acceleration.
Accelerometers
Can we get tilt information from

accelerometers mounted on board
aircraft?
Accelerometers
Types of accelerometers
Open loop
Closed loop
A proof mass is suspended in a case and confined to a zero position by means
of a spring.
Damping may be applied to give mass and spring system a realistic response
corresponding to a proper dynamic transfer function.
With applied accelerations, the proof mass is deflected w.r.t. its zero or null
position and the resultant spring force provides necessary acceleration of
proof mass.
For a single-axis sensor, the displacement of proof mass w.r.t. its null
position ∝ the specific force applied along its input or sensitive axis.
Accelerometers
Closed loop sensor: Works on principle of nulling the displacement of

pendulum.
Null positions can be measured more accurately than displacements.
With a closed loop accelerometer, the spring is replaced by an
electromagnetic device that produces a force on the proof mass to maintain it
at its null position.
A pair of coils is mounted on the proof mass within a strong magnetic field.
When a deflection is sensed, an electric current is passed through the coils in
order to produce a force to return the proof mass to its null position.
Magnitude of current in coils ∝ the specific force sensed along the input axis.
Force-feedback type is far more accurate than the open-loop devices.
Force-feedback Pendulous Accelerometers
Sensor errors
Sensor components
Pendulum
Suspension mechanism or hinge element
Pick-off device
Force re-balance mechanism
Pick-off device: optical, inductive or capacitive techniques
Optical system: A detector measuring the change in transmittance of a light
beam through a slit in the pendulum.
Inductive system: Measurement of the differential current in coils fixed to the
case interacting with a plate on the pendulum
Capacitive system: Movement of pendulum causes a change in capacitance
between the faces of the pendulum and two electrodes in close proximity to
the pendulum.
Advantage of force re-balance mechanism?
Greater accuracy, no bending stress for hinge
Text/References
Reference
1 G. M. Siouris, Aerospace Avionics Systems: A Modern Synthesis, Academic
Press, Inc. 1993.
2 D. H. Titterton and J. L. Weston, Strapdown Inertial Navigation Technology,
Progress in Astronautics and Aeronautics, Vol. 207, ed. 2, ch. 4.
Thank you for your attention !!!

Navigation and Guidance: Dr. Shashi Ranjan Kumar

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Navigation and Guidance

Dr. Shashi Ranjan Kumar

Total optical length = 3(7.29)=21.717 cm

4(2.27 × 10−3 )(4.85 × 10−6 )

How can we increase scale factor sensitivity of RLG?

For equilateral triangle and square shape

For a general shape of closed path

Accuracy of RLG ∝ Area enclosed by the path and inversely proportional to

Dither: Used to improve the performance by introducing a rotational bias so

where, ψ is the instantaneous phase difference between the two

Mathematical model of the laser gyro, including dithering effects

RLG error model

Simplest error model: Ωout = SΩin + Ωbias

Ωout =B + Ωin + γΩa

Ωout ,Ωin Laser gyro output and input rate

Is there a way to avoid lock-in without using compensation?

Orthogonally polarized modes propagating in the same direction experience

∆νL = ν2 − ν1 = − SΩ + Faraday Bias

where, L, λ, R, Ω, and c are the fiber length, diode laser-wavelength, coil

Requirements for navigation

Acceleration of a body of mass m w.r.t. inertial space, subjected to force F

Not practical to determine the acceleration of a vehicle by measuring the

where, f is acceleration produced by forces other than gravity and g is the

An accelerometer is insensitive to the gravitational acceleration.

Knowledge of the gravitational field is essential to enable the measurement

Can we get tilt information from

Closed loop sensor: Works on principle of nulling the displacement of

Thank you for your attention !!!

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Ωout =B + Ωin + γΩa