Three Day Course 1 A

Carbonate Petrophysics
30 pu Limestone High Permeability Grainstone:

Courtesy of F. Jerry Lucia Petrophysical and Geomechanical
Rudhist: Middle East Well Issues in Carbonate Oilfields.
Evaluation Review# 15, 1994 Austin Boyd, Schlumberger
R. E. (Gene) Ballay, PhD
Copyright Notice
•The information in this presentation is copyrighted by Robert E Ballay, LLC.

•Reproduction in any form without permission is prohibited.
•To request permission to reuse any of the material herein please contact
Gene.Ballay@GMail.Com / (417) 678-7604.
•Normally, reproduction with attribution will not be an issue and permission will
be granted.
•Some of the material in this presentation draws upon the work of others. In this
case, whether copyrighted or not, the original author / source should also be
credited.
1
ABOUT THE COURSE Ozark Mtns Road Cut, SW Missouri
•Carbonate petrophysics begins with a
contrast of carbonates and sandstones,
followed by reservoir classification
according to the Lucia Petrophysical
Classification System and capillary pressure.
•Individual logging tools (both routine and
specialty) are introduced and carbonate
responses illustrated with actual data.
•Archie’s exponents are discussed with both
his original measurements, and carbonate
specific measurements.
•The concept of bulk volume water is
introduced within the context of a Pickett
Plot, and then related to Nuclear Magnetic
Resonance and the combination of pore size
and irreducible water saturation.
•Basic NMR, and carbonate specific NMR
issues are introduced with laboratory
measurements, numerical simulations and
actual wireline data.
•In addition to NMR and other non-Archie
approaches, the course will address
laboratory determination of mineralogy
(XRD/XRD/etc), porosity and CT Scan
visualization, which play important
supporting roles in carbonate evaluation.
© 2006 Robert E Ballay, LLC
Carbonate Bluffs along Steel Creek, NW Arkansas
COURSE OVERVIEW
•This three-day course is application-oriented, and designed for Petrophysicists, Engineers, Geologists and
Team Leaders who are comfortable with integrated geology / routine & special core / log interpretation
and require an understanding of the complexities of open-hole carbonate log analysis.
2
Ozark Mtns Road Cut, SW Missouri
YOU WILL LEARN TO

•Recognize the key distinctions between carbonates and sandstones within the context of modern wireline
measurements, and draw upon the strengths of specific tools / techniques to design a cross-discipline
formation evaluation program that will best characterize a specific reservoir. © 2006 Robert E Ballay, LLC
CARBONATE PETROPHYSICS
•Gus Archie introduced the world to the term ‘petrophysics’ in 1950. This
fundamental vision was followed by a carbonate classification system in 1952 in which
he commented
•in discussing the petrophysics of limestones, it is necessary to first classify
them,
•the field application of petrophysical relationships in limestone can be much
more difficult than in sandstone, because of variations in pore size
distribution.
•This course begins with a brief contrast of sandstone and carbonate depositional
environments, diagenesis and routine log signatures.
•Basic capillary pressure techniques are then introduced, thereby setting the stage for
the Lucia Petrophysical Classification.
3
•The Lucia System recognizes that if one is to characterize the relationship between
rock fabric and petrophysical parameters, then the pore space must be classified as it
exists today, in terms of petrophysical properties.
•The focus is then on petrophysical properties and not genesis. Key issues are
•interparticle vs vuggy porosity, and
•separate vs touching vugs.
•In addition to porosity (magnitude) determination, one should thus also consider pore
size and pore type.
•Routine porosity tools (density, neutron and sonic) are introduced, and then contrasted
as a means of achieving this objective.
•With an understanding of pore size and pore type, the Course moves to the issue of
water saturation: Archie’s exponents (m & n), how various carbonate attributes
impact the exponent value and how the “m” exponent can be estimated with historical
(density-neutron-sonic) tools.
•In the years since Archie’s ground-breaking work, a number of so-called non-Archie
approaches have developed, with NMR being one of several possible (pulsed neutron,
dielectric, etc) examples.
•Basic NMR is followed by Carbonate NMR and a laboratory-based review of two key
carbonate NMR limitations:
•pore size coupling and
•vuggy porosity of sufficient size that bulk relaxation (in contrast to surface
relaxation) becomes an issue.
•Laboratory determination of mineralogy (XRD/XRD/etc), porosity and CT Scan,
which play important supporting roles in carbonate evaluation, are also discussed.
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Day 1
Start Stop Duration Topic Carbonate Petrophysics
800 830 30 Course Introduction & Overview
830 845 15 Carbonate vs Sandstone
845 915 30 Capillary Pressure (+ Exercise)
915 930 15 Break
930 1030 60 Lucia PP Classification (+ Exercise)
1030 1045 15 Break
1045 1115 30 Routine Sonic in Carbonate (+ Exercise)
1115 1230 75 Lunch
1230 1300 30 Density & Neutron in Carbonate (+ Exercise)
1300 1400 60 Identification of Vuggy Porosity
1400 1415 15 Break
1415 1430 15 Light Hydrocarbon Issues (Wireline & LWD)
1430 1530 60 Specialty Sonic Applications
1530 1545 15 Break
1545 1630 45 Rock Quality & Cutoffs
1630 1645 15 Resistivity Measurements
1645 1700 15 Summary
Day 2
Start Stop Duration Topic
800 900 60 Archie’s “m” Exponent (+ Exercise)
900 915 15 Break
915 1000 45 Cement Exponent Variations and Pore Geometry
1000 1030 30 "m" Estimates From Vuggy Porosity Ratio
1030 1045 15 Break
1045 1115 30 "m" Estimates From Vuggy Porosity Ratio
1115 1230 75 Lunch
1230 1300 30 Archie’s “n” Exponent (+ Exercise)
1300 1330 30 Low Resistivity Pay in Carbonates
1330 1345 15 Break
1345 1430 45 Pickett Plot
1430 1515 45 The Non-Archie Toolbox & Fresh Water Challenge
1515 1530 15 Break
1530 1645 75 Basic NMR (+ Exercise)
1645 1700 15 Summary
© 2006 Robert E Ballay, LLC The Devil’s Promenade, SW Missouri
Day 3
Start Stop Duration Topic
800 915 75 Carbonate NMR (+ Exercise)
915 930 15 Break
930 1000 30 Core Calibrated Wireline "m" Estimates
1000 1030 30 Dielectric Log
1030 1045 15 Break
1045 1100 15 Wireline "m" Estimates Compared to Core
1100 1115 15 PNL
1115 1230 75 Lunch
1230 1315 45 PNL
1315 1400 45 Pressure Profiles
1400 1415 15 Break
1415 1500 45 Image Logs (+ Exercise)
1500 1530 30 CT Scan
1530 1545 15 Break
1545 1615 30 XRD/XRF/Mineralogy
1615 1630 15 Porosity & Grain Density from Routine Core
1630 1645 15 Jerry Lucia: Here is how it works
1645 1700 15 Summary
Whispering Dell is one of seven sink holes at Ha Ha Tonka (SW

Missouri) formed by the ceiling collapse of a large cave. The full
page view is of the sink hole from the ridge above, and the insert
shows the spring outlet (49 million gallons per day).
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Lucia Petrophysical Classification
Petrophysical Classification of Carbonate for Reservoir Characterization
Cementation Exponent Variations & Pore Geometry

Focke & Munn's classic work
Cementation Exponent ranges from 2 => 5, dependant upon Vuggy / Total Porosity Ratio
Laboratory data interpreted within context of pore geometry illustrations
Carbonate NMR
E. Toumelin, C. Torres-Verdín, S. Chen, and D. M. Fischer
Reconciling NMR Measurements and Numerical Simulations: Temperature & Diffusive Coupling
E. Toumelin, C. Torres-Verdín and S. Chen
Modeling of Multiple Echo-Time NMR Measurements for Complex Pore Geometries
J. O. Parra, C. L. Hackert, H.A. Collier and M. Bennet
NMR and Acoustic Signatures in Vuggy Carbonate
C. L. Hackert and J. O. Parra
Simulating NMR Magnetization Diffusion in a Real Carbonate Pore System
Vuggy Porosity Techniques

Wang & Lucia's classic review, including theory and application to actual data
Estimation of Vuggy Porosity Fraction
Secondary Porosity Index (Generalized, Sonic vs Total Porosity)
Nurmi's Model (Originally developed for oomoldic grainstones in the Smackover)
Quadratic Model (Combination of SPI & Nurmi)
Power Law (Combination of SPI & Nurmi)
Estimation of Cementation Exponent
Lucia Model
Nugent Model
Asquith Model
Pickett Plot
PP linked to grids of BVW=Constant as lead-in to NMR
G R Pickett "A Review of Techniques for Water Saturation from Logs
Roberto Aguilera , Incorporating … and Winland r35 values on Pickett plots
www.spec2000.net/index.htm
www.kgs.ku.edu/Gemini
Color Coded to Daily Schedule (preceding)
Slide Count
Additional Material Total Carbonate Petrophysics 3204
Introduction
5 Day Course Manual Content 48
•For those who may be Carbonate vs Sandstone 25
interested, the Manual for the Thin Sections 20
Lucia Petrophysical Classification 112
Five Day Course is available Capillary Pressure 67
for the cost of printing / CT-Scan 37
shipping, and can serve as a Spontaneous Potential Log 16
Gamma Ray Log 78
supplement to the Three Day Sonic Log 69
Course Material Bulk Density Log 121
Neutron Log 90
MultiMineral Porosity Crossplots 58
Specialty Sonic 73
Porosity Log QC & Normalization 13
Porosity – Mineralogy from Core Data 22
Laboratory Mineralogy (XRD, XRF, etc) 41
Laboratory Evaluation of Cuttings 79
Permeability from Core Data 10
Resistivity from Logs 48
Archie 'm' Exponent 62
Archie 'n' Exponent 44
Quick Look Techniques 24
Pickett Plot 86
Pulsed Neutron Log 96
Log-inject-log with Pulsed Neutron Logging 35
Nuclear Magnetic Resonance-Basic 113
Nuclear Magnetic Resonance-Carbonate 115
Dielectric Tools 96
Image Logs 73
Borehole Gravity Meter 38
© 2006 Robert E Ballay, LLC Pressure Profiles - Continued Following Page - 45
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Additional Material Carbonate Petrophysics
5 Day Course Manual Content
•For those who may be - Continued From Preceding Page -
interested, the Manual for the Field Determination of Archie Exponents 40
Five Day Course is available Primary vs Vuggy / Fractured Porosity 86
for the cost of printing / Light Hydrocarbon Effects 93
Comparison of Vuggy Porosity Evaluation Techniques 335
shipping, and can serve as a Rock Quality and Cutoffs 122
supplement to the Three Day Quick Look Case Histories
Course Material Arabia 34
Iran 14
Field Studies
Madden Deep Field, Madison Formation, Wind River Basin 55
Cabin Creek Field, Red River Formation, Williston Basin 47
Jay Field, Smackover Formation, Gulf Coast Basin 49
Weyburn Field, Mission Canyon Formation, Williston Basin 124
Middle East Carbonate Cementation Exponents 126
Linear Correlation 63
Summary 25
Appendix
Formation Evaluation: Carbonate vs Sandstone 19
Up vs Down: Pipe-conveyed (Carbonate) Wireline Data QC 14
Capillary Pressure in the Ghawar Arab D Carbonate 6
Azimuthal Density Images (Carbonate Application) 15
Multi-dimensional Petrophysics (Carbonate Application) 11
Carbonate Depositional Settings (with animations) 72
The Gasconade, Gunter, and Eminence are exposed at the

Natural Bridge. The Gasconade dolomite is the uppermost
layer, the Gunter sandstone is in the middle, and the Eminence
dolomite is the lowest layer. Ha Ha Tonka, SW Missouri
• Sandstone - Diagenesis typically limited to compaction and cementation

• Carbonate - Diagenesis includes cementation, compaction, dolomitization, and dissolution
The Natural Bridge (from distance, see the light in the background) and then up close,
looking ‘under the bridge’ into the sink hole beyond
7
8
•The carbonate reservoirs of the Middle East are characterized by mixed

wettabilities: micro-pores are water-wet and filled with irreducible
water, while macro-pores contain oil and may be oil wet.
•The microporosity systems often dominate resistivity measurements

from logs, giving apparent saturation calculations which are
inconsistent with production data: dry oil from a zone with computed
Sw greater than 70% ……..
Middle East Well Evaluation Review: No 17, 1996
•Carbonate reservoirs pose unique problems for exploration and

production because of their complex variations in lithology and
diagenetic history.
•Small-scale depositional cycles are regarded as the primary flow unit in

many carbonate reservoirs. Diagenetic reorganization of pore systems in
many cases crosscuts the stratigraphic boundaries between small-scale
cycles, requiring an integrated stratigraphic and diagenetic reservoir
model
Westphal, Eberli, et al
Reservoir Characterization of the Madison Formation, AAPG Bulletin, v. 88, no. 4 (April 2004), pp. 405–432
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• Objective (condensed into three days)
• Develop individual carbonate petrophysics tools
• Concepts (the science behind the tool)
• Operational details (how is the actual measurement performed)
• Example applications (how is the data used)
• Plant a picture in our mind
• Key rock attributes and how they affect log response
• Petrophysics is not numbers game
• Integrate all information
• Wireline & MWD/LWD data
• Accessory (visual descriptions, core analyses, etc) data
• Objective
• Integrate the use of individual carbonate petrophysics tools
• Across disciplines
• Borehole measurements
• Core observations and measurements
• Across scales
• Small (thin section, core plug)
• Medium (continuous core descriptions)
• Large (typical wireline tool)
• Across timeframes
• Quick-look, well site analyses
• Multi-well field studies
• Time-lapse surveillance
10
• Objective
• Integrate across discipline and scale and timeframes
• Wireline (and/or LWD / MWD) measurements are typically the basis for
field development and depletion
• Integrated and calibrated interpretation
Reservoir
Produced
Wellbore trajectory and Depositional
fluid
reservoir boundaries Environment
properties
and
and rates:
subsequent
both oil and
diagenesis
water
Basic Wireline Data

Time-lapse reservoir Visual Core
monitoring by wireline Descriptions
tools
Routine Core Data Wellbore Images:

Special Core Data Rock character and
reservoir geometry
Gene Ballay, Multidimensional Petrophysics, Saudi Aramco Journal of Technology
• Reservoir Description – Characterization can be thought of as

occurring at three levels
• High resolution
• Thin sections - core plugs - whole core
• Medium resolution
• Near well-bore (wireline, LWD/MWD)
• Three-dimensional reservoir modeling
• Large scale geological models, possibly with seismic
• This Course will focus on the intermediate level
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• Objective
• Integrate across discipline and scale
• Wireline and LWD / MWD measurements provide near-wellbore attributes
• BHGM ‘sees’ beyond the near wellbore; may be required in special cases
• If the initial well is not successful, what shall be done?
•BHGM may also be Borehole Gravity Meter
appropriate when reservoir • Deep Investigating Bulk Density Measurement
• Detection achieved by comparing ρ b (BHGM) and ρ b (Wireline)
heterogeneity raises the • In flat uniform geology, ρb (BHGM) = ρb (Wireline)
possibility of differing rock • Off-setting reef will result in differences
quality beyond the depth of • Well ~ 50 feet to the left of tight reef
investigation of routine
wireline tools Bossier Shale
Red BHGM
density is higher
than the blue
wireline density
because the reef
has a higher
density than the
shale. Haynesville
Limestone
Courtesy of EDCON
Carbonate Petrophysics Middle East Carbonate

Core vs Log
• Objective
• Integrate across
discipline and scale
• Wireline and LWD / MWD
measurements are typically
the basis for field
development and depletion
• Core measurements provide
an important reference
• Integrated and calibrated
interpretation
Gene Ballay, Multidimensional Petrophysics,

Saudi Aramco Journal of Technology
12
• Objective
• Routine Core Porosity Laboratory Mineralogy
• Routine Core Grain
Density
•Wireline results • Wireline Calculations • φ(core) and ρg(core) allow cross-check on visual core
compared descriptions and wireline mineralogy
(porosity and Visual Core Mineralogy
mineralogy) to Depth - Rhog(Core) - Anhy - Dol - Lime
visual visual core
descriptions and
routine core
analyses
• Objective
• Specific laboratory
mineralogy techniques
can (and should) also
be integrated as
appropriate
• Each has advantages
and disadvantages
(*) For details on this method, consult Hugh de Souza,

SGS Lakefield Research - Hugh.DeSouza@sgs.com
and/or visit their www site at
http://www.sgslakefield.com/index.html
13
• Objective
• Mineral vs
elemental
identification
• Each method has
advantages and
disadvantages
(*) For details on these methods, consult Hugh de Souza, SGS

Lakefield Research - Hugh.DeSouza@sgs.com
and/or visit their www site at
http://www.sgslakefield.com/index.html
• Objective
• Integrate across discipline and
scale
• Wireline and LWD / MWD
measurements typically the
basis for field development and
depletion
• Integrated and calibrated
interpretation
• Alert for differences that will
impact the interpretation
• Upper sample has φ ~ 25, k ~ 5

• Lower sample has φ ~ 9, k ~ 7
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• Objective
Smpl Total Svug Interpart. Rock Fabric Petro Perm.
Lucia Petrophysical No. Phi
(%)
Phi
(%)
Phi
(%)
Description Class Value
(md)
Classification 4 25 16 9 Grainstone 1 5
• m ~ 2 for interparticle
porosity
• m ~ 3 for porosity that is
60% vuggy
Smpl Total Svug Interpart. Rock Fabric Petro Perm.

No. Phi Phi Phi Description Class Value
(%) (%) (%) (md)
5 9 0 9 Dolograinstone 1 7.3
• Objective
• Alert for differences that will impact the interpretation
Rock-Fabric/Petrophysical Classification of Carbonate

Pore Space for Reservoir Characterization
F. Jerry Lucia
AAPG Bulle tin, V. 79, No. 9 (September 1995), P. 1275–1300
The foundation of the Lucia petrophysical classification is the concept

that pore-size distribution controls permeability and saturation and that
pore-size distribution is related to rock fabric
The focus of this classification is on petrophysical properties rather than

genesis
To determine the relationships between rock fabric and petrophysical

parameters, one must define and classify pore space as it exists today in
terms of petrophysical properties
15
• Objective
• Across timeframes
• Quick-look
• Sw from Rdeep - Rxo Ratio
• Sw8/5 = ( Rw / Rmf ) * ( Rxo / Rdeep )
• Versus single-well computer
interpretations
• Versus multi-well field studies
• Versus time-lapse
Schlumberger Arabia Well Evaluation Conference - 1975
• Petrophysics is not
• Core (rock composition and quality) descriptions
• Core (routine and special) analyses
• Log analyses for Φ and Sw determination
• Log analysis for geologic applications
• Core calibrated log analysis
• Petrophysics is the integrated use of all the above, in concert with
drawing upon the expertise of colleagues whose skills complement your
own
• This Course presents you with an opportunity to establish personal
contact with professionals whose skills complement your own - take
advantage of that opportunity
16
This Course presents you with an opportunity to establish personal

contact with professionals whose skills complement your own
Take advantage of that opportunity - Mix with colleagues
Ice Breaker
Objective : Establish Rapport
Vehicle : Humor
Vehicle : Personal Introductions
Never buy a car you can't push
Never put both feet in your mouth at the same time

because then you don't have a leg to stand on
When everything's coming your way

you're in the wrong lane
17
Ice Breaker
Objective : Establish Rapport
Vehicle : Personal Introductions
Please Introduce Yourself
• What discipline do you work in?

• What do you expect to get from this Course?
• Do you prefer to work exercises in class, or review independently, as
time permits?
There are typically a wide range of backgrounds in each class
Tailor the presentation level / speed so that everyone gets something
If presentation moving too fast or slow, discuss with me

If you have trouble with any of the exercises, come to me right away
We can discuss individually, before / after class
Accommodate the majority, but not sacrifice the minority
Please, please come to me if there is a problem
18
Carbonate Petrophysics is a ‘living’ entity and constantly evolving
Alternative views and / or additional concepts are of interest
But Please
Let us vary from the primary agenda during breaks or after-hours

just when you thought you understood things ….
• Middle East Carbonate (In the Driver’s Seat with LWD Azimuthal Density Logs,
Ballay, et al, Saudi Aramco Journal of Technology)
• 120 wells in the field, 50 of which were cored, and a neighbor well drilled just before
this - no one expected, nor could initially explain, the loss of reservoir quality
20 pu
Limestone
11 pu
Limestone
19
None of us know it all, Each of us can learn from another
The learning process never ceases
There is no cookbook
Your questions or examples are of interest to me....
Gene.Ballay@GMail.Com
Gene_Ballay@Yahoo.Com
please be aware of Attachment File Size Limits
CD delivery of larger files would be appreciated
20
Examples have been deliberately drawn from a variety of sources
There is no intent to favor a particular Service Company
Material has been drawn from a variety of Professional Societies
Everyone has something to contribute.
Some topics are rapidly evolving and we can only address basic issues
Specialty Courses are appropriate for an in-depth review
Please provide your examples so they can be covered as well
• Recognition (alphabetical) of material used in the Course
• My apologies if I’ve omitted anyone - Please bring it to my attention
• Additional material being reviewed and will be credited as it is incorporated
• Aguilera, Roberto - Servipetrol
• Allen, David - Schlumberger
• Baker WWW
• Balliet, Ron - Halliburton
• Black, Andy - Edcon Gravity and Magnetics
• Blum, Michael - Baker Atlas
• Bona, Nicola - AGIP
• Chen, Songhua, Baker Atlas
• Chitale, Vivek - Halliburton
• Clerke, Ed - Saudi Aramco
• Cox, Roy - Consultant
• Crain, Ross - Consultant
21
• Dennis, Bob - Schlumberger
• DeSouza, Hugh - SGS Lakefield Research
• Diederix, Michael - Shell
• Doveton, John - Kansas Geological Survey
• Eberli, Gregor - University of Miami
• Edwards, Carl, Baker Atlas
• Ehrenberg, Steve - Statoil
• Flaum, Charles - Schlumberger
• Funk, Jim - Aramco
• Gelinsky, Stephan - Shell
• Guy, Bill - Kansas Geological Survey
• Halliburton WWW
• Harlo, Carlos - Occidental
• Hartmann, Dan - Consultant
• Heil, Dick - Retired Aramco
• Hess, Lillian - Long Island University
• Kessler, Calvin - Halliburton

• Jones, Pete - Saudi Aramco
• Lacazette, Alfred - NaturalFractures.Com
• Lynn, Jack - Aramco
• Lawrence, Tony - Consultant
• Lucia, Jerry - Bureau of Economic Geology
• McLean, Rick - Consultant
• Moinard, Laurent - Consulant
• Parra, Jorge - Southwest Research Institute
• Piasentin, Angelo - Consultant
• Polkowski, George - Aramco
• Quinn, Terry - INTEQ
• Ramakrishnan, T. S. - Schlumberger
• Rasmus, John - Schlumberger
• Sanders, Lee - Halliburton
• Schlumberger WWW
22
• Siddiqui, Shameem - Texas Tech
• Smart, Chris - British Petroleum
• Strauss, Jonathan - Consultant
• Stromberg, Simon - Reservoir Management Ltd (UK)
• Torres-Verdin, Carlos - University of Texas
• Toumelin, Emmanuel - University of Texas
• Westphal, Hildegard - Erlangen University, Germany
• Zhang, Gigi - Baker Atlas
R. E. (Gene) Ballay’s 30 years in petrophysics include research and operations

assignments in Houston (Shell Research), Texas; Anchorage, Alaska; Dallas (Arco
Research), Texas; Jakarta, Indonesia; Bakersfield, California; and Dhahran, Saudi
Arabia. His carbonate experience ranges from individual Niagaran reefs in Michigan to
the Lisburne in Alaska to Ghawar, Saudi Arabia (the largest oilfield in the world).
He holds a PhD in Theoretical Physics with double minors in Electrical Engineering /
Mathematics, has taught physics in two universities, mentored Nationals in Indonesia
and Saudi Arabia, published numerous technical articles and been designated co-
inventor on both American and European patents.
At retirement from the Saudi Arabian Oil Company he was the senior technical
petrophysicist in the Reservoir Description Division and had represented petrophysics
in three multi-discipline teams bringing on-line three (one clastic, two carbonate) multi-
billion barrel increments. Subsequent to retirement from Saudi Aramco he established
Robert E Ballay LLC, which provides physics - petrophysics consulting services.
He served in the U.S. Army as a Microwave Repairman and in the U.S. Navy as an
Electronics Technician, and he is a USPA Parachutist and a PADI Dive Master.
23
24
Carbonate versus Sandstone
© 2004 Robert E Ballay, And

LLC I’m tellin’ you Mabel,
I’ve done a hundred carbonate wells
and I know what I’m doin’.
The Test must’a been botched
Oil Field Retirement Home (for those who thought they knew it all)

• Sandstone - A clastic sedimentary rock of predominantly quartz,
although sandstones often contain feldspar, mica and numerous
additional mineral grains, held together with silica or another type of
cement.
• Clastic - Sediment consisting of broken fragments derived from
preexisting rocks, transported elsewhere, and re-deposited, before
forming another rock.
Courtesy of Schlumberger
25
• Sandstone - Clastic sedimentary rock ……..
• Quartz [ SiO2 ], often associated with clay minerals
• Carbonate - Can be clastic in origin, but more commonly formed
through processes of precipitation or the activity of organisms such as
coral and algae.
• Calcite : [ CaCO3 ] <=> Dolomite : [ CaMg(CO3)2 ]
• Often associated with evaporite minerals (halite, anhydrite,
gypsum)
Courtesy of F Jerry Lucia, Bureau of Economic Geology, UT
•Even though carbonates are typically ‘formed in place’, ‘bedding’

remains an important concept
•In a recent Middle East Topical Conference the five most common
causes of Low Resistivity Pay in Carbonates were ranked as (most Î
least common):
• Dual porosity system (dispersed large and small pores) with the small pores being
water filled while the larger pores are hydrocarbon charged
• Layered formation, in which the large (grainstone, etc) and small (micrite, etc)
pore size rock is laminated
• Fractures, which may be oil-filled and present in a (small pore) water filled matrix
• Conductive minerals (rare)
• Incorrect Rt (excessive invasion, etc) measurement (rare)
Chris Smart, British Petroleum, Personal Communication (2005)
26
• Sandstone - Diagenesis typically limited to compaction and
cementation
• Carbonate - Diagenesis includes cementation, compaction,
dolomitization and dissolution
Courtesy of F Jerry Lucia, Bureau of Economic Geology, UT
Karst Topography - the reason Missouri has so many caves
27
• Carbonate - Diagenesis includes ……… dissolution
• Surface example of
how carbonate reservoir
rock can be modified.
• One key distinction
between sand and
carbonate is that of clay
effects versus pore size
distribution
Eureka Springs, Arkansas

• Natural gamma ray activity arises from three sources: 40K and
daughter products of 232Th and 238U
• 40Potassium decays with the
emission of a 1.46 MeV GR at a half-
life of 1.3 * 109 years, leaving stable
isotope of argon.
•Potassium occurs in illite, alkali
feldspars, micas and some evaporite
minerals. It can also be present in
drilling mud
• 232Thorium decays with a half-life
of 1.4 * 1010 years through a series of
daughter products to a stable isotope
of lead.
•Thorium-bearing minerals are rare and are generally associated with clays and
heavy minerals. It is relatively immobile so that quantities measured today were
probably present at the time of deposition
28
• Natural gamma ray activity arises from three sources: 40K and
daughter products of 232Th and 238U
• 238Uranium decays with a half-life of 4.4 * 109 years through a series
of daughters, resulting in a stable isotope of lead.
• Uranium-bearing minerals are rare but soluble, transported easily
and can be precipitated far from their source. They are frequently
found in carbonates and organic materials.
Carbonate versus Sandstone •Limestone generally clean, throughout

•LS GR activity was essentially all
• Trend parallel to LS line, but offset uranium
• Pef is qualitative, not quantitative •Dolomite is higher non-uranium GR
• Higher GR corresponds to better quality activity
limestone and increase in dolomitization •Did dolomitization occur in rock
• Black points are invalid data (ie ignore) which was depositionally different?
Uranium
has been
removed!
29
• In the clastic world, GR activity is often (but not always) a result of
clay, and therefore indicative of a decrease in rock quality
• In carbonates it’s not uncommon to find the GR being driven by
uranium, in a fashion that is not necessarily indicative of rock quality
• The presence of uranium, and the associated higher GR, can signal
stylolites, fractures, super-perm and / or general increases or decreases
in quality and / or mineralogy
• One key distinction between sand and carbonate is then the utility and
meaning (or lack thereof) of SP and GR responses
• Review Spectral Gamma Ray Exercise as time permits
• Sandstone porosity is normally thought of as consisting of Total and

Effective, with the two being related by (or something similar)
Phi(Effective) = Phi(Total) – V(Shale) * Phi(Shale)
• The porosity difference is clay-bound water, which will appear as ‘porosity’ to
the logging tools. Since this ‘water’ is in fact immobile, not to be displaced by
hydrocarbon, the associated pore volume is referred to as ineffective.
• Carbonate porosity determination, as contrasted to sandstone, is a
completely different issue. Now one is faced with Interparticle
(intergrain and intercrystal), and Vuggy porosity.
• Vuggy porosity is everything that is not interparticle, and includes vugs, molds
and fractures. Vugs are divided into separate and touching.
30
• Carbonate reservoirs have lower values of median and maximum
porosity for a given burial depth, probably because of greater chemical
reactivity of carbonate minerals relative to quartz and the resulting
lower resistance to chemical compaction and associated cementation
• Overall, carbonate reservoirs (chalk excluded) do not have lower
permeability for a given porosity compared with sandstones but do have
strikingly lower proportions of both high-porosity and high-
permeability values.
S. N. Ehrenberg and P. H. Nadeau, Sandstone vs. carbonate petroleum reservoirs: A global perspective on porosity-depth
and porosity-permeability relationships. AAPG Bulletin, v. 89, no. 4 (April 2005), pp. 435–445

• In light of the preceding differences in
sandstone and carbonate it is perhaps
surprising that water saturation can
(often) be successfully estimated with the
same equation and similar parameters
• The cementation exponent reflects the
tortuosity of the ionic electrical flow
through brine saturated rock.
• In the case of ‘clean’ sand or
‘intercrystalline / interparticle
carbonates’ an ‘m’ ~ 2.0 is common
1) G E Archie: Electrical Resistivity as an Aid in Core Analysis

Interpretation, AAPG Bulletin 31 (1947): 350-366
2) Schlumberger Technical Review, Volume 36 Number 3
31
1) G E Archie: Electrical Resistivity as an Aid in Core Analysis Interpretation, AAPG Bulletin

31 (1947): 350-366. 2) Schlumberger Technical Review, Volume 36 Number 3
• Archie further observed that the correlation between FF and

permeability was weaker than that of FF and porosity, which suggested
to him that air permeability and ionic (resistivity) flow were ‘different’.
• Vuggy pore space

presents a more tortuous
path, and requires a larger
exponent
porosity
• m ~ 3 for porosity that is 60%
vuggy
• In many regards, a key distinction between sand and carbonate is then

one of accounting for clay conductivity ‘short circuits’ versus variations
in pore system tortuosity associated with changes from intercrystalline /
interparticle to vuggy porosity.
F J Lucia: Petrophysical Parameters Estimated from Visual Descriptions of Carbonate Rocks: A Field Classification of
Carbonate Pore Space, Journal of Petroleum Technology 35 (1983): 629 - 637
Schlumberger Technical Review, Volume 36 Number 3
32
• The idea that early petroleum charge should inhibit later porosity loss
by cementation has been much discussed for both sandstones and
carbonates
• For sandstones, compilations of core measurements from at least one
major petroleum province (North Sea) give little support to the practical
significance of porosity preservation by petroleum although local
relationships have been interpreted otherwise
• For carbonates, however, evidence for significantly higher porosity in
oil-filled reservoir volumes appears strong.

• For carbonates, however, evidence for significantly higher porosity in
oil-filled reservoir volumes appears strong.
• This raises a caution flag for use of the water leg to determine Archie
Exponents, etc that will then be used for evaluation of the hydrocarbon
interval
• In some places - the Middle East for example - one must also be alert
for relic oil
33
Public Domain Data Bases
• National Energy Technology Laboratory Public Database

•www.netl.doe.gov/technologies/oil-gas/Software/database.html
• United States Geological Survey Rock Catalogue
• http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2003/ofr-03-420
• Kansas Geological Survey Gemini Rock Catalogue
•www.kgs.ku.edu/Gemini/R1.0/GeminiUserProjectModule.html
• Kansas Geological Survey Abyss Rock Catalogue
• http://abyss.kgs.ku.edu/Gemini/RockCatalog.html
For Analogue And Over-View Studies

Additional Information
• Bureau of Economic Geology, University of Texas

• http://www.beg.utexas.edu/mainweb/techrvw01.htm
• Ross Crain’s On-line Tutorial
• www.spec2000.net/index
• Kansas Geological Survey (John Doveton) Tutorial
• www.kgs.ku.edu/Gemini
34
Dhahran
Saudi Arabia
July 2005
From Security Dept: Just
a reminder that if you
are not cranking your
windows of your car
when you park it in this
weather, you might want
to start doing so.
At lunchtime the car owner went to his truck, to find the whole back window totally
blown out. Not only was the window gone, but the black frame surrounding the back
was ripped away from the car and completely buckled.
35
36
Capillary Pressure
Disorder in the Court
These are from a book called Disorder in the Courts of America, and all are things people actually said in
court, word for word, taken down and now published by court reporters.
ATTORNEY: What is your date of birth?

WITNESS: July 18th.
ATTORNEY: What year?
WITNESS: Every year.
ATTORNEY: What gear were you in at the moment of the impact?

WITNESS: Gucci sweats and Reeboks.
ATTORNEY: This myasthenia gravis, does it affect your memory at all?

WITNESS: Yes.
ATTORNEY: And in what ways does it affect your memory?
WITNESS: I forget.
ATTORNEY: You forget? Can you give us an example of something you forgot?
ATTORNEY: How old is your son, the one living with you?
WITNESS: Thirty-eight or thirty-five, I can't remember which.
ATTORNEY: How long has he lived with you?
WITNESS: Forty-five years.
ATTORNEY: Now doctor, isn't it true that when a person dies in his sleep, he doesn't know about it until the
next morning?
WITNESS: ? Did you actually pass the bar exam?
Capillary Pressure
• Capillary pressure (Pc ) is defined as the difference in pressure
measured across the meniscus in the capillary tube.
• The water in the capillary rises above the original (free) water level
until adhesive and gravitational forces balance
C L Varva, J G Kaldi, R M Sneider, Geological Applications of Capillary Pressure: A Review. AAPG V 76 No 6 (June 1992)
37
Capillary Pressure
• For specific solid / liquid combination, the wetting phase will rise
higher as the capillary tube radius is decreased.
• In a similar manner, lower quality reservoir rock (smaller pores) will
typically have a higher water saturation, at a specific elevation in the
reservoir
Courtesy of Core Labs
Capillary Pressure
• Capillary pressure (Pc ) is the difference in pressure across the
meniscus in the capillary. This pressure is associated with the contrast
in pressure gradients related to the different densities of the non-wetting
(ρnw) and wetting (ρw) phases according to
Pc = (ρw - ρnw) * g * h = ∆ ρ * g * h
ρw - density of the wetting phase

ρnw - density of the non-wetting phase
g - gravitational acceleration
h - height of wetting phase rise in the capillary tube
38
Capillary Pressure
• Alternatively, capillary pressure (Pc ) is the amount of extra pressure
required on the non-wetting phase to displace the wetting phase in the
capillary, according to
Pc = 2 σ cos(θ) / rc
σ - interfacial tension
θ - contact angle between fluids and capillary tube
rc - radius of the capillary tube
Capillary Pressure
• Wettability: The preference of a solid to contact one liquid or gas,
known as the wetting phase, rather than another (the non-wetting
phase).
• The wetting phase will tend to spread on the solid surface and a
porous rock will tend to imbibe the wetting phase, displacing the
non-wetting phase.
• Wettability affects relative permeability, electrical properties,
nuclear magnetic resonance relaxation times, saturation profiles in
the reservoir and water-flooding / aquifer encroachment into a
reservoir.
39
Capillary Pressure
• Wetting vs Non-wetting Fluids : If adhesive forces are greater than the
cohesive forces, the fluid spreads out on the surface and is termed
‘wetting’ (left). If cohesive forces significantly exceed adhesive forces,
the liquid beads up and is termed ‘non-wetting’.
• The measure of relative wettability is the contact angle (θ ), which is
measured through the denser phase.
σ - interfacial tension, θ - contact angle, rc - radius of the capillary tube
Capillary Pressure
• Interfacial Tension : The force acting in the surface of a liquid,
tending to minimize the area of the surface.
• Surface forces, or more generally, interfacial forces, govern such
phenomena as the wetting or non-wetting of solids by liquids, the
capillary rise of liquids in fine tubes and wicks, and the curvature of free-
liquid surfaces. The action of detergents and anti-frothing agents, and
the flotation separation of minerals depend upon the surface tensions
of liquids.
σ - interfacial tension, θ - contact angle, rc - radius of the capillary tube
40
Capillary Pressure
• Capillary pressure can then be calculated according to
Pc = (ρw - ρnw) g * h = 2 σ cos(θ) / rc
ρw - density of the wetting phase
ρnw - density of the non - wetting phase
g - gravitational acceleration
h - height of wetting phase rise in the capillary tube
σ - interfacial tension
θ - contact angle between fluids and capillary tube
rc - radius of the capillary tube
Capillary Pressure
• Higher Quality Rock will Generally Correlate to Higher Hydrocarbon Saturations
(Lower Sw) at Specific Capillary Pressure (height above reference datum)
Improving Rock Quality
<= Displacement Pressure
Simplified, introductory illustrations

Increasing Height / Pressure
Courtesy of Core Labs Increased Wetting Phase Saturation
41
Capillary Pressure
• Higher Quality Rock will Generally Correlate to Higher Hydrocarbon Saturations
(Lower Sw) at Specific Capillary Pressure (height above reference datum)
Improving Rock Quality
Displacement Pressure =>
Simplified, introductory illustrations

Increasing Height / Pressure
Capillary Pressure
•Higher Quality Rock will

Generally Correlate to Higher
Hydrocarbon Saturations
(Lower Sw) at Specific
Capillary Pressure (height
above reference datum
•As Perm improves, at a
specific height, Sw decreases
Improving Rock
Quality
42
Capillary Pressure
• Higher Quality Rock will

Generally Correlate to Higher
Hydrocarbon Saturations at
Specific Capillary Pressure
(height above reference datum
• As Perm improves, at a
specific height, Sw decreases
• With less height, Sw
increases in all rock, but more
so in the lower quality rock
Courtesy of Core Labs
Lucia Classification
• In actual fact, we must consider more 1
than just porosity, or just permeability 2
• Particle size plays a role

3
• Lucia identified two particle size
boundaries
•100 and 20 µ m
• Lucia identified three particle size
fields
• 1: Greater than 100 µ m
• 2: 100–20 µ m
• 3: Less than 20 µ m
• Lucia found that the capillary pressure curve shape correlates with
porosity - permeability - particle size, and established the associated
generic 3-D correlations
Courtesy of F. Jerry Lucia
43
Lucia Carbonate Petrophysical Classification
• Lucia Class 1:
•Sw = 0.02219 * H–0.316 * φ ip –1.745 & k = (45.35 * 108) * φ ip 8.537
Lucia Saturation vs Height

450
Compare Class 1, 2 & 3
2 - D Slice at Phi = 0.30 400
Saturations at Phi = 0.30 Class 1
Class 2
1 350 Class 3
300
Height
250
200
150 Improving Rock Quality
100
50
0
0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%
Saturation
Lucia Petrophysical
Classification
• Carbonates present yet another

issue
• Both samples are Lucia Class 1
(particle size > 100 µ m)
• Upper sample has φ ~ 25, k ~ 5
• Lower sample has φ ~ 9, k ~ 7
• How can such different porosity
correlate with such similar
permeability, and both be Lucia
Class 1?
44
• Permeability and saturation characteristics of interparticle porosity can

be grouped into three rock-fabric/petrophysical classes: 1, 2, 3
Interparticle
Porosity
• The addition of separate-vug porosity to interparticle porosity increases total

porosity, but does not significantly increase permeability
• Permeability of moldic grainstone is less than would be expected if all of the porosity
were interparticle
Grainstones with separate-

vug (Svug) porosity in form of
grain molds plot to the right of
the grainstone field, in proportion
to the volume of separate-vug
porosity
Lucia, F. J., 1983, Petrophysical parameters estimated from visual description of carbonate rocks: a field classification of
carbonate pore space: Journal of Petroleum Technology, March, v. 35, p. 626–637.
45
Smpl Total Svug Interpart. Rock Fabric Petro Perm. GENERIC TRANSFORMS AND
PETROPHYSICAL-CLASS FIELDS
1000
(%) (%) (%) (md)
4 25 16 9 Grainstone 1 5 Class 1 Class 2
Note presence of vug porosity 100
Class 3
10
0.1
0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.3 0.4
INTERPARTICLE POROSITY (fraction)
GENERIC ROCK-FABRIC PERMEABILITY TRANSFORMS
8 8.537
Class 1 k = (45.35*10 ) * φip
6 6.38
Class 2 k = (2.04*10 ) * φip
3 4.275
Class 3 k = (2.884*10 ) * φip
Smpl Total Svug Interpart. Rock Fabric Petro Perm. GENERIC TRANSFORMS AND
PETROPHYSICAL-CLASS FIELDS
1000
(%) (%) (%) (md)
5 9 0 9 Dolograinstone 1 7.3 Class 1 Class 2
No vuggy porosity 100
Class 3
10
0.1
0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.3 0.4
INTERPARTICLE POROSITY (fraction)
GENERIC ROCK-FABRIC PERMEABILITY TRANSFORMS
8 8.537
Class 1 k = (45.35*10 ) * φip
6 6.38
Class 2 k = (2.04*10 ) * φip
3 4.275
Class 3 k = (2.884*10 ) * φip
46
Capillary Pressure
• Higher Quality Rock will
Generally Correlate to
Higher Hydrocarbon
Saturations at Specific
Capillary Pressure (height
above reference datum)
• Actual limestone data
• Small fractures, lack of
sample sleeve conformance,
etc can yield parameters
that are inconsistent,
resulting in ‘outliers’
Capillary Pressure
• Bi-modal Pore Throat Distribution is an additional issue
• In essence, there are two capillary pressure curves
47
Capillary Pressure
• Dual porosity systems will
show up as an inflection
point in the data
• Actual limestone data
X
x
Capillary Pressure
• Common Laboratory Techniques
• Porous Plate
• Centrifuge
• Mercury Injection
48
Capillary Pressure
• Porous Plate
• Relatively slow
• Usually a relatively low pressure technique
• May not fully desaturate samples
• May not adequately represent reservoir ‘height above FWL’ - be sure
to check this before requesting porous plate data
• Often combined with electrical properties SCAL
A method for desaturating sample by placing one end in capillary contact with a
porous plate and applying gas or oil under pressure to the remaining surfaces. The
liquid in the original fully saturated sample is expelled through the porous plate. At
different pressures the sample is weighed to determine the loss of liquid, and the gas or
oil pressure then increased.
Capillary Pressure
• Centrifuge
• Generally capable of pressures higher than porous plate
A rapidly rotating flywheel on a vertical axle to whose rim is attached a series of tubes
at one end, the other end being free to tilt upwards and outwards. At high speeds, the
centrifugal force in the tubes is far greater than gravity. The centrifuge is used to expel
fluids from samples, either to clean them or to desaturate them for measurements of
irreducible water saturation, resistivity index or nuclear magnetic resonance properties.
It can be used at multiple speeds to obtain a capillary pressure curve.
49
Capillary Pressure
• Mercury Injection
• Generally capable of pressures higher than porous plate
• Often best for low permeability samples
• Fast
• Destructive, samples not useable for subsequent measurements
Mercury is forced into the pore system, under increasingly higher pressures, and the
injection pressure - volume noted at each equilibrium point.
Purcell, W. R. 1949. Capillary pressure - their measurements using mercury and the
calculation of permeability therefrom: AIME Petroleum Trans., 186, 39-48
Bob Purcell
Bob Purcell was born in Taylorville, IL, in 1918. He obtained his bachelor's degree in
chemical engineering and masters degree in chemistry at Rice University and did
additional graduate work at the University of Michigan under one of the first API
fellowships.
He joined the Shell Development Co. where he had a long and distinguished career. For
36 years at Shell he conducted research in the fields of petrophysics, rock mechanics,
and geophysics. His work on mercury capillary pressure measurements is a classic
and established this method as the fundamental petrophysical tool for studying pore
structure. He was the first to demonstrate the interrelationships between capillary
pressure curves and permeability, and also studied relative permeability, formation
resistivity factor and resistivity ratio. He did pioneering work on earth stresses and pore
pressures and had a major impact on drilling problems and borehole stability. He was
also active in the early quantitative uses of seismic amplitudes for reservoir evaluation.
Bob retired from Shell in 1983.
50
Nuclear Magnetic Resonance
Edward M. Purcell was born in Taylorville, Illinois on August 30, 1912 and was
educated in the public schools in Taylorville and in Mattoon, Illinois, and in 1929
entered Purdue University in Indiana. He graduated from Purdue in electrical
engineering in 1933 and received a PhD in Physics from Harvard in 1938.
Purcell received the 1952 Nobel Prize in Physics for development of new methods for
nuclear magnetic precision measurements. He continued to work in the field of
nuclear magnetism, with particular interest in relaxation phenomena, related problems
of molecular structure, measurement of atomic constants, and nuclear magnetic
behavior at low temperatures, in addition to making contributions in the subject of
radio-astronomy.
They are brothers
Capillary Pressure
• Measurements in the Lab must be Related to Reservoir Conditions

• Make use of the relation between the capillary pressure required for
non-wetting phase to displace the wetting phase in a specific
capillary, versus a second wetting / non-wetting system and the same
capillary (which then drops out of the relation)
Same capillary => rc same in both systems
Pc(1) / { σ (1) * Cos[θ(1)]} = Pc(2) / { σ (2)* Cos[θ(2)]}
• Pc(n) - Capillary pressure in system n

• σ (n) - Interfacial tension in system n
• θ(n) - Contact angle in system n
51
Capillary Pressure
• Inter-relation of Various Measurement Conditions
Pc(1) / { σ (1) * Cos[θ(1)]} = Pc(2) / { σ (2)* Cos[θ(2)]}
• Typical Conversion Parameters
• Be aware that slightly

different conversion
parameters are in use from
one locale to another
Capillary Pressure
• Inter-relation of Various Measurement Conditions
Pc(1) / { σ (1) * Cos[θ(1)]} = Pc(2) / { σ (2)* Cos[θ(2)]}
• Typical Conversion Parameters
This Varva, Kaldi & Sneider

paper provides a very nice
review of capillary pressure
application
C L Varva, J G Kaldi, R M Sneider,

Geological Applications of Capillary Pressure: A Review. AAPG V 76 No 6 (June 1992)
52
Capillary Pressure and Units
• There is often a mix of units employed in capillary pressure discussions

σ - interfacial tension − dynes/cm
θ - contact angle - degrees
rc - radius of the capillary tube - cm
Pc - capillary pressure - lb(force) / square inch
lb(force) signifies this is pounds of force rather
than pounds of mass
(related by the acceleration of gravity)
Handy Conversion Site: http://www.onlineconversion.com/
• The conversion from one set of units to the other is accomplished by
1 dyne/square cm = 1.45 x 10 -5 lb(force)/square inch
• In the case of mercury injection data, one has

σ - interfacial tension − dynes/cm => 485 dynes/cm for mercury
θ - contact angle - degrees => 140 degrees for mercury
rc - radius of the capillary tube - cm
Pc - capillary pressure - lb(force) / square inch
53
rc(cm) = 2 * 485 * cos(140) * [1.45x10-5 psi / (1 dyne/sq cm)] / Pc (psi)
rc(cm) = .01077 cm / Pc (psi)
1 um = 10 -6 m = 10 - 4 cm
rc(microns) = 107.7 um / Pc (psi)
•107.7 / 5000 (psi) => 0.02 um

•107.7 / 100 (psi) => 1.08 um
•107.7 / 5 (psi) => 21.5 um
rc(cm) = .01077 cm / Pc (psi)
• Be aware that 1 um = 10 -6 m = 10 - 4 cm
slightly different rc(microns) = 107.7 um / Pc (psi)
conversion
parameters are in •107.7 / 5000 (psi) => 0.02 um
use from one •107.7 / 100 (psi) => 1.08 um
locale to another •107.7 / 5 (psi) => 21.5 um

rc(microns) = 106.6 um / Pc (psi)
•106.6 / 5000 (psi) => 0.02 um

•106.6 / 100 (psi) => 1.07 um
•106.6 / 5 (psi) => 21.3 um
54
Red River Attributes
and
Generic Attributes
•Both Red River and Generic use 485

dynes / cm for air-mercury interfacial
tension
•Red River uses air-mercury contact
angle of 130 degrees whereas generic
value is 140
Petrophysical characterist ics and fac ies of c arb onate C L Varva, J G Kald i, R M Sne ider
reservoirs: The Red River Format ion, Williston basin Geological Applicat ions of Cap illary Pressure:
Lillian Hess Tanguay and Gerald M. Friedman AAPG A Review AAPG V 76 No 6 (June 1992)
Bulletin , v. 85, no. 3 (March 2001), pp. 491–523
• Be aware that slightly different conversion parameters are in use

from one locale to another - results following exhibit

Pc = 2 sigma * cos(Theta) / rc
Generic
rc (cm) = 2 * 485 * cos(140) * [1.45x10-5 psi / (1 dyne/sq cm)] / P c (psi)
rc (cm) = .01077 / P c (psi) The difference is
Red River roughly 10 %
rc (cm) = 2 * 485 * cos(130) * [1.45x10-5 psi / (1 dyne/sq cm)] / P c (psi)
rc (cm) = .0090 / Pc (psi)
Generic
1 um = 10 -6 m = 10 - 4 cm
Convert to um, rc (microns) = 107.7 / Pc (psi)
per the Text Calculate
Red River
diameter
rc (microns) = 90 / Pc (psi)
Dc(microns) = 180 / Pc (psi)
• Be aware that slightly different conversion parameters are in use

from one locale to another
55
No offense Dad, but can we please get some FRESH AIR.
Capillary Pressure Exercise, then Take a Break
56
Petrophysical Classification
What’s the problem Mabel,

these NMR parameters
© 2004
worked in the Gulf of Mexico?
Robert E Ballay, LLC

F. Jerry Lucia
AAPG Bulletin, V. 79, No. 9 (September 1995), P. 1275–1300
•The foundation of the Lucia petrophysical classification is the concept that pore-size
distribution controls permeability and saturation and that pore-size distribution is
related to rock fabric
•The focus of this classification is on petrophysical properties and not genesis
•Dunham’s classification focused on depositional texture, whereas petrophysical

classifications focus on contemporary rock fabrics that include depositional and
diagenetic textures
•To determine the relationships between rock fabric and petrophysical parameters, one
must define and classify pore space as it exists today in terms of petrophysical
properties
57
Over-view
• Geological parameters that characterize petrophysics

• Interparticle pore space
• Intergrain and Intercrystal
• Nonvuggy carbonate rocks
• Described in terms of particle size, sorting, and interparticle porosity
• Interparticle porosity is total porosity minus vuggy porosity
• Vuggy pore space
• Everything that is not interparticle
• Vugs, molds, fractures - petrophysically similar effects
• Vugs divided into separate and touching
• Based on vug interconnection
• Archie was one of the first to address petrophysical classification
58
F. Jerry Lucia
•The focus of this classification is on petrophysical properties rather

than genesis
•To determine the relationships between rock fabric and petrophysical

Lucia Carbonate Petrophysical

Classification
• Nonvuggy carbonates
• Particle size related to mercury
capillary displacement pressure in
rock having more than 0.1 md
permeability
• Displacement pressure
determined by extrapolation
• Observe different responses for
similar (21-22, 15-16) porosity
• Behavior boundaries noted at
about 100 and 20 µ m Larger Particles correspond to
Lower Displacement Pressure
59
Classification
• Nonvuggy limestone
• Various particle sizes
• Displacement pressure
characterizes the larger pore sizes
• The pore system may correspond to
a wide range of particle sizes
• If (some of) the particles are large,
the Displacement Pressure will be
relatively small
• The Displacement Pressure is
largely independent of (21-22, 15-16)
net porosity

Classification
• Displacement pressure -
particle size used to identify
behavior boundaries
• Largely independent of
porosity
60
Classification
• < 500 µ m
• Two particle size boundaries
100 and 20 µ m
• Three particle size fields
• Greater than 100 µ m
• 100–20 µ m
• Less than 20 µ m
• Capillary pressure curve
shape characterized with
porosity - permeability - particle
size
• Chalks not included due to presence of intra-grain pore space
Particle Size Grain / Mud Content

61
Definitions
• Mudstone: the rock as you see it is mostly made of carbonate mud or

crypto-crystalline carbonate matrix. Grains (fossils, ooids, etc.) will be
less than 10 % of the rock.
• Wackestone: grains make up more than 10% of the rock but the grains
are "mud supported" and float in the mud matrix.
• Packstone: Lots of sandbox sized grains with mud between them, but
the grains are grain supported.
• Grainstone: Sandbox sized grains with spar between them and little or
no mud.
http://people.uncw.edu/dockal/gly312/carbonate/carbonate.htm
xx1 1
Grain
Dominated
Packstone
Grain Stone
(Oolites)
1 1
Middle East Mud North Sea Chalk

Dominated with µ φ
62
Updated Limestone Graphic With Additional Data Courtesy of F. Jerry Lucia - Y2005
Updated Dolostone Graphic With Additional Data Courtesy of F. Jerry Lucia - Y2005
63
• Composite porosity-air permeability crossplot

• Nonvuggy limestones and dolostones
• Reduced–major-axis transforms for each class
Lucia Carbonate Petrophysical Classification 1
• Mercury injection capillary pressure for each non-

vuggy rock-fabric / petrophysical category
• Each group is characterized by similar displacement
pressures and a systematic change in curve shape
2
Hg saturation 80% and greater at 800 psi
64

vuggy rock-fabric /petrophysical category
2

vuggy rock-fabric /petrophysical category
2
65
• Mercury injection capillary pressure for each

non-vuggy rock-fabric /petrophysical category
• Each group is characterized by similar
displacement pressures and a systematic
change in curve shape 2
• Near boundaries, some of the individual

curves will approach one another, and
possible cross-over
66
• Pore-throat-size distribution for each non-

vuggy category
Pore Throat @ 80% Hg saturation ~ 3 um

vuggy category
Pore Throat @ 80% Hg saturation ~ 1 um
67

vuggy category
Pore Throat @ 80% Hg saturation ~ 0.25 um
• The dependence of saturation upon porosity and rock-fabric class can

be demonstrated with capillary pressure curves
• Select specific reservoir height
• Equates to some specific mercury capillary pressure
• Plot saturation against porosity for each rock-fabric class
• In nonvuggy carbonate the plot separates into three classes
Porosity (%)
68
Bulk Volume Water
• Reservoir performance (Rock Type, Cutoffs, etc) is often evaluated in

terms of the Bulk Volume Water
BVW = Sw * φ
• Grids of constant bulk volume BVW = Constant

1.00
water may be used as cut-off Increasing Grain Size
boundaries for water-free
production
• This is why the Service
Sw
0.10
Companies often format their
Evaluation Displays with Sw * φ
and Sxo * φ BVW=0.015
BVW=0.03
BVW=0.10
• In the Log-Log crossplot world,
0.01
BVW trends are straight lines 0.01 0.10 1.00
Porosity
• Petrophysicists often use this approach to identify zones of water free

production, and rock types
• In the Log-Log crossplot world, BVW trends are straight lines
BVW = Constant
1.00
Increasing Grain Size
Sw
0.10
BVW=0.015
BVW=0.03
BVW=0.10
0.01
0.01 0.10 1.00
Porosity (%) Porosity
69
• This finding allows development of

• Generic, nonvuggy porosity - permeability relation, as function of
class
• Generic, nonvuggy saturation - porosity - height relation, as function
of class
• These equations specific to the capillary pressure curves used herein
• Will not necessarily apply to other reservoirs, but will provide
reasonable values for original water saturations when only porosity
and rock-fabric data are available
• Generic, nonvuggy porosity - permeability relation

• Generic, nonvuggy saturation - porosity / height relation
Class 1
Sw = 0.02219 * H–0.316 * φ ip –1.745
k = (45.35 * 108) * φ ip 8.537
H = height above Class 2 Units of ‘H’ in Sw
capillary pressure equations are not
Sw = 0.1404 * H–0.407 * φ ip –1.440
FWL and φ ip = specified in text but
interparticle k = (2.040 * 106) * φ ip 6.38 the Jerry Lucia BEG
fractional porosity Poster specifies ‘ft’
Class 3
Sw = 0.6110 * H–0.505 * φ ip –1.210
k = (2.884 * 103) * φ ip 4.275
70
• Lucia Petrophysical Classification Poster available

• Rock Classes with nice illustrative graphics
http://www.beg.utexas.edu/mainweb/publications/pubs-crossmaps.htm#posters
• The BEG site also includes a substantial amount of very good, free
material that can be down loaded

• Generic, nonvuggy saturation - porosity - height relation
Class 1
Sw = 0.02219 * H–0.316 * φ ip –1.745
k = (45.35 * 108) * φ ip 8.537
3 - D φ - Sw - H Surface
Height
Sw Porosity
71

• Generic, nonvuggy saturation - porosity - height relation
Class 3
Sw = 0.6110 * H–0.505 * φ ip –1.210
k = (2.884 * 103) * φ ip 4.275
1
3 - D φ - Sw - H Surface
Height
Sw
Porosity
• Class 1:
• Sw = 0.02219 * H–0.316 * φ ip –1.745 & k = (45.35 * 108) * φ ip 8.537

450
2 - D Slice at Phi = 0.30 400
Saturations at Phi = 0.30 Class 1
Class 2
1 350 Class 3
300 Phi Height Class_1

0.3 1 0.18
Height
250 0.3 2 0.15

0.3 3 0.13
200 0.3 4 0.12
0.3 5 0.11
0.3 6 0.10
150 0.3 7 0.10
0.3 8 0.09
100 0.3 9 0.09
0.3 10 0.09
50 0.3 15 0.08
0.3 20 0.07
0.3 30 0.06
0
0.3 40 0.06
0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 50 100%
0.3 0.05
Saturation 0.3 75 0.05
0.3 100 0.04
0.3 120 0.04
Phi - Perm Crossplot in exhibit following 0.3 150 0.04
0.3 200 0.03
72
• Mercury injection capillary pressure for each non-vuggy rock-fabric /petrophysical

category
• Each group is characterized by similar displacement pressures and a systematic
change in curve shape
450
400 Class 1
Class 2
350 Class 3
300
Height
250
Saturations & Transition
200
Zones at Phi = 0.30
150
100
50
0
0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%
Saturation
• Class 1:
• Sw = 0.02219 * H–0.316 * φ ip –1.745 & k = (45.35 * 108) * φ ip 8.537

450
2 - D Class 1 Slices at 400
Phi=0.10
Phi = 0.25 -10.15 - 0.10 350 Phi=.15
Phi=.25
300
Compare Class 1
Height
250
200
Saturations & Transition
Zones at Phi = 0.25, 0.15
150
& 0.10
100
50
0
0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%
Saturation (Class 1)
73
• Generic, nonvuggy saturation - porosity / height relation for

φ(ip)=0.10
2 - D Slice at Phi = 0.10 for each Class

450
400 Class 1
Class 2
350 Class 3
300
Height
250
200
150
100
50
0
0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%
Saturation (Phi=0.10)
Compare One Class to Another,

Saturation and Transition Zone, at Phi=0.10

φ(ip)=0.15

450
400 Class 1
Class 2
350 Class 3
300
Height
250
200
150
100
50
0
0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%
Compare One Class to Another at Phi=0.15
74

φ(ip)=0.25

450
400 Class 1
Class 2
350 Class 3
300
Height
250
200
150
100
50
0
0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%
Compare One Class to Another at Phi=0.25
Lucia Carbonate Petrophysical 450

Classification 400 Class 1

Class 2
350 Class 3
300
• Saturation and Transition Zone Height,
Height
250
are strongly dependent upon the 200
150
Petrophysical Class 100
50
Compare One Class to Another,
0
Saturation and Transition Zone, 0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%
at Various Phi Saturation (Phi=0.10)
Lucia Saturation vs Height Lucia Saturation vs Height

450 450
400 Class 1 400 Class 1

Class 2 Class 2
350 Class 3
350 Class 3
300 300
Height
Height
250 250
200 200
150 150
100 100
50 50
0 0
0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100% 0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%
Saturation (Phi=0.25) Saturation (Phi=0.15)
75

• Generic, nonvuggy saturation - porosity / height relation
Class 1
Sw = 0.02219 * H–0.316 * φ ip –1.745
Note the ‘ip’ k = (45.35 * 108) * φ ip 8.537
subscript on the
porosity term - Class 2
this is Sw = 0.1404 * H–0.407 * φ ip –1.440
interparticle k = (2.040 * 106) * φ ip 6.38
porosity
Class 3
Sw = 0.6110 * H–0.505 * φ ip –1.210
k = (2.884 * 103) * φ ip 4.275
where H = height above capillary pressure equal to zero and φ ip = interparticle

fractional porosity
• These large variations in Multi-well Crossplot

saturation and transition Casing Shoe => TD
zone height may be observed
in Field Data
• 22 well composite graphic,
with modern wireline data
• Reservoir is nearly 100 %
limestone, but there are
important depositional (and
Free Water Level
petrophysical) facies
variations
• Question - what is
responsible for Sw .NE.
100% in the water leg?
76
• With the many biofacies present in this reservoir, is the variation any surprise?
Multi-well Crossplot
Casing Shoe => TD
Geraint Wyn Hughes, BI O FACIES OF THE SHU’AIBA FORMATION, SHAYBAH F I E L D, SAUDI ARABIA
Saudi Aramco Journal of Technology, Summer 2001
• Objective
Jerry Lucia comments: The

dark areas are grains (small
peloids), the bright areas are
calcite cement filling pore space
and the blue is porosity.
Nonvuggy grain-dominated packstone

φ = 16 %, k = 5.2 md
77
• Objective
Nonvuggy grain-dominated packstone

φ = 16 %, k = 5.2 md
• Objective
Jerry Lucia comments: The

circled area contains porosity
that is too large to be called
microporosity. Since it is
within the grain, it is classified
as separate-vug pore space.
Grainstone
φ = 25 %, k = 1500 md
78
• Objective
Grainstone
φ = 25 %, k = 1500 md
• Our objective is to achieve a general overview of the classification
methodology, while recognizing there are ‘details’ that come into ‘play’
• Jerry has authored many excellent publications on the topic, and offers
a Course on the application
79
F. Jerry Lucia
The foundation of the Lucia petrophysical classification is the concept

that pore-size distribution controls permeability and saturation and that
pore-size distribution is related to rock fabric
The focus of this classification is on petrophysical properties rather than

genesis
To determine the relationships between rock fabric and petrophysical

This concept is important. Many times
the Petrophysicist will be working with
Geologists, who approach is closely tied
to depositional environment and their
‘zones’ will not coincide.
• Lucia characterizes pore space as

• Interparticle (between grains or crystals), and
• All other - vuggy
• Addition of vuggy pore space alters the manner in which the pore space
is connected, all pore space being connected in some fashion
• Vugs can be separate or touching
• The focus of this classification is on petrophysical properties rather
than genesis
• To determine the relationships between rock fabric and petrophysical
80

• Separate vug pore space defined as pore space that is
• Either within particles or
• Significantly larger than particle size (> 2x) and interconnected
only through interparticle porosity
• Examples of separate vug pore space

• Intrafossil pore space
• Living chambers of a gastropod shell
• Dissolved grains (oomolds) or dolomite crystals (dolomolds)
• Intragranular microporosity
• Classified as separate vug because it is interconnected only
through the intergrain pore network
81
• Separate Vugs
Oomoldic porosity, φ = 26 %, k= 3 md,

Wolfcampian, West Texas. Intrafossil pore space in a gastropod
shell, Cretaceous, Gulf Coast.
• Touching vug pore systems

• Examples include cavernous, breccia, fracture, and solution-
enlarged fracture pore types
• The rock fabric approach cannot be used to characterize touching-
vug reservoirs
82
Definition
• Breccia is similar to conglomerate except that the breccia fragments
are sharp and angular. They have not been transported by water, wind,
or glaciers long enough to be rounded and smoothed as in conglomerate
• Touching Vugs
Left: Cavernous porosity in

a Niagaran reef, Northern
Michigan.
Right: Solution-enlarged
fractures, Ellenburger,
West Texas
Rock fabric approach

cannot be used to
characterize touching-vug
reservoirs
83
Carbonate
Petrophysics
• Vugs can be
separate or touching
• Rock fabric
approach cannot be
used to characterize
touching-vug
reservoirs
• The addition of separate-vug porosity to interparticle porosity increases

total porosity, but does not significantly increase permeability
• Permeability of moldic grainstone is less than would be expected if all
of the porosity were interparticle
Grainstones with separate-

vug (Svug) porosity in form of
grain molds plot to the right of the
grainstone field, in proportion to
the volume of separate-vug
porosity
84
• The addition of separate-vug porosity to interparticle porosity increases

total porosity, but does not significantly increase permeability
• Dolograinstones with separate vugs in the form of intragranular
microporosity plot to the right of the grainstone field
• The addition of separate-vug porosity to interparticle porosity

increases total porosity, but does not significantly increase permeability
• Be aware that some literature refers to these two kinds of porosity as
‘effective’ and ‘ineffective’, with a meaning that differs from when the
terms are used for clastic reservoir description (wherein the distinction
typically applies to clay bound water)
85
• The addition of separate-vug porosity to interparticle porosity has a

direct impact on the Archie cementation exponent
• Unconnected vuggy pore

space vs total porosity
porosity
• m ~ 3 for porosity that
is 60% vuggy

direct impact on calculated Archie water saturations
Saturation Variations
• Φ = 0.20, Rw@FT = 0.1 ohm-m, R = 50
1.00
ohm-m
0.80
• At each value of 'n', Sw is displayed for a
Water Saturation
range (1.5 - 4.0) of 'm' values in steps of 0.60
0.25 - refer following exhibit for details

0.40
• Sw(calculated) is off the top (Sw > 100% )

of the chart, at some of the higher ‘m’ 0.20
values
0.00
1.5 1.7 1.9 2.1 2.3 2.5
Saturation Exponent
86

direct impact on calculated Archie water saturations
m n Sw
1.50 2.00 0.15
1.75 2.00 0.18 Saturation Variations
2.00 2.00 0.22
2.25 2.00 0.27 1.00
2.50 2.00 0.33
2.75 2.00 0.41
0.80
3.00 2.00 0.50
Water Saturation
0.60
0.40
0.20
0.00
1.5 1.7 1.9 2.1 2.3 2.5
Saturation Exponent
Jerry Lucia comments:

• The sonic-porosity cross plots works best in the presence of grain molds about the
size of peloids or ooids. It the vugs are much larger or smaller (such as intragrain
microporosity) the sonic commonly see it as interparticle porosity, or in the case of
large vugs perhaps as cycle skipping etc.
• Intragrain microporosity in grain-dominated fabrics is a real logging problem and I
have no current solution for it.
• The best way to work with large vugs is with image logs
• Address every situation with regard to the specific circumstances, cross-check
results in every manner possible
87
Classification
• The rock fabric approach

cannot be used to characterize
touching-vug reservoirs
• Permeability in touching-vug
pore systems related principally
to fracture width
• Extremely sensitive to small
changes in fracture porosity
Theoretical fracture air perm- porosity

relationship compared to petrophysical
class fields

Summary
• The focus of the Lucia classification is on petrophysical properties

and not genesis
• Lucia characterizes pore space as
• Interparticle
• Intergrain and intercrystal
• All other - vuggy
88
Summary
• Nonvuggy carbonate rocks described in terms of
• Interparticle porosity,
• Permeability and
• Particle size
• Corresponding capillary pressure curve attributes
• Displacement pressure represents larger pores
• Basically independent of porosity
• Shape responding to smaller pores
• Dependent on interparticle porosity

Summary
• Locally specific calibrations should consider formulation based upon
similar considerations
• Interparticle porosity, permeability and particle size
• Capillary pressure curve response
• Displacement pressure represents larger pores
• Basically independent of porosity
• Shape responding to smaller pores
• Dependent on interparticle porosity
• Physically meaningful, and statistically significant, relations should
be required of any locally specific calibrations
89
Summary
• Addition of vuggy pore space alters pore space connectivity, all pore
space being connected in some fashion

Summary
• Separate vugs that are significantly larger than particle size are
typically filled with hydrocarbons in the reservoir
• Intragranular microporosity (also classified as separate vug) may
contain significant amounts of capillary-bound water, resulting in water-
free production of hydrocarbons from intervals with higher than
expected water saturation
• Evaluation of vuggy reservoirs requires careful consideration
90
Summary
• Touching vug reservoirs can not be characterized by the rock fabric

approach
Why Do You Think Wireline Logs Will Recognize Your Carbonate Facies?
Here Is How It Works
•Wireline logs can identify only a limited number of facies, and geologic studies often
require many more facies than is possible it identify.
•Wireline logs measure physical properties, not geologic descriptions, so only facies, as
defined by core descriptions, having unique physical properties can be identified with
logs.
•Facies defined by lithology can normally be identified using a combination of
neutron, density, PE and sonic logs.
•Facies not defined by lithology are more difficult.
•Fundamentally, only facies that have unique gamma ray, porosity, or pore-size values
can be uniquely identified with wireline logs.
F. Jerry Lucia
91
logs.
•Gamma-ray values tend to be lower in grain-dominated than in mud-dominated
fabrics, but the presence of diagenetic uranium complicates this basic tenet.
•Porosity in grain-dominated fabrics tends to be higher than in mud-dominated
fabrics, even after early dolomitization.
•Therefore, vertical porosity and gamma-ray profiles can often be used to identify
vertical sequences of mud-to-grain-dominated fabrics.
•Grain types must be inferred from stratigraphy.
F. Jerry Lucia
logs.
•Acoustic-porosity relationships can sometime be used to define highly moldic
facies and infer a moldic grainstone, but these relationships must be used with
extreme caution.
•Saturation-porosity relationships describe pore-size distributions that can be
linked with basic rock-fabric facies under ideal conditions. These ideal conditions,
however, often do not exist and we are left with porosity and gamma-ray logs.
•Because of the limited ability of wireline logs to identify carbonate facies, the selection
of facies used to construct a geologic model is critical.
F. Jerry Lucia
92
If you don’t give ‘em a break Dad, I’ll have to haul them out
in my wagon.
TEST YOUR SKILLS AT JERRY’S CLASSIFICATION
AND THEN TAKE A BREAK
93
94
Sonic Log
Rumor says they made a career change following a tour of duty in

Sonic Log
• Measure of Acoustical Travel Time
• Typically reported in µs / ft, the inverse of velocity
• Requires liquid-filled borehole
• Facilitates porosity estimates
• The only (routine) porosity tool with potential ability to
characterize secondary (vuggy) versus primary (interparticle)
porosity
• Historical tools reported only the compressional wave ∆t
• Modern tools have much more sophisticated capabilities
95
Sonic Log
• Quality Control
• ∆t(casing) ~ 57 µs / ft
• ∆t(anhydrite) ~ 50 µs / ft
• ∆t(salt) ~ 67 µs / ft
• 68 - 72 depending upon borehole effects (Baker Atlas)
Sonic Log
• Measure of Acoustical Travel Time
• Historical tools reported only the compressional wave ∆t
• Liquids (mud) transmit only compressional waves but borehole -
formation face interaction results in energy conversion to other
modes
• At the interface
• Wave refraction, reflection, conversion
• Compressional, shear and Stoneley waves
96
Sonic Log
• Reflection and Refraction of Acoustical Waves - Snell’s Law
• Characterizes reflection and refraction of acoustical (and other)
waves
Sonic Log
• Wave Modes
• Compressional : Particle motion is along (longitudinal) the
direction of wave travel.
• Human hearing is our response to compressional waves in the
atmosphere, across the frequency range of about 20 => 20 kHz
• Our ear’s canal actually resonates at ~ 2 => 5 kHz
• When compressional wave incident on an interface at other than
90 degrees, energy conversion can take place, giving rise to other
modes
97
Sonic Log
• Wave Modes
• Shear : Particle motion is perpendicular (transverse) to the
direction of wave travel.
• Liquids (mud) will not support shear motion
• Horizontally fractured / brecciated intervals can sometimes be
identified via suppression of the shear energy - Ellenberger in
West Texas - Shell in the 1970’s
• When shear wave incident on an interface at other than 90
degrees, energy conversion can take place, giving rise to other
modes.
Sonic Log
• Poisson’s Ratio
• Poisson's ratio (input for Rock Strength calculations) is related to
the compressional and shear velocities (travel times)
• Simeon Poisson (1781 to 1840), French mathematician
• Related to the compressibility of a material perpendicular to
applied stress
• σ for carbonate rock is ~ 0.3
• In fluid, Vs => 0 (fluids do not support shear motion) and σ => 0.5
98
Sonic Log
• Wave Modes
• Stoneley : Surface wave that propagates along a solid-fluid
borehole - formation interface.
• Analysis of Stoneley waves can identify the presence of fractures
and yield permeability estimates.
Stoneley applications discussed in detail in Specialty Sonic module
Sonic Log
• Sonic Borehole Compensated Sonde
• The ‘standard’ for many years
• Upper and lower transmitters
• Arrival times at specific receiver pair
are subtracted to give formation transit
time
• Signal averaging of the two
independent transit times reduces
anomalies from hole-size changes and
sonde tilt - exhibits following
99
Sonic Log
• Waveform Processing
• Arrival times at specific receiver pair are subtracted to give
formation transit time
∆t(1) = ∆t[R(2) - T(1)] - ∆t[R(1) - T(1)]
etc for ∆t(2)
• Signal averaging of the two independent transit times reduces
anomalies from hole-size changes and sonde tilt
∆t = [ ∆t(1) + ∆t(2)] / 2
Sonic Log
• Waveform Processing
• Signal averaging of the two independent transit times reduces
anomalies from hole-size changes and sonde tilt
∆t = [ ∆t(1) + ∆t(2)] / 2
• Be aware that some of the older sonic logs used ‘depth derived’
borehole compensation
100
Sonic Log
• Sonic Borehole Compensated Sonde
• Sonde body specially designed to
‘slow’ acoustical transmission along
the sonde, allowing detection to focus
on formation response
• Slots cut into the sonde body
Sonic Log
• Sonic Signal Arrival Detection
• First motion - the ‘standard’
for many years
• Soft (or altered) formations,
gas, fractures, large / rugose
borehole, aerated mud can
significantly reduce signal
strength
• Following exhibit
101
Sonic Log
• Soft (or altered) formations,
gas, fractures, large / rugose
borehole, aerated mud can
significantly reduce signal
strength
• Detection occurs on later
arrival
• Cycle skip
• Sudden shift of observed
travel time, to higher value
Sonic Log
• Soft (or altered) formations, gas,
fractures, large / rugose borehole,
aerated mud can significantly
reduce signal strength
• Detection occurs later in
time, but on first arrival
• Delta t stretch
• Gradual shift of observed
travel time, to higher value
102
Sonic Log
• Alternative Detection
• First motion - the ‘standard’ for
many years
• Statistical processing becomes
possible with a multitude of
signals
• Multi-purpose sonde
configuration
• Facilitates slowness-time
coherence (STC) processing
Sonic Log
• Alternative Detection
• Slowness-time coherence (STC) processing: A technique used for
identifying and measuring the slowness and time of arrival of
coherent acoustic energy propagating across an array of receivers.
• The technique consists of passing a narrow window across the
waveforms and measuring the coherence within the window for a
wide range of slowness and times of arrival.
• The different packets of coherent energy can then be identified in
terms of their origin, for example compressional, shear, Stoneley or
other arrivals.
103
Sonic Log
• Slowness-time coherence (STC)
• Coherence of the waveforms is
determined within narrow
windows of time and the
corresponding interval transit time
determined
• Removes dependence upon
first arrival detection
• Detects later (Shear and
Stoneley) arrivals
• Slowness : transit time
• Coherence : Measure of the
similarity of two (or more)
waves
Sonic Log
• Slowness-time coherence (STC)
• Slowness : transit time
• Coherence : Measure of the
similarity of two (or more)
waves
104
Sonic Log
• First motion - the ‘standard’ for many years
• Slowness-time coherence (STC) a modern alternative
• ‘Shallow logging runs’ typically for Geology / Geophysics, may be
the ‘most challenged
• Is the STC result ‘always the best’?
Results following exhibit
Sonic Log
• In this example, compressional transit time was deduced by both
First Arrival and STC
• An examination of the data revealed that while STC has conceptual
advantages, it is not necessarily always the most representative
Wells A and B Well C
Well
C
105
Sonic Log
• Shallow Depth of Investigation
• Invaded zone
• Extended with longer source - receiver spacing
Sonic Log
• Depth of investigation (except for special tools and situations)
generally assumed to be on the order of inches
• Routine Sonic Depth of

Investigation
• 10 cm / 2.5 cm / in => 4 in
Courtesy Carlos Torres-Verdín, Department of Petroleum and Geosystems Engineering, UT - Austin
106
Sonic Log
• Different waves (compressional, shear, Stoneley) penetrate
(sample) to different depths
• Low frequency
penetrates deeper
into the formation
Courtesy Carlos Torres-Verdín, Department of Petroleum and Geosystems Engineering, UT - Austin
Sonic Log
• Useful for
• Porosity Estimation
• Possibly
• Identification of vuggy porosity (vs intergranular)
• Detection of Natural Fractures
• Modeling of Formation Stimulation by Fracturing
• Seismic Calibration
• Combined with Other Tools for Multi-tasking Purposes
107
Sonic Log
• Porosity Estimation with Wyllie Time Average Relation
∆t(log) = Φ * ∆t(fluid) + ( 1 - Φ ) * ∆t(matrix)
Φ = [ ∆t(log) - ∆t(matrix) ] / [ ∆t(fluid) - ∆t(matrix) ]
• Common Matrix Values
• ∆t(limestone) ~ 47.5 µs / ft
• ∆t(dolomite) ~ 43.5 µs / ft
• ∆t(anhydrite) ~ 50 µs / ft
• ∆t(salt) ~ 67 µs / ft
• Historically, ∆t(fluid) ~ 189 µs / ft for freshwater mud system
Sonic Log
• Porosity Estimation with Wyllie Time
Average Relation
• Comparison of Φ(Time Average) and
Φ(Core) in sand
• The model is simple, but does indeed
match core measurements
• Model parameters correspond to
stressed conditions
• 5300 => 189 us/ft & 55 us/ ft
G R Pickett, The Use of Acoustic Logs in the Evaluation of Sandstone Reservoirs. Geophysics (1960) 25,250-74
108
Sonic Log
• Porosity Estimation with Raymer-Hunt (- Gardner)Transform
• Also known (approximated) as Field Observation
Φ(∆t) = C * [ ∆t(log) - ∆t(matrix) ] / ∆t(log)
• Based upon field observations and core comparison
• Empirically developed (as opposed to theory-based)
• C ~ 0.625 => 0.7 (liquid filled reservoir)
• C ~ 0.60 (gas reservoir)
• ∆t(limestone) ~ 49 µs / ft
• ∆t(dolomite) ~ 44 µs / ft
L L Raymer, E R Hunt and J S Gardner, An Improved Sonic Transit Time-to-Porosity Transform, Trans 1980 SPWLA
Annual Logging Symposium, paper P
Sonic Log
• Wyllie Time Average and Field Observation
• Saturation fluid assumed to be water for both
• C = 0.70 for Field Observation
109
Sonic Log
• Multi-well composite comparison of Φ(∆t-Field Observation) and Φ(Core)
• Pe factor (and indeed all other data) indicates the mineralogy is limestone
• In this example, there is a mismatch of core and log in the lower porosities
Gene comments: In the cases for

which I had core, across a large
porosity range, there was usually
(but not always) some curvature
present (ie Field Observation,
calibrated to core, rather than linear
Wyllie)
Sonic Log
• There are instances for which the linear relation is sufficient
Gene comments: Prudhoe Bay

Sadlerochit, while clastic and not
carbonate, is an example where the
various parties agreed that a linear
(calibrated Wyllie) relation was
appropriate.
110
Sonic Log
• In this example, there is a mismatch of core and log in the lower porosities that is
not related to hydrocarbon saturation
Gene comments:
• Above ~ 22 pu, both ‘hot’ and
‘cool’ colors ‘match the core.
• Below ~ 22 pu, both ‘hot’ and
‘cool’ colors are high to core
• The mismatch is not one of
hydrocarbon saturation
Sonic Log
• Wyllie Time Average and Field Average are both good starting
points
• Direct calibration to core should be investigated when ever
possible
111
Sonic Log
• Biot Theory: Relates the composite fluid-filled porous rock properties
to the elastic properties (density and moduli) of the fluid, the solid
material, and the empty rock skeleton. This approach is typically used
only for the analysis of laboratory data
Biot MA: Theory of Propagation of Elastic Waves in a Fluid-Saturated Porous Solid: I

Low Frequency Range, Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 28, (1956):168-
178.
Biot MA: Theory of Propagation of Elastic Waves in a Fluid-Saturated Porous Solid: II

Higher Frequency Range, Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 28, (1956): 179-
191.
Sonic Log
• Vuggy, or secondary Porosity
• Secondary porosity consisting of vugs, etc whose dimensions are
significantly larger than those of the primary porosity, may not be
reflected in the sonic response.
• In some cases, a comparison of so-called total porosity - Φ(Rhob-
Neutron) - versus Φ(∆t) will identify the presence of such secondary
porosity.
112
Sonic Log
• Vuggy or secondary Porosity - Nittany Dolomite
• Intercrystalline porosity versus Wyllie Time Average estimate
• Vuggy porosity may not be ‘seen’ by the sonic - following exhibit
M R J Wyllie, A R Gregory and G H F Gardener: An Experimental Investigation of Factors Affecting Elastic Wave
Velocities in Porous Media. Geophysics (1958) 23,459 - 93
Sonic Log
• Vuggy Porosity
• Porosity type versus Wyllie Time Average estimate
• Vuggy and fracture porosity may not be reflected in sonic
response
• In this example,
the sonic does not
“see” the vuggy /
fracture porosity
• This is not always
the case - following
exhibit
M R J Wyllie, A R Gregory and G H F Gardener: An Experimental Investigation of Factors Affecting Elastic Wave
Velocities in Porous Media. Geophysics (1958) 23,459 - 93
113
Sonic Log
• Carbonate sediments are subject to diagenetic alterations that change
the mineralogy and pore structure.
• Cementation and dissolution continuously modify the pore structure to
create or destroy porosity.
• In extreme cases these modifications can completely change the
mineralogy from aragonite/calcite to dolomite, or reverse the pore
distribution whereby original grains are dissolved to produce pores as
the original pore space is filled with cement to form the rock
• Exhibit following
Gregor P Eberli, Gregor T Baechle, Flavio S Anselmetti and Michal L Incze. Factors controlling elastic properties in
carbonate sediments and rocks. THE LEADING EDGE JULY 2003
Sonic Log
(a) Oolithic carbonate • Original grains are dissolved to

sand with inter-particle produce pores as the original pore space
pore space in black. is filled with cement to form the rock
(b) Moldic carbonate

rock. The molds (blue
epoxy) are created by
the dissolution of ooids
and peloids whereas the
former pore space is
filled with blocky white
cement to form the
rock.
114
Sonic Log
• Carbonate sediments are subject to diagenetic alterations that change
the mineralogy and pore structure.
• All these modifications alter the elastic properties of the rock and,
therefore, the sonic velocity. The result is a dynamic relationship among
diagenesis, porosity, pore type, and sonic velocity and a wide range of
sonic velocity in carbonates.
• Porosity is the main controlling factor in determining the sonic
velocity in rocks but in carbonates the pore type is nearly equally
important in the elastic behavior and resultant sonic velocity
Sonic Log
• Porosity is the main controlling factor in determining the sonic velocity
in rocks but in carbonates the pore type is nearly equally important in the
elastic behavior and resultant sonic velocity
• We measured acoustic velocities on modern carbonate sediments and
rocks in various stages of diagenesis to reveal the relationships between
original composition, porosity, pore type, and velocity.
115
Sonic Log
• Velocity (at 8 MPa effective pressure) versus porosity of various pore
types of carbonates with an exponential best fit curve through the data
for reference.
• Moldic porosity
exhibits a range or
responses that varies
from inter-crystalline /
inter-particle to intra-
frame
Density-Neutron vs Sonic
A Tool to Predict Pore Type
• The velocity-deviation log, a combination of the sonic log with the

neutron and / or density, provides a tool to obtain downhole information
on the predominant pore type in carbonates.
• Laboratory measurements on over 300 discrete carbonate samples
reveal that sonic velocity is a function not only of total porosity, but
also of the predominant pore type.
• Same authors, in an earlier Report

• Their velocity-deviation log is the
historical comparison of acoustic and
radioactive porosities
• Remember the ‘scatter’ in the earlier
graphic (at right)
The Velocity-Deviation Log: A Tool to Predict Pore Type and Permeability Trends in Carbonate Drill Holes from Sonic and
Porosity or Density Logs. Flavio S. Anselmetti and Gregor P. Eberli, AAPG Bulletin, V. 83, No. 3 (March 1999), 450–466.
116
Sonic Log
• Not all deviations from the Wyllie time-average equation are caused
by separate-vug porosity
• Not all separate-vug pore space causes deviations from the Wyllie
curve
• Careful testing and calibration with core data will be required for
each carbonate reservoir
• When comparing acoustic and radioactive porosities we must remember the

caution of Jennings and Lucia
Predicting Permeability From Well Logs in Carbonates With a Link to Geology for Interwell Permeability Mapping. James
W Jennings, Jr and F. Jerry Lucia.. SPE 71336. Y2001
Sonic Log
• Why do we care about vuggy / fracture porosity?
• Characterization of primary versus secondary porosity will improve
hydrocarbon saturation estimates
Isolated Pores
Effect on
Cementation
Exponent
Fractures
• Φ = total porosity
• Φfr = fracture porosity
• Φiso = isolated (vugs - molds) porosity
• m = Archie cementation exponent
• More on this issue later
• m > 2 => more tortuous and vice versa
117
Sonic Log
• Shear Waves
• ∆ t s can be used to calculate a porosity, in a manner similar to ∆ t c
Time Average
∆ts(log) = Φ * ∆ts(fluid) + ( 1 - Φ ) * ∆ts(matrix)
Φ = [ ∆ts(log) - ∆ts(matrix) ] / [ ∆ts(fluid) - ∆ts(matrix) ]
Field Observation
Φ(∆ts) = C * [ ∆ts (log) - ∆ts (matrix) ] / ∆ts (log)
• Algorithm-appropriate parameters must be used
Sonic Log
• Shear Waves
• ∆t s can be used to calculate a porosity, in a manner similar to ∆t c
Time Average
∆ts(log) = Φ * ∆ts(fluid) + ( 1 - Φ ) * ∆ts(matrix)
Φ = [ ∆ts(log) - ∆ts(matrix) ] / [ ∆ts(fluid) - ∆ts(matrix) ]
Field Observation
Φ(∆ts) = C * [ ∆ts (log) - ∆ts (matrix) ] / ∆ts (log)
• Algorithm-appropriate parameters must be used
118
Sonic Log
• Compressional and Shear Waves
• Vp versus Vs can potentially identify mineralogy and fluid type (gas - liquid)
Sonic Log
• Natural Fractures and Shear Waves
• Propagation across a horizontally
fractured interval will often result in
a reduction in amplitude (wave
energy)
• Test pit measurements of shear
wave amplitude
• Additionally, examination of the
actual wave trains will often reveal a
chevron pattern, as the tool
straddles the fracture
W L Anderson and T Walker. Application of Open Hole Acoustic

Amplitude Measurements. Paper SPE 122 presented at the 1961 SPE
Annual Fall Meeting, Dallas, Oct 8-11
119
Dad, it’s time to stop and
smell the roses
Review Sonic Log application

and then
GO TO LUNCH !!!
120

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Carbonate Petrophysics

30 pu Limestone High Permeability Grainstone:

R. E. (Gene) Ballay, PhD

•The information in this presentation is copyrighted by Robert E Ballay, LLC.

Carbonate Bluffs along Steel Creek, NW Arkansas

YOU WILL LEARN TO

© 2006 Robert E Ballay, LLC

© 2006 Robert E Ballay, LLC

© 2006 Robert E Ballay, LLC

© 2006 Robert E Ballay, LLC The Devil’s Promenade, SW Missouri

Whispering Dell is one of seven sink holes at Ha Ha Tonka (SW

Cementation Exponent Variations & Pore Geometry

Vuggy Porosity Techniques

Color Coded to Daily Schedule (preceding)

© 2006 Robert E Ballay, LLC

© 2006 Robert E Ballay, LLC

The Gasconade, Gunter, and Eminence are exposed at the

• Sandstone - Diagenesis typically limited to compaction and cementation

•The carbonate reservoirs of the Middle East are characterized by mixed

•The microporosity systems often dominate resistivity measurements

Middle East Well Evaluation Review: No 17, 1996

•Carbonate reservoirs pose unique problems for exploration and

•Small-scale depositional cycles are regarded as the primary flow unit in

Basic Wireline Data

Routine Core Data Wellbore Images:

Gene Ballay, Multidimensional Petrophysics, Saudi Aramco Journal of Technology

• Reservoir Description – Characterization can be thought of as

Carbonate Petrophysics Middle East Carbonate

Gene Ballay, Multidimensional Petrophysics,

(*) For details on this method, consult Hugh de Souza,

(*) For details on these methods, consult Hugh de Souza, SGS

• Upper sample has φ ~ 25, k ~ 5

Smpl Total Svug Interpart. Rock Fabric Petro Perm.

Rock-Fabric/Petrophysical Classification of Carbonate

The foundation of the Lucia petrophysical classification is the concept

The focus of this classification is on petrophysical properties rather than

To determine the relationships between rock fabric and petrophysical

Schlumberger Arabia Well Evaluation Conference - 1975

This Course presents you with an opportunity to establish personal

Take advantage of that opportunity - Mix with colleagues

Objective : Establish Rapport

Never buy a car you can't push

Never put both feet in your mouth at the same time

When everything's coming your way

Objective : Establish Rapport

Vehicle : Personal Introductions

Please Introduce Yourself

• What discipline do you work in?

There are typically a wide range of backgrounds in each class

Tailor the presentation level / speed so that everyone gets something

If presentation moving too fast or slow, discuss with me

Accommodate the majority, but not sacrifice the minority

Please, please come to me if there is a problem

Carbonate Petrophysics is a ‘living’ entity and constantly evolving

Alternative views and / or additional concepts are of interest

Let us vary from the primary agenda during breaks or after-hours

Carbonate Petrophysics is a ‘living’ entity and constantly evolving

Carbonate Petrophysics is a ‘living’ entity and constantly evolving

None of us know it all, Each of us can learn from another