List of rock types

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The following is a list of rock types recognized by geologists. There is no agreed number of specific
types of rocks. Any unique combination of chemical composition, mineralogy, grain size, texture, or
other distinguishing characteristics can describe rock types. Additionally, different classification
systems exist for each major type of rock.[citation needed] There are three major types of rock: igneous,
sedimentary, and metamorphic. They are all identified by their texture, streak, and location, among
other factors.

Contents

 1Igneous
 2Sedimentary
 3Metamorphic
 4Specific varieties of rocks
 5See also
 6External links

Igneous[edit source]

A sample of andesite (dark groundmass) with amygdaloidalvesicles filled with zeolite. Diameter of view is 8 cm.

Main article: Igneous rock

 Adakite – A class of intermediate to felsic volcanic rocks containing low amounts of yttrium and
ytterbium
 Andesite – An intermediate volcanic rock
 Alkali feldspar granite – A granitoid in which at least 90% of the total feldspar is alkali feldspar
 Anorthosite – A mafic intrusive igneous rock composed predominantly of plagioclase
 Aplite – A fine-grained intrusive igneous rock type similar to granite
 Basalt – A magnesium- and iron-rich extrusive igneous rock
 A'a - basaltic lava with a crumpled appearance
 Pahoehoe - basaltic lava with a flowing, often ropy appearance
 Basaltic trachyandesite
 Mugearite – Oligoclase-bearing basalt, comprising olivine, apatite, and opaque oxides
 Shoshonite – A potassium-rich variety of basaltic trachyandesite
 Basanite – A silica-undersaturated basalt
 Blairmorite – Rare porphyritic volcanic rock
 Boninite – Utramafic extrusive rock high in both magnesium and silica
 Carbonatite – Igneous rock with more than 50% carbonate minerals
 Charnockite – A type of granite containing orthopyroxene
 Enderbite – An igneous rock of the charnockite series
 Dacite – Volcanic rock intermediate in composition between andesite and rhyolite
 Diabase, also known as dolerite – An intrusive mafic rock forming dykes or sills
 Diorite – Intermediate intrusive igneous rock composed principally of plagioclase feldspar
 Napoleonite, also known as corsite – A variety of diorite with orbicular structure
 Dunite – An ultramafic and ultrabasic rock from Earth's mantle and made of the mineral olivine.
 Essexite – a dark gray or black holocrystalline plutonic rock
 Foidolite – A rare coarse-grained intrusive igneous rock in which more than 60% of light-
coloured minerals are feldspathoids
 Gabbro – A coarse-grained mafic intrusive rock
 Granite – A common type of intrusive, felsic, igneous rock with granular structure
 Granodiorite – A phaneritic-textured intrusive igneous rock similar to granite
 Granophyre – A subvolcanic rock that contains quartz and alkali feldspar in characteristic
angular intergrowths
 Harzburgite – An ultramafic and ultrabasic mantle rock. Found in ophiolites.
 Hornblendite – Plutonic rock consisting mainly of the amphibole hornblende
 Hyaloclastite – A volcaniclastic accumulation or breccia
 Icelandite – An iron rich, aluminium poor andesite
 Ignimbrite – A variety of hardened tuff
 Ijolite – An igneous rock consisting essentially of nepheline and augite
 Kimberlite – An igneous rock which sometimes contains diamonds
 Komatiite – An ultramafic mantle-derived volcanic rock
 Lamproite – Ultrapotassic mantle-derived volcanic or subvolcanic rock
 Lamprophyre - an ultramafic, ultrapotassic intrusive rock dominated by mafic phenocrysts in a
feldspar groundmass
 Latite - a silica-undersaturated form of andesite
 Lherzolite - an ultramafic rock, essentially a peridotite
 Monzogranite - a silica-undersaturated granite with <5% normative quartz
 Monzonite – Igneous intrusive rock with low quartz and equal plagioclase and alkali feldspar - a
plutonic rock with <5% normative quartz
 Nepheline syenite - a silica-undersaturated plutonic rock of nepheline and alkali feldspar
 Nephelinite - a silica-undersaturated plutonic rock with >90% nepheline
 Norite - a hypersthene-bearing gabbro
 Obsidian – Naturally occurring volcanic glass
 Pegmatite – Very coarse grained plutonic rock
 Peridotite – A coarse-grained ultramafic igneous rock
 Phonolite - a silica-undersaturated volcanic rock; essentially similar to nepheline syenite
 Phonotephrite - a volcanic rock with a composition between phonolite and tephrite
 Picrite - an olivine-bearing basalt
 Porphyry – Textural form of igneous rock with large grained crystals in a fine matrix
 Pumice – Light coloured highly vesicular volcanic glass
 Pyroxenite - a coarse grained plutonic rock composed of >90% pyroxene
 Quartz diorite - a diorite with >5% modal quartz
 Quartz monzonite - an intermediate plutonic rock, essentially a monzonite with 5-10% modal
quartz
 Quartzolite - an intrusive rock composed mostly of quartz
 Rhyodacite - a felsic volcanic rock which is intermediate between a rhyolite and a dacite
 Rhyolite – An igneous, volcanic rock, of felsic (silica-rich) composition
 Comendite – A hard, peralkaline igneous rock, a type of light blue grey rhyolite
 Pantellerite – A peralkaline rhyolite type of volcanic rock
 Scoria – Dark vesicular volcanic rock
 Sovite - a coarse-grained carbonatite rock
 Syenite - a plutonic rock dominated by orthoclase feldspar; a type of granitoid
 Tachylyte - essentially a basaltic glass
 Tephriphonolite - a volcanic rock with a composition between phonotephrite and phonolite
 Tephrite - a silica-undersaturated volcanic rock
 Tonalite - a plagioclase-dominant granitoid
 Trachyandesite - an alkaline intermediate volcanic rock
 Benmoreite – A silica-undersaturated volcanic rock of intermediate composition - sodic
trachyandesite
 Trachybasalt - a volcanic rock with a composition between basalt and trachyte
 Hawaiite - a sodic type of trachybasalt, typically formed by ocean island (hot spot) volcanism
 Trachyte - a silica-undersaturated volcanic rock; essentially a feldspathoid-bearing rhyolite
 Troctolite - a plutonic ultramafic rock containing olivine, pyroxene and plagioclase
 Trondhjemite – A light-colored intrusive igneous rock - a form of tonalite where plagioclase-
group feldspar is oligoclase
 Tuff – Rock consolidated from volcanic ash
 Websterite - a type of pyroxenite, composed of clinoproxene and orthopyroxene
 Wehrlite - an ultramafic plutonic or cumulate rock, a type of peridotite, composed of olivine and
clinopyroxene

Sedimentary[edit source]
Main article: Sedimentary rock
Bituminous coal seam in West Virginia

Limey shale overlaid by limestone. Cumberland Plateau, Tennessee

Dolomite crystals from Touissite, Morocco

Turbidite (Gorgoglione Flysch), Miocene, South Italy

 Argillite – Sedimentary rock, mostly of indurated clay particles

 Arkose – A type of sandstone containing at least 25% feldspar
 Banded iron formation – Distinctive layered units of iron-rich sedimentary rock that are almost
always of Precambrian age
 Breccia – Rock composed of broken fragments cemented by a matrix
 Calcarenite – A type of limestone that is composed predominantly of sand-size grains
 Chalk – A soft, white, porous sedimentary rock made of calcium carbonate
 Chert – A hard, fine-grained sedimentary rock composed of crystals of quartz (silica) that are
very small
 Claystone – Clastic sedimentary rock composed primarily of clay-sized particles
 Coal – A combustible sedimentary rock composed primarily of carbon
 Conglomerate – A coarse-grained clastic sedimentary rock with mainly rounded to subangular
clasts
 Coquina – A sedimentary rock that is composed mostly of fragments of shells
 Diamictite – A lithified sedimentary rock of non- to poorly sorted terrigenous sediment in a matrix
of mudstone or sandstone
 Diatomite – Naturally occurring, soft, siliceous sedimentary rock that is easily crumbled into a
fine white to off-white powder
 Dolostone, also known as Dolomite – Sedimentary carbonate rock that contains a high
percentage of the mineral dolomite
 Evaporite – A water-soluble mineral sediment formed by evaporation from an aqueous solution
 Flint – Cryptocrystalline form of the mineral quartz
 Geyserite – A form of opaline silica that is often found around hot springs and geysers
 Greywacke – A hard, dark sandstone with poorly sorted angular grains in a compact, clay-fine
matrix
 Gritstone – A hard, coarse-grained, siliceous sandstone
 Itacolumite – A porous, yellow sandstone that is flexible when cut into thin strips
 Jaspillite – A banded mixture of hematite and quartz
 Laterite – A soil and rock type rich in iron and aluminium
 Lignite – A soft, brown, combustible, sedimentary rock
 Limestone – Sedimentary rocks made of calcium carbonate
 Marl – Lime-rich mud or mudstone which contains variable amounts of clays and silt
 Mudstone – Fine grained sedimentary rock whose original constituents were clays or muds
 Oil shale – Organic-rich fine-grained sedimentary rock containing kerogen
 Oolite – Sedimentary rock formed from ooids
 Sandstone – A clastic sedimentary rock composed mostly of sand-sized particles
 Shale – A fine-grained, clastic sedimentary rock
 Siltstone – Sedimentary rock which has a grain size in the silt range
 Sylvinite – A sedimentary rock made of a mechanical mixture of sylvite and halite
 Tillite – Till which has been indurated or lithified by burial
 Travertine – A form of limestone deposited by mineral springs
 Tufa – Porous limestone rock formed when carbonate minerals precipitate out of ambient
temperature water
 Turbidite – The geologic deposit of a turbidity current
 Wackestone – A mud-supported carbonate rock that contains greater than 10% grains

Metamorphic[edit source]
Main article: Metamorphic rock
Phyllite

Banded gneiss with a dike of granite orthogneiss

Marble
Quartzite

Manhattan Schist, from Southeastern New York

Slate

 Anthracite – A hard, compact variety of coal that has a submetallic luster

 Amphibolite – A metamorphic rock containing mainly amphibole and plagioclase -
a metamorphic rock composed primarily of amphibole
 Blueschist – A metavolcanic rock that forms by the metamorphism of basalt and rocks with
similar composition
 Cataclasite – Rock formed by fracturing and comminution during faulting - a rock formed by
faulting
 Eclogite – A dense, mafic metamorphic rock
 Gneiss – A common high-grade metamorphic rock
 Granulite – A class of high-grade medium to coarse grained metamorphic rocks
 Greenschist - a mafic metamorphic rock dominated by green amphiboles
 Hornfels – A series of contact metamorphic rocks that have been baked and indurated by the
heat of intrusive igneous masses
 Calcflinta - a type of hornfels found in the Scottish Highlands
 Litchfieldite - nepheline syenite gneiss
 Marble - a metamorphosed limestone
 Migmatite – A mixture of metamorphic rock and igneous rock
 Mylonite - a metamorphic rock formed by shearing
 Metapelite - a metamorphic rock with a protolith of clay-rich (siltstone) sedimentary rock
 Metapsammite - a metamorphic rock with a protolith of quartz-rich (sandstone) sedimentary rock
 Phyllite - a low grade metamorphic rock composed mostly of micaceous minerals
 Pseudotachylite - a glass formed by melting within a fault via friction
 Quartzite - a metamorphosed sandstone typically composed of >95% quartz
 Schist – Medium grade metamorphic rock with lamellar grain
 Serpentinite – Hydration and metamorphic transformation of igneous rock
 Skarn – Hard, coarse-grained, hydrothermally altered metamorphic rocks
 Slate – A fine-grained, foliated, homogeneous, weakly metamorphic rock - a low grade
metamorphic rock formed from shale or silts
 Suevite - a rock formed by partial melting during a meteorite impact
 Talc carbonate - a metamorphosed ultramafic rock with talc as an essential constituent; similar
to a serpentinite
 Soapstone - essentially a talc schist
 Tectonite - A rock whose fabric reflects the history of its deformation
 Whiteschist - a high pressure metamorphic rock containing talc and kyanite

Specific varieties of rocks[edit source]

The following are terms for rocks that are not petrographically or genetically distinct but are defined
according to various other criteria; most are specific classes of other rocks, or altered versions of
existing rocks. Some archaic and vernacular terms for rocks are also included.

 Adamellite - a variety of quartz monzonite

 Appinite - a group of varieties of lamprophyre, mostly rich in hornblende
 Aphanite – Igneous rocks which are so fine-grained that their component mineral crystals are
not detectable by the unaided eye
 Borolanite - a variety of nepheline syenite from Loch Borralan, Scotland
 Blue Granite – An igneous rock, specifically a variety of monzonite
 Epidosite – A hydrothermally altered epidote and quartz bearing rock
 Felsite – A very fine grained felsic volcanic rock that may or may not contain larger crystals
 Flint – Cryptocrystalline form of the mineral quartz
 Ganister – Hard, fine-grained quartzose sandstone, or orthoquartzite
 Gossan – Intensely oxidized, weathered or decomposed rock
 Hyaloclastite – A volcaniclastic accumulation or breccia
 Ijolite – An igneous rock consisting essentially of nepheline and augite
 Jadeitite – A metamorphic rock found in blueschist-grade metamorphic terranes
 Jasperoid - a hematite-silica metasomatite analogous to a skarn
 Kenyte – A variety of porphyritic phonolite or trachyte with rhomb shaped phenocrysts of
anorthoclase with variable olivine and augite in a glassy matrix - a variety of phonolite, first found
on Mount Kenya
 Lapis lazuli – A contact metamorphic rock containing lazurite, pyrite and calcite - a rock
composed of lazurite and other minerals
 Larvikite – An igneous rock, specifically a variety of monzonite
 Litchfieldite - a metamorphosed nepheline syenite occurrence near Litchfield, Maine
 Llanite - a hypabyssal rhyolite with microcline and blue quartz phenocrysts from the Llano Uplift
in Texas
 Luxullianite – A rare type of granite
 Mangerite – A plutonic intrusive igneous rock, that is essentially a hypersthene-bearing
monzonite
 Minette - a variety of lamprophyre
 Novaculite - a type of chert found in Oklahoma, Arkansas and Texas
 Pietersite – Breccia rock of hawk's eyes and tiger's eyes
 Pyrolite - a chemical analogue considered to theoretically represent the earth's upper mantle
 Rapakivi granite – A hornblende-biotite granite containing large round crystals of orthoclase
each with a rim of oligoclase
 Rhomb porphyry - a type of latite with euhedral rhombic phenocrysts of feldspar
 Rodingite - a mafic rock metasomatized by serpentinization fluids
 Shonkinite - melitilic and kalsititic rocks
 Taconite – An iron-bearing sedimentary rock, in which the iron minerals are interlayered with
quartz, chert, or carbonate
 Tachylite – A form of basaltic volcanic glass
 Teschenite - a silica undersaturated, analcime bearing gabbro
 Theralite - a nepheline gabbro
 Unakite - an altered granite
 Variolite – Igneous rocks which contain varioles
 Vogesite - a variety of lamprophyre
 Wad - rock rich in manganese oxide or manganese hydroxide


 Bowen's reaction series

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Discontinuous Continuous
High
Series Series

Plagioclase
Olivine
(Calcium rich)

Pyroxene
Amphibole

Relative
Biotite Plagioclase
Crystallization
(Black Mica) (Sodium rich)
Temperature

Orthoclase

Muscovite
(White Mica)

Quartz

Low

 Within the field of geology, Bowen's reaction series is the work of the petrologist, Norman
L. Bowen[1] who summarized, based on experiments and observations of natural rocks, the
crystallization sequence of typical basaltic magma undergoing fractional crystallization (i.e.,
crystallization wherein early-formed crystals are removed from the magma by crystal settling,
say, leaving behind a liquid of slightly different composition).[2] Bowen's reaction series is able
to explain why certain types of minerals tend to be found together while others are almost
never associated with one another. He experimented in the early 1900s with powdered rock
material that was heated until it melted and then allowed to cool to a target temperature
whereupon he observed the types of minerals that formed in the rocks produced. He
repeated this process with progressively cooler temperatures and the results he obtained led
him to formulate his reaction series which is still accepted today as the idealized progression
of minerals produced by cooling basaltic magma that undergoes fractional crystallization.
Based upon Bowen's work, one can infer from the minerals present in a rock the relative
conditions under which the material had formed.[3]
  Description[edit source]


 Olivine weathering to iddingsite within a mantle xenolith, demonstrating the principles of
the Goldich dissolution series


 Bowen's Reaction Series

 The series is broken into two branches, the continuous and the discontinuous. The branch
on the right is the continuous. The minerals at the top of the illustration (given aside) are first
to crystallize and so the temperature gradient can be read to be from high to low with the
high temperature minerals being on the top and the low temperature ones on the bottom.
Since the surface of the Earth is a low temperature environment compared to the zones of
rock formation, the chart also easily shows the stability of minerals with the ones at bottom
being most stable and the ones at top being quickest to weather, known as the Goldich
dissolution series. This is because minerals are most stable in the conditions closest to those
under which they had formed. Simply put, the high temperature minerals, the first ones to
crystallize in a mass of magma, are most unstable at the Earth's surface and quickest to
weather because the surface is most different from the conditions under which they were
created. On the other hand, the low temperature minerals are much more stable because the
conditions at the surface are much more similar to the conditions under which they formed.

Plagioclase
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Plagioclase
 A photomicrograph of a plagioclase crystal under cross polarized

light. The plagioclase crystal shows a distinct banding effect

called polysynthetic twinning.

General

Category Feldspar mineral group, tectosilicate

Formula NaAlSi3O8 – CaAl2Si2O8

(repeating unit)

Crystal system Triclinic

Crystal class Pinacoidal (1)

(same H-M symbol)

Space group C1

Identification

Color White, gray, bluish white, e

Mohs scalehardness 6 - 6.5

Luster Vitreous
 Streak White

Diaphaneity Transparent to translucent

Specific gravity 2.62 (albite) to 2.76 (anorthite)[1]

Optical properties Biaxial (+) albite, biaxial (-) anorthite[1]

Refractive index Albite: nα 1.527, nβ 1.532 nγ1.538

Anorthite: nα 1.577 nβ 1.585 nγ1.590[1]

Solubility Albite insoluble in HCl, anorthite

decomposed by HCl [1]

References [2]

Plagioclase displaying cleavage. (unknown scale)

 In volcanic rocks, fine-grained plagioclase can display a 'microlitic' texture of many small crystals.

Plagioclase is a series of tectosilicate (framework silicate) minerals within the feldspar group.
Rather than referring to a particular mineral with a specific chemical composition, plagioclase is a
continuous solid solution series, more properly known as the plagioclase feldspar series (from the
Ancient Greek for "oblique fracture", in reference to its two cleavage angles). This was first shown by
the German mineralogist Johann Friedrich Christian Hessel (1796–1872) in 1826. The series ranges
from albite to anorthite endmembers (with respective compositions NaAlSi3O8 to CaAl2Si2O8),
where sodium and calcium atoms can substitute for each other in the mineral's crystal
lattice structure. Plagioclase in hand samples is often identified by its polysynthetic crystal twinningor
'record-groove' effect.
Plagioclase is a major constituent mineral in the Earth's crust, and is consequently an important
diagnostic tool in petrology for identifying the composition, origin and evolution of igneous rocks.
Plagioclase is also a major constituent of rock in the highlands of the Earth's moon. Analysis
of thermal emission spectra from the surface of Mars suggests that plagioclase is the most abundant
mineral in the crust of Mars.[3]

Contents

 1Plagioclase series members

o 1.1Endmembers
o 1.2Intermediate members
 2See also
 3References
 4External links

Plagioclase series members[edit source]

The composition of a plagioclase feldspar is typically denoted by its overall fraction
of anorthite (%An) or albite (%Ab), and readily determined by measuring the plagioclase
crystal's refractive index in crushed grain mounts, or its extinction angle in thin section under
a polarizing microscope. The extinction angle is an optical characteristic and varies with the albite
fraction (%Ab). There are several named plagioclase feldspars that fall between albite and anorthite
in the series. The following table shows their compositions in terms of constituent anorthite and
albite percentages.

Plagioclase minerals and their compositions

Name % CaAl2Si2O8 % NaAlSi3O8 Image

Anorthite 90–100 10–0

Bytownite 70–90 30–10

Labradorite 50–70 50–30

Andesine 30–50 70–50

Oligoclase 10–30 90–70

Albite 0–10 100–90

Endmembers[edit source]

 Anorthite was named by Gustav Rose in 1823 from the Ancient Greek meaning oblique,
referring to its triclinic crystallization. Anorthite is a comparatively rare mineral but occurs in the
basic plutonic rocks of some orogenic calc-alkaline suites.
 Albite is named from the Latin albus, in reference to its unusually pure white color. It is a
relatively common and important rock-making mineral associated with the more acid rock types
and in pegmatite dikes, often with rarer minerals like tourmaline and beryl.
Intermediate members[edit source]
The intermediate members of the plagioclase group are very similar to each other and normally
cannot be distinguished except by their optical properties. The specific gravity in each member
(albite 2.62) increases 0.02 per 10% increase in anorthite (2.75).

 Bytownite, named after the former name for Ottawa, Ontario, Canada (Bytown), is a rare mineral
occasionally found in more basic rocks.

Labradorite displaying typical iridescent effect termed labradorescence. (unknown scale)

 Labradorite is the characteristic feldspar of the more basic rock types such as diorite, gabbro,
andesite, or basalt and is usually associated with one of the pyroxenes or amphiboles.
Labradorite frequently shows an iridescent display of colors due to light refracting within the
lamellae of the crystal. It is named after Labrador, where it is a constituent of
the intrusive igneous rock anorthosite which is composed almost entirely of plagioclase. A
variety of labradorite known as spectrolite is found in Finland.
 Andesine is a characteristic mineral of rocks such as diorite which contain a moderate amount
of silica and related volcanics such as andesite.
 Oligoclase is common in granite, syenite, diorite, and gneiss. It is a frequent associate
of orthoclase. The name oligoclase is derived from the Greek for little and fracture, in reference
to the fact that its cleavage angle differs significantly from 90°. Sunstone is mainly oligoclase
(sometimes albite) with flakes of hematite.

Orthoclase
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Orthoclase

General

Category Silicate mineral

Formula KAlSi3O8

(repeating unit)

Strunz 9.FA.30
classification

Crystal system Monoclinic

Crystal class Prismatic (2/m)

(same H-M symbol)

Space group C2/m

 Identification

Color Colorless, greenish, greyish yellow, white,

pink

Crystal habit Can be anhedral or euhedral. Grains are

commonly elongate with a tabular

appearance.

Twinning Typically displays Carlsbad twinning. Baveno

and manebach twins have also been

reported in orthoclase.

Cleavage Has perfect cleavage on {001} and good

cleavage on {010}. Cleavages intersect at

90°. It can be difficult to see cleavage in thin

section due to orthoclase's low relief.

Mohs 6 (defining mineral)

scalehardness

Luster Vitreous, pearly on cleavage surfaces

Streak white

Diaphaneity Transparent to translucent

Specific gravity 2.55–2.63

Optical Biaxial (-), 2V = 65–75

properties

Refractive nα = 1.518–1.520
index nβ = 1.522–1.524
 nγ = 1.522–1.525

Birefringence 0.0050–0.0060

Dispersion relatively strong

Extinction parallel to cleavage

Length no slow or fast length

fast/slow

Diagnostic Distinguishable from microcline by a lack in

features gridiron twinning. Distinguishable from

sanidine by a larger 2Vx.

Other Low negative relief;

characteristics Alters to sericite or clay (commonly)

References [1][2][3]

Orthoclase, or orthoclase feldspar (endmember formula KAlSi3O8), is an

important tectosilicate mineral which forms igneous rock. The name is from the Ancient Greek for
"straight fracture," because its two cleavage planes are at right angles to each other. It is a type
of potassium feldspar, also known as K-feldspar. The gem known as moonstone (see below) is
largely composed of orthoclase.

Contents

 1Formation and subtypes

 2Uses
 3See also
 4References

Formation and subtypes[edit source]

Orthoclase is a common constituent of most granites and other felsic igneous rocks and often forms
huge crystals and masses in pegmatite.
Typically, the pure potassium endmember of orthoclase forms a solid solution with albite, the sodium
endmember (NaAlSi3O8), of plagioclase. While slowly cooling within the earth, sodium-rich
albite lamellae form by exsolution, enriching the remaining orthoclase with potassium. The resulting
intergrowth of the two feldspars is called perthite.

Adularia with pyrite incrustations

The higher-temperature polymorph of KAlSi3O8 is sanidine. Sanidine is common in rapidly cooled

volcanic rocks such as obsidian and felsic pyroclastic rocks, and is notably found in trachytes of
the Drachenfels, Germany. The lower-temperature polymorph of KAlSi3O8 is microcline.
Adularia is a low temperature form of either microcline or orthoclase originally reported from the low
temperature hydrothermal deposits in the Adula Alps of Switzerland.[4] It was first described
by Ermenegildo Pini in 1781.[5] The optical effect of adularescence in moonstone is typically due to
adularia.[6]
The largest documented single crystal of orthoclase was found in the Ural mountains in Russia. It
measured ~10×10×0.4 m and weighed ~100 tons.[7]

Uses[edit source]
Together with the other potassium feldspars, orthoclase is a common raw material for the
manufacture of some glasses and some ceramics such as porcelain, and as a constituent of
scouring powder.
Some intergrowths of orthoclase and albite have an attractive pale luster and are
called moonstone when used in jewellery. Most moonstones are translucent and white, although
grey and peach-colored varieties also occur. In gemology, their luster is called adularescence and is
typically described as creamy or silvery white with a "billowy" quality. It is the state gem of Florida.
The gemstone commonly called rainbow moonstone is more properly a colorless form
of labradorite and can be distinguished from "true" moonstone by its greater transparency and play
of color, although their value and durability do not greatly differ.
Orthoclase is one of the ten defining minerals of the Mohs scale of mineral hardness, on which it is
listed as having a hardness of 6.
NASA's Curiosity Rover discovery of high levels of orthoclase in Martian sandstones suggested that
some Martian rocks may have experienced complex geological processing, such as repeated
melting.[8]

QAPF diagram
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QAPF diagram for classification of plutonic rocks

 Streckeisen Diagram

A QAPF diagram is a double ternary diagram which is used to classify igneous rocks based
on mineralogic composition. The acronym, QAPF, stands for "Quartz, Alkali
feldspar, Plagioclase, Feldspathoid (Foid)". These are the mineral groups used for classification in
QAPF diagram. Q, A, P and F percentages are normalized (recalculated so that their sum is 100%).

Contents

 1Origin
 2Usage
 3Reading QAPF diagram
 4References
 5External links
 6Footnotes

Origin[edit source]
QAPF diagrams were created by the International Union of Geological
Sciences (IUGS): Subcommission on the Systematics of Igneous Rocks[1] fostered by Albert
Streckeisen (whence their alternative name: Streckeisen diagrams). Geologists worldwide accept
the diagrams as a classification of igneous, especially plutonic rocks.[citation needed]

Usage[edit source]
QAPF diagrams are mostly used to classify plutonic rocks (phaneritic rocks), but are also used to
classify volcanic rocks if modal mineralogical compositions have been determined. QAPF diagrams
are not used to classify pyroclastic rocks or volcanic rocks if modal mineralogical composition is not
determined, instead the TAS classification (Total-Alkali-Silica) is used. TAS is also used if volcanic
rock contains volcanic glass (such as obsidian). QAPF diagrams are also not used
if maficminerals make up more than 90% of the rock composition (for
example: peridotites and pyroxenites).
An exact name can be given only if the mineralogical composition is known, which cannot be
determined in the field.

Reading QAPF diagram[edit source]

The QAPF diagram has four minerals or mineral groups chosen as important cornerstones of the
classification. These are quartz (Q), Alkali feldspars (A), plagioclase feldspars (P), and feldspathoids
(F). F and Q for chemical reasons cannot exist together in one plutonic rock. Other minerals may
and almost certainly occur in these rocks as well but they have no significance in this classification
scheme. So, the whole diagram is actually composed of two ternary plots (QAP and FAP). To use
the classification, the concentration (the mode) of these minerals must be known and recalculated to
make their sum 100%. For example: a plutonic rock that contains no alkali feldspar and no
feldspathoids but contains lots of pyroxenes (neglected in this diagram), plagioclase feldspar and
few quartz grains is probably gabbro (located at the right edge of the diagram, near P). This diagram
does not determine whether a rock is gabbro, diorite, or anorthosite. There are other criteria used to
decide that. Note that this diagram is not used for all plutonic rocks. Ultramafic rocks are the most
important plutonic rocks that have separate classification diagrams.
The primary economic value of anorthosite bodies is the titanium-bearing oxide ilmenite. However,
some Proterozoic anorthosite bodies have large amounts of labradorite, which is quarried for its
value as both a gemstone and a building material. Archean anorthosites, because they
are aluminium-rich, have large amounts of aluminium substituting for silicon; a few of these bodies
are mined as ores of aluminium.

Anorthosite
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Not to be confused with Anorthite.

Anorthosite from Salem district, Tamil Nadu

Composition

Primary Plagioclase
 Secondary Mafic minerals

Anorthosite ( /ænˈɔːrθəsaɪt/) is a phaneritic, intrusive igneous rock characterized by its composition:

mostly plagioclase feldspar (90–100%), with a minimal mafic component (0–
10%). Pyroxene, ilmenite, magnetite, and olivine are the mafic minerals most commonly present.
Anorthosites are of enormous geologic interest, because it is still not fully understood how they form.
Most models involve separating plagioclase crystals based on their density. Plagioclase crystals are
usually less dense than magma; so, as plagioclase crystallizes in a magma chamber, the
plagioclase crystals float to the top, concentrating there.[1][2][3]
Anorthosite on Earth can be divided into five types:[3]

1. Archean-age anorthosites
2. Proterozoic anorthosite (also known as massif or massif-type anorthosite) – the most
abundant type of anorthosite on Earth[2]
3. Layers within Layered Intrusions (e.g., Bushveld and Stillwater intrusions)
4. Mid-ocean ridge and transform fault anorthosites
5. Anorthosite xenoliths in other rocks (often granites, kimberlites, or basalts)
Of these, the first two are the most common. These two types have different modes of occurrence,
appear to be restricted to different periods in Earth's history, and are thought to have had different
origins.[2]
Lunar anorthosites constitute the light-coloured areas of the Moon's surface and have been the
subject of much research.[4]

Proterozoic anorthosite massifs[edit source]

Age[edit source]
Proterozoic anorthosites were emplaced during the Proterozoic Eon (ca. 2,500–542 Ma), though
most were emplaced between 1,800 and 1,000 Ma.[2]
Occurrence[edit source]
Proterozoic anorthosites typically occur as extensive stocks or batholiths.[1] The areal extent of
anorthosite batholiths ranges from relatively small (dozens or hundreds of square kilometers) to
nearly 20,000 km2 (7,700 sq mi), in the instance of the Nain Plutonic Suite in northern Labrador,
Canada.
Major occurrences of Proterozoic anorthosite are found in the southwest U.S., the Appalachian
Mountains (e.g., the Honeybrook Upland of eastern Pennsylvania), eastern Canada (e.g., the
Grenville Province), across southern Scandinavia and eastern Europe. Mapped onto
the Pangaean continental configuration of that eon, these occurrences are all contained in a single
straight belt, and must all have been emplaced intracratonally. The conditions and constraints of this
pattern of origin and distribution are not clear.[citation needed] However, see the Origins section below.
Related rocks[edit source]
Many Proterozoic anorthosites occur in spatial association with other highly distinctive,
contemporaneous rock types: the so-called 'anorthosite suite' or 'anorthosite-mangerite-charnockite-
granite (AMCG) complex'.
These rock types can include:
  Mangerite: a pyroxene-bearing monzonite intrusive igneous rock
 Charnockite: an orthopyroxene-bearing quartz-feldspar rock, once thought to be intrusive
igneous, now recognized as metamorphic
 Iron-rich felsic rocks, including monzonite and rapakivi granite
 Iron-rich diorite, gabbro, and norite
 Leucocratic mafic rocks such as leucotroctolite and leuconorite
Though co-eval, these rocks likely represent chemically-independent magmas, likely produced by
melting of country rock into which the anorthosites intruded.[2]
Importantly, large volumes of ultramafic rocks are not found in association with Proterozoic
anorthosites.[5

Felsic
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(Redirected from Leucocratic)

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In geology, felsic refers to igneous rocks that are relatively rich in elements that
form feldspar and quartz.[1] It is contrasted with mafic rocks, which are relatively richer
in magnesium and iron. Felsic refers to silicate minerals, magma, and rocks which are enriched in
the lighter elements such as silicon, oxygen, aluminium, sodium, and potassium. Felsic magma or
lava is higher in viscosity than mafic magma/lava.
Felsic rocks are usually light in color and have specific gravities less than 3. The most common felsic
rock is granite. Common felsic minerals include quartz, muscovite, orthoclase, and the sodium-
rich plagioclase feldspars (albite-rich).

Contents

 1Terminology
 2Classification of felsic rocks
 3See also
 4Notes
 5References

Terminology[edit source]
In modern usage, the term acid rock, although sometimes used as a synonym, normally now refers
specifically to a high-silica-content (greater than 63% SiO2 by weight) volcanic rock, such as rhyolite.
Older, broader usage is now considered archaic.[citation needed] That usage, with the contrasting term
"basic rock", was based on an incorrect idea, dating from the 19th century, that "silicic acid" was the
chief form of silicon occurring in rocks.
The term "felsic" combines the words "feldspar" and "silica". The similarity of the resulting
term felsic to the German felsig, "rocky" (from Fels, "rock"), is purely[citation needed]accidental. Feldspar is
linked to German. It is a borrowing of Feldspat. The link is therefore to German Feld, meaning
"field".[2]
Classification of felsic rocks[edit source]

A felsic volcanic lithic fragment, as seen in a petrographic microscope. Scale box is in millimeters.

In order for a rock to be classified as felsic, it generally needs to contain more than 75% felsic
minerals; namely quartz, orthoclase and plagioclase. Rocks with greater than 90% felsic minerals
can also be called leucocratic,[3] from the Greek words for white and dominance.
Felsite is a petrologic field term used to refer to very fine-grained or aphanitic, light-
colored volcanic rocks which might be later reclassified after a more detailed microscopic or
chemical analysis.
In some cases, felsic volcanic rocks may contain phenocrysts of mafic minerals,
usually hornblende, pyroxene or a feldspar mineral, and may need to be named after their
phenocryst mineral, such as 'hornblende-bearing felsite'.
The chemical name of a felsic rock is given according to the TAS classification of Le Maitre (1975).
However, this only applies to volcanic rocks. If the rock is analyzed and found to be felsic but
is metamorphic and has no definite volcanic protolith, it may be sufficient to simply call it a 'felsic
schist'. There are examples known of highly sheared granites which can be mistaken for rhyolites.
For phaneritic felsic rocks, the QAPF diagram should be used, and a name given according to
the granite nomenclature. Often the species of mafic minerals is included in the name, for instance,
hornblende-bearing granite, pyroxene tonalite or augite megacrystic monzonite, because the term
"granite" already assumes content with feldspar and quartz.
The rock texture thus determines the basic name of a felsic rock.
Close-up of granite from Yosemite National Park.

A specimen of rhyolite.

Rock texture Name of felsic rock

Pegmatitic Granite pegmatite

Coarse-grained (phaneritic) Granite

Coarse-grained and porphyritic Porphyritic granite

Fine-grained (aphanitic) Rhyolite

Fine-grained and porphyritic Porphyritic rhyolite

Pyroclastic Rhyolitic tuff or breccia

Vesicular Pumice

Amygdaloidal None

Vitreous (Glassy) Obsidian or porcellanite

See also[edit source]

 QAPF diagram
 List of minerals
 List of rock types
 Bowen's reaction series
 Archean felsic volcanic rocks

Generally, calc-alkaline and tholeiitic melts are belong to very different geotectonic environments.
Tholeiitic basalts are related to mid-oceanic ridge sub-marine volcanism whereas calc-alkaline
basalts are related to subduction related volcanism and geochemically they are very different where
calc-alkaline rocks characterized by LILE & LREE enriched melts whereas MOR rocks characterized
by LILE depletion and HREE enrichment. Actually tholeiitic sub-marine basalts can't be more
differentiate but calc-alkaline melts can be differentiated to generate basatic, andesitic, dacitic and
even rhyolitc lava.

I think he knows that this basalt was of tholeiitic not calc alkalic suit after studying the tectonic history
of these rocks very well and that should be aided by other petrological and geochemical studies.

For more about calc-alkaline magma series and tholeiitic mgama series this reference is
recommended (M. Wilson (2007). Igneous petrogenesis a global tectonic approach, springer, 480p).

Tholeiites

Geological Setting: Mid‐ocean ridges, oceanic islands

Shallower melting and Greater % partial melting

Groundmass is Fine-grained

No olivine, Quartz, interstitial glass common

Clinopyroxene (augite, pigeonite), Ca-poor orthopyroxene (hypersthene)

No alkali feldspar

Phenocrysts: Olivine rare, unzoned or orthopyroxene rims

Orthopyroxene uncommon

Early plagioclase common

Clinopyroxene = pale brown augite

Alkali Basalts

Geological Setting: Island arcs, collision/subduction zones

Deeper melting and Lesser % partial melting

Groundmass is Coarse

Olivine common, No quartz; interstitial glass rare

Titaniferous augite (reddish), No orthopyroxene

Interstitial alkali feldspar or feldspathoid

Phenocrysts: Olivine common, zoned

Orthopyroxene absent

Plagioclase less common, appears later

Clinopyroxene = titaniferous augite with reddish rims

Basalt types: tholeiites vs alkali basalts

Cortney July 31, 2014 Science & Technology + geochemistry, geology, hawaii, magma

Essentially, tholeiites are less evolved. They have different normalized rare earth
element REE signatures: when normalized by chondrites, the more primitive tholeiites
have flatter REE patterns, while calc-alkalis show enrichment in the light REEs (LREE).
Tholeiites are associated with oceanic spreading centers (shallow), while alkali basalts
are associated with collisional zones (deeper).

Additionally, per Wikipedia:

Rocks in the tholeiitic magma series are classified as subalkaline (they contain less
sodium than some other basalts) and are distinguished from rocks in the calc-alkaline
magma series by the redox state of the magma they crystallized from (tholeiitic
magmas are reduced; calc-alkaline magmas are oxidized). When the parent magmas of
basalts crystallize, they preferentially crystallize the more magnesium-rich and iron-
poor forms of the silicate minerals olivine and pyroxene, causing the iron content of
tholeiitic magmas to increase as the melt is depleted of iron-poor crystals. However, a
calc-alkaline magma is oxidized enough to precipitate significant amounts of the iron
oxide magnetite, causing the iron content of the magma to remain more steady as it
cools than with a tholeiitic magma.

Scroll down for a chart summarizing petrological differences between tholeiitic and
alkali basalts. You can read more about the different magma series here.
 Both of these basalt types two types are found found in Hawaii
(alkalics appear briefly at the beginning and end of volcano-building, while tholeiitic
makes up the major component). In Hawaii, the magma is thought to become alkaline
at the beginning and end stages of volcano building because the volcano is not quite
over the hot spot (i.e. the volcano is either approaching or leaving the hot spot);
therefore, the magma stays inside the crust longer and becomes of a different
composition.

Tholeiites Alkali Basalts

Mid‐ocean ridges, oceanic islands

Island arcs, collision/subduction zones

Shallower melting (25% melting at <30 km =

tholeiite) Deeper melting (25% melting at 60 km = alkaline basalt)
Formation
Greater % partial melting ( 30% melting at 60 km = Lesser % partial melting (20% melting at 60 km =
tholeiite) alkaline basalt)

Fine-grained Coarse

No olivine Olivine common

Quartz, interstitial glass common No quartz; interstitial glass rare

Clinopyroxene (augite, pigeonite) Titaniferous augite (reddish)

Groundmass Ca-poor orthopyroxene (hypersthene) No orthopyroxene

No alkali feldspar Interstitial alkali feldspar or feldspathoid

Olivine rare, unzoned or orthopyroxene rims Olivine common, zoned

Orthopyroxene uncommon Orthopyroxene absent

Phenocrysts Early plagioclase common Plagioclase less common, appears later

Clinopyroxene = pale brown augite Clinopyroxene = titaniferous augite with reddish rims
  Tholeiite (oversaturated): contains normative hypersthene and quartz
 Tholeiite (saturated): contains normative hypersthene, but no quartz
 Olivine tholeiite: contains normative hypersthene and olivine
 Olivine basalt: contains normative olivine, but no normative hypersthene or
nepheline
 Alkali basalt: contains normative olivine and nepheline

Based on my notes from EOS 201L: Earth Materials, Duke University, Fall 2013, and
EOS 402S: Volcanology of Hawaii, Duke University, Spring 2014. Chart after Hughes
(1982) and McBirney (1993).

Tholeiitic magma series

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The tholeiitic magma series, named after the German municipality of Tholey, is one of two main
magma series in igneous rocks, the other being the calc-alkaline series. A magma series is a
chemically distinct range of magma compositions that describes the evolution of a mafic magma into
a more evolved, silica rich end member. The International Union of Geological Sciences
recommends that tholeiitic basalt be used in preference to the term "tholeiite" (Le Maitre and others,
2002).

Contents

 1Geochemical characterization
 2Petrography
 3Geologic context
 4See also
 5References
o 5.1Citations
o 5.2Sources
Geochemical characterization[edit source]

This is an AFM diagram, a ternary diagram showing the relative proportions of the oxides of Na2O + K2O (A),
FeO + Fe2O3 (F), and MgO (M). The arrows show the path of the magmas in the tholeiitic and the calc-alkaline
magma series.

Rocks in the tholeiitic magma series are classified as subalkaline (they contain less sodium than
some other basalts) and are distinguished from rocks in the calc-alkaline magma series by
the redox state of the magma they crystallized from (tholeiitic magmas are reduced; calc-alkaline
magmas are oxidized [1]). When the parent magmas of basalts crystallize, they preferentially
crystallize the more magnesium-rich and iron-poor forms of the silicate
minerals olivine and pyroxene, causing the iron content of tholeiitic magmas to increase as the melt
is depleted of iron-poor crystals. However, a calc-alkaline magma is oxidized enough to precipitate
significant amounts of the iron oxide magnetite, causing the iron content of the magma to remain
more steady as it cools than with a tholeiitic magma.
The difference between these two magma series can be seen on an AFM diagram, a ternary
diagram showing the relative proportions of the oxides Na2O + K2O (A), FeO + Fe2O3 (F), and MgO
(M). As magmas cool, they precipitate out significantly more iron and magnesium than alkali,
causing the magmas to move towards the alkali corner as they cool. In the tholeiitic magma,
magnesium-rich crystals are produced preferentially, the magnesium content of the magma
plummets, causing the magma to move away from the magnesium corner until it runs low on
magnesium and simply moves towards the alkali corner as it loses iron and any remaining
magnesium. With the calc-alkaline series, however, the precipitation of magnetite causes the iron-
magnesium ratio to remain relatively constant, so the magma moves in a straight line towards the
alkali corner on the AFM diagram.

Petrography[edit source]
Photomicrograph of thin section of tholeiitic basalt (in plane polarized light)

Photomicrograph of thin section of tholeiitic basalt (in cross polarized light)

Like all basalt, the rock type is dominated by olivine, clinopyroxene and plagioclase, with minor iron-
titanium oxides.[2] Orthopyroxene or pigeonite may also be present in tholeiitic basalt, and olivine, if
present, may be rimmed by either of these calcium-poor pyroxenes. Tridymite or quartz may be
present in the fine-grained groundmass of tholeiitic basalt, and feldspathoids are absent. Tholeiitic
rocks may have a fine, glassy groundmass, as may other types of basalt.

Geologic context[edit source]

Tholeiitic rocks are the most common igneous rocks on Earth, produced by submarine
volcanism at mid-ocean ridges and make up much of the ocean crust. Tholeiitic basaltic magmas are
initially generated as partial melts of peridotite (olivine and pyroxene) produced by decompression
melting of the Earth's mantle. Tholeiitic basalts constituting the oceanic crust are
termed MORBs: mid-ocean-ridge basalts. Throughout the process of igneous differentiation, the
oceanic crust acts to reduce the magma, producing the tholeiitic trend.[1] In contrast, alkali basalts
are not typical of ocean ridges, but are erupted on some oceanic islands and on continents, as also
is tholeiitic basalt.[2] Because the Moon is extremely reduced, all of its basalts are tholeiitic.

Calc-alkaline magma series

The calc-alkaline magma series is one of two main subdivisions of the subalkaline magma series,
the other subalkaline magma series being the tholeiitic. A magma series is a series of compositions
that describes the evolution of a mafic magma, which is high in magnesium and iron and
produces basalt or gabbro, as it fractionally crystallizes to become a felsic magma, which is low in
magnesium and iron and produces rhyolite or granite. Calc-alkaline rocks are rich in alkaline
earths (magnesia and calcium oxide) and alkali metals and make up a major part of the crust of the
continents.
The diverse rock types in the calc-alkaline series include volcanic types such
as basalt, andesite, dacite, rhyolite, and also their coarser-grained intrusive equivalents
(gabbro, diorite, granodiorite, and granite). They do not include silica-undersaturated, alkalic,
or peralkaline rocks.
Geochemical characterization[edit source]

This is an AFM diagram, a ternary diagram showing the relative proportions of the oxides of Na2O + K2O (A),
FeO + Fe2O3 (F), and MgO (M). The arrows show the path of the magmas in the tholeiitic and the calc-alkaline
magma series.

Rocks from the calc-alkaline magma series are distinguished from rocks from the tholeiitic magma
series by the redox state of the magma they crystallized from (tholeiitic magmas are reduced, and
calc-alkaline magmas are oxidized). When mafic (basalt-producing) magmas crystallize, they
preferentially crystallize the more magnesium-rich and iron-poor forms of the silicate
minerals olivine and pyroxene, causing the iron content of tholeiitic magmas to increase as the melt
is depleted of iron-poor crystals. (Magnesium-rich olivine solidifies at much higher temperatures than
iron-rich olivine.) However, a calc-alkaline magma is oxidized enough to (simultaneously) precipitate
significant amounts of the iron oxide magnetite, causing the iron content of the magma to remain
more steady as it cools than with a tholeiitic magma.
The difference between these two magma series can be seen on an AFM diagram, a ternary
diagram showing the relative proportions of the oxides of Na2O + K2O (A), FeO + Fe2O3 (F), and
MgO (M). As magmas cool, they precipitate out significantly more iron and magnesium than alkali,
causing the magmas to move towards the alkali corner as they cool. In the tholeiitic magma, as it
cools and preferentially produces magnesium-rich crystals, the magnesium content of the magma
plummets, causing the magma to move away from the magnesium corner until it runs low on
magnesium and simply moves towards the alkali corner as it loses iron and (relic) magnesium. With
the calc-alkaline series, however, the precipitation of magnetite causes the iron-magnesium ratio to
remain relatively constant, so the magma moves in a straight line towards the alkali corner on the
AFM diagram.
Calc-alkaline magmas are typically hydrous, and also typically are more oxidized, with higher oxygen
fugacities.

Geologic context[edit source]

Calc-alkaline rocks typically are found in the arcs above subduction zones, commonly in volcanic
arcs, and particularly on those arcs on continental crust.

Petrologic origin[edit source]

Rocks in the series are thought to be genetically related by fractional crystallization and to be at least
partly derived from magmas of basalt composition formed in the Earth's mantle. Trends in
composition can be explained by a variety of processes. Many explanations focus on water content
and oxidation states of the magmas. Proposed mechanisms of formation begin with partial melting of
subducted material and of mantle peridotite (olivine and pyroxene) altered by water and melts
derived from subducted material. Mechanisms by which the calc-alkaline magmas then evolve may
include fractional crystallization, assimilation of continental crust, and mixing with partial melts of
continental crust.

Peraluminous rock
Peraluminous rocks are igneous rocks that have a molecular proportion of aluminium oxide higher
than the combination of sodium oxide, potassium oxide and calcium oxide.[1] This contrasts
with peralkaline in which the alkalis are higher, metaluminous where aluminium oxide concentration
is lower than the combination, but above the alkalis, and subaluminous in which aluminia
concentration is lower than the combination. Examples of
peraluminous minerals include biotite, muscovite, cordierite, andalusite and garnet.
Peraluminous corresponds to the aluminum saturation index values greater than 1.[2]
Peralumneous magmas can form S-type granitoids and have been linked
to collisional orogenies and to the formation of tin, tungsten and silver deposits such as those in
the Bolivian tin belt
An agpaitic rock is a peralkaline igneous rock, typically nepheline syenite or phonolite.
Characteristics include complex silicates containing zirconium, titanium, sodium, calcium, the rare-
earth elements, and fluorine. Agpaites are unusually rich in rare and obscure minerals such
as eudialyte, wöhlerite, loparite, astrophyllite, lorenzenite, catapleiite, lamprophyllite,
and villiaumite (NaF). Notice the sodaic (Na) constituent of these minerals. Sodalite is typically
present, but not diagnostic.[1] Less alkaline igneous rocks in which zircon, titanite, and ilmenite are
characteristic are called miaskitic.
Agpaitic rocks were first described for an occurrence in the Ilimaussaq complex of
southwest Greenland in 1811.[1] Agpaitic rocks are present in the Lovozero and Khibiny
Massif complexes of the Kola Peninsula, in Mont Saint-Hilaire, Quebec, Canada, in addition to
the type locality of Ilimaussaq
Comendite is a hard, peralkaline igneous rock, a type of light blue grey rhyolite. Phenocrysts are
sodic sanidine with minor albite and bipyramidal quartz.[1] Comendite occurs in the mountains
Tibrogargan, Coonowrin, Tunbubudla, Coochin, Saddleback, Tibberoowuccum and Ngungun in
the Glass House Mountains, South East Queensland, Australia. The blue colour is caused by very
small crystals of riebeckite or arfvedsonite.[2] Comendite also occurs in Sardinia, Corsica, Ascension
Island, Ethiopia, Somalia and other areas of East Africa.[1] The 1903 eruption
of Changbaishan volcano in north-east China erupted comendite pumice.[3]
Comendite derives its name from the area of Le Commende on San Pietro Island in Italy, where the
rock type is found
Pantellerite is type of volcanic rock, specifically a peralkaline rhyolite. It has a higher iron and
lower aluminium composition than comendite.[1] It is named after Pantelleria, a volcanic island in
the Strait of Sicily and the type location for this rock. On Pantelleria the rock is usually found as
a vitrophyre containing phenocrysts of anorthoclase or sanidine. Quartz is found only in the most
strongly peralkaline rocks. Mafic minerals may include aegirine, fayalite, aenigmatite, ilmenite,
and sodic amphibole (often arfvedsonite or ferrorichterite).

Metaluminous rock
Metaluminous rocks are igneous rocks that have a molar proportion of aluminium oxide lower than
the combination of calcium oxide, sodium oxide and potassium oxide.[1] This contrasts
with peraluminous rocks in which the aluminium oxide concentration is higher than the combination,
and peralkaline rocks where the alkalis are higher.

I think you can do it yourself and find out the errors. It's very simple. What you have to do is: divide
all your REE data (each element data) by the chondrite values for the particular element, e.g. divide
the value of La (your data) by La (chondrite value)..and ..so..and ..so. For chondrite REE values you
can follow different authors such as Taylor and McLennan or Sun and McDonough etc. Values of
Taylor and McLennan (1985) are:

La 0.367

Ce 0.957

Pr 0.137

Nd 0.711

Sm 0.231
Eu 0.087

Gd 0.306

Tb 0.058

Dy 0.381

Ho 0.085

Er 0.249

Tm 0.036

Yb 0.248

Lu 0.038

So simply divide your each element value by the chondrite value of the same element as mentioned
above. Now your data is ready to plot.

Eu/Eu* = 2*Eu(CN)/(Sm+Gd)CN (multiply your chondrite normalize Eu value by 2 and divide it by

summation of chondrite normalized values of Sm and Gd)....and your are done!!!!

Enjoy normalizing!!!!

The values are match after putting Nakamura 1974 Normalized data(except 2 or 3 (Error varies
0.01,0.03 etc). As you mentioned that divide all the REE data (each element data) by the chondrite
values for the particular element, I hava tried so many times by using various authors normalizing
value like

1.Haskin et.al 68/71

2.Wakita et.al 1971

3. Masuda et.al 1973

4. Nakamura 1974

5. Even1978

6. Laul 1979

7. A&E 1982

8. Boyn 1985

9. T&M 1985

10.W&K 1988

11. A&G 1989

12. A&G×1.36

13. Palm 1988

14. M&S 1995. and was found some variations with older data of previous papers and books). So I
was confused.

Thank you again to all for the support..

Cheeers.

A book by Rollinson : Geological Data Interpretation; you may see.

You can use the latest version of GCDkit package (free and open source) to prepare
normalized plots for REE and trace elements using standard and published values of MORB, PM,
etc. Please check out the GCDkit webpage for further information. The normalizing values are in 'r'
script (built in),and can be viewed in notepad. You can download the manual and related documents
to get more information and references. You can also try out Petrograph package (free to download).
Hope this helps.

McDonough, W.F. and Sun, S.S., 1995, The Composition of the Earth; Chemical Geology, v. 120, p.
223-253.

Chondrite normalizing factors

the ultimate source of information on composition of various geochemecial reservoirs, including

chondrites, is:

https://earthref.org/GERM/

I trust that this helps,

How to convert "ppm" to "weight % (part per

hundred)" in case of Major element ?
In the XRF method to measured heavy metal in soil sample, the concentrations of the major elements (Al, Ca, Fe, K,
Mg, Mn, Na, P, Si, Ti ) are reported in weight % units and the concentrations of the trace elements (Ba, Cr, Ni, Sc, Sr,
V, Y, Zr) are reported in ppm.

100% of anything (e.g., a rock, soil, a litre, or even cubic km, of seawater) is, by definition, all of it. If
one divided it into a million equal parts each of those parts is, again, by definition a millionth, or a
part per million of the whole. Furthermore, the sum of all of the parts per million (a million of them)
would of course add up to the whole, or 100%. Therefore,

100% = 1,000,000 ppm (1)

dividing both sides of equation (1) by 100 gives::

1% = 10,000 ppm (2)

(i.e., 10000 ppm per percent)

This is the basis of the 10000 factor presented by those responding to your question.

Consequently, say one had 1200 ppm Ba (by weight) to convert it to weight percent one would
simply divide 1200 ppm by 10000 ppm/% which gives 0.12 wt%.
In regards to the elemental analysis of soils, rocks and the like it is standard practice to report major
elements (Si, Al, Fe, Mg, Ca, K, Na) and minor elements (e.g., Mn, Ti, P...though there can be some
overlap) in weight percent, and often as weight percent oxide (e.g., SiO2, Al2O3, CaO, etc.). Trace
elements (using your example Ba, Cr, Ni, Sc, Sr, V, Y, Zr) are variously defined as elements with
concentrations < ~1000 ppm, and are generally reported in ppm (ug/g or mg/kg, depending upon
whether one is strictly using SI units or not). The rationale for using ppm (mg/kg) to report trace
elements vs. their wt % relates to the 'waste' of reporting 'zeros' and potential to misreading or
introduce errors in transcribing data. For example, if one was comparing the Eu content of two rocks
or soils, one with a concentration of 2 ppm and the other at 1 ppm, these equate to 0.0002 and
0.0001 wt %, respectively. The zeros are for some confusing, it is easier to evaluate trace elements
in terms of their concentrations in ppm vs. wt %

Hope this helps clarify things for you.

(N.B., Dividing a gram into a million equal parts results in a million micrograms, i.e., a ug is a
millionth of a g; similarly a millionth of a kg is a mg, hence, by weight, a

ppm = ug/g = mg/kg

by volume, a

ppm = ug/mL = mg/L

Just multiply the ppm values with 10000. You will get a percent values.

Percent to ppm :

1% = 1/100

1ppm = 1/1000000

So, one percent is equal to 10000 parts-per million:

1% = 10000ppm So x(ppm) = 10000 · x(%)

Best regards

M. Ouhsaine

metals in soils are reported in PPM. which means mg/kg, while % means 10*mg/g, thus
1%=10000ppm

I can imagine that the explanations above are somewhat confusing. The factor 10'000 to convert
wt% to ppm is correct, but how to do it (dividing are multiplying), depends on what you want to
convert to what.

Let's give an example:

assume that a soil contains 10 ppm of an element, the concentration of that element expressed in
wt.% is 10/10'000 = 0.001 wt%. to convert ppm in wt%, one should DIVIDE the ppm value by a
factor 10'000.

When a soil contains 3 wt% of an element, the concentration in ppm is 3x10'000 = 30'000 ppm. To
convert wt% in ppm, one should MULTIPLY the wt% value by a factor 10'000.
What are the possible causes of occurrence
of positive Europium anomaly in clastic
sedimentary rocks?
I am working in geochemistry of some sandstone samples, for this I need to study the REE pattern. And my samples
show REE pattern with positive Europium anomaly which is quite unusual. So, how do I determine the exact possible
cause for this kind of positive Eu anomaly in a clastic rock?

e.g. my geochemical data for calculation of Europium anomaly are

Sm Eu Gd Eu/Eu*

1. 8.794 2.448 7.037 0.95

2. 2.806 1.049 2.452 1.22

3. 3.485 2.644 3.092 2.46

4. 6.435 5.063 5.35 2.46

For normalization I have used chondritic values from Taylor and McLennan (1985). Although, I have used other types
of normalization, but all results shows positive anomaly. Please help me to interpret these data.

Dear Mrs. Baruah,

the interpretation of Eu anomalies in crystalline basement rocks and ore is not an easy task and the
opinions are often split significantly. The more so it is in clastic rocks which have been originated
from such source rocks. You have to deal with two different parts, one refers to the primary Eu
anomalies transferred from the source rock to the sedimentary host rock by the detrital input, while
the secondary Eu anomalies are derived from the cement minerals.

So I can only show you some directions but cannot give you a definite answer because, I do not
know anything about the clastic rocks.

Positive Eu anomalies may have different reasons and it is also important to know in this case which
mineral is responsible for the Eu anomaly. In the siliciclastic sediments it is mainly due to the
presence of feldspar (plagioclase), but it could also be caused by the cement, such as carbonate
minerals or even fluorite.

Positive Eu anomalies may have derived from an alteration of plagioclase in the source rocks.
Another effect much stronger on the REE fraction and shown by positive Eu anomalies (Terekhov
and Shcherbakova 2006) was found in acid rocks enriched in Ba and Sr. The authors suggested a
deep-seated nature of the fluids that participated in the genesis of these rocks present in a zone
transitional from brittle to ductile deformations. The latter may be caused in your sediment by
lithoclasts. Leachates from granitic sources may be characterized by more or less pronounced
negative Eu anomalies, whereas leachates derived from gneisses show a positive Eu anomaly, a
fact also transferred to sediments by detrital material.

The reasons may be manifold and in view of the little information on the host rocks the field for
speculations is wide and large.

Best regards
H.G.Dill

Positive Eu anomaly in clastic sediments can be sourced from the original parent rock. Where if the
parent rock is crystalline, plagioclase has not been retained in the melt, and Europium goes hand in
hand with Plagioclase. Please check H. R. Rollinson 1992 (using geochemical data-evaluation-
presentation and interpretation.

Positive Eu anomaly may be because of a mafic source such as basalt of the clastic sedimentary
rocks.

Eu enrichment is normally interpreted as the result of plagioclase enrichment, the presence of mafic
detritus, or a concentration of Eu-rich phases (e.g. epidote). However, presence of such components
should be supported by additional information (e.g. XRD analysis, petrography). An alternative
explanation that could be considered is the diagenetic mobilization and reconcentration of Eu under
anoxic conditions as the cause of the positive Eu anomaly....i.e. could be diagenetic in origin and do
not fully reflect provenance....(cf., MacRae et al., 1992)

As pointed out by others, I must appreciate that Eu anomaly in sandstone is difficult to interpret
straightway. Generally in silica rich igneous rocks the -ve Eu anomaly is due to its' retention in
Plagioclase. If the source is plagioclase poor, then there may be an increase in Eu. However, what
type of rocks will show this behavior. Eu entering in the plagioclase structures is a process which
takes place during magma solidification and subsequent alteration process is crucial.

I shall come back to this question later.

Positive Eu anomaly may be due to kaolinitic matrix in your sandstone sample. We get positive Eu
anomaly in shaly rocks of Iron ore Group, Odisha.

Could you please tell me what is U and Th content in your samples.?

My U values are 1.997, 0.77, 1.284, 2.473 and Th values are 19.32, 4.1, 9.908, 14.23

Your Th values are elevated , it looks there is a possibility of minerals like monazite, xenotime etc in
the sandstone which could be a possible source of Eu enrichment. Y and Nd and Pr values can
guide further in this direction.

Thank you so much for your help. Can you kindly explain to me how Y, Nd and Pr values can further
guide in analysis. It would be of great help if you can provide some research papers in this regard.

Y can tell you about HREE mineral (xenotime?) abundance and Nd, Pr can tell you about
monazite(LREE mineral). Petrography will be helpful in identifying REE minerals. Also you can carry
out heavy mineral separation after powdering the sample. The non-mag concentrate can be
analysed to prove presence of REE minerals.

I-type granite and S-type granite , how can

we distinguish in these granite.
I-type granite formed by the igneous and S-type granite formed by melting of metasedimentary rocks. if they are
generated from different continental settings and from different magma so can we see any difference in behavior in
element in these two types of rocks.
I-types have relatively high sodium, Na2O greater than 3.2% , in felsic varieties, decreasing to more
than 2.2% in mafic types.

S-types have relatively low sodium, Na2O normally less than 3.2% in rocks with approximately
5%K2O, decreasing to less than 2.2% in rocks with approximately 2% K2O.

S-types have been determined to have a Mol Al2O3/(Na2O+K2O+CaO) ratio of greater than 1.1 and
I-types less than 1.1.

normative corundum in S-type granites, being greater than 1% CIPW corundum.

In I-type granites, less than 1% CIPW diopside is present.

presence of carbon or sulphur in the sedimentary source rocks results in S-types being much more
reduced than I-types.

S-type granites are restricted in composition to high SiO2 types,

while I-type granites have a wide composition from felsic to mafic.

granitoids containing less than 655% SiO2 can generally be assumed to be I-type.

Another important geochemical feature of S- and I-type granites is the various isotope compositions.
The initial Sr87/Sr86 ratios being higher in S-types because have been through an earlier
sedimentary cycle.. A critical boundary of 0.7060 is suggested. I-type granites have initial Sr87/Sr86
ratios between 0.704 and 0.706 (Chappell and White, 1974).

Mineralogically, Amphibole and pyroxene are more common in I-type granitoids, while S-type
granitoids may have garnet, cordierite, and sillimanite.

Both types of granitoids may also contain biotite and muscovite.

S.type granite never exhibits enhanced magnetic susceptibility and does not contain accessory
magnetite. I-type granite are predominantly magnetic, but not always.You must calculate the
peraluminosity index. In addition to the valuable information added by Asoori Latha, the metallic
elements also can be used to differentiate between S-type and I-type granitoids. The earlier one is
mostly enriched in the Sn, W, while the latter is mostly enriched in Cu and Mo metals.

S-Type Granites

• Occur in regional metamorphic terranes

• Partial melting of metasediments

• High Al but contain no hornblende

• Biotite, muscovite, cordierite and garnet

• High Rb in source rocks

• Initial Sr ratios > 0.710

I-Type Granites

• Subduction zone continental margin

• High Ca and Na – Contain hornblende and sphene

• Hornblende-rich inclusions

• Melting of deep crustal igneous rocks

• Source region poor in Rb

• Initial Sr isotope ratios <0.708

S-type granites crystallizes from the viscous, relatively water-saturated magma at great depths. They
can form autochthonous bodies and may be surrounded by gneisses and crystalline schists, very
similar in composition. I-type granites are formed from the drier and more mobile magma melted
deeper, but crystallize at higher levels. Their contacts are well defined, and high grade metamorphic
rocks are usually not observed in the frame. Such plutons of S- and I-type granites I mapped in the
Polar Urals.

Table 1

Original table of S- and I-type granite characteristics, as published by Chappell and White (1974)

I-types

Relatively high sodium,

Na2O normally >3.2%

in felsic varieties, decreasing to

>2.2% in more mafic types Mol. Al2O3/(Na2O+K2O+ CaO)>1.1

CIPW normative diopside or < 1%

normative corundum

>1% CIPW normative corundum

Broad spectrum of compositions

from felsic to mafic. Regular inter-element variations within plutons;

linear or nonlinear variation diagrams

Tipo S

Relatively low sodium,

Na2O normally < 3.2% in rocks

with approximately 5% K2O,

decreasing to < 2.2% in rocks

with approximately 2% K2O

Mol. Al2O3/(Na2O+K2O+ CaO) < 1.1

Relatively restricted in composition to

high SiO2 types.

Variation diagrams more irregular

This list remains essentially valid, although nearly 30 years of progress in understanding and
characterizing these rocks has considerably

extended and refined it.

For the petrolographic observation:

S-type granites have Al-rich minerals such as garnet, cordierite, muscovite and Al-rich biotite, while
I-type granites have hornblend and biotite.

Information on the paper, Chappell and White (1992), would be useful for you for their geochemical
characteristics.

Dear Abdul Shakoor: I've studied lots of "S" type granitoids, which are abundant in the Venezuelan
cordilleras, most of them range from Devonian to Triassic. The most striking feature I've seen in
them, besides all what was answered and explained before by various other colleagues, is the
presence of muscovite, biotite, andalusite and garnet, sometimes even corundum, since they are
strongly peraluminous. Another feature in them is the presence of ilmenite, since the reducing
conditions -due to the presence of graphite of organic origin in metasediments undergoing partial
fusion- prevent the oxydation of iron to Fe3+ to form magnetite. These ilmenite crystals quite often
show spectacular coronas or reaction borders of red-brown titanite, especially when included in
biotite.

Being more strict, epsilon-Sr and epsilon-Nd isotopic evidence shows that there are no pure "S" or
"I" granitoids, each type comes from the partial fusion of either mostly sedimentary or mostly igneous
parent rock. Look for a detailed and most revealing study about this problem made in the Southern
Californian and Sierra Nevada batholiths in Faure, G. (1986) "Principles of Isotopic Geology", 2nd.
Ed. John Wiley and Sons, in Chapter 13, part. 6a, pp. 231-233, and especially look at Figure 13.10
(epsilonCHUR-Nd vs. epsilonUR-Sr), where even a clear isotopic overlap occurs between both types of
granitoids. It easy to understand that when the deep continental root of an orogen starts to melt it is
impossible to separate both types of rocks, since they are usually intermingled, as outcrops show all
over the world. So some igneous material contributes to the genesis of "S" type granitoids, and some
sedimentary material does the same to the genesis of "I" type granitoids. With kind Regards.
Sebastian.

Dear Shakoor,

You now have some very good suggestions from a number of experts. Here are listed some
publications that deal with geochemical distinctions of granitoids and list many references that might
be of interest to you:

Chappel 2004. In Ishihara symp. Granites and Associated metallogenesis-Geoscience

Australia. See also, Collins 2004. Ibid.

Clemens et al 1986. Am Miner 71, 317-24.

Dostal & Shellnutt 2015.Int Geol Rev http.//dx.doi.org/10.1080/00206814.2015.1052995

Eby GN 1990. Lithhos 26, 115-34.

Eby WA 1992. Geology 210, 641-4.

Frost et al 2001. J Petrol 42, 2033-48.

Hajialoghly et al 2010. Geol Mag 148, 250-68.

Song et al 2016. Tectonophys DOI:10.1016/j.tecto.2016.03.023

Yang et al 2015.GSA Bull 1831-54.

Yang et al 2015. Lithos doi:10.1016/j.lithos.2015.10.005

Yin et al 2015. Gond Res http:dx.doi.org//0.1016/j.gr.2015.06.016

Cheers, Qasim

Answer to Ijaz Ahmad: the terns "ortho" and "para" cannot be used in granites, they are specific for
the PROTOLITHS of metamorphic rocks: "ortho" indicates an igneous protolith, and "para", a
sedimentary one. Then, an orthogneiss could be a metagranitoid, but a paragneiss could be a
metaconglomerate or meta-arkose. There are no "orthogranites" or "paragranites". With regards.
Sebastian.

Dear Laszlo: You remember well what was tought in that petrogenetic course! Indeed I-type granites
are known to bear the huge Cu-Mo-porphyry deposits, associated with base metal veins, like in
northern Chile and Utah-Arizona, while the S-type granites, such as the Cornwall Batholith in G.B.,
and the post-collisional granites of Malaysia, are more enriched in Sn, Nb and W, usually in skars
and greisen of lesser extents than the Cu-Mo-porphyries. Regards, Sebastian

Dear Laszlo: "I" granites are supposed to be products of partial fusion of metaigneous rocks, hence
the "I", and of course "S" granites are supposed to be products of partial fusion of metasedimnetary
rocks. This makes "I" granites usually meta-aluminous, less rich in quartz and alkali feldspar, having
hornblende-biotite-titanite; and "S" granites are mostly peraluminous, due to great amount of
alumino-silicates of the source rock, so they have muscovite-biotite and sometimes garnet,
cordierite, aluminosilicates (andalusite-sillimanite) and even corundum (all of them alumina-rich
phases). But really no granite is "pure", it is difficult to envisage a region in the root of a continental
orogenic belt undergoing partial fusion or anatexis being formed exclusively of one type of rock, so
"I" granites probably come from sources mostly made of metaigneous material, and S granites
probably from sources mostly made of metasedimnetary material.

About asteroids and meteorites, Moon, Mercury and Mars, really there's little to say: they don't have
any granitic rocks, only mafic-ultramafic rocks. Chondrites are all ultramafic, and achondrites range
from mafic to ultramafic, being volcanic and plutonic rocks, some even cumulative. The Moon in
particular has two types of terranes: the Highlands, which look lighter, because they are rich in
plagioclase, being coarse grained plutonic, perhaps cumulative rocks too, such as gabbro,
anorthosite, norite, troctolite; and the Maria or "seas", which are extensive and dark basaltic plains.
In Mars all rocks found and anaylized so far are mafic, mostly basaltic, including Martian meteorites
of the shergottite-naklite-chassigny suite. But a latest finding by the Curiosity probe, some months
ago, were 10-20 cm diameter boulders of a possible TTG-suite, that is tonalite-trondhjemite-
granodiorite (...), in a conglomerate at the base of Mt. Sharp (see attached file, in Spanish though...
and the reference cited). This is the only mention of a "granitoid" rock out of the Earth, richer in silica
than basalt, but still is a quite primitive "continental-like" material, resembling the granitoids typical of
Archean terranes in terrestrial Precambrian shields, and probably of that same old age, which in
Mars I think is called Noachian or Amazonian Era. Earth's large granitic batholiths, either I or S, are
thus a unique, and very evolved product of the process of plate tectonics, aided by an abundance in
water in our planet, a very happy combination so far only found on our good-old Earth, thanks to
which we can enjoy large and dry continental land masses, where higher species. like us, can live
and evolve! With regards. Sebastian

Classification of Metamorphic Rocks

Metamorphic, Rocks 4:56 AM
Classification of metamorphic rocks is based on mineral assemblage, texture, protolith, and bulk
chemical composition of the rock. Each of these will be discussed in turn, then we will summarize
how metamorphic rocks are classified.

Texture
In metamorphic rocks individual minerals may or may not be bounded by crystal faces. Those that
are bounded by their own crystal faces are termed idioblastic. Those that show none of their own
crystal faces are termed xenoblastic. From examination of metamorphic rocks, it has been found that
metamorphic minerals can be listed in a generalized sequence, known as thecrystalloblastic series,
listing minerals in order of their tendency to be idioblastic. In the series, each mineral tends to
develop idioblastic surfaces against any mineral that occurs lower in the series. This series is listed
below:

 Rutile, sphene, magnetite

 Tourmaline kyanite, staurolite, garnet, andalusite

 Epidote, zoisite, lawsonite, forsterite

 Pyroxenes, amphiboles, wollastonite

 Micas, chlorites, talc, stilpnomelane, prehnite

 Dolomite, calcite

 Scapolite, cordierite, feldspars

 Quartz

This series can, in a rather general way, enable us to determine the origin of a given rock. For
example a rock that shows euhedral plagioclase crystals in contact with anhedral amphibole, likely
had an igneous protolith, since a metamorphic rock with the same minerals would be expected to
show euhedral amphibole in contact with anhedral plagioclase.

Another aspect of the crystalloblastic series is that minerals high on the list tend to
formporphyroblasts (the metamorphic equivalent of phenocrysts), although K-feldspar (a mineral
that occurs lower in the list) may also form porphyroblasts. Porphyroblasts are often riddled with
inclusions of other minerals that were enveloped during growth of the porphyroblast. These are said
to have a poikioblastic texture.
Most metamorphic textures involve foliation. Foliation is generally caused by a preferred orientation
of sheet silicates. If a rock has a slatey cleavage as its foliation, it is termed a slate, if it has a phyllitic
foliation, it is termed a phyllite, if it has a shistose foliation, it is termed a schist. A rock that shows a
banded texture without a distinct foliation is termed a gneiss. All of these could be porphyroblastic
(i.e. could contain porhyroblasts).

A rock that shows no foliation is called a hornfels if the grain size is small, and a granulite, if the
grain size is large and individual minerals can be easily distinguished with a hand lens.

Protolith
Protolith refers to the original rock, prior to metamorphism. In low grade metamorphic
rocks, original textures are often preserved allowing one to determine the likely protolith. As the
grade of metamorphism increases, original textures are replaced with metamorphic textures and other
clues, such as bulk chemical composition of the rock, are used to determine the protolith.

Bulk Chemical Composition

The mineral assemblage that develops in a metamorphic rock is dependent on

 The pressure and temperature reached during metamorphism

 The composition of any fluid phase present during metamorphism, and

 The bulk chemical composition of the rock.

Just like in igneous rocks, minerals can only form if the necessary chemical constituents are present
in the rock (i.e. the concept of silica saturation and alumina saturation applies to metamorphic rocks
as well). Based on the mineral assemblage present in the rock one can often estimate the
approximate bulk chemical composition of the rock. Some terms that describe this general bulk
chemical composition are as follows:
 Pelitic. These rocks are derivatives of aluminous sedimentary rocks like shales and
mudrocks. Because of their high concentrations of alumina they are recognized by an
abundance of aluminous minerals, like clay minerals, micas, kyanite, sillimanite, andalusite,
and garnet.
 Quartzo-Feldspathic. Rocks that originally contained mostly quartz and feldspar like
granitic rocks and arkosic sandstones will also contain an abundance of quartz and feldspar as
metamorphic rocks, since these minerals are stable over a wide range of temperature and
pressure. Those that exhibit mostly quartz and feldspar with only minor amounts of
aluminous minerals are termed quartzo-feldspathic.
 Calcareous. Calcareous rocks are calcium rich. They are usually derivatives of carbonate
rocks, although they contain other minerals that result from reaction of the carbonates with
associated siliceous detrital minerals that were present in the rock. At low grades of
metamorphism calcareous rocks are recognized by their abundance of carbonate minerals like
calcite and dolomite. With increasing grade of metamorphism these are replaced by
minerals like brucite, phlogopite (Mg-rich biotite), chlorite, and tremolite. At even higher
grades anhydrous minerals like diopside, forsterite, wollastonite, grossularite, and calcic
plagioclase.
 Basic. Just like in igneous rocks, the general term basic refers to low silica content. Basic
metamorphic rocks are generally derivatives of basic igneous rocks like basalts and
gabbros. They have an abundance of Fe-Mg minerals like biotite, chlorite, and hornblende,
as well as calcic minerals like plagioclase and epidote.
 Magnesian. Rocks that are rich in Mg with relatively less Fe, are termed magnesian. Such
rocks would contain Mg-rich minerals like serpentine, brucite, talc, dolomite, and
tremolite. In general, such rocks usually have an ultrabasic protolith, like peridotite, dunite,
or pyroxenite.
 Ferriginous. Rocks that are rich in Fe with little Mg are termed ferriginous. Such rocks
could be derivatives of Fe-rich cherts or ironstones. They are characterized by an abundance
of Fe-rich minerals like greenalite (Fe-rich serpentine), minnesotaite (Fe-rich talc),
ferroactinolite, ferrocummingtonite, hematite, and magnetite at low grades, and ferrosilite,
fayalite, ferrohedenbergite, and almandine garnet at higher grades.
 Manganiferrous. Rocks that are characterized by the presence of Mn-rich minerals are
termed manganiferrous. They are characterized by such minerals as Stilpnomelane and
spessartine.
Classification
Classification of metamorphic rocks depends on what is visible in the rock and its degree of
metamorphism. Note that classification is generally loose and practical such that names can be
adapted to describe the rock in the most satisfactory way that conveys the important characteristics.
Three kinds of criteria are normally employed. These are:

1. Mineralogical - The most distinguishing minerals are used as a prefix to a textural term.
Thus, a schist containing biotite, garnet, quartz, and feldspar, would be called a biotite-garnet
schist. A gneiss containing hornblende, pyroxene, quartz, and feldspar would be called a
hornblende-pyroxene gneiss. A schist containing porphyroblasts of K-feldspar would be
called a K-spar porphyroblastic schist.

2. Chemical - If the general chemical composition can be determined from the mineral
assemblage, then a chemical name can be employed. For example a schist with a lot of quartz
and feldspar and some garnet and muscovite would be called a garnet-muscovite quartzo-
feldspathic schist. A schist consisting mostly of talc would be called a talc-magnesian schist.

3. Protolithic - If a rock has undergone only slight metamorphism such that its original texture
can still be observed then the rock is given a name based on its original name, with the prefix
meta- applied. For example: metabasalt, metagraywacke, meta-andesite, metagranite.

In addition to these conventions, certain non-foliated rocks with specific chemical compositions
and/or mineral assemblages are given specific names. These are as follows:

 Amphibolites: These are medium to coarse grained, dark colored rocks whose principal
minerals are hornblende and plagioclase. They result from metamorphism of basic igneous
rocks. Foliation is highly variable, but when present the term schist can be appended to the
name (i.e. amphibolite schist).
  Marbles: These are rocks composed mostly of calcite, and less commonly of dolomite. They
result from metamorphism of limestones and dolostones. Some foliation may be present if
the marble contains micas.
 Eclogites: These are medium to coarse grained consisting mostly of garnet and green
clinopyroxene called omphacite, that result from high grade metamorphism of basic igneous
rocks. Eclogites usually do not show foliation.
 Quartzites: Quartz arenites and chert both are composed mostly of SiO2. Since quartz is
stable over a wide range of pressures and temperatures, metamorphism of quartz arenites and
cherts will result only in the recrystallization of quartz forming a hard rock with interlocking
crystals of quartz. Such a rock is called a quartzite.
 Serpentinites: Serpentinites are rocks that consist mostly of serpentine. These form by
hydrothermal metamorphism of ultrabasic igneous rocks.
 Soapstones: Soapstones are rocks that contain an abundance of talc, which gives the rock a
greasy feel, similar to that of soap. Talc is an Mg-rich mineral, and thus soapstones from
ultrabasic igneous protoliths, like peridotites, dunites, and pyroxenites, usually by
hydrothermal alteration.

 Skarns: Skarns are rocks that originate from contact metamorphism of limestones or
dolostones, and show evidence of having exchanged constituents with the intruding
magma. Thus, skarns are generally composed of minerals like calcite and dolomite, from the
original carbonate rock, but contain abundant calcium and magnesium silicate minerals like
andradite, grossularite, epidote, vesuvianite, diopside, and wollastonite that form by reaction
of the original carbonate minerals with silica from the magma. The chemical exchange is
that takes place is called metasomatism.
 Mylonites: Mylonites are cataclastic metamorphic rocks that are produced along shear zones
deep in the crust. They are usually fine-grained, sometimes glassy, that are streaky or
layered, with the layers and streaks having been drawn out by ductile shear.

The Relationship Between Igneous Rocks &

Tectonic Plates
Igneous, Tectonic 8:20 PM
Igneous rock can form where tectonic plates diverge or converge. Learn how the movement of tectonic
plates can create the right conditions of the solidification of magma and the formation of igneous rocks.

Igneous Rocks

Let's say you're on a scavenger hunt and the last item you need to find is an igneous rock. You learned
that igneous rocks are rocks that form from the cooling and solidifying of magma or lava, which is the
name given to magma that reaches the surface of the earth and the stuff you think of flowing down the
side of a volcano.

Armed with this knowledge you might hop on a plane and fly to the closest active volcanic mountain to
hunt for an igneous rock.
General Classification of Igneous Rocks

Well, this would be one option open to you, but did you know that igneous rocks can also be found at the
bottom of the ocean as well as deep underground? This is because igneous rock formation is linked to the
movement of tectonic plates. we will learn more about tectonic plates and how their movements lead to
the formation of igneous rocks.

Tectonic Plates

So let's start by making sure we understand what tectonic plates are. There is a theory, called plate
tectonics, which states that the Earth's crust is broken up into plates. In other words, if you were to strip
everything off of the Earth's surface and drain all of the water, the remaining shell of the planet would
look like it was cracked, much like the fractures that happen when you crack the shell of a hardboiled egg.

The plate-like sections of earth's crust are called tectonic plates.

These massive tectonic plates are able to move and they basically float on top of the hot, deep layers of
the earth. These hot, deep layers are where we see magma forming. As these plates float around, they
interact with each other. They can either get closer together or drift apart, and this tectonic plate
movement gives us the right conditions for the formation of igneous rocks.

What's the difference between an active and passive continental margin?

Diverging Tectonic Plates and Igneous Rocks

Let's take a look at igneous rock formation where tectonic plates move apart or diverge. As these massive
plates of the earth's crust slowly separate from each other, magma from below the crust has an
opportunity to squeeze up through the gap and reach the surface. This can even happen if the boundary
between plates is found at the bottom of the ocean. In fact, diverging tectonic plates are responsible for
the formation of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, which is a continuous mountain chain located under the surface
of the sea. As the magma makes its way through the opening created by the diverging plates, the magma
meets up with the cooler temperatures, allowing it to solidify into igneous rock.
Converging Tectonic Plates and Igneous Rocks

Igneous rocks can also form where plates bump up against each other. Sometimes when tectonic plates
converge they create an area where one tectonic plate is pushed under another plate. This area is referred
to as a subduction zone. The subducting plate is pushed into the hotter, deeper layers of the Earth, where
it melts. This newly melted rock is less dense than the solid rock it originated from, so it starts to rise
toward the surface. It will either solidify underground or make its way to the surface as lava and then
solidify, but either way it will form igneous rock.

Magmatic processes
Magma, volcano 8:27 PM

A quick review of the steps needed to make a magmatic rock…

I. Melting
 Is always partial (5-50 %), there is therefore a solid residuum (95-50 %).

 Melting of the mantle generates basalt or andsites; melting of the crust generates granites.

Melt needs to be extracted from the partially molten system.

II. Magma evolution: fractional crystallization
As the system cools down, the magma evolves in the “solid+liquid” field, between solidus and liquidus.
  Crystals are progressively formed, and can settle down at the bottom of the “magma chamber”.

 The remaining magma chemically evolves. Its evolution is a “mirror” image of the crystals
removed: typically towards SiO2-rich, mafic poor composition.

 Studying the exact shape of the liquid evolution trends allows to discuss which minerals where
removed from the liquid.

Three main trends of evolution:

 Basalts evolve towards high-SiO2.

 Undersaturated basalts remain so, and move in the undersaturated field, towards olivine-
or nepheline-normative rocks (i.e., alkali series).

 Saturated basalts remain so and evolve towards quartz-normative rocks (basalts-andesite-

dacite-rhyolite, aka BADR series) (sub-alkaline series).

 Granites are already SiO2 rich… and remain so (little or no evolution)

III. Magma transfert and emplacement

Magma moves upwards through the crust; mafic magmas can be seen to move through dyke swarms. The
equivalent for granitic magma is not seen.

A. Plutons and batholiths

If the magmas emplace at depth (typically, crustal magmas), they fill small pockets = plutons, with rocks
slowly crystallizing at depth. Plutons are typically found as clusters of several to many intrusions
(batholiths), corresponding to successive magma inputs, typically during a small time period.

B. Volcanoes
If the magma reaches surface (more common for mantle-derived rocks), they erupt as volcanoes. The
roots of the volcanoes are also dykes (but localized below the actual volcanic vent).

IV. Cooling and sub-solidus evolution

As the magma finally cools, it evolves from its liquidus at 900° (granites) to 1200° (basalts) down
temperature towards cooler conditions: the solid magmatic rocks starts its life in the amphibolite facies
(typically) and cools down to greenschist, therefore making (retrograde) metamorphic evolution possible.
Epithermal Systems: The Association of Gold
Mineralization With Volcanic
edu, Gold, Tectonic, volcano 9:52 PM

The association of gold mineralization with volcanic and geothermal hot spring activity has long been
recognized by prospectors and geologists. We now know that this association is a consequence of the hot
magmas which not only produce volcanic eruptions and volcanic rocks but also are the source of the hot
fluids that transport gold and other metals and may in fact be the source of gold itself.

Fluids emanating from a molten magma are extremely hot and under high pressure deep below the
surface. As these fluids rise, they mix with surface waters and change the composition of the rocks with
which they come into contact. This process is known as alteration.
Eventually the fluids breach the surface and form either acidic lakes known as fumaroles common in the
craters of volcanoes or dilute, neutral hot springs like those at Yellowstone or the Geysers in California.

These two different surface manifestations – acidic lakes or neutral hot springs – reflect two different
fluid types that each result from the two different paths taken by the magma as it rises to the surface. Both
form gold deposits and are known respectively as low- and high-sulphidation gold deposits.

In both subtypes gold will largely be precipitated from 2.5 kilometers depth to surface.
Recognizing that gold precipitates near the surface in these systems, the great American geologist
Waldemar Lindgren coined the term epithermal in 1933, epi meaning shallow and thermal referring to the
heated fluid.

The chemist Werner Giggenbach further subdivided epithermal gold deposits into low and high
sulphidation types .

Low and high do not refer to each type’s relative amount of sulphide minerals (metal complexes of sulfur
with metals). Rather the distinction is based on the different sulfur to metal ratio within the sulphide
minerals of each subtype.

While this discussion deals with high-sulphidation epithermal systems, it is worth mentioning that low-
sulphidation systems also form economic gold deposits although they develop under vastly different
chemical conditions.

What's the Difference Between an Active and

Passive Continental Margin?
edu, Geology, Tectonic 10:35 PM
The earth's crust is broken into sections, called plates. There are two (2) basic types:

oceanic plates which are composed of basalt, and continental plates, which are mostly granite. The
continental plates are in motion, and literally bounce around on the surface like giant air hockey pucks.
The overall rate may be extremely slow (one to ten centimeters per year), but the long term effect is a
continual re-shaping of the surface of our planet.

An active continental margin is found on the leading edge of the continent where it is crashing into an
oceanic plate. An excellent example is the west coast of South America. Active margins are commonly
the sites of tectonic activity: earthquakes, volcanoes, mountain building, and the formation of
new igneous rock. Because of the mountainous terrain, most of the rivers are fairly short, and the
continental shelf is narrow to non-existent, dropping off quickly into the depths of the subduction trench.
Passive continental margins are found along the remaining coastlines. Because there is no collision or
subduction taking place, tectonic activity is minimal and the earth's weathering and erosional processes
are winning. This leads to lots of low-relief (flat) land extending both directions from the beach, long
river systems, and the accumulation of thick piles of sedimentary debris on the relatively wide continental
shelves. Again South America provides a great example. The Amazon River, whose source is in the
Andes Mountains (the active margin) drains east across the interior of South America to the coast, where
it enters the Atlantic Ocean and deposits the tremendous volume of sedimentary materials it eroded from
the continent.

The North American plate also serves to illustrate this difference. The west coast is the active margin,
and is the location of earthquakes, volcanoes, and mountains. The Eastern Seaboard is a passive margin,
as is the Gulf Coast. These are the low-relief areas of our continent, and are the locations of such exciting
places as New Jersey, the Barrier Islands, the swamps of Florida, and the Mississippi delta.

High-Sulphidation Deposits of Gold

edu, Gold, Tectonic 5:24 PM
High-sulphidation deposits result from fluids (dominantly gases such as SO2, HF, HCl) channeled
directly from a hot magma. The fluids interact with groundwater and form strong acids. These acids rot
and dissolve the surrounding rock leaving only silica behind, often in a sponge-like formation known as
vuggy silica. Gold and sometimes copper-rich brines that also ascend from the magma then precipitate
their metals within the spongy vuggy silica bodies. The shape of these mineral deposits is generally
determined by the distribution of vuggy silica. Sometimes the vuggy silica can be widespread if the acid
fluids encountered a broad permeable geologic unit. In this case it is common to find large bulk-tonnage
mines with lower grades.

The acidic fluids are progressively neutralized by the rock the further they move away from the fault. The
rocks in turn are altered by the fluids into progressively more neutral-stable minerals the further away
from the fault. As a result, definable zones of alteration minerals are almost always are formed in shell-
like layers around the fault zone.

Typically the sequence is to move from vuggy silica (the centre of the fault) progressing through quartz-
alunite to kaolinite-dickite, illite rich rock, to chlorite rich rock at the outer reaches of alteration. Alunite
(a sulphate mineral) and kalonite, dickite, illite and chlorite (clay minerals) are generally whitish to
yellowish in colour. The clay and sulphate alteration (referred to as acid-sulphate alteration) in high-
sulphidation systems can leave huge areas, sometimes up to 100 square kilometers of visually impressive
coloured rocks.

ALTERATION IN A HIGH-SULPHIDATION SYSTEM:

In contrast, low-sulphidation veins are formed when the fluids interact with greater amounts of
groundwater as they rise from the hot magma. The protracted boiling of the fluids in low-sulphidation
systems produces high grade gold (greater than one ounce gold per ton) and silver deposits. The fluids
interact with the surrounding rock for a much longer period of time than the quickly channeled high-
sulphidation fluids. As a result, the fluids become dilute and

neutralized and the silica dissolves. The silica is later precipitated in the veins as quartz, often sealing the
fissure closed. When this occurs, the pressure of the gases underneath the sealed fault builds until the seal
is ruptured, which provokes catastrophic boiling and the precipitation of gold.

After this explosive boiling event, passive conditions return, and quartz precipitates once again. This
cyclical process results in the well-known banded texture of the quartz-adularia veins typical of low-
sulphidation vein systems. Quartz-adularia veins can contain high-grade gold (greater than one ounce
gold per ton) and silver deposits, over vertical intervals of generally 300 to 600 metres. Within this
vertical dimension, high gold grades can make for a large amount of easy to mine gold in a narrow
compact area.
ALTERATION IN A HIGH-SULPHIDATION SYSTEM:

Note: The above post is reprinted from materials provided by ScienceNetwork WA.

The Terminology of a Fold

folds, Tectonic, Terminology 8:58 PM
Amplitude Half the height of the structure measured from crest to trough

Arc length The distance between two hinges of the same orientation measured over the folded surface

Axial surface The surface containing the hinge lines from consecutive folded surfaces

Crest The topographically highest point of a fold, which need not coincide with the fold hinge

Cross section A vertical plane through a fold

Culmination High point of the hinge line in a noncylindrical fold

Cylindrical fold Fold in which a straight hinge line parallels the fold axis; in other words, the folded
surface wraps partway around a cylinder

Depression Low point of the hinge line in a noncylindrical fold

Fold axis Fold generator in cylindrical folds

Hinge The region of greatest curvature in a fold

Hinge line The line of greatest curvature

Inflection point The position in a limb where the sense of curvature changes

Limb Less curved portion of a fold

Noncylindrical fold Fold with a curved hinge line

Profile plane The surface perpendicular to the hinge line

Trough The topographically lowest point of a fold, which need not coincide with the fold hinge

Wavelength The distance between two hinges of the same orientation

Facies And Facies Sequences

sedimentary, Stratigraphy 11:07 AM
Facies
A facies is a body of rock with specific characteristics. It is properly defined on the basis of color,
bedding, composition, texture, fossils, and sedimentary structures. However, the term “facies” is also used
in many other senses. It is used as a strict observational sense of a rock product (sandstone facies), in a
genetic sense for the products of a process by which a rock is thought to have formed (turbidite facies), in
an environmental sense for the environment in which a rock is thought to have formed (fluvial facies),
and as a tecto-facies (post-orogenic facies). All these uses are acceptable, as long as you remember which
concept is being used.

Facies distributions and changes are dependant on a number of interrelated influences, which
include:

 Sedimentary Processes

 Sediment supply

 Climate
  Tectonics

 Sea Level changes

 Biological Activity

 Water Chemistry

 Volcanism

Facies Sequence
A facies sequence is a series of facies that pass gradually from one into another. A sequence can have an
abrupt or erosive boundary, or be bounded by a hiatus, as indicated by a rootlet bed, reworking, or early
diagenesis.

Clastic environments have two important types of sequences. In one, there is a coarsening upward
sequence that develops above a sharp or erosional base; a second type is the fining upward sequence. This
is important in interpretation of depositional environments, because grain size is normally a measure of
the hydraulic power at the time of deposition and a coarsening upward sequence indicates an increase in
flow power. This may be due to shallowing as a delta, shoreline, or river crevasse builds out into deeper
water, or to progradation of a submarine fan. Fining upward sequences can be formed by a migrating
point bar in a river or by filling of an abandoned channel.

Walther's Law
Walther's Law states that “the various deposits of the same facies area and, similarly, the sum of the rocks
of different facies areas were formed beside each other in space, but in a crustal profile we see them lying
on top of each other...it is a basic statement of far-reaching significance that only those facies and facies
areas can be superimposed, without a break, that can be observed beside each other at the present time.”

This is interpreted to mean that facies occurring in a conformable vertical sequence were formed in
aerially adjacent environments and the facies in vertical contact must be the product of neighboring
environments.
Types of Folds With Photos
folds, Structural Geology 8:46 PM

Fold occurs when one or a stack of originally flat and planar surfaces, such as sedimentary strata, are bent
or curved as a result of permanent deformation. Synsedimentary folds are those due to slumping of
sedimentary material before it is lithified. Folds in rocks vary in size from microscopic crinkles to
mountain-sized folds. They occur singly as isolated folds and in extensive fold trains of different sizes, on
a variety of scales.

The Terminology of a Fold

10 Amazing Geological Folds You Should See
Types of fold
Anticline

This anticline is in Alberta, Canadia in the Rocky Mountains

Anticline is a fold that is convex up and has its oldest beds at its core. The term is not to be confused with
antiform, which is a purely descriptive term for any fold that is convex up. Therefore if age relationships
between various strata are unknown, the term antiform should be used.

Syncline
 Syncline sidling hill

A syncline is a fold with younger layers closer to the center of the structure. Synclines are typically a
downward fold, termed a synformal syncline (i.e. a trough); but synclines that point upwards, or perched,
can be found when strata have been overturned and folded (an antiformal syncline).

Monocline
local warping in horizontal strata. Rock beds lying at two level separated by steep inclined limbs. It is
form by vertical movement and generally found fault below monocline. a step-like fold in rock strata
consisting of a zone of steeper dip within an otherwise horizontal or gently-dipping sequence.

Chevron fold
 Chevron folds with flat-lying axial planes, Millook Haven, North Cornwall, UK

Chevron folds are a structural feature characterized by repeated well behaved folded beds with straight
limbs and sharp hinges. Well developed, these folds develop repeated set of v-shaped beds. They develop
in response to regional or local compressive stress. Inter-limb angles are generally 60 degrees or less.
Chevron folding preferentially occurs when the bedding regularly alternates between contrasting
competences.
Recumbent fold

Recumbent fold Bahrain

Recumbent fold has an essentially horizontal axial plane. linear, fold axial plane oriented at low angle
resulting in overturned strata in one limb of the fold.

Isoclinal fold
Isoclinal folds are similar to symmetrical folds, but these folds both have the same angle and are parallel
to each other. 'Iso' means 'the same' (symmetrical), and 'cline' means 'angle,' so this name literally means
'same angle.' So isoclinal folds are both symmetrical and aligned in a parallel fashion.
Plunging fold

Plunging chevron folds

A fold whose axis plane is not horizontal (not Parallel to sea level). Direction of plunge - the direction in
which the axis is inclined nose - indicate the direction of plunge. In anticline, plunge is directed towards
nose and in syncline it is directed away from nose.
Dome and Basin

Desert of Mauritania. dome.

We also have domes, which are like anticlines but instead of an arch, the fold is in a dome
shape, like an inverted bowl. Similarly, there are also basins, which are like synclines but again,
instead of a sinking arch, the fold is in a shape of a bowl sinking down into the ground. Dome:
nonlinear, strata dip away from center in all directions, oldest strata in center. Basin: nonlinear,
strata dip toward center in all directions, youngest strata in center.
Ptygmatic fold

Folds are chaotic, random and disconnected. Typical of sedimentary slump folding, migmatites and
decollement detachment zones. Ptygmatic folds generally represent conditions where the folded material
is of a much greater viscosity than the surrounding medium.

Top Radioactive Minerals: Occurrence and

Identification
Mineralogy, Radioactive 9:09 PM
Radioactivity in minerals are caused by the inclusion of naturally-occurring radioactive elements in the
mineral's composition. The degree of radioactivity is dependent on the concentration and isotope present
in the mineral. For the most part, minerals that contain potassium (K), uranium (U), and thorium (Th) are
radioactive.
Autunite

Autunite. Photo: Yaiba Sakaguchi

Autunite is a radioactive orthorhombic mineral which results from the hydrothermal alteration of uranium
minerals. Used as a uranium ore, it was first discovered in France in 1852. Autunite is one of the more
attractive and popular radioactive minerals. To state the obvious, the uranium in its chemical formula
provides this radioactivity. Autunite is probably the most popular uranium mineral for collectors. Its green
and yellow color shades seem to glow and are actually fluorescent. The crystal aggregates look like
inflated mica books and are very distinctive.

Notable Occurences: include Autun, France; Cornwall, England; Mitchell Co., North Carolina and Mt.
Spokane, Washington, USA; Zaire; Bergen, Germany and Portugal.
Best Field Indicators are color, crystal habit, fluorescence, radioactivity, associations and flexible
crystals.
Uraninite

Uraninite crystals from Topsham, Maine

Uraninite is a highly radioactive and interesting mineral. It is the chief ore of uranium and radium, which
is found in trace amounts. Helium was first discovered on the earth in samples of uraninite. Radium and
helium are found in uraninite because they are the principle products of uranium's decay process.
Weathered or otherwise altered uraninite produces some wonderful by-products such as the beautiful
uranyl phosphate minerals like autunite and torbernite as well as uranyl silicates like sklodoskite and
cuprosklodowskite.

The structure is analogous to the structure of fluorite, CaF2. The structure of fluorite is highly
symmetrical and forms isometric crystals such as cubes and octahedrons. Flourite also has four directions
of perfect cleavage that produces octahedrons. However, in uraninite, crystals are rare and the cleavage is
not usually observable.
Notable Occurences include Bergen, Germany; Autun, France; Cornwall, England; Mitchell Co., North
Carolina and Mt. Spokane, Washington, USA; Zaire; wilberforce and Great Bear Lake, Canada; Portugal
and France.

Best Field Indicators are luster, color, radioactivity and streak.

Torbernite

Torbernite Locality: Mashamba West Mine.

Torbernite is a popular mineral among collectors who seek uranium bearing minerals. Its square tabular
crystals are distinctive, but might remind someone of the mineral wulfenite, if not for the green color of
torbernite. Autunite is a structurally related mineral that also forms square tabular crystals, but they are
not typically solid green and autunite is fluorescent in UV light.
The structure of torbernite is composed of phosphate tetrahedrons linked to uranium-oxygen groups that
form distorted octahedrons. The phosphates and uranium groups lie in sheets that are weakly held
together by water molecules. This structure produces the tabular habit, the one perfect direction of
cleavage and the relative softness.

Notable Occurences include Cornwall, England; Mitchell Co., North Carolina and Utah, USA; Shaba,
Zaire; Germany and France.

Best Field Indicators are color, crystal habit, non-fluorescence, radioactivity, associations and brittle
cleavage sheets.

Zippeite

Photo: Dakota Matrix

Zippeite is a rare mineral but is sought after by collectors who seek uranium bearing minerals as well as
minerals that have exotic names. Zippeite fluoresces under ultraviolet light. The mineral is inconsistent
however in the color that is produced.
Zippeite is formed as a secondary mineral and as an efflorescent crust in uranium mines. Efflorescent
means it forms on the surface of a rock by the evaporation of water when in contact with the dry air of the
mine. Thus, some zippeite specimens are the result of human intervention (albeit unintentional) and some
minerologists do not consider these to be pure mineral specimens. Remember, this is a radioactive
mineral and should be stored away from other minerals that are affected by radioactivity and human
exposure should be limited.

Notable Occurances include Cornwall, England; Utah and Colorado, USA and the Bohemian region of
Europe.

Best Field Indicators are color, crystal habit, fluorescence, softness, luster and radioactivity.

Metatorbernite

Metatorbernite from the Margabal Mine, France.

Meta-torbernite is a dehydration product of its close cousin, torbernite, hence the name. When the mineral
torbernite loses water and converts to meta-torbernite, it usually undergoes pseudomorphism. A
pseudomorph is generally an atom by atom replacement of one mineral's chemistry to form another
mineral.

The process leaves the crystal shape of the original mineral intact. Pseudomorph means false (pseudo)
shape (morph). In this case, the conversion is not so dramatic since it involves only the loss of a few water
molecules; therefore, a good pseudomorph is likely. The conversion is irreversible and ongoing, and all
collection specimens of a certain age are almost certainly partially to totally converted. If accuracy is
demanded, all torbernite collection pieces of a few years of age should be labeled as meta-torbenite.

Notable Occurences include Cornwall, England; Athabasca, Saskatchewan, Canada; Shaba, Zaire;
Saxony, Germany and France.

Best Field Indicators are color, crystal habit, non-fluorescence, higher density than torbernite,
radioactivity, associations, and brittle cleavage sheets.

Uranocircite

Uranocircite from São Pedro, Malacacheta dist., Minas Gerais, Brazil.

 Photo: Dakota Matrix

Uranocircite is a rare but popular mineral among collectors who seek uranium-bearing minerals. Its
square tabular crystals are distinctive from the members of the autunite/torbernite group of minerals.
Uranocircite's crystals are similar to other members of this group, but they tend to be flatter or not as
tabular.

Autunite can be difficult to distinguish from uranocircite by ordinary means. However, in the slightly
heavier uranocircite, the color is usually more yellow and the fluorescent color is more green.

The structure of uranocircite is composed of phosphate tetrahedrons linked to uranium-oxygen groups

that form distorted octahedrons. The phosphates and uranium groups lie in sheets that are weakly held
together by water molecules. This structure produces the platy habit, the one perfect direction of cleavage,
and the relative softness.

Notable Occurrences include Bergen, Germany; Autun, France; Cornwall, England; Mitchell Co., North
Carolina and Mt. Spokane, Washington, USA; Zaire; Portugal and France.

Best Field Indicators are color, crystal habit, fluorescence, radioactivity, associations and density.
Carnotite

Carnotite in fossilized wood from St. George, Utah

A secondary mineral resulting from the alteration of Uraninite, Montroseite, or Davidite. Occurs in
sandstones, especially in paleochannels, near fossil carbonaceous matter, in calcretes and near playas.
Carnotite is a relatively uncommon mineral, yet common enough to be an important ore of uranium and
vanadium. Uranium and vanadium are two extremely strategic metals. Named in 1899 by Charles Friedel
and Édouard Cumenge in honor of Marie-Adolphe Carnot.

Notable Occurrences include many locations in Wyoming, Colorado, Arizona, Utah, Grants, New
Mexico and Mauch Chunk, Carbon Co, Pennsylvania, USA; Shaba, Zaire; Morocco; Radium Hill,
Australia and Kazakhstan.
Best Field Indicators are bright yellow color, density, habit, lack of any fluorescence, radioactivity and
associations.

How to Identify Minerals in 10 Steps (Photos)

Fieldwork, Geologist, Geology, Mineralogy 10:09 AM
Step 1: Pick Your Mineral

Photo: Crystalarium

Learning mineral identification is like learning to cook. You begin by following step-by-step procedures
and looking up a lot of things. But after a while you notice regularities, become familiar with the usual
suspects, make some productive mistakes, and get better at it until it becomes easy and fun.

Another way mineral identification is like cooking is that professionals can go to school, learn to use
expensive equipment and master the subject fully, yet amateurs can handle nearly all the common
possibilities using just a few simple tools.The first thing to do is to observe and test your mineral. Use the
largest piece you can find, and if you have several pieces, make sure sure that they are all the same
mineral. Examine your mineral for all of the following properties, writing down the answers. After that
you'll be ready to take your information to the right place.

Step 2: Hardness

Kit of Mohs' Hardness Mineral Identification

Hardness is a mineral's ability to resist being scratched. Minerals that are not easily scratched are hard.
You test the hardness of a mineral by scratching its surface with a mineral of a known hardness.
Mineralogists use Mohs Scale as a reference for mineral hardness. The scale lists common minerals in
order of their relative hardness. You can use the minerals in the scale to test the hardness of an unknown
mineral.

As you can see, diamond is a 10 on Mohs Scale. Diamond is the hardest mineral, which means that no
other mineral can scratch a diamond. Quartz is a 7, so it can be scratched by topaz, corundum, and
diamond. Quartz will scratch minerals, such as fluorite, that have a lower number on the scale. Suppose
you tested a piece of pure gold for hardness. Calcite would scratch the gold, but gypsum would not
because gypsum is a 2 and calcite is a 3. That would mean gold is between the hardness of gypsum and
calcite, or 2.5 on the scale. A hardness of 2.5 means that gold is a relatively soft mineral. It is only about
as hard as your fingernail.
Read about Mineral hardness.

Step 3: Luster

Luster describes the way light reflects off of the surface of the mineral. You might describe diamonds as
sparkly or pyrite as shiny, but mineralogists have special terms to describe the luster of a mineral. They
first divide minerals into metallic and non-metallic luster. Minerals like pyrite that are opaque and shiny
have a metallic luster. Minerals with a non-metallic luster do not look like metals. There are many types
of non-metallic luster, six of which are described in Table:

Read about Luster here

Step 4: Color
 Photo by: structure_minerals

Color is probably the easiest property to observe. Unfortunately, you can rarely identify a mineral only by
its color. One of the most important physical properties of minerals, reflecting the nature of the interaction
of the electromagnetic radiation of the visible region with the electrons of the atoms, molecules, and ions
of the crystals and with the electron system of the crystal as a whole. In mineralogy, color is one of the
primary diagnostic properties of natural compounds, of great importance in geological prospecting for the
identification of minerals.

The color of gems and semiprecious stones is one of their main qualitative (gem) characteristics. A
distinction is made between the color of minerals in individual crystals and lumps of ore, the color of
minerals in transparent thin sections (under the microscope), the color of minerals in polished sections (in
reflected light), and the color of a mineral’s streak (the color of the fine powder of the mineral).

Three main groups of minerals are identified on the basis of the property of color: idiochromatic,
allochromatic, and pseudochro-matic.

 Idiochromatic minerals are "self colored" due to their composition. The color is a constant and
predictable component of the mineral. Examples are blue Azurite, red Cinnabar, and green
Malachite.
 Allochromatic minerals are "other colored" due to trace impurities in their composition or
defects in their structure. In this case, the color is a variable and unpredictable property of the
mineral. Examples are the blue in Amazonite (orthoclase), yellow in Heliodor (spodumene) and
the rose in rose quartz.
 Pseudochromatic minerals are "false colored" due to tricks in light diffraction. In these cases,
color is variable but a unique property of the mineral. Examples are the colors produced by
precious opal and the shiller reflections of labradorite.
Read about Color of Minerals
Step 5: Streak

Streak is the color of the powder of a mineral. To do a streak test, you scrape the mineral across an
unglazed porcelain plate. The plate is harder than many minerals, causing the minerals to leave a streak of
powder on the plate. The color of the streak often differs from the color of the larger mineral sample. If
you did a streak test on the yellow-gold pyrite, you would see a blackish streak. This blackish streak tells
you that the mineral is not gold because gold has a gold-colored streak.

Streak is a more reliable property than the color of the mineral sample. The color of a mineral may vary,
but its streak does not vary. Also, different minerals may be the same color, but they may have a different
color streak. For example, samples of hematite and galena can both be dark gray, but hematite has a red
streak and galena has a gray streak.
Step 6: Crystal Form and Mineral Habit

The term crystal habit describes the favored growth pattern of the crystals of a mineral species, whether
individually or in aggregate. It may bear little relation to the form of a single, perfect crystal of the same
mineral, which would be classified according to crystal system.

Subtle evidence of the crystal system to which a mineral species belongs is, however, frequently observed
in the habit of the crystals which a specimen displays.

The terminology used to describe crystal habit is not intended to replace the precise nomenclature of
crystallography. Instead, it is intended as a supplement to this system. Discussions of crystal habit are
more descriptive than precise; for this reason the terminology is suited to the discussion of mineral
samples discovered in the field. Naturally formed specimens are rarely quantitatively perfect.

Step 7: Cleavage and Fracture

Biotite and Muscovite cleavage

Cleavage is the way a mineral breaks. Many minerals break along flat planes, or cleavages—some in only
one direction (like mica), others in two directions (like feldspar), and some in three directions (like
calcite) or more (like fluorite). Some minerals, like quartz, have no cleavage. Cleavage is a profound
property that results from a mineral's molecular structure, and cleavage is present even when the mineral
doesn't form good crystals. Cleavage can also be described as perfect, good or poor.
Fracture is breakage that is not flat. The two main kinds of fracture are conchoidal (shell-shaped, as in
quartz) and uneven. Metallic minerals may have a hackly (jagged) fracture. A mineral may have good
cleavage in one or two directions but fracture in another direction.

To determine Cleavage and fracture, you'll need a rock hammer and a safe place to use it on minerals.
A magnifier is also handy, but not required. Carefully break the mineral and observe the shapes and
angles of the pieces. It may break in sheets (one cleavage), splinters or prisms (two cleavages), cubes or
rhombs (three cleavages) or something else.

Step 8: Magnetism
Magnetism is a distinctive property in a few minerals. Magnetite is the prime example, but a few other
minerals may be weakly attracted by a magnet, notably chromite (a black oxide) and pyrrhotite (a bronze
sulfide). Use a strong magnet. The magnets I use came from the corners of an old plastic shower curtain.
Another way to test magnetism is to see if the specimen attracts a compass needle.

Step 9: Other Mineral Properties

Taste is definitive for halite ( rock salt ), of course, but a few other evaporite minerals also have
distinctive tastes. Just touch your tongue to a fresh face of the mineral and be ready to spit—after all it's
called taste, not flavor. Don't worry about taste if you don't live in an area with these minerals.

Fizz means the effervescent reaction of certain carbonate minerals to the acid test. For this test, vinegar
will do.
Heft is how heavy a mineral feels in the hand, an informal sense of density. Most minerals are about three
times as dense as water, that is, they have a specific gravity of about 3. Make note of a mineral that is
noticeably light or heavy for its size. Galena, on the right, is distinctly heavy. Sulfides and oxides tend to
be dense.
Step 10: Look It Up

Now you are ready for mineral identification. Once you have observed and noted these mineral
properties, you can take your information to a book or to an online resource. Start with my table of
the rock-forming minerals, because these are the most common and the ones you should learn first.

Each mineral's name is linked to a good photograph and notes to help you confirm the identification. If
your mineral has metallic luster, go to my Minerals with Metallic Luster gallery to see the most likely
minerals in this group. If your mineral is not one of these, try the sources in the Mineral Identification
Guides category.

Fossils and Their Environments

Fossils 10:01 PM

Fossils are the remains or traces of once living organisms. Our introduction to paleontology (the study of
fossils), will be limited to those forms that are commonly preserved and geologically useful.

For Historical Geology purposes, we will be concerned with two aspects of paleontology:
(1) fossils as indicators of relative age (using the Principle of Floral and Faunal Succession. fossils as
indicators of environment. All organisms are dependent on their environments for survival. Some
organisms, however, can survive only in restricted environments.

Consequently, we can apply the principle of uniformitarianism to fossils to interpret the environment in
which they lived. Modern fish, for example, tend to live in water. Ancient fish, then, probably lived in
water as well. We will divide the environments into two basic categories-- the terrestrial (land-based)
environment, and the marine (ocean) environment. Because marine fossils are most commonly preserved,
the marine environments are shown in figure1.

Shallow marine bottom-dwelling organisms such as corals represent the benthic environment. Similarly,
some species of fish indicate the neritic environment (the shallow seas covering the continental shelves).
Other organisms such as radiolarians and some diatoms are characteristic of the oceanic or deep ocean
environment. Still other organisms inhabit the ocean in both the neritic and oceanic areas and simply
suggest a pelagic environment.

Marine fossils can be further described in terms of their life habits. These habits are shown in Figure
A2. Corals, for example tend to be attached to the bottom and are thus referred to as benthic (bottom
dwelling) sessile (fixed). Lobsters, however, move along the ocean bottom and although still benthic, are
also considered vagrant. Swimming and floating organisms are referred to as nektonic and planktonic,
respectively. In our example above, some fish might represent the nektonic pelagic environment.

Isotopes as tracers of magmatic sources

Magma, volcano 7:34 PM
 I. Rb-Sr isotopes and evolution in course of time
A. Basic equation of the Rb-Sr system
The Rb-Sr (and Sm-Nd) system is somehow more complicated than the U-Pb (on zircon) system, because
real rocks and minerals always contain some of the daughter nuclide (D, 87Sr in this case). This problem is
overcome by the use of the “isochron” technique that involves the non-radiogenic isotope of Sr, 86Sr (see
G214).

87Rb
→ 87Sr (l= 1.42 10-11 yr-1)

86Sr is stable.

Establish the basic isochron equation, which is a relation between 87Sr/86Sr, (87Sr/86Sr)0 and 87Rb/86Sr – in
yesterday’s notation, it’s a relation involving N, D and D0.

This equation can be used in several ways:

- By building an isochron diagram (as you did last year in G214), i.e. 87Sr/86Sr = f (87Rb/86Sr). In this
diagram, a suite of cogenetic samples plot along a line, whose slope is a function of the time.

- By building “isotopic evolution diagrams”, 87Sr/86Sr = f(t). In this diagram, a sample evolves along a line
of slope = 87Rb/86Sr.
B. Using isotopic evolution diagrams
1. Forward evolution
The primitive mantle has the following isotopic characteristics: its 87Rb/86Sr ratio is 0.027, and its original
(at T=4.5 Ga) 87Sr/86Sr value was 0.699.

Draw the line of evolution of this mantle (“CHondritic Uniform Mantle”, or CHUR) from past to present.

At time T = 3.65 Ga (that’s yesterday’s sample…), the mantle melted and produced a magma which
eventually cooled into a rock of 87Rb/86Sr = 0.15.

Draw its line of evolution. What is the present-day 87Sr/86Sr of this sample?

Now consider a sediment formed at 3.2 Ga from this rock, with a 87Rb/86Sr of 0.25.

Draw its line of evolution.

2. From present to past

Now plot on your previous diagram a granitic sample with present-day values as follows, and draw its
evolution line back into the past.

87Rb/86Sr 87Sr/86Sr

0.35 0.7145

This rock formed at 2.0 Ga.

 1. What was its 87Sr/86Sr at this time? (i.e., original Sr value).
2. Among the 3 rocks plotted above, what is its most likely source (i.e., the rock that melted to form
the granitic magma)
3. If that rock was a pure product from the mantle, what would be its age?

This “pseudo-age” is often referred to as a “TCHUR”.

Note that, as rock “evolves” by successive melting or erosion event, they “move” to higher 87Rb/86Sr
ratios – i.e. to rock that are richer in Rb. This is because Rb is, in general, a more incompatible elements
than Sr and therefore it is more readily concentrated in the melts.

II. Various isotopic tracers

A. Sm-Nd system
The isochron method (and, consequently, the use of initial ratios) can be used for many other systems, e.g.

147Sm
→ 143Nd (l= 6.54 10-12 yr-1)

144
Nd is stable; the ratio 143Nd/144Nd can be used to interpret rock sources.

This ratio has a very restricted range of variation; therefore, the “e” notation is commonly used. It works
just like the d for O isotopes (G214), by calculating the deviation from a standard, except that an e unit is
10-4, whereas a d unit is 10-3 difference with the standard. The standard for Nd isotopes is commonly the
“CHUR”, or CHondritic Uniform Reservoir:

Typical variations for eNd are between -10 and +10.

Note that, for Sm-Nd system, more “evolved” rocks have lower 147Sm/144Nd values than more “primitive”
rocks: in other terms, they evolve “under” the CHUR line instead of above as previously.

1. Plot a (quantitative) Sm-Nd evolution diagram for the mantle, and for a more evolved sample (as
we did above).
2. Indicate on the graph what eNd represents.
B. Pb isotopic systems
238U → (…) → 206Pb (l = 1.5512 10-10 yr-1)

235U → (…) → 207Pb (l = 9.8485 10-10 yr-1)

(yes, the same systems we looked at yesterday –but they’re not used in the same way here ! And yes, it is
possible to get isochron ages from any of the two systems, without needing the Concordia method).

204Pb
is stable in both case; 206Pb/204Pb and 207Pb/204Pb are therefore used as tracers.

232Th
→ (…) → 208Pb (l = 4.4975 10-11 yr-1)

204Pb is stable again; 208Pb/204Pb is yet another tracer.

C. Other systems

176Lu
→176Hf (l = 1.94 10-11 yr-1)

(178Hf stable, 176Hf/178Hf or eHf)

D. Isotopic characteristic of Earth’s reservoirs

Empirically determined. Different part of the Earth appear to have different characteristics. Two example:
 - Mantle/crust difference. Clearly seen using Sr-Nd diagrams.

- Differences within the mantle itself, reflected in the chemistry of erupted lava. Mostly seen with the
various Pb isotopes. It appears that there is a geographic logic behind this (why??)

Read also:

Radioactivity in minerals are caused by the inclusion of naturally-occurring radioactive

elements in the mineral's composition. The degree of radioactivity is dependent on the
concentration and isotope present in the mineral. For the most part, minerals that contain
potassium (K), uranium (U), and thorium (Th) are radioactive. This table lists all of the naturally-
occurring radioactive isotopes.

Mineral radioactivity is due to alpha, beta, and gamma radiation from the unstable
isotopes in the composition. Alpha decay is due to the ejection of a helium nucleus (2 protons and
2 neutrons) from the parent isotope. This alpha particle is accompanied by gamma radiation and a
daughter isotope which is two protons and two neutrons lighter than the parent isotope. Beta
decay is due to the ejection of an electron from a neutron in the parent nucleus. This particle is
accompanied by gamma radiation and a daughter isotope which is one proton heavier and one
neutron lighter than the parent isotope. Electron Capture (EC) decay is very rare and is the result
of the nucleus capturing one of the atom's orbital electrons. This decay is accompanied by gamma
radiation and a daughter isotope which is one neutron heavier and one proton lighter than the
parent isotope.

Of the three main types of radioactive decay, gamma

radiation causes the most damage because it has a greater effect on biological materials
and is neutralized only by heavy shielding. The next most damaging type of radiation is
beta particles which is absorbed by a few feet of air. The least damaging is alpha particles
which has a range of 6 inches or less in air.