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A. Alliteration is derived from Latin’s “Latira”. It means “letters of alphabet”. It is a stylistic device in which a
number of words, having the same first consonant sound, occur close together in a series.
Consider the following examples:
 But a better butter makes a batter better.
 A big bully beats a baby boy.

B. Allusion is a brief and indirect reference to a person, place, thing or idea of historical, cultural, literary or political
significance. It does not describe in detail the person or thing to which it refers. It is just a passing comment and
the writer expects the reader to possess enough knowledge to spot the allusion and grasp its importance in a text.
Consider the following examples:
 “Don’t act like a Romeo in front of her.” – “Romeo” is a reference to Shakespeare’s Romeo, a
passionate lover of Juliet, in “Romeo and Juliet”.
 The rise in poverty will unlock the Pandora’s box of crimes. – This is an allusion to one of Greek
Mythology’s origin myth, “Pandora’s box”.

C. Hyperbole, derived from a Greek word meaning “over-casting,” is a figure of speech that involves
an exaggeration of ideas for the sake of emphasis.
Consider the following examples:
 My grandmother is as old as the hills.
 Your suitcase weighs a ton!
 She is as heavy as an elephant!

D. Irony is a figure of speech in which words are used in such a way that their intended meaning is different from
the actual meaning of the words. It may also be a situation that ends up in quite a different way than what is
generally anticipated. In simple words, it is a difference between appearance and reality.
Consider the following examples:
 The name of Britain’s biggest dog was “Tiny.”
 The butter is as soft as a slab of marble.
 The CEO of a big tobacco company said he did not smoke.

E. Metaphor is a figure of speech that makes an implicit, implied, or hidden comparison between two things that
are unrelated, but which share some common characteristics. In other words, a resemblance of two
contradictory or different objects is made based on a single or some common characteristics. Furthermore, a
metaphor develops a comparison that is different from a simile, in that we do not use “like” or “as” to develop a
comparison in a metaphor. It actually makes an implicit or hidden comparison and not an explicit one.
Consider the following examples:
 My brother was boiling mad. (This implies he was too angry.)
 The assignment was a breeze. (This implies that the assignment was not difficult.)
 It is going to be clear skies from now on. (This implies that clear skies are not a threat and life is
going to be without hardships)
 The skies of his future began to darken. (Darkness is a threat; therefore, this implies that the
coming times are going to be hard for him.)
 Her voice is music to his ears. (This implies that her voice makes him feel happy)

F. Metonymy is a figure of speech that replaces the name of a thing with the name of something else with
which it is closely associated. We can come across examples of metonymy both from literature and in everyday
life. Metonymy is often confused with another figure of speech called “synecdoche.” These devices resemble
one another, but are not the same. Synecdoche refers to a thing by the name of one of its parts. For example,
calling a car “a wheel” is a synecdoche, as a part of a car – the “wheel” – stands for the whole car. Metonymy,
however, develops a relation on the grounds of close association, as in “The White House is concerned about
terrorism.” The White House here represents the people who work in it.
Consider the following examples:
 “England decides to keep check on immigration.” (England refers to the government.)
 “The pen is mightier than the sword.” (Pen refers to written words, and sword to military force.)
 “The Oval Office was busy in work.” (The Oval Office is a metonymy, as it stands for people who
work in the office.)
 “Let me give you a hand.” (Hand means help.)
G. Onomatopoeia, pronounced on-uh-mat-uh–pee–uh, is defined as a word which imitates the natural sounds
of a thing. It creates a sound effect that mimics the thing described, making the description more expressive and
interesting. For instance, saying, “The gushing stream flows in the forest” is a more meaningful description than
just saying, “The stream flows in the forest.” The reader is drawn to hear the sound of a “gushing stream,” which
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makes the expression more effective. In addition to the sounds they represent, many onomatopoeic words
have developed meanings of their own. For example, the word “whisper” not only represents the wispy or
breathy sound of people talking quietly, but also describes the action of people talking quietly.
Consider the following examples:
 The buzzing bee flew away.
 The sack fell into the river with a splash.
 The books fell on the table with a loud thump.

H. Oxymoron is a figure of speech in which two opposite ideas are joined to create an effect. The common
oxymoron phrase is a combination of an adjective proceeded by a noun with contrasting meanings, such as
“cruel kindness,” or “living death”. However, the contrasting words/phrases are not always glued together. The
contrasting ideas may be spaced out in a sentence, such as, “In order to lead, you must walk behind.” It is
important to understand the difference between an oxymoron and a paradox. A paradox may consist of a
sentence, or even a group of sentences. An oxymoron, on the other hand, is a combination of two contradictory
or opposite words. A paradox seems contradictory to the general truth, but it does contain an implied truth. An
oxymoron, however, may produce a dramatic effect, but does not make literal sense. Examples of oxymoron are
found both in casual conversations and in literature.
Consider the following examples:
 Open secret
 Tragic comedy
 Seriously funny
 The above oxymoron examples produce a comical effect. Thus, it is a lot of fun to use them in your everyday
speech. There was a love-hate relationship between the two neighboring states.
 The professor was giving a lecture on virtual reality.
 Paid volunteers were working for the company.

I. The term paradox is from the Greek word paradoxon, which means “contrary to expectations, existing belief, or
perceived opinion.” It is a statement that appears to be self-contradictory or silly, but which may include a latent
truth. It is also used to illustrate an opinion or statement contrary to accepted traditional ideas. A paradox is often
used to make a reader think over an idea in innovative way.
Consider the following examples:
 Your enemy’s friend is your enemy.
 I am nobody.
 “What a pity that youth must be wasted on the young.” – George Bernard Shaw
 Wise fool
 Truth is honey, which is bitter.

J. Personification is a figure of speech in which a thing – an idea or an animal – is given human attributes. The
non-human objects are portrayed in such a way that we feel they have the ability to act like human beings. For
example, when we say, “The sky weeps,” we are giving the sky the ability to cry, which is a human quality. Thus,
we can say that the sky has been personified in the given sentence.
Consider the following examples:
 Look at my car. She is a beauty, isn’t she?
 The wind whispered through dry grass.
 The flowers danced in the gentle breeze.
 Time and tide wait for none.
 The fire swallowed the entire forest.

K. A simile is a figure of speech that makes a comparison, showing similarities between two different things. Unlike
a metaphor, a simile draws resemblance with the help of the words “like” or “as.” Therefore, it is a direct
comparison. We can find simile examples in our daily speech. We often hear comments like, “John is as slow as
a snail.” Snails are notorious for their slow pace, and here the slowness of John is compared to that of a snail.
The use of “as” in the example helps to draw the resemblance. Some more examples of common similes are
given below.
Consider the following examples:
 Our soldiers are as brave as lions.
 Her cheeks are red like a rose.
 He is as funny as a monkey.
 The water well was as dry as a bone.
 He is as cunning as a fox.

L. Litotes, derived from a Greek word meaning “simple,” is a figure of speech that employs an understatement by
using double negatives or, in other words, a positive statement expressed by negating its opposite expressions.
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For example, using the expression “not too bad” for “very good” is an understatement, as well as a double
negative statement that confirms a positive idea by negating the opposite (meaning it’s good, by saying
it’s not bad). Similarly, saying “She is not a beauty queen,” means she is ugly, or saying “I am not as young as I
used to be,” in order to avoid saying I am old. Litotes, therefore, is an intentional use of understatement that
renders an ironic effect.
Consider the following examples:
 They do not seem the happiest couple around.
 The ice cream was not too bad.
 New York is not an ordinary city.
 Your comments on politics are not useless.
 You are not as young as you used to be.

M. An analogy is a comparison in which an idea or a thing is compared to another thing that is quite different from
it. It aims at explaining that idea or thing by comparing it to something that is familiar. Metaphors and similes are
tools used to draw an analogy. Therefore, analogy is more extensive and elaborate than either a simile or
a metaphor.
Consider the following examples:
 The structure of an atom is like a solar system. The nucleus is the sun, and electrons are the
planets revolving around their sun.
 Life is like a race. The one who keeps running wins the race, and the one who stops to catch a
breath loses.
 Just as a sword is the weapon of a warrior, a pen is the weapon of a writer.
 How a doctor diagnoses diseases is like how a detective investigates crimes.

N. An allegory is a work of art, such as a story or painting, in which the characters, images, and/or events act as
symbols. The symbolism in an allegory can be interpreted to have a deeper meaning. An author may use allegory
to illustrate a moral or spiritual truth, or political or historical situation. Allegories can be understood to be a type
of extended metaphor. An extended metaphor develops a certain analogy to a greater extent than a
simple comparison. An allegory, meanwhile, uses a particular metaphor throughout an entire plot.
Consider the following examples:
 The Tortoise and the Hare from Aesop’s Fables: From this story, we learn that the strong and
steady win the race.
 The story of Icarus: Icarus fashions wings for himself out of wax, but when he flies too close to
the sun his wings melt. This story is a message about the dangers of reaching beyond out
powers.

O. A caesura is a complete stop in a line of poetry. A caesura can be anywhere in a metrical line—it is called an
initial caesura if it occurs at or near the beginning of the line, a medial caesura if it is found in the middle of the
line, and a terminal caesura if it occurs near the end of the line. The definition of caesura can be further classified
either as masculine or feminine, depending on the syllable following the caesura. A stressed syllable following a
caesura denotes a masculine caesura, whereas a feminine caesura is followed by an unstressed syllable.
Caesurae are usually marked by a pair of parallel lines (“||”), called a “double pipe” sign. However, some caesura
examples—usually more contemporary ones—are marked with other forms of punctuation.
The word caesura comes from the Latin word caedere, which means “to cut.”
Consider the following examples:
 My country ’tis of thee || sweet land of liberty || of thee I sing.
Land where my fathers died || land of the Pilgrim’s pride,
From every mountainside || let freedom ring!
—“My Country, ’Tis of Thee” by Samuel Francis Smith
 Hey Jude || don’t make it bad
Take a sad song || and make it better
—“Hey Jude” by The Beatles

P. The literary device of deus ex machina means to solve a seemingly intractable problem in a plot by adding in
an unexpected character, object, or situation. Deus ex machina often has the sense of being quite contrived, as it
seems like the author must resort to something that he or she did not set up properly plot-wise. However, an
author can also use deus ex machina for comedic purposes due to this contrived nature, or even make it so that
the deus ex machina surprises the audience yet was retrospectively was the solution being set up all along.
There are many examples of deus ex machina in films. They are especially common in the James Bond series (and
similar espionage series like Mission Impossible) when James has an unexpected device that happens to be
exactly what he needs in that moment to save his life, but didn’t know how it worked until that moment.
Here is a short list of other deus ex machina examples:
 Monty Python’s Life of Brian: In a comedic twist, the Biblical-era hero Brian falls off a tower
and is saved by a spaceship of aliens flying by.
 Lord of the Rings: Magical, gigantic eagles arrive to save Gandalf when he is trapped on top of
a tower by evil wizard Saruman with no hope of escape.
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