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4. PIEZOELECTRIC MATERIALS Material Cerdas kelas B

4.1 ELECTROMECHANICAL COUPLING IN PIEZOELECTRIC DEVICES: ONE-

DIMENSIONAL MODEL
Piezoelectric materials exhibit electromechanical coupling, which is useful for the design of
devices for sensing and actuation. It is also known that piezoelectric materials exhibit a
thermomechanical coupling called the pyroelectric effect, although in this chapter we
concentrate on development of the constitutive equations and basic mechanisms of
electromechanical coupling.
4.1.1 Direct Piezoelectric Effect
Consider a specimen of elastic material that has mechanical stress applied to the
two opposing faces and is constrained to move only in the direction of the
applied stress, T. This state of loading can be approximated using a tensile
specimen that is common in mechanical testing (Figure 4.1). This state of
loading can be approximated using a tensile specimen that is common in
mechanical testing (Figure 4.1). Applying stress to the material will produce
elongation in the direction of the applied load, and under the assumption that the
material is in a state of uniaxial strain, the strain, S, is defined as the total 122
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The slope of the line is called the modulus, orYoung’s modulus, and in this book
the modulus is denoted Y and has units of units N/m2. The stress–strain
relationship in this region is

where s, the reciprocal of the modulus, is called the mechanical compliance

(m2/N).
 In addition to elongating like an elastic material, a piezoelectric material will
produce a charge flow at electrodes placed at the two end soft he specimen. This
charge flow is caused by the motion of electric dipoles within the material.
The slope of the curve, called the piezoelectric strain coefficient (Figure 4.2), is
denoted by the variable d. Expressing this relationship in a proportionality, we have

Where D is the electric displacement (C/m2) and d is the piezoelectric strain

coefficient (C/N). at sufficient level of applied stress, the relationship between stress and
electric displacement will become nonlinear due to saturation of electric dipole motion.
4.1.2 Converse Effect
. Piezoelectric materials also exhibit a reciprocal effect in which an applied
electric field will produce a mechanical response.
The units of electric field are V/m. The application of an electric field to the
material will produce attractions between the applied charge and the electric dipoles.
Dipole rotation will occur and an electric displacement will be measured at the

electrodes of the material. At sufficiently low values of the applied field, the relationship
between E and D will be linear and the constant of proportionality, called the dielectric
permittivity, has the unit F/m

displacement in the linear regime is

D= εE.
 Remarkably enough, the slope of the field-tostrain relationship would be equal to
the piezoelectric strain coefficient, as shown in

Figure 4.4. Expressing this as an equation, we have

S=dE. (4.4)
In this expression, the piezoelectric strain coefficient has the unit m/V. Equation
(4.4) is an expression of the converse effect for a linear piezoelectric material.
4.2 PHYSICAL BASIS FOR ELECTROMECHANICAL COUPLING IN
PIEZOELECTRIC MATERIALS
Most piezoelectric materials belong to a class of crystalline solids. Crystals are
solids in which the atoms are arranged in a single pattern repeated throughout the body.
Crystalline materials are highly ordered, and an understanding of the bulk properties of
the material can begin by understanding the properties of the crystals repeated
throughout the solid. The individual crystals in a solid can be thought of as building
blocks for the material. Joining crystals together produces a three-dimensional
arrangement of the crystals called a unit cell.
an electric dipole can be visualized by imagining a positive charge and a
negative charge separated by a distance with a pin in the center. Placing this electric
dipole in an electric field will produce attraction between opposite charges and will
result in rotation of the dipole.
Similarly, if a mechanical strain is applied to the material, one can envision that
the dipole in the crystal will rotate. The motion of charge in the unit cell structure will
produce an apparent charge flow which can be measured at the face of the material.
Electrodes placed at the material faces will measure a charge flow, or current, due to the
rotation of the electric dipoles. This is the physical basis for the direct piezoelectric
effect.
4.2.1. Manufacturing of Plezoelectric materials
As discussed in Chapter 1, the phenomenon of piezoelectricity was first
discovered in a natural crystal called Rochelle salt in the late nineteenth century. For a
number of years the only piezoelectric materials that were studied were natural crystals
that exhibited only weak piezoelectricity.

The manufacture of synthetic piezoelectric materials typically begins with

the constituent materials in powder form. A typical mixture of materials that exhibit
piezoelectric properties are lead (with the chemical symbol Pb), zirconium (Zr), and
titanium (Ti). These materials produce the common piezoelectric material lead–
zirconium–titinate, typically referred to as PZT. And The processing of a piezoelectric
ceramic typically begins by heating the powders to temperatures in the range 1200 to
1500◦C. The heated materials are then formed and dimensioned with conventional
methods such as grinding or abrasive media. The result of this process is generally a
wafer of dimensions on the order of a few centimeters on two sides and thicknesses in
the range 100 to 300 µm. The resulting wafer can be cut with a diamond saw or joined
with other layers to produce a multilayer device.
The basic properties of a piezoelectric material are expressed
mathematically as a relationship between two mechanical variables, stress and strain,
and two electrical variables, electric field and electric displacement. The direct and
converse piezoelectric effects are written as the set of linear equations in equations (4.1)
to (4.4).

The expressions for the

direct and converse
piezoelectric effect
can be combined into one
matrix expression by
writing the relationship
between strain and electric
displacement as a function of applied stress and applied field:

The electromechanical coupling in the material is represented by the off-diagonal terms

of equation. larger off-diagonal term will result in a material that produces more strain
for an applied electric field and more electric displacment for an applied mechanical
stress. For these reasons, the piezoelectric strain coefficient is an important parameter
for comparing the relative strength of different types of piezoelectric materials. In the
limit as d approaches zero, we are left with a material that exhibits very little
electromechanical coupling. Examining equation (4.5) we see that the coefficient matrix
is symmetric. The symmetry is not simply a coincidence, we will see that symmetry in
the coefficient matrix represents reciprocity between the electromechanical
transductions mechanisms in the material.
There is no reason why equation (4.5) has to be expressed with stress and
electric field as the independent variables and strainand electric displacement as the
dependent variables. Equation (4.5) can be inverted to write the expressions with stress
and field as the dependent variables and strain and electric displacement as the
independent variables. Taking the inverse of the 2×2 matrix produces the expression
 The term d2/sε appears quite often in an analysis of piezoelectric materials.
The square root of this term is called the piezoelectric coupling coefficient and is denoted

An important property of the piezoelectric coupling coefficient is that it is

always positive and bounded between 0 and 1. The bounds on the coupling coefficient are
related to the energy conversion properties in the piezoelectric material, and the bounds of 0
and 1 represent the fact that only a fraction of the energy is converted between mechanical and
electrical domains. The piezoelectric coupling coefficient quantifies the electromechanical
energy conversion. The rationale for these bounds will become clearer when we derive the
constitutive equations from energy principles in Chapter 5. Substituting the definition of the
piezoelectric coupling coefficient into equation (4.7) yields

4.2.2 Effect of Mechanical and Electrical Boundary Conditions

Electromechanical coupling in piezoelectric devices gives rise to the fact
that the
propertiesofthematerialarealsoafunctionofthemechanicalandelectricalbound
ary conditions. Consider again our piezoelectric cube in which we are
measuring the mechanical compliance s by applying a known stress and
measuring the induced strain. An important parameter in the test setup is
the electrical boundary condition that exists between the opposing faces.
Assume for a moment that we have a short circuit condition in which the
faces of the piezoelectric cube are connected directly, as shown in Figure
4.7. This electrical boundary condition results in a zero field across the
faces of the material but does allow charge to flow from the positive
terminal to the negative terminal. Substituting the condition E=0 into
equation (4.5) results in the expressions

Now consider performing the same experiment when the electrical

terminals are open such that no charge can flow between the faces of the
material. In this experiment the electrical displacement D=0, and the
constitutive relationship in equation (4.9)
The result demonstrates that the mechanical compliance changes when the
electrical boundary condition is changed. The fact that k2 > 0 indicates that
the mechanical compliance decreases when the electrical boundary
condition is changed from a short-circuit to an open-circuit condition. For
this reason it is improper to refer to the mechanical compliance without
specifying the electrical boundary condition. It is convention to adopt a
super script to denote the boundary condition associated with the
measurement of a particular mechanical or electrical property. The
superscript E or D denotes a constant electric field and constant electric
displacement, respectively, for a mechanical property. Rewriting equations
(4.15) and (4.16) using this notation produces

The result demonstrates that the mechanical compliance changes when the
electrical boundary condition is changed. The fact that k2 > 0 indicates that
the mechanical compliance decreases when the electrical boundary
condition is changed from a short-circuit to an open-circuit condition. For
this reason it is improper to refer to the mechanical compliance without
specifying the electrical boundary condition. It is convention to adopt a
superscript to denote the boundary condition associated with the
measurement of a particular mechanical or electrical property. The
superscript E or D denotes a constant electric field and constant electric
displacement, respectively, for a mechanical property. Rewriting equations
(4.15) and (4.16) using this notation produces
 The fact that equation (4.18) was derived assuming an open circuit (D=0),
we can write a relationship between the short-circuit mechanical
compliance and open-circuit mechanical compliance as

An analogous relationship exists for specifying electrical quantities such as

the dielectric permittivity ε. The relationship between electrical
displacement and applied field changes depending on mechanical boundary
conditions. A stress-free (T=0) condition is achieved by applying a field
without mechanical constraints placed at the boundary of the piezoelectric
material, whereas a strain-free (S=0) condition is achieved by clamping
both ends of the material such that there is zero motion. Performing an
analysis similar to the one presented for the electrical boundary conditions,
we arrive at the conclusion that
εS = εT(1−k2). (4.20)
Note that the piezoelectric strain coefficient is independent of the
mechanical or electrical boundary conditions.
4.2.3 Interpretation of the Piezoelectric Coupling Coefficient
The piezoelectric coupling coefficient k plays an important role in
the analysis of piezoelectric materials. Mathematically, it is related to the
inverse of the matrix that relates the strain, electric displacement, electric
field, and stress. The definition of the coupling coefficient, equation (4.8),
demonstrates that it is related to all three piezoelectric material properties:
the compliance, permittivity, and strain coefficient.
 Physically, we showed in Section 4.2.2 that the coupling
coefficient quantifies the change in mechanical(electrical) compliance
when the electrical(mechanical) boundary conditions are changed. There is
another interpretation of the piezoelectric coupling coefficient that
highlights its relationship to the energy store dina piezoelectric material
due to electromechanical coupling. Consider a piezoelectric material that is
in a short-circuit condition such that the mechanical compliance is
represented by sE. Application of a stress T to the material produces the
stress–strain response illustrated in Figure4.8.The work performed during
this deformation is represented by the shaded and crosshatched areas in the
figure,

At this point in the cycle the electrical boundary conditions are changed
from short circuit to open circuit and the applied stress is reduced to zero.
The resulting work is represented by the shaded region in Figure 4.8 and is
equal to

It is clear from Figure 4.8 that the amount of work performed during the
application of stress is different from the amount of work performed during
the removal of stress, due to the change in the compliance of the material
from short-circuit to open-circuit boundary conditions. To complete the
cycle, we assume that an ideal removal of the strain is performed at a zero-
stress state to return to the initial state of the material. The difference
between the energy stored during stress application and the energy return
during the removal of stress is equal to W2. Forming the ratio of this energy
term to the total energy stored W1 +W2, we have’
 4.3 CONSTITUTIVE EQUATIONS FOR LINEAR PIEZOELECTRIC MATERIAL
In Section 4.2 we introduced the fundamental concept of a piezoelectric material. We saw
that electromechanical coupling was parameterized by three variables: the mechanical
compliance, the dielectric permittivity, and the piezoelectric strain coefficient. The direct
piezoelectric effect, as well as the converse piezoelectric effect, could be expressed as a
relationship between stress, strain, electric field, and electric displacement. The expressions
were in terms of the three material parameters, s, ε, and d. The mechanical compliance and
electrical permittivity were shown to be functions of the electrical and mechanical
boundary condition, respectively, and the boundary condition needed to be specified when
writing these parameters. In this section we generalize this result to the case of an arbitrary
volume of piezoelectric material. The result will be a general expression that relates the
stress, strain, electric field, and electric displacement within the material in all three
directions. As we will see, the relationships will be expressed in terms of matrices that
represent the mechanical compliance matrix, dielectric permittivity matrix, and matrix of
piezoelectric strain coefficients. Consider once again a cube of piezoelectric material,
although in this discussion we make no assumptions regarding the direction in which the
electric field is applied or the directions in which the material is producing stress or strain.
We define a coordinate system in which three directions are specified numerically, and we
use the common convention that the 3 direction is aligned along the poling axis of the
material (Figure 4.9). We see from the figure that there are three directions in which we can
apply an electric field. We label these directions Ei, where i =1,2,3,and express these fields