Navigation and Guidance: Dr. Shashi Ranjan Kumar

Navigation and Guidance
Dr. Shashi Ranjan Kumar
Assistant Professor
Department of Aerospace Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Bombay
Powai, Mumbai, 400076 India
Dr. Shashi Ranjan Kumar IITB-AE 410/641 Lecture 7 Navigation and Guidance 1 / 35
Terrain Contour Matching Navigation
Will this method always give correct fixing of position?

Unfortunately, No
Probability of false fix increase as the uniqueness of terrain in the reference
matrix area decreases.
Selection of reference matrices should be chosen to ensure a sufficiently low
probability of false fix.
How to quantify terrain roughness?
Terrain roughness: Standard deviation of the terrain elevation samples, σT
defined as
v
u
u1 X N N
1 X
σT = t (Hi − H̄)2 , H̄ = Hi
N i=1 N i=1
TERCOM signal quality depends on amplitude, frequency, and randomness of

the terrain.
Other parameters to define ability of terrain for successful fix

Sigma-z (σz )
Correlation length (XT )
σz is defined as
v
u 1 NX
u −1 N −1
1 X
σ z =t (Di − D̄)2 , Di = |Hi − Hi+1 |, D̄ = Di
N − 1 i=1 N − 1 i=1
Correlation length (XT ) is defined using relation

2
σz2 = 2σT2 [1 − e−(d/XT ) ]
where, d is the distance between elevation samples.

Possibility of exact match of terrain? May not, due to noise in TERCOM
system
Algorithms for correlation

Mean absolute difference (MAD)
Mean squares difference (MSD)
Normalized mean absolute difference (NMAD)
Normalized mean squares difference (NMSD)
MAD is best suited for both accuracy and computational complexity.
MAD between k th terrain elevation and mth reference matrix (RM) column
N
1 X
M ADk,m = |hk,m − Hm,n |, 1 ≤ m ≤ M, 1 ≤ n ≤ N, 1 ≤ k ≤ K
N n=1
where, N, M, K denote number of samples in measured terrain elevation file

(number of row in RM), RM columns, measured terrain elevation files used in
correlation, respectively.
h, H denote measured terrain data and pre-stored RM data
Location of RM with minimum MAD provides position fix.

MAD of zero indicates perfect match ⇒ All elevations are equal.
Magnitude of MAD: Degree of mismatch between RM column and
corresponding terrain elevation file.
Integration with INS: TERCOM provide cross track and down track error
INS use TERCOM output to correct vehicle’s geographical location.
Sources of errors in TERCOM

Vertical measurement errors that directly yield erroneous altitude
measurements
⇒ Vertical inaccuracies in the source data
⇒ Radar altimeter measurement errors
⇒ Barometric-pressure measurement errors
What about induced vertical error?
Horizontal errors that induce vertical errors by causing measurements of
terrain elevation to be horizontally displaced from the desired measurement
location.
Doppler Navigation
Doppler navigation: Based on Doppler frequency shift phenomenon

Developed by Austrian physicist Christian Johann Doppler
Doppler radar transmits radio-frequency (RF) energy to ground and measures
the frequency shift in the returned energy to determine ground speed.
Doppler Navigation
Doppler radar: No long term degradation of error

Doppler-INS mode gives bounded velocity error, smaller as compared to INS
itself.
Doppler suffers with high acceleration maneuvers as in fighter aircraft.
Doppler equation

2
∆f = V cos α
λ
|{z}
Doppler Sensitivity
where λ is wavelength of carrier frequency radiation, V is magnitude of

aircraft velocity w.r.t. ground, α is angle between antenna beam and velocity
vector, respectively.
Doppler Navigation
Doppler effect: If there is relative motion between the source of a signal and the
observer of the signal, along the line joining the two, then an apparent shift in
frequency will result.
Doppler Navigation
Assume target is at distance R from source and has velocity Vr .

Frequency of signal is f0 and wavelength λ ⇒ c = f0 λ
Let total number n of wavelengths contained in to-and-fro path between
radar and target is given by
2R
n=
λ
Total angular excursion φ made by the electromagnetic wave during its
transit to the target and back to the radar
2R 4πR
φ= 2π =
λ λ
When the target is in motion, both R and φ are changing.
Doppler angular frequency, change in φ w.r.t. time is given by
dφ 4π dR 4πVr 2Vr 2Vr f0

Wd = 2πfd = = = ⇒ fd = =
dt λ dt λ λ c
Doppler Navigation
Example
Positions of the two aircraft, A and B, are as shown in the figure below. Aircraft
A has a speed of 600 m/s and carries a CW radar transmitting at 300 MHz
frequency and tracking aircraft B which has a speed of 800 m/s.
What is the doppler frequency shift recorded by the radar in aircraft A?
What should be the flight direction of aircraft B for the doppler frequency
shift to be zero?
Doppler Navigation: Example
Transmission frequency f0 = 300 MHz=3 × 108

Relative velocity of aircraft A with respect to aircraft B along the
line-of-sight is given by
Vr = 600 cos 45 + 800 cos 30 = 1117.08 m/s
Doppler frequency shift
2 × 1117.08 × 3 × 108 2Vr f0

fd = 8
= = 2234.16 Hz
3 × 10 c
Doppler frequency shift will be zero when the relative velocity Vr is zero.
Vr = 600 cos 45 − 800 cos θ = 0 ⇒ θ = ±57.970◦
Change in frequency between transmitted and received signals allows received

signal to be separated from transmitted signal.
Doppler Navigation
How to obtain complete information of velocity?

Single beam provides only velocity component in the direction of beam.
To determine complete velocity, we need at least three beams (called as
Lambda configuration).
Three noncoplanar beams provide velocity in three-dimensional space.
Fourth beam may be used to increase reliability and accuracy.
What if we have only two beams? ⇒ Vertical component using barometer.
In Doppler-INS mode, two additional bias errors b1 , b2 are added to INS
errors and given by
db1 db2
= 0, =0
dt dt
In modern aircraft, antenna are mounted on body.
Doppler Navigation
Error Sources in Doppler navigation

Velocity error from the radar
system itself
Errors in attitude and heading
supplied to the radar system
Basic configurations for
attitude-heading reference in
Doppler radar
Pitch/roll stabilization of antenna
Pitch stabilization of antenna
Fixed mounting of antenna
Indicated Air Speed
Indicated air speed (IAS): Speed indicated by differential pressure indicator

s
2(pt − ps )
∆V =
ρ0
where, ρ0 is the sea-level air density, and (pt − ps ) is the dynamic pressure.
For altitude and altitude rate measurement, actual measurement is of static
pressure which is converted to electrical signal.
State variables which account for dynamics in altitude and its rate
1 1
ḣa = − (ha − h), ḣr = − (hr − Vz )
τa (h) τr (h)
where, τa , τr are the known function of altitude, its rate, and parameter
related to transducer.
Altitude and its rate with scale factor error, k() , and bias error, b() ,
ya = ha + ka ha + ba , yr = hr + kr hr + br
Motivation for GPS
Global positioning system (GPS): A space-based, pseudoranging

navigation satellite system that will provide worldwide, nearly continuous, 3D
position, velocity, and coordinate universal time to suitably equipped user.
Designed primarily for global navigation of a terrestrial or near-earth use.
System broadcasts continuously the information required for a GPS receiver to
compute its own position and velocity.
Total worldwide coverage, all weather operations
Available to unlimited number of passive users at same time
Military applications: guidance, rendezvous, targeting operation, weapon
delivery, etc.
Civil applications: navigation of aircraft, ships, and land vehicles, full
worldwide coverage of all airport in common grid, reduce air traffic densities,
reduced holding times, reduced airport congestion, saving of fuel.
Search and rescue, geology mapping and surveying.
Motivation for GPS
Segments of GPS
Space vehicle (SV) segment: Constellation of earth orbiting satellite.
Ground control segment: monitoring of the orbits of all satellites and providing
them with updated information several times each day.
User segment: all the air, sea, and space-based users equipped with GPS
receivers.
Space segment
Orbital constellation consists of 21 active and 3 spare satellites in
subsynchronous circular orbits at altitude of 20183-20187 km.
It has orbital period of 12 hrs.
Six orbital planes with each orbital plane inclined 55◦ to the equator.
Each orbital plane has 3 or 4 satellites.
Orbital planes are separated to each other in the longitude by 60◦ with a
nonuniform phasing.
Phase are chosen such that any user on earth can acquire at least 4 satellite
any time.
Each satellite is equipped with highly accurate atomic cesium clock with a
know offset from GPS time.
Segments of GPS
Constellation for GPS
Figure: Optimized satellites constellation phasing
Transmission by Satellite
Each satellite transmit its information on two L-band frequencies designated

as L1 , L2 . L1 = 1575.42 MHz, L2 = 1227.60 MHz.
Two frequencies are required to correct for ionospheric delay uncertainties in
the transmission.
L1 frequency will be modulated by two pseudorandom codes, a
coarse/acquisition (C/A) code and a precision (P) code.
C/A code has a frequency of 1.023 MHz and repeats itself every ms.
P code is a classified code sequence, which is created from a product of two
pseudorandom codes and modulated at a frequency of 10.23 MHz.
L2 frequency is modulated by the P code, but not by C/A code.
Specific code sequences broadcast by each satellite are different and are used
by the GPS receiver in order to distinguish satellites from each other.
Each frequency L1 , and L2 is further modulated by the navigation message.
Classes of GPS
Classes of GPS services

Standard Positioning Service (SPS): SPS, utilizing the C/A-code signal, is
available to the general public.
It will provide a horizontal position accuracy of 40 m CEP.
Precise Positioning Service (PPS): PPS, utilizing the P-code signal, is a
highly accurate positioning, velocity, and timing service, only be available to
authorized users.
PPS will provide a 3-D position RMS accuracy of 10-16 m SEP, 0.1 m/s RMS
velocity accuracy, and I00 ns accuracy in time.
Navigation message contains GPS time, satellite ephemeris data, atmospheric
propagation correction data, and any other information needed by the GPS
receivers.
Segments for GPS
Control Segment
Ground-control segment monitors the satellite broadcast signals and uplinks

corrections to ensure predefined accuracies.
Responsible for monitoring and controlling orbits of the satellites, for
maintaining GPS system time, and for uploading necessary information to the
satellites three times a day.
Operational control segment will consist of five monitor stations, a master
control station, and three uplink antennas.
Master control station is located near Colorado Springs, Colorado.
Widely separated monitor stations, positioned worldwide, allow simultaneous
tracking of the full satellite constellation and relay orbital and clock
information to the master control station.
Ranging data accumulated by the monitor stations are processed by master
control station for use in satellite determination and systematic error
elimination.
Master control station forms corrections, which are uploaded to the satellite
by uplink antennas.
User Segment
GPS Receiver
⇒ An antenna to capture GPS signals.
⇒ An amplifier to increase the power level of received signal.
⇒ A digital computer-to process the information contained in signal.
Primary computer output is the position and velocity of GPS receiver.
User segment selects four optimally positioned satellite from visible satellites.
Using navigation signals passively received from each satellites, the user’s
receiver measures four independent pseudoranges and pseudorange rates.
Receiver processor convert those signals to 3D position, velocity, and time.
When one or more of the satellites are temporarily obscured from the receiver
antenna’s view, the receiver will have to acquire additional satellite signals in
order to generate a continuous position, velocity, and time solution.
User equipment can transform navigation information into other commonly
used datums.
Basic types of GPS receiver architectures
Sequential tracking receivers

Tracking of necessary satellites using 1 or 2 channels.
Tracking one satellite at a time, time tag the measurements, and combine
them when all 4 satellite pseudoranges have been measured.
Four pseudorange measurements are made on both L1 and L2 frequencies in
order to determine position, and compensate for ionospheric delay.
Continuous receivers
Normally having 4 or more channels to track four satellites simultaneously.
In 5 channel receiver, fifth channel is used to read the navigation message of
next satellite to be utilized when the receiver changes the satellite selections.
Ideal for high dynamic environment vehicles, such as fighter aircraft.
Multiplex receivers
Switching at a fast rate, between the satellites being tracked, while
continuously collecting sampled data to maintain two to eight signal
processing algorithms in the software.
Navigation message is read continuously from all the satellites.
Basic Types of GPS Receiver Architectures
Input of GPS receivers:

Receiver aiding signals
Initialization inputs (e.g., position, time)
Waypoint navigation data (if the system is used as navigator)
Output of GPS receivers:
Position, velocity, and time
3-D area navigation and steering data
Receiver status
Navigation Solution
Satellite locks are synchronized to

GPS time by the master control
station.
Signals transmitted contain
information about start time of
transmission.
Due to user clock error, the
measure range between user and
satellite is named as pseudorange.
Rp =Ra + c∆Tb
where, Rp , Ra represent pseudo and

actual ranges, respectively, and ∆Tb Figure: ECEF Coordinate System
is the receiver clock bias.
Pseudorange Concept in GPS
Figure: GPS Pseudorange Concept and Error Component
Navigation Solution
Four unknown parameters: GPS receiver location and time

From measurements of four satellites, we get Navigation Equations as
p
Ri = (x − xi )2 + (y − yi )2 + (z − zi )2 + c∆Tb
+ Ii (f ) + c∆Ti + cδi + γi + i , ∀ i = 1, 2, 3, 4
where, (x, y, z) and (xi , yi , zi ) represent position of user and ith satellite,
respectively, ∆Ti is ith satellite clock offset from GPS time, Ii (f ) ionospheric
delay, γi term which accounts for any other biases in the system, and i
statistical error in the measurement.
∆Ti : eliminated by precise measurement by monitor station.
Ii (f ): eliminated by transmission on two frequencies.
δi , γi , i : using simultaneous multiple satellite observations.
p
Ri = (x − xi )2 + (y − yi )2 + (z − zi )2 + c∆Tb , ∀ i = 1, 2, 3, 4
Solution of these equations may be computationally intensive.

Navigation Solution
How to solve these equations efficiently?

Linear equations are easy to solve, hence linearizations may be a good
alternative.
Assume xn , yn , zn , Tn be the nominal (a priori best-estimate) value of
x, y, z, T and ∆x, ∆y, ∆z be their corresponding corrections.
Let Rni and ∆Ri be the nominal pseudorange measurement to ith satellite
and their residual (difference) between actual and nominal range
measurements.
x = xn + ∆x
y = yn + ∆y
z = zn + ∆z
T = Tn + ∆T
Ri = Rni + ∆Ri
p
Rni = (xn − xi )2 + (yn − yi )2 + (zn − zi )2 + Tn
Navigation Solution
With units chosen such that c = 1, we have

p
(xn + ∆x − xi )2 + (yn + ∆y − yi )2 + (zn + ∆z − zi )2 =
Rni + ∆Ri − Tn − ∆T, ∀ i = 1, 2, 3, 4
We have square of LHS as

2
(LHS) =(xn − xi )2 + (∆x)2 + 2(xn − xi )∆x + (yn − yi )2 + (∆y)2
+ 2(yn − yi )∆y + (zn − zi )2 + (∆z)2 + 2(zn − zi )∆z
= (xn − xi )2 + (yn − yi )2 + (zn − zi )2
| {z }
a
+ 2 [(xn − xi )∆x + (yn − yi )∆y + (zn − zi )∆z] +HOT
| {z }
b
We know that
√ √ p √ √ √
a + 2b = a 1 + 2b/a = a(1 + b/a) + HOT ≈ a + b/ a
Navigation Solution
Using this approximation, we get

√ b
a + √ = Rni + ∆Ri − Tn − ∆T
a
p
= (xn − xi )2 + (yn − yi )2 + (zn − zi )2 + Tn + ∆Ri − Tn − ∆T
√
= a + ∆Ri − ∆T
b
⇒ √ = ∆Ri − ∆T
a
√
As Rni = a + Tn , we have
(xn − xi )∆x + (yn − yi )∆y + (zn − zi )∆z
= ∆Ri − ∆T
Rni − Tn
xn − xi yn − yi zn − zi
∆x + ∆y + ∆z + ∆T = ∆Ri
Rni − Tn Rni − Tn Rni − Tn
Coefficients on LHS represent the direction cosines of the line-of-sight (LOS)
vector from user to satellite as projected along coordinate axes.
Navigation Solution
Linear equations in a matrix form,

    
β11 β12 β13 1 ∆x ∆R1
 β21 β22 β23 1   ∆y ∆R2 , Bx = r ⇒ x = B −1 r
  
  =
 β31 β32 β33 1   ∆z   ∆R3 
β41 β42 β43 1 ∆T ∆R4
| {z } | {z } | {z }
B x r
where, βij is the direction cosine of angle between LOS to ith satellite and
j th coordinate.
If B is nonsingular then the solution is possible.
This results into |B| = 0, navigation equation blows up and system outage
occurs as result of poor geometry.
Text/References
Reference
1 G. M. Siouris, Aerospace Avionics Systems: A Modern Synthesis, Academic
Press, Inc. 1993.
2 D. Ghose, Lecture notes on Navigation, Guidance and Control, IISc
Bangalore.
Thank you for your attention !!!

Navigation and Guidance: Dr. Shashi Ranjan Kumar

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Navigation and Guidance

Dr. Shashi Ranjan Kumar

Will this method always give correct fixing of position?

TERCOM signal quality depends on amplitude, frequency, and randomness of

Other parameters to define ability of terrain for successful fix

Correlation length (XT ) is defined using relation

where, d is the distance between elevation samples.

Algorithms for correlation

where, N, M, K denote number of samples in measured terrain elevation file

Location of RM with minimum MAD provides position fix.

Sources of errors in TERCOM

Doppler navigation: Based on Doppler frequency shift phenomenon

Doppler radar: No long term degradation of error

where λ is wavelength of carrier frequency radiation, V is magnitude of

Assume target is at distance R from source and has velocity Vr .

dφ 4π dR 4πVr 2Vr 2Vr f0

Transmission frequency f0 = 300 MHz=3 × 108

Vr = 600 cos 45 + 800 cos 30 = 1117.08 m/s

Doppler frequency shift

2 × 1117.08 × 3 × 108 2Vr f0

Vr = 600 cos 45 − 800 cos θ = 0 ⇒ θ = ±57.970◦

Change in frequency between transmitted and received signals allows received

How to obtain complete information of velocity?

Error Sources in Doppler navigation

Indicated air speed (IAS): Speed indicated by differential pressure indicator

Global positioning system (GPS): A space-based, pseudoranging

Figure: Optimized satellites constellation phasing

Each satellite transmit its information on two L-band frequencies designated

Classes of GPS services

Ground-control segment monitors the satellite broadcast signals and uplinks

Sequential tracking receivers

Input of GPS receivers:

Satellite locks are synchronized to

where, Rp , Ra represent pseudo and

Figure: GPS Pseudorange Concept and Error Component

Four unknown parameters: GPS receiver location and time

Solution of these equations may be computationally intensive.

How to solve these equations efficiently?

With units chosen such that c = 1, we have

We have square of LHS as

Using this approximation, we get

Linear equations in a matrix form,

Thank you for your attention !!!

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