Advanced Materials and Structures

and their Fabrication Processes

Third edition, Narvik University College, HiN

Dag Lukkassen and Annette Meidell

October 13, 2003

Contents

I Materials and Structures 7

1 Ceramics and glasses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.1 Industrial Importance of Ceramics and Glasses . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.2 Technical Ceramics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.2.1 Functional ceramics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.2.2 Structural ceramics (industrial ceramics; engineering ceram-
ics) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.2.3 High-performance ceramics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.3 Advanced high-performance refractory ceramics . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.4 New type of High-performance Ceramic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.5 Industrially Important Glasses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2 Metals and metal alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.1 High-peformance Metals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.1.1 High-Performance Aluminum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.1.2 High-Performance Steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.1.3 Space-age metals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
3 Polymers and Plastics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
3.1 The structure of polymers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
3.2 Crystallinity in polymers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
3.2.1 The glass transition temperature and melting . . . . . . . 24
 3.3 Plastics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
3.4 Properties of plastics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
3.4.1 Thermosettings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
3.4.2 Thermoplastics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
3.4.3 Types of Thermoplastics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
3.4.4 Types of Thermosettings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
3.5 High-Performance Plastic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
3.6 Additives in Plastics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
3.6.1 Oriented Plastics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
3.7 Elastomers & Rubbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
3.7.1 Rubber and Artificial Elastomers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
3.8 Biopolymers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
3.8.1 What makes a polymer a biopolymer? . . . . . . . . . . . 46
3.8.2 Applications of biopolymers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
3.8.3 Properties of biopolymers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
3.8.4 Additional information on raw materials in biopolymers . . 48
3.8.5 Plastic taste better with sugar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
4 Composites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
4.1 The history of composites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
4.2 Natural composites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
4.3 Man-made Composites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
4.3.1 Fiber-Reinforced Composites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
4.3.2 Classification of composites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
4.4 Ceramic matrix composites CMC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
4.5 Metal Matrix Composites MMC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
4.6 Polymer Matrix Composites PMC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
4.7 Composite fibers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
4.7.1 High-performance fibers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
4.7.2 Choosing fibers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
4.8 Aerogel composites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
4.9 Textile composites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
4.10 Advantages of composites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
4.11 Disadvantages of composites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
4.12 Space-age materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
4.13 Self-healing composites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
4.14 Left-handed metamaterials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
5 Smart (intelligent) Materials and Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85

2
 5.1 Color Changing Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
5.1.1 Photochromic materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
5.1.2 Thermochromic materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
5.2 Light Emitting Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
5.2.1 Electroluminescent materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
5.2.2 Fluorescent materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
5.2.3 Phosphorescent materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
5.3 Moving Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
5.3.1 Conducting polymers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
5.3.2 Dielectric elastomers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
5.3.3 Piezoelectric materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
5.3.4 Polymer gels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
5.3.5 Shape memory materials (SMM) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
5.3.6 Nanostructured Shape Memory Materials . . . . . . . . . . 93
5.3.7 Magnetic Shape Memory (MSM) Materials . . . . . . . . . 94
5.4 Temperature Changing Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
5.4.1 Thermoelectric materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
6 Functional Gradient Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
7 Nano - materials - and technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
7.1 Nanocomposites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
7.2 New, flexible ceramics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
7.3 Back to square one? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
8 Cellular Solids, Structures & Foams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
8.1 Metal Foams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
8.1.1 Aluminium foam: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
8.2 Polymer foam: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
8.3 Refractory foams / Ceramic foam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
8.3.1 Carbon foam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
8.4 Hierarchical structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
8.5 Biomaterials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115

II Sandwich Constructions 118

9 Why use sandwich constructions? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
9.1 Face materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
9.2 Core materials and structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
9.2.1 Foam Cores . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123

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 9.2.2 Honeycomb Cores . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
9.2.3 Corrugated Cores . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
9.2.4 Wood Cores . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
9.3 Adhesives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
10 Design of sandwich constructions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
10.1 Preliminaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
10.2 The Flexural Rigidity and Shear Rigidity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
10.3 Tensile and Compressive Stresses and Strains . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
10.3.1 Due to bending (transversal) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
10.3.2 Due to in-plane loading (axial) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
10.4 Shear stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
10.4.1 Summary of approximations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
10.5 Sandwich design: stiffness, strength and weight . . . . . . . . . . 146
10.6 Example of beam calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
11 Design Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
11.1 Failure modes of sandwich panel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
11.2 Design example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
12 Failure modes and failure loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
12.0.1 Failure-mode maps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
12.1 The stiffness of sandwich structures and its optimization . . . . . 164
12.1.1 Graphical solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166

III Mechanics and Effective Properties of Composite

Structures and Honeycombs 168
13 On effective Properties of Compostite Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
14 The thermal problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
15 Isotropic elastic materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
16 Orthotropic composites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
17 Square symmetric unidirectional two-phase structure . . . . . . . . . . 173
17.1 Calculation of stiffness and complience matrix . . . . . . . . . . . 175
18 Numerical methods for periodic structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
18.1 Coordinate transformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
19 A computational example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183

4
IV Cellular Solids 187
20 Some definitions of cellular solids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
20.1 Mechanics of honeycombs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
20.2 In-plane deformation properties, uniaxial loading . . . . . . . . . 190
20.2.1 Linear-elastic deformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
20.3 Out-of-plane deformation properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
20.3.1 Linear-elastic deformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
21 Laminate Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
21.1 Failure in composites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
21.2 Modulus of Fiber-Reinforced Composites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197

V Fabrication processes 199

22 Fabrication of plastics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
22.1 Processing of Rubber and elastomers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
23 Fabrication of Fiber-Reinforced Composites (FRC) . . . . . . . . . . . 210
23.1 Manufacturing processes of Reinforcements . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
23.2 Prepregs, Preforms and Compounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
23.3 Fabrication processes of FRC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
23.4 Fabrication of sandwich constructions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
24 Layer Manufacturing Technology (LMT) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
24.1 Ballistic particle manufacturing (inkjet) BMP . . . . . . . . . . . 224
24.2 Fused deposition modelling - FDM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
24.3 LOM - Laminated object manufacturing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
24.4 Selective laser sintering - SLS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
24.5 Laser Engineered Net Shaping (LENS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
24.6 Stereo lithography - SLA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
24.7 Solid ground curing - SGC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
24.8 Three dimensional printing (3DP) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
24.9 PowderProcessing/PowderMetallurgy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
24.10Vapor Deposition CVD/PVD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
24.11Selection of a layered manufacturing process . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
25 Design Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
25.1 Designing for Manufacturability (DFM) ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
25.2 Product design guidelines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
25.3 Evaluation of design alternatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
25.4 The meaning of colors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239

5
Preface
This report is written in order to use it as lecture notes in the course ”Advanced
materials” given at Narvik University College for master students in the field of
Engineering Design. In the course the students will be familiar with different
kind of advanced materials and structures such as for instance smart materials,
functional gradient materials, polymers and plastics, nano-materials, elastomers
and rubbers, biopolymers, cellular solids and structures, and different types of
composite materials, which can be found in Part 1 of this report. In Part 2,
the fabrication-processes of different advanced materials, structures and forms is
described. The different types of sandwich constructions included the design of
such structures are subjects that are discussed in Part 3, while in Part 4 we will
have a closer look at mechanics and effective properties of composite structures
and honeycombs.
This report may also be used as literature for students studying mechanical
engineering, material science, production engineering. We assume that the reader
has a bachelor degree in Engineering.

6
 Figure 0.1: Classes of materials.

Part I
Materials and Structures
In this part we will mainly consider the concepts of materials and structures. The
difference between a material and a structure is not clearly defined. Many draw
the lines between what you understand as a homogeneous material when you see
it with your bare eyes, and the inhomogeneous material structure that you clearly
see is made up of a fixed geometry or mixing of materials. For instance an alloy is
by this definition a material even though it consists of two or more components,
but a honeycomb core built up of two different components is a structure.
Materials are often classified into the six broad classes that are shown in fig-
ure 0.1; metals, ceramics, glasses, elastomers, polymers and composites, see for
instance. But, when we also include material structures, the number is bigger,
and the classification of the term ”materials and structures”, even though it is
not a conventional way of making a classification, may look like the one purposed
in figure 0.2. We will in this book briefly mention main properties of each group
in figure 0.2, but the advanced term in the title of the book refers to a thor-
oughly study of composites, polymers, smart materials, sandwich constructions,
nano-technology, functional materials, cellular structures.

7
 Figure 0.2: Classes of materials and structures.

High Performance Materials (HPM)

High-performance materials (or Advanced Engineering Materials) are materi-
als that provide specific performance advantages in comparison with the counter-
part conventional materials. Often it is difficult to place materials strictly into the
group of high-performance group or other groups, but we often divide materials
into the following main groups:
• Standard materials, which are used in products that is exposed to non-
critical environments and low-stress applications
• Standard Engineering Materials, which are used in products that must
have general bearing and wear properties
• High-performance materials or advanced engineering materials, which
are used in products that must have superior properties (extreme service environ-
ments, superior chemical resistance, wear resistence, and loading properties)

There are several types of materials currently called high-performance mate-

rials, for instance high-performance concrete, high-performance composites, high-
performance plastics, high-performance aluminum, high-performance ceramics,
and high-performance steel. What they all have in common is that they have
outstanding properties compared to the materials we used earlier. In short time
maybe the materials we know as HPM today may not be so high-performance

8
tomorrow, since the materials-science is rapidly changing and growing.
While research laboratories are still exploring ways to exploit these materi-
als, some of them are ready for use. Because there is little data available on the
long-term results of many high-performance materials and because there is fre-
quently a relatively high initial cost, states are reluctant to take on such a venture
independently.

Questions:
What is the conventional way of making a classification of materials?
What is the new way of making a classification of materials?
What is so special about high performance materials?

References:
High-performance materials:
http://www.hiper-group.com/hcproducts.htm

free internet books:

http://books.nap.edu/

9
1. Ceramics and glasses
A ceramic is often broadly defined as any inorganic nonmetallic material. Ex-
amples of ceramic materials can be anything from NaCl (table salt) to clay (a
complex silicate).
By this definition, ceramic materials would also include glasses; however, many
materials scientists add the stipulation that ”ceramics” must also be crystalline
(crystalline materials, see Figure 1.1 have their molecules arranged in repeating

Figure 1.1: Crystalline structure.

patterns. Table salt has one of the simplest atomic structures with its component
atoms, Na+ and Cl-, arranged in alternating rows and the structure of a small
cube. Salt, sugar, ice and most metals are crystalline materials. As such, they all
tend to have highly ordered and regular structures).
A glass is an inorganic nonmetallic material that does not have a crystalline
structure. Such materials are said to be amorphous (amorphous materials, see Fig-
ure 1.2 by contrast, have their molecules arranged randomly and in long chains

Figure 1.2: Amorph structure.

10
which twist and curve around one-another, making large regions of highly struc-
tured morphology unlikely).
Examples of glasses range from the soda-lime silicate glass in soda bottles to
the extremely high purity silica glass in optical fibers.
Some of the useful properties of ceramics and glasses include high melting
temperature, low density, high strength, stiffness, hardness, wear resistance, and
corrosion resistance. Many ceramics are good electrical and thermal insulators.
Some ceramics have special properties: some ceramics are magnetic materials;
some are piezoelectric materials; and a few special ceramics are superconductors
at very low temperatures. Ceramics and glasses have one major drawback: they
are brittle.
Ceramics are widely used in the electrical industry mostly due to their high
electrical resistance. Other good engineering properties are: They can withstand
high temperatures, and they resist wear. Ceramics are in general hard, brittle,
high-melting-point materials with low electrical and thermal conductivity, low
thermal expansion, good chemical and thermal stability, good creep resistance,
high elastic modulus, and high compressive strengths. Recently, new groups of
ceramics have emerged with the possibility to use them as load-bearing materials.
The term ceramic comes from the Greek word keramikos, which means burnt
stuff, indicating that desirable properties of these materials are normally achieved
through a high-temperature heat treatment process called firing.

1.1. Industrial Importance of Ceramics and Glasses

Silicon, a semiconductor but also a ceramic material, has been THE material which
has made computers possible. Ceramic fibers such as graphite and aluminum oxide
with their extremely high stiffness have led to the production of fiber-reinforced
composites. These materials are only a few of an ever-growing list of industrially
important ceramics.

Glasses have historically been used for low technology applications such as
soda bottles and window panes.
However, glasses, like ceramics, have recently found new application in high
technology fields, particularly the semiconductor microelectronics industry where
silica is widely used as an insulator in transistors and the fiber optic cable industry
where high purity silica glass has made advanced telecommunications possible, see
Figure 1.3.

11
 Figure 1.3: A transmission cable containing hundreds of glass optical fibers.

As with ceramics, the list of industrially important glasses also continues to

grow. As a result of their unique properties, ceramics and glasses are materials
which will be used extensively in the next century in areas such as aerospace,
automobiles, microelectronics, and telecommunications.

1.2. Technical Ceramics

Technical Ceramics covers ceramic materials and products for technical applica-
tion. Terms such as:
· functional ceramics
· structural ceramics
· engineering ceramics
· industrial ceramics
· high-performance ceramics
· electro-ceramics
· cutting ceramics
· bio-ceramics
describe the products groups of Technical Ceramics, but due to overlapping
there is not a clear classification.

1.2.1. Functional ceramics

Components which fulfill an electrical, magnetic, dielectrical, optical etc. function
belong to this group.

12
1.2.2. Structural ceramics (industrial ceramics; engineering ceramics)
Components which are subjected mainly to mechanical loads (tensile and pres-
sure strain, bending moments etc.) fall under the category structural ceramic.
Sometimes the terms industrial or engineering ceramics are also used for these
products.

1.2.3. High-performance ceramics

In ENV 12212 high-performance ceramics are defined as ”highly developed, high-
performance applicable ceramic material, which is mainly non-metallic and inor-
ganic, and has certain functional properties.” The term is seen as a differentiation
to traditional clay based ceramic that includes china-ware, sanitary ceramic tiles
and bricks and covers all technical ceramics. The materials for electrical engineer-
ing are standardised in IEC 627.

The term used above are often still used in classify technical ceramics. However
an unambiguous classification is only possible if the materials are listed under their
chemical composition:

• silicate ceramics

— technical porcelain (quartz, feldspar and kaolin. )

— steatite (major component: soapstone, additives: clay and flux)
— cordierite (these magnesium silicates occur during the sintering of soap-
stone with added clay, kaolin, corundium and mullite.)
— mullite-ceramic (Al2 O3 and SiO2 ,where mullite: (3 Al2 O3 2 SiO2 ) and
corundium (Al2 O3 ) )

• oxide ceramics

— aluminium oxide (AL2 O3 )

— magnesium oxide (MgO)
— zirconium oxide (ZrO2 )
— aluminium titanate (AT)

13
 — piezo ceramic (PZT), (the most important piezoelectrical ceramic ma-
terials are based on the oxide mixed crystals system lead zirconate and
lead titanate)

• nonoxide ceramics:

— carbide: Silicon carbide (SIC), Sintered silicon carbide (SSIC), Reac-

tion bonded silicom infiltrated silicon carbide (SSIC), Recrystallized
silicon carbide (RSIC), and Nitride bonded silicom carbide (NSIC)
— nitride: Silicon nitride (Si3 N4 ), Silicon aluminium oxynitride (SIALON),
and Aluminium nitride (ALN)

High-performance ceramics are ceramics with incredibly light weight, high

hardness, non-corrodable, high melting points, high price and advanced applica-
tions. Components made from high-performance ceramics are often determining
the functionality of machinery by possessing excellent corrosion resistance, very
high thermal stability and wear resistance, as well as high biocompatibility. Den-
sity, porosity, electrical and optical characteristics can be varied within a wide
range. Highly specialized and flexible production techniques enable us to match
our products to the specific customer demands.

1.3. Advanced high-performance refractory ceramics

Due to the covalent character of the chemical bond refractory ceramics exhibit
very high (about 3000◦ C) melting point, low mobility of atoms, low plasticity
and high hardness at temperatures up to 2000◦ C. Therefore, refractory materi-
als can substitute metals, alloys and intermetallics in a lot of high temperature
engineering, chemical and electronic applications.
There are four main groups of refractory materials under investigations:

• Non-oxide amorphous and nanocrystalline ceramics produced from organic

precursors.

Silicon-nitrogen-boron-carbon (Si-B-C-N) based ceramics are expected to be

strong and stable at high temperatures up to 2000◦ C and may be used in future
for motor engines, gas turbines parts, catalytic heat exchangers and combustion
systems.

14
 • Silicon carbide produced by high temperature modified Lely process.
Very pure and defect free single crystals grown by this method are of high
interest for electronic devices operating at high power, high voltage, high
frequency, and high temperatures up to 600◦ C. Another merit of SiC com-
pared to conventional electronics based on Si is their high stability against
high energy photons and particle irradiation.

• Stoichiometric (WC) and non-stoichiometric Group IV and V transition

metal carbides, nitrides, and oxides MXy produced by high temperature
vacuum powder synthesis or by chemical vapor deposition (CVD).
These materials with extremely high melting points up to 4000◦ C, are be-
sides diamonds and cubic boron nitride the hardest materials so far. They
are used as high resistance coatings and also for drilling and cutting tools.
These materials are furthermore of practical interest for chemical applica-
tions due to their high catalytic activity which is similar to that of Pt.

• Nanocrystalline zirconia, ZrO2, prepared from Zr by sputtering, inert-gas-

condensation, oxidation, in situ consolidation of nanocrystalline nano-ZrO2
powder and subsequent pressureless sintering at 950 or 1050◦ C in vacuum.
This ultrafine grained material can increase the efficiency of solid oxide fuel
cells due to faster oxygen diffusion in the interfaces compared to bulk diffu-
sion. The study of nanocrystalline zirconia will help in tailoring the synthesis
of refractory ceramics for novel solid oxygen fuel cells, see Figure 1.4. Single
Tube is made up of multiple ceramic layers bonded together. Multiple tubes
can be linked to form power modules that can be combined to build small
generators or larger power plants.

1.4. New type of High-performance Ceramic

When a racing driver brakes, the discs and linings become red-hot. These parts
are commonly made of carbon-fiber-reinforced carbon and are black at moderate
temperatures. Car manufacturers and their suppliers would dearly like to extend
the use of these special brake pads and other hard-wearing parts developed for
racing vehicles to perfectly normal family cars - if only the cost was not prohibitive.
This may now be possible using a new fiber-composite material that could almost
be referred to as a renewable ceramic. Its carbon matrix is made of carbonized

15
Figure 1.4: Zircronia ceramic tubes are the key to Westinghouse Electric’s design for
a solid oxide fuel cell.

flax, hemp or wood fibers, which are then permeated with liquid silicon to form a
high-strength, wear- and temperature-resistant silicon carbide.
A great deal of know-how is needed even to produce the sheets of carbon fiber,
reveals Dr. Stefan Siegel, team leader at the Fraunhofer Institute for Ceramic
Technologies and Sintered Materials IKTS. Our starting material are boards of
resin-coated plant fibers, which are produced for us by our colleagues at the Fraun-
hofer Institute for Wood Research WKI. These sheets then undergo a process
called carbonization, in which the natural-fiber composite is heated in a nitrogen
flooded furnace to temperatures of over 1000◦ C. This process has to be carefully
controlled to ensure that the shrinkage of the material - i.e. its reduction in vol-
ume - proceeds homogeneously and without distortion. All that is left in the end
is carbon; practically all other compounds present in the original material have
decomposed and evaporated. The black sheets resulting from the carbonization
of the raw natural fiber can be used, for example, as structural elements or as
an insulating lining for furnaces. Alternatively, this intermediate product can be
shaped into components using standard industrial machining techniques such as
sawing, drilling or milling.
But let us return to the ceramics. At temperatures above 1410◦ C, silicon
liquefies, and is soaked up like a sponge by the sheets of carbon (at present up to
one square meter in size) or the pre-shaped components. The silicon undergoes a
fast-acting reaction with the carbon, forming a fiber-composite ceramic material.

16
This stage of the process, unlike carbonization, does not alter the shape or size
of the parts. The post-processing of hard ceramic materials like silicon carbide
is relatively difficult. The new wood ceramic, by contrast, can be shaped before
it is hardened, thus presenting manufacturers who use machine tools to produce
parts subject to high mechanical and thermal stress with a simple-to-use, low-cost
alternative. (published nov. 2002a )

1.5. Industrially Important Glasses

Silica glass (SiO2 ) is used for optical fibers when it is very pure.
Soda-lime glass (SiO2 -Na2 O-CaO) is the standard glass used for bottles and
windows due to its low cost and easy manufacturing.
Borosilicate glass (SiO2 -B2 O3 ) is good in applications where thermal shock
resistance is necessary (e.g. laboratory glassware) because of its low coefficient of
thermal expansion
Lead glass (SiO2 -PbO) commonly known as ”crystal”, this glass has a high
index of refraction causing it to sparkle (much like a diamond)

Questions:
• What is the special properties of ceramics and glasses?
• What are they used for?
• What are the industrally important glasses?
• What kind of different ceramics are there?
• What is a high-performance ceramic?
• What is the drawback of ceramics compared to metals?
References:
http://www.keramverband.de/eng/definitionen_m.html
a
http://www.globaltechnoscan.com/
31stOct-6thNov02/high_performance_ceramics.htm
http://www.globaltechnoscan.com/
http://www.sciam.com/explore_directory.cfm
http://www.mse.cornell.edu/courses/engri111/ceramic.htm
http://www.mse.cornell.edu/courses/engri111/impglass.htm
http://biotsavart.tripod.com/327.htm
http://www.engr.sjsu.edu/WofMatE/

17
2. Metals and metal alloys
Metals are elements that generally have good electrical and thermal conductivity.
Many metals have high strength, high stiffness, and have good ductility.
Some metals, such as iron, cobalt and nickel are magnetic.
At extremely low temperatures, some metals and intermetallic compounds be-
come superconductors (a superconductor can conduct electricity without electrical
resistance at temperatures above absolute zero. The change from normal electrical
conductivity to superconductivity occurs abruptly at a critical temperature Tc ).

Pure metals are elements which comes from a particular area of the periodic
table. Examples of pure metals include copper in electrical wires and aluminum
in cooking foil and beverage cans.
Metal Alloys contain more than one metallic element. Their properties can be
changed by changing the elements present in the alloy.
Examples of metal alloys include stainless steel which is an alloy of iron, nickel,
and chromium; and gold jewelry which usually contains an alloy of gold and nickel.

Why are metals and metal alloys used?

Many metals and alloys have high densities and are used in applications which
require a high mass-to-volume ratio.
Some metal alloys, such as those based on Aluminum, have low densities and
are used in aerospace applications for fuel economy. Other examples: Many metal
alloys also have high fracture toughness, which means they can withstand im-
pact and are durable. Many beverage cans are made of Aluminum metal. Many
structures, such as this suspension bridge, are made of steel alloys, see Figure
2.1. Aircraft skins are made of lightweight aluminum alloys with high fracture
toughness.

2.1. High-peformance Metals

When metal components must perform under critical conditions, manufacturers
need high-performance metals. Examples of such materials are nickel-base and
cobalt-base superalloys, titanium-base alloys, and specialty steels for the aerospace
industry ... metals of exceptional wear resistance, corrosion resistance, heat resis-
tance, toughness, and strength.

18
 Figure 2.1: A suspension bridge.

2.1.1. High-Performance Aluminum

Aluminum bridge decks have a number of advantages over concrete and steel
decks.
Aluminum is about 80 percent lighter than concrete. This substantial weight
savings allows many bridges to be strengthened without extensive reengineering of
substructures. Construction time can be accelerated through the use of aluminum
because it does not require the curing time needed by concrete.
Aluminum requires fewer welds than steel, eliminating many potential failure
points. Compared to steel, aluminum is less expensive, both in the short term
and the long term. An aluminum deck is also more resistant to corrosion and
other environmental degradation. Also, aluminum is lighter and can be installed
more quickly, which is an increasingly important factor considering the public’s
impatience with road construction delays.

2.1.2. High-Performance Steel

High-strength steel has been available for a long time for bridge construction.
However, its use has been extremely limited because marginal weldability, tough-
ness, and corrosion resistance have caused performance problems in many cases.
Still, there have been many examples where high-strength steel has been used to
make bridge designs more cost-effective. The goal of the new high-performance
properties is to develop steels that possess greatly enhanced performance prop-
erties in addition to strength. These ”optimized” steels will open the door for
improved, cost-effective bridge designs that will be easy to construct, have good
long-term durability, and provide a high degree of public safety.
Structural components in new cars are for example made from high-performance
steel that is 2.5 times stronger than ordinary steel (750 MPa instead of 300 which

19
is ususal). This makes the new cars very crash resistant such that the passengers
are much more protected if there should be a collision.

2.1.3. Space-age metals

In jet aircrafts, rockets, missiles and nuclear reactors, the metals columbium (Nb,
41), titanium (Ti, 22), hafnium (Hf, 72), zirconium (Zr, 40) and tantalum (Ta,
73) are used. Columbium (niobium) can withstand high temperatures and can be
used for the skin and structural members of aerospace equipment and missiles. It
is a lightweight metal and a superconductor of electricity (which means that it
could be possible to use it in storing and transfering large amounts of energy in
the future). Titanium is as strong as steel and 45% lighter, and is often used for
jet engine components (rotors, fins, and compressor parts) and other aerospace
parts. Hafnium and zirconium are always found together are they make it possible
to control nuclear reactors in a precice way. The superior corrosion resistance of
zirconium makes it (and its alloys) very useful in the chemical ndustry and for
sugical implants. Pure zirconium has for a long time been used as the light source
in photo flash tubes, since it is a reactive metal that burns in air with a brilliant
white light. Tantalum (often occurs as the mineral columbitetantalite) is very
melleable and ductile. Its melting point is at 2996◦ C, and is often used as a
replacement for platinium in chemical, and dental equipments and instruments.
It is also used to make electrolytic capacitors and are used in vacuum furnaces.
A superconducting material transmits electricity with virtually no energy loss.
Superconductivity, which occurs in many metals and alloys, is very new and is
therefore not yet in widespread use.

Questions:
•Why are metals and metal alloys used?
•What is so special about high performance metals?
• In the space-age, what features in a material or material structure would be
important in th future?
•What kind of metals are used in space equipment, and why are they used?
References:
http://www.mse.cornell.edu/courses/engri111/metal.htm
http://www.allvac.com/
http://www.greatachievements.org/
http://www.hiper-group.com/hcproducts.htm

20
http://www.tu.no/samferdsel/article.jhtml?articleID=18756
http://www.spacedaily.com/news/materials-02zh.html
R. Gregg Bruce, Mileta M. Tomovic, John E. Neely and Richard R. Kibble, Mod-
ern materials and manufacturing processes, ISBN: 0-13-186859-4, Second edition,
Prentice Hall, 1998.

21
 Figure 3.1: Polymerization by addition of equal monomers.

3. Polymers and Plastics

Polymer etymology: The word polymer comes from Greek: poly means ‘many’
and mer comes from merous which roughly means ‘parts’. Polymers are organic
materials characterized by long chain-like molecules built up from many units
(monomers), see Figure 3.1, generally repeated hundreds or thousands of times.
All atoms in a chain are bonded by covalent bond to each other, while Van der
Waals bonding keeps the chains together. Starch, cellulose, and proteins are
natural polymers. Nylon and polyethylene are synthetic polymers.
From organic chemistry, polymer is defined as: ”a large molecule formed by
the union of at least five identical monomers; it may be natural, such as cellulose
or DNA, or synthetic, such as nylon or polyethylene; polymers usually contain
many more than five monomers, and some may contain hundreds or thousands of
monomers in each chain.”
Plastics offer low density, low tooling costs, good corrosion resistance, cost
reduction, and design versatility.

3.1. The structure of polymers

Polymerization is the word for the process of forming large molecules from small
molecules. When there are no possibility to add any more atoms, the molecules
are said to be saturated. When molecules do not have the maximum number
of atoms, because atoms in the molecule are held together with double or triple
covalent (shared) bonds, they are called unsaturated. The unsaturated molecules
are important in the polymerization process, which means that small molecules

22
 Figure 3.2: Methane and ethane.

are linked together to form large molecules, as you can see in Figure 3.1, where
the process has taken place through addition mechanism. Here, a large molecule
(polymer) is formed by a repeated unit (mer). Activators or catalysts (benzoyl
peroxide) are often required to drive the reaction. When two different types of
mers are combined into the same addition chain, we call them copolymers. And,
in terpolymers three different monomers are included. A polymer can also be
made from a condensation process which means that reactive molecules combine
with one another to produce a polymer plus small, by-product molecules, such as
water. Often, heat, pressure or a catalyst are required to drive the reaction. In
most commercial available plastics the number of mers in the polymer (which is
known as the degree of polymerization) range from 75 to 750.
The molecular structure of polymers are often based on paraffin-type hydro-
carbons where carbon and hydrogen are linked in the relationship

Cn H2n+2 ,

as we see in Figure 3.2. Hydrogen can be replaced by chlorine, flouring and also
benzene. Carbon can be replaced by oxygen, silicon, sulfur or nitrogen. These
possibilities are the reason why a wide range of organic compounds can be created.
By the description of polymers we see that wood (cellulose-type materials, see
Figure 3.3) are included in the group of polymer. It has been accepted for many
years that cellulose is a long chain polymer, made up of repeating units of glucose,
a simple sugar. As a carbohydrate, the chemistry of cellulose is primarily the
chemistry of alcohols; and it forms many of the common derivatives of alcohols,
such as esters, ethers, etc. These derivatives form the basis for much of the
industrial technology of cellulose in use today. Cellulose derivatives are used
commercially in two ways, as transient intermediates or as permanent products.

23
 Figure 3.3: The structure of cellulose.

3.2. Crystallinity in polymers

We need to distinguish between crystalline (see Figure 1.1) and amorphous ma-
terials (see Figure 1.2) and then show how these forms coexist in polymers. The
reasons for the differing behaviors lie mainly in the structure of the solids.
The morphology of most polymers is semi-crystalline. That is, they form
mixtures of small crystals and amorphous material and melt over a range of tem-
perature instead of at a single melting point. The crystalline material shows a
high degree of order formed by folding and stacking of the polymer chains. The
amorphous or glass-like structure shows no long range order, and the chains are
tangled. There are some polymers that are completely amorphous, but most are a
combination with the tangled and disordered regions surrounding the crystalline
areas.

3.2.1. The glass transition temperature and melting

When the polymer is cooled below the glass transition temperature (Tg ), it be-
comes hard and brittle, like glass. Some polymers are used above their glass
transition temperatures, and some are used below. The glass transition is not
the same thing as melting. Melting is a transition which occurs in crystalline
polymers. Melting (the melting temperature (Tm ) is also called flow temperature

24
for amorpous materials) happens when the polymer chains fall out of their crystal
structures, and become a disordered liquid. is The glass transition is a transition
which happens to amorphous polymers; that is, polymers whose chains are not
arranged in ordered crystals, but are just strewn around in any old fashion, even
though they are in the solid state.
But even crystalline polymers will have a some amorphous portion. This
portion usually makes up 40-70% of the polymer sample. This is why the same
sample of a polymer can have both a glass transition temperature and a melting
temperature. But you should know that the amorphous portion undergoes the
glass transition only, and the crystalline portion undergoes melting only.
In the study of polymers and their applications, it is important to understand
the concept of the glass transition temperature, Tg . As the temperature of a
polymer drops below Tg , it behaves in an increasingly brittle manner. As the
temperature rises above the Tg , the polymer becomes more rubber-like. Thus,
knowledge of Tg is essential in the selection of materials for various applications. In
general, values of Tg well below room temperature define the domain of elastomers
and values above room temperature define rigid, structural polymers.
To become more quantitative about the characterization of the liquid-glass
transition phenomenon and Tg , we note that in cooling an amorphous material
from the liquid state, there is no abrupt change in volume such as occurs in the
case of cooling of a crystalline material through its freezing point, Tf . Instead,
at the glass transition temperature, Tg , there is a change in slope of the curve of
specific volume vs. temperature, moving from a low value in the glassy state to a
higher value in the rubbery state over a range of temperatures. This comparison
between a crystalline material (1) and an amorphous material (2) is illustrated in
Figure 3.4. Note that the intersections of the two straight line segments of curve
(2) defines the quantity Tg .
Polymer science is a broad field that includes many types of materials which
incorporate long chain structure of many repeat units as discussed above. The
two major polymer classes are:

• Elastomers

• Plastics

Another important property of polymers, also strongly dependent on their

temperatures, is their response to the application of a force, as indicated by two

25
Figure 3.4: Comparison between a crystalline material (1) and an amorphous material
(2).

main types of behavior: elastic and plastic. Elastic materials will return to their
original shape once the force is removed. Plastic materials will not regain their
shape. In plastic materials, flow is occurring, much like a highly viscous liquid.
Most materials demonstrate a combination of elastic and plastic behavior, showing
plastic behavior after the elastic limit has been exceeded.
Glass is one of the few completely elastic materials while it is below its Tg .
It will remain elastic until it reaches its breaking point. The Tg of glass occurs
between 510 and 560◦ C, meaning that it will always be a brittle solid at room
temperature. In comparison, polyvinyl chloride (PVC) has a Tg of 83◦ C, making
it good, for example, for cold water pipes, but unsuitable for hot water. PVC also
will always be a brittle solid at room temperature.

3.3. Plastics
Plastics, see Figure 3.5, are a large group of polymers that has properties between
elastomers and fibers, and has plastic behavior. As such, plastics have a wide
range of properties such as flexibility and hardness and can be synthesized to
have almost any combination of desired properties.

26
 Figure 3.5: Plastics.

Plastics are polymers which, under appropriate conditions of temperature and

pressure, can be molded or shaped (such as blowing to form a film). In contrast
to elastomers, plastics have a greater stiffness and lack reversible elasticity. All
plastics are polymers but not all polymers are plastics. Cellulose is an example of
a polymeric material which must be substantially modified before processing with
the usual methods used for plastics. Some plastics, such as nylon and cellulose
acetate, are formed into fibers (which are regarded by some as a separate class of
polymers in spite of a considerable overlap with plastics). As we shall see in the
section on liquid crystals, some of the main chain polymer liquid crystals also are
the constituents of important fibers. Every day plastics such as polyethylene and
poly(vinyl chloride) have replaced traditional materials like paper and copper for
a wide variety of applications.
Look on the bottom of a recyclable plastic bottle - chances are you will see a
PE or PS which means polyethylene or polystyrene. These materials are exam-
ples of what happens to polymers when they solidify: the chains are entangled
and packed together to make light, tough, flexible materials. If you heat up PE
or PS to moderate temperatures, if the chains have not been chemically stuck
together (‘cross-linked’) they will melt, and turn into goopy liquids, which are
called polymer melts. Some polymers melts even at room temperature, like poly-
dimethylsiloxane (PDMS), or poly(ethylene-propylene) (PEP).

27
3.4. Properties of plastics
New types of plastics are developed all the time, and therefore it is helpful to have
a brief knowledge of the following general basic properties of plastics.

• Light weight: Most plastics have a specific gravity (SG) between 1.1 and
1.6. Magnesium has a SG about 1.75. Specific gravity is the heaviness of
a substance compared to that of water, and it is expressed without units. In
the metric system specific gravity is the same as in the English system. If
something is 7.85 times as heavy as an equal volume of water (such as iron
is) its specific gravity is 7.85. Its density is 7.85 grams per cubic centimeter,
or 7.85 kilograms per liter, or 7.85 metric tons per cubic meter.
• Corrosion resistance: Many plastics perform well in hostile, corrosive
environments.
• Electrical resistance: Plastics are often used as insulating materials.
• Low thermal conductivity: Plastics are relatively good thermal insula-
tors.
• Variety of optical properties: You can get a plastic in almost any color
you would like, and the color can go throughout (not only at the surface).
You can also get transparent or opaque plastics.
• Formability: Plastics are easy to form (often in only one single operation).
Extrusion, casting and molding are widely used.
• Surface finish: You can get the surface you want, from rough to excellent
surface finish.
• Comparatively low cost: Both material and processing/manufacturing
processes are cheap. Tool costs are also low.
• Low energy content: Plastics melt at low temperature compared with
metals, and are therefore produced with little energy.

The mechanical strength of plastics are not especially high, compared to met-
als, but the low density makes them comparable to metals due to their strength-
to-weight ratio (or specific strength). A material has high specific strength if the
ratio of its strength to its weight is high.

28
 Plastics are usually divided into two main groups: thermosettings or thermo-
plastics. The terms refer to the materials response to elevated temperature. It is
important to know wheter the plastc is a thermosetting or a thermoplastic since
it determines how the plastic will perform in service.

3.4.1. Thermosettings
In some plastics, polymerization produces cross linkage between long molecular
weight chain molecules. These plastics are known as thermosetting plastics be-
cause they are permanently hardened by heat. The setting process is irreversible,
so that these materials do not become soft under high temperatures. These plas-
tics also resist wear and attack by chemicals and they are very durable, even when
exposed to extreme environments.
Thermosetting plastics usually have a highly cross-linked or three dimensional
framework structure in which all atoms are connected by strong, covalent bonds.
They are generally produced by the process of condensation polymerization where
elevated temperature promotes the irreversible reaction, hence the term thermoset-
ting. Additional heating do not lead to softening, but the material maintain their
mechanical properties up to the temperature at which they char, or burn. The
thermosettings are stronger and more rigid than the thermoplastics, but have a
lower ductility and poorer impact properties.
Typical thermosetting-type plastics are the aminos, most polyesters, alkyds,
epoxies, phenolics and urethanes.

3.4.2. Thermoplastics
Thermoplastics, alternatively thermosoftenings, as the name implies, are hard at
low temperatures but soften when they are heated. The softening and hardening
can be repeated without any change in the chemical structure. Although they are
less commonly used than thermosetting plastics they do have some advantages,
such as greater fracture toughness, long shelf life of the raw material, capacity for
recycling and a cleaner, safer workplace because organic solvents are not needed
for the hardening process.
Thermoplastics have weak bonds between the neighboring molecules and they
are weakend by elevated temperature which means they soften at high temper-
ature and are stronger and harder when cooled. They do not have any definite
melting temperature, they have a range of temperatures where they soften. When

29
Figure 3.6: The easiest way to identify the type of thermoplastic you’re working with
is to look for the Plastic ID symbol the backside of the part.

cooled below the glass transition temperature, Tg , the linear polymer retains its
amorphous structure, but becomes hard, brittle, and glasslike.
Thermoplastics are not cross-linked and can be softened and hardened over
and over again. The majority of polymers are thermoplastic. Examples of ther-
moplastics are polyamides, polyethylene and polystyrenes.
The Society of the Plastics Industry, Inc. (SPI) introduced its resin identifi-
cation coding system in 1988 at the urging of recyclers around the country. The
SPI code was developed to meet recyclers needs while providing manufacturers a
consistent, uniform system that could apply nationwide, see figure 3.6.

3.4.3. Types of Thermoplastics

ABS -Acrylonitrile-butadiene- styrene
Acrylnitrile contributes with thermal and chemical resistance, and the rub-
berlike butadiene gives ductility and impact strength. Styrene gives the glossy
surface and makes the material easily machinable and less expensive.
Generally, ABS has good impact strength also at low temperatures. It has sat-
isfactory stiffness and dimensional stability, glossy surface and is easy to machine.
If UV-stabilizators are added, ABS is suitable for outdoor applications.
Products: LEGO building bricks, Computer mouse, Vacuum jug, KimBox
suitcase, Ceramic advanced wet shave razor, Hedge cutter handle, Handle for
high pressure cleaner, Shaver, rechargeable, Ensemble chair (ABS blended with

30
PA), auto body parts, suitcases, toys etc. Extruded profiles, tubes and bolts can
be made from ABS when the requirements are high impact resistance and a nice
surface.
PA - Polyamide (nylon)
PA is a group of amorphous (transparent) and semi-crystalline (opal-white)
plastics. Arguments for using PA include strength (fishing line, axe handle),
wear resistance (bearings), barrier properties (food packaging) and machinability.
Polamide is recognised for good abrasion resistance, low friction coefficient, good
resistance to heat and good impact resistance. PA absorbs water which makes it
softer. UV-stabilizators are required for outdoor applications.
Products: Nylons (stockings), fishing line, bicycle trailer (rainproof cover),
bearing, axe, hedge cutter, handle for, high pressure cleaner, bottle for tomato
ketchup (barrier layer), ensemble chair (PA blended with ABS), bottle-opener.
Kevlar (aramid fibre) is a family of nylons.
PC - Polycarbonate
Polycarbonate is an amorphous plastic with very high impact strength, good
ductility and high stiffness. It is very difficult to break and the material is therefore
considered fracture-proof (e.g. bullet-proof glass).
Light transmission is 85-90% but depends on the thickness. It has good out-
doors resistance in the UV-stabilized form, but it tends to turn yellow by long
exposition to sunlight. PC is transparent and can be dyed in many colors. PC
has a relatively good chemical resistance.
Products: PC is commonly used for shielding of work places and machines,
sight glass, tubes etc. due to its transparency and high impact resistance, CD
compact disc, bullet-proof glass, water container.
PE - Polyethylene
PE is a semi-crystalline thermoplastic material and one of the most commonly
used plastics. It is generally ductile, flexible and has low strength. PE is one
of the most commonly used thermoplastic material due to the good properties
combined with a low price.
There are two basic families: LDPE (low density), and HDPE (high density):

• LDPE - low density polyethylene: LDPE is the low density version of

PE. This has less hardness, stiffness and strength compared to HDPE, but
better ductility. It is opaque and only thin foils can be transparent. LDPE
is used for packaging like foils, trays and plastic bags both for food and

31
 non-food purposes. Used as protective coating on paper, textiles and other
plastics, for instance in milk cartons. Products: Wrapping foil for packaging,
Plastic bag (soft type that does not crackle), Garbage bag, Tubes, Ice cube
plastic bag.

• HDPE - high density polyethylene: HDPE is the high density version

of PE plastic. It is harder, stronger and a little heavier than LDPE, but less
ductile. Dishwasher safe. HDPE is lighter than water, and can be moulded,
machined, and joined together using welding (difficult to glue). The appear-
ance is wax-like, lustreless and opaque. The use of UV-stabilizators (carbon
black) improves its weather resistance but turns it black. Some types can be
used in contact with food. Products: Milestone, Bottle for motor oil, Bot-
tle for organic solvents, Street bollard, Hedge cutter, Gasoline tank, Milk
bottles, Plastic bag (stiff type that crackles), Children’s toys, Lid for honey
pot, Beer crate, Dolphin bicycle trailer.

PET - Polyethylene terephthalate (or PETE)

PET has good barrier properties against oxygen and carbon dioxide. There-
fore, it is utilized in bottles for mineral water. Other applications include food
trays for oven use, roasting bags, audio/video tapes as well as mechanical compo-
nents.
PET exists both as an amorphous (transparent) and as a semi-crystalline
(opaque and white) thermoplastic material. Generally, it has good resistance
to mineral oils, solvents and acids but not to bases.
The semi-crystalline PET has good strength, ductility, stiffness and hardness.
The amorphous PET has better ductility but less stiffness and hardness.
Danish Name PET - thermoplastic polyester
Products: Bottle for mineral water, Trays for oven use, Oven foils, Audio and
video tapes, Thermo scarf (fleece)
Acrylic - PMMA (plexiglas)
PMMA (polymethyl-methacrylate) is an amorphous thermoplastic material
with very good optical properties (as transparent as glass and it allows 92% of
the sunlight to pass!).
PMMA is hard, stiff and medium strong, easy to scratch, notch sensitive,
but easy to polish and has a very good weather resistance. Exceptional outdoor
performance, such as weather and sunlight resistance, without reduction neither of
optical nor mechanical properties. PMMA is resistant to water, basics, inorganic

32
salts diluted in water, most diluted acids. It is not resistant to strong acids, basics
and polar solvents.
Products: Tail light glass, exhibition case, folding chair, kitchen scale, decora-
tion articles, transparent tubes, signs, windows, level glass etc..
POM - (polyoxymethylene) Acetal
Acetal is a crystalline plastic often used for technical applications due to its
strength, ductility and good machinability. It has good creep properties which
makes it suitable for click connections (e.g. bicycle lamp holder). It exhibits good
stiffness, strength and hardness up to 120◦ C, and the elasticity is comparable
with that of many metals. Acetal is wear resistant and has a very low friction
coefficient. The color is opaque white. To protect it from UV-light carbon black
can be added, changing its color into black.
Products: Vacuum jug (top), Holder for bicycle lamp, Fitting for Vico Duo
chair, Gearwheel.
PP - Polypropylene
PP is an inexpensive, ductile, low strength material with reasonable outdoor
performance. The material surface is soft wax-like and scratches easily. It has a
high stiffness, good strength even in relatively high temperatures, abrasion resis-
tant, good elastic properties and a hard glossy surface. In low temperatures PP
gets brittle (< 0◦ C). Stiffness and strength are often improved using reinforcement
of glass, chalk or talc. The color is opaque and white, but it can be dyed in many
colors. In many ways, PP is similar to HDPE, but it is stiffer and melts at 165-
170◦ C. PP can be manufactured by all the methods used for thermoplastics. PP
has high crystallinity (70-80 %), and is one of the lightest thermoplastics on the
marked. The chemical properties are good. PP is resistant to inorganic chemicals
and water. It is resistant to most strong mineral acids and basics. PP is not
resistant to nitrous gasses, halogens and strong oxidising acids.
Products: Childrens toy bin, transport box, fuel tank, suitcase, garbage bin,
rope, shaver (rechargeable), air intake, tubes, packing material, auto parts etc.
The material is often used for hinges as it can be flexed millions of times before
breaking.
PS - Polystyrene
Polystyrene is an inexpensive amorphous thermoplastics that has good me-
chanical propertiesis. It is vitreous, brittle and has low strength. However it is
also hard and stiff. Foamed PS is used for packaging and insulation purposes.
PS is not weather resistant, and therefore not suitable for outdoor uses. PS is

33
transparent (it transmits about 90% of the sunlight) and has unlimited dyeing
possibilities. Assembly can be done with gluing.
Products: CD and MC covers, disposable drinking glass, glass for bicycle
lamp, salad bowl, razor (ordinary), razor (biodegradable), disposable articles,
signs, machine parts and picture frames etc.
PTFE - Fluoropolymer (Teflon)
Fluoropolymers can be used to make a variety of articles having a combination
of mechanical, electrical, chemical, temperature and friction-resisting properties
unmatched by articles made of any other material. Commercial use of these and
other valuable properties combined in one material has established TEFLON° R

resins as outstanding engineering materials for use in many industrial and mil-
itary applications. TEFLON° R
resins may also be compounded with fillers or
reinforcing agents to modify their performance in use.
TEFLON° R
PTFE resins have a continuous service temperature of 260◦ C
◦
(500 F). Much higher temperatures can be satisfactorily sustained for shorter
exposures.
Teflon is used in: Food processing, Electrical parts, Coaxial cable connectors,
Terminal insulators, Transformers, Relays, Medical industry, Washers, Gaskets,
Flanges, Valve components, Pump Components, Baffles, Seals, Bearings, Rings,
Bushings , High heat applications. Teflon is available as: Sheets, Rods, Tubes,
Heavy wall tubing, Film, Rectangular bar, Pressure sensitive, tape.
TPUR - Thermoplastic urethane (or TPU)
TPU is a urethane based TPE (thermoplastic elastomer). It is made of long
chained molecules of diols and diisocyanates. Urethane is the unit which is re-
peated in polyurethane. TPU has a very good abbrasion resistance. It is a tough
material with a good elasticity over a wide temperature range. TPU is filling the
gap between rubber material and the more traditional thermoplastics.
The electrical conductance is very low. TPU is a hygroscopic material, and
the conductance is dependent on the content of moisture. TPU is resistant to
oil, fat, gasoline, and ozone. It is not resistant to hot water, steam, strong acids
and basics. Polyether based TPU is resistant to microbes. TPU is available in a
variety of qualities.
Products: Bumpers, hoses, tubes, sleeves, cushions, coating, insulators, apron
rollers etc.
PVC - Polyvinyl chloride (vinyl)
PVC is one of the oldest and most commonly used thermoplastic material, it

34
is a heavy, stiff, ductile and medium strong amorphous (transparent) material.
By adding softeners, a range of softer materials can be achieved, ranging from
a flexible to an almost rubber-like elastic soft material. Softeners also help to
increase the manufacturability. PVC has brilliant resistance to acids and bases,
but is affected by some solvents. Soft PVC is exceptionally resistant to most
chemicals. The poor weather resistance can be improved using additives. PVC
has good barrier properties to atmospheric gasses.
Products: Boat fender, garden hose, electrical wire insulation, vinyl flooring,
roof gutter, vinyl record, children’s doll, wrapping film, medical transparent tube,
Pneumatic chair.
PEEK - Polyetheretherketone
PEEK is a high temperature resistant engineered thermoplastic with excel-
lent chemical and fatigue resistance plus thermal stability. They exhibit superior
mechanical and electrical properties. With a maximum continuous working tem-
perature of 249◦ C (480◦ F), they have excellent retention of mechanical properties
up to 299◦ C (570◦ F) in a steam or high-pressure water environment. Superior
chemical resistance has allowed them to work effectively as a metal replacement
in harsh environments. They are inert to all common solvents and resist a wide
range of organic and inorganic liquids. When extensive machining is required, a
secondary annealing process should be considered.
PEEK, a unique semi-crystalline, high temperature engineering thermoplas-
tic, is an excellent material for a wide spectrum of applications where ther-
mal,chemical, and combustion properties are critical to performance. Especially
significant, in this regard, is PEEK”s ability to retain flexural and tensile prop-
erties at very high temperatures — in excess of 250◦ C (482◦ F). The addition of
glass fiber and carbon fiber reinforcements enhances the mechanical and thermal
properties of the basic PEEK material.
Products: automobile engine parts, medical equipment, aerospace products.

3.4.4. Types of Thermosettings

PUR - Thermosets Polyurethane/polyurethene (or PU)
PUR is found in a variety of forms ranging from stiff to soft types. Stiff PUR is
used for casings and modelling material (artificial wood). Softer rubber-like PUR
is used for handtools. Expanded PUR is used for mattresses and car inner panels
where it both forms the foam and the leather-like skin. Expandable insulation
foam and moisture hardening glue are also made from PUR. Large parts are often

35
made from PUR due to low tooling cost. In general it has excellent outdoor
performance and resistance to most acids and solvents.
Genoa stacking chair. PUR can be made from a wide variety of raw materials
to give hard, clear resins for surface coating: soft flexible resins for oil resistant and
abrasion resistant rubbers; rigid or flexible foams for thermal insulation, cushion
and fabric stiffeners. In building surface coating and thermal insulation are their
main applications.
Products: Mil-Tek high pressure cleaner, Panton chair, Shoe soles, and it is
used as modelling material in the Product Design course at HiN.
EP - Epoxy
Epoxy is a strong and very resistant thermoset plastic. It is used as an adhesive
agent, as filling material, for moulding dies, and as a protective coating on steel
and concrete. Many composite materials are reinforced epoxy.
Epoxy is resistant to almost all acids and solvents, but not to strong bases or
solvents with chlorine content.
By adding a hardening agent curing takes place. The type of hardener has a
major influence on properties and applications of epoxies.
Products: Surfing board, Composite bicycle, Badminton racket, Wheel chair,
Knee support, Soda stream pressure, container, Skull, model, Car space frame,
Wheel chair ramp, Swing wheel.
UP - Unsaturated Polyester
UP is widely used as filler material with glass fibre in sailing boats, hard tops
for cars, furniture, etc. In general UP is not resistant to solvents and bases.
Apart from sulphuric acid it resists acids. To improve appearance and resistance
a surface layer (gel coat or paint) is often added. UP does not require expensive
equipment or tooling to work with UP, and it is therefore often used for prototypes
and low-volume production.
Products: Sailing boat, Chair, Hard top for car, Printed circuit board, Pedes-
trian bridge.
UF - Urea formaldehyde
Urea thermoset molding compounds offer a wide range of applications for
every-day living and industry. Urea formaldehyde (UF) thermosets are economi-
cally priced, they are strong, glossy, and durable. They are not affected by fats,
oils esters, ether, petrol, alcohol or acetone, nor by detergents or weak acids, and
they exhibit good resistance to weak alkalis.

36
 Their high mechanical strength, heat and fire resistance, and good electrical
arc and tracking resistance make them an ideal plastic for numerous industrial and
household applications, from doorknoobs and toilet seats to electrical components
and cosmetics enclosures. You name it — if it can be plastic, it can be stronger
and brighter as a (Perstorp) urea thermoset.
MF - Melamine formaldehyde
Melamine thermoset plastics are similar to urea molding compounds, but
melamine has even better resistance to heat, chemicals, moisture, electricity and
scratching.
Melamine formaldehyde (MF) thermosets are ideal for dinnerware, kitchen
utensils, bathroom accessories, and electrical components. The molded com-
pounds are bright, inviting, and highly resistant to scratches and staining. (Per-
storp’s) melamine thermosets are approved for contact with foodstuffs, and they
do not affect the food’s flavor - even at high temperatures. They are very, very
durable.
Like urea molding compounds, melamine thermosets consist of plastic that has
high surface hardness and gloss, brilliant and precise colors, and light fastness.
UF or MF thermosets can be manufactured in a precise and vibrant array of
colors. Two-tone compression molding using doublepunch tools will enable you
to express your creative designs. For example, your cups or sinks can have white
inside and tasteful color outside. The choice of color and shape is limited only by
your imagination.
Alkyd resins
This group of polyesters are usually compression moulded from powders. Orig-
inally produced for inclusions in paints, they are resistant to heat and electricity
and will withstand attack by acids and solvents. Alkyd plastics find applications
in enamels for cars, refrigerators and washing machines and are also used for
electric motor insulation and some television parts.

37
Silicones
Silicon is an element whose atoms have similar linking properties to those of
carbon, but it is stable at much higher temperatures. To utilize the properties of
silicon, certain plastics, called silicones have been developed based on the element.
Although they are much more expensive, they contain excellent properties. These
super materials are available as oil, plastics and rubbers. To quote an example
illustrating their value: silicone rubber will retain its elasticity over a temperature
range of -80◦ C to 250◦ C. The stability of silicones under widely varying service
conditions make them valuable materials for applications such as laminates in the
aerospace industry, gaskets and seals for engineering purposes and cable insulation
for aircraft electrical systems.

3.5. High-Performance Plastic

Standard plastics used in non-critical and low-stress applications are materials like
PS, ABS, PVC, PP, HDPE, and LDPE. Engineering plastics that are used in gen-
eral structural, bearing and wear purpose are plastics like PPO (Polyphenylene ox-
ide, modified), Acrylic, PC (Polycarbonate), PET-P (Polyethylene Terephtalate),
POM (Polyoxymethylene =Acetal), PA (Polyamide = Nylon), and UHMW-PE
(Ultra high mole wt. Polyethylene). Advanced engineering plastics that have su-
perior properties and can be used in extreme environments are plastics like PSU
(Polysulfone), PPSU (Polyphenylsulfone), PEI (Polyetherimide), PTFE (Polyte-
traflouroethylene = Teflon), PPS (Polyphenylene sulfide), PEEK (Polyetherether-
ketone), PI (Polyimid), PAI (Polyamide-imide), and PBI (Polybenzimidazole).

3.6. Additives in Plastics

Very often, some additional materials are mixed into plastics, to obtain:

• improved properties

• reduced cost

• improved moldability

• wanted color

These additional materials are classified as fillers, plasticizers, lubricants, color-

ing agents, stabilizers, antioxidants, flame retardants, foaming or blowing agents,

38
antifogging agents, antistatic agents, clarifying agents and optical brighteners.
New ones are added to the list continuously, so we briefly mention a few of them.
Fillers
Improve mechanical properties, reduce shrinkage, reduce weight or provide
bulk. Fillers comprise a large percentage of the total volume of the plastic. Ex-
ample of fillers can be: wood flour, cloth fibers, glass fibers, clay.
Plasticizers
Increase flexibility, improve flow during molding, reduce shrinkage, reduce
weight.
Lubricants
Comparison of both internal lubricants and external lubricants which can be
blended with various materials to reduce friction, and wear, improve mar resis-
tance, and extend the useful life of products which are subject to friction. They
also improve moldability and extraction from molds.
Coloring Agents
Coloring Agents are put in the plastic to Impart color.
Stabilizers
Stabilizers retard degradation due to heat or light.
Antioxidants
Antioxidants retard degradation due to oxidation.
Flame retardants
Flame retardants reduce flammability.
Foaming Agents
Foaming Agents, also known as Blowing or Nucleating Agents, can eliminate
sink marks, reduce density, shorten cycle time and reduce total production costs.
In extrusion and injection molding, foaming agents can save material weight and
lower total cost. They also improve extrusion rates by increasing the volume that
can be processed per extruder in a given period of time, and endothermic foaming
agents absorb heat and improve injection molding cycle time.
Antifogging agents
Antifogging agents reduce the formation of condensed droplets on the surface
of polyolefin films, such as for food-packaging or agricultural films, resulting in
better film transparency and consequently providing better food preservation.

39
 Antistatic agents
These new permanent antistatic agents, forme a conductive network through-
out the polymer matrix which dissipates the electrical charge as it builds up. They
are already effective for processing and even work at low environmental humidity.
Clarifying agents
Clarifying agents bring the contents of polymer mainly plastic containers back
into focus. IRGACLEAR° R
is a range of products that not only improves the
clarity and transparency of polypropylene, but also enhances the mechanical prop-
erties.
Optical brighteners
Optical brighteners are designed to give brilliance and whitening to a variety
of applications. Synthetic fibers for example, have an inherent yellowish tint. Add
optical brighteners and the fibers appear cleaner and whiter.

3.6.1. Oriented Plastics

The strength of the intermolecular bond increases with reduced separation dis-
tance, and that is why a processing that makes the molecules align parallel make
the long-chain thermoplastic higher strength in a given direction. This is called

Figure 3.7: Presentation of the alignment of the plastic molecules in the orienting
process.

an orientation process, and can be obtained by stretching, rolling, or extrusion, as

shown in the Figure 3.7. When a polymer (amorphous or crystalline) is subjected
to stress (tensile), the molecular chains become aligned or oriented paralell to the

40
 Figure 3.8: Elastomers.

direction of applied stress. The polymer is then in an oriented state. Orienting

may increase the tensile strength by more than 200%, but 25% is more typical.

3.7. Elastomers & Rubbers

Elastomers, or rubbery materials, have a loose cross-linked structure. Natural and
synthetic rubbers are both common examples of elastomers. Elastomers possess
memory, that is, they return to their original shape after a stress is applied.
Elastomers are amorphous polymers and consist of long polymer chains above
their glass transition temperature. The structure of elastomers is tightly twisted
or curled.
Elastomers are reversibly stretchable for small deformations. When stretched,
the polymer chains become elongated and ordered along the deformation direction.
When no longer stretched, the chains randomize again. The cross-links guide the
elastomer back to its original shape. They are very flexible and elastic, which
means that they can undergo large elastic deformations without ruptures and
recover substantially in shape and size after the load has been removed. Many
elastomers can be stretched to several times their original length. Also, the cycle
can be repeated numerous times with identical results, as with the stretching of
a rubber band.
Elastomers are generally resistant to oil and fuel, impermeable to liquids and
gases, but tend to deteriorate by oxidation.
Like plastics, elastomers are either thermoplastic material (they can be remelted)
or thermoset material (that cannot be remelted). Rubber is an older name for
elastomers.

41
 Figure 3.9: Common use of rubber.

Elastomeric polymers do not follow Hooke’s law (as most engineering material
do). The behavior of the elastomers is a bit more complex due to the molecular
shape and the fact that small degree of viscous deformation in produced when
load is applied.

3.7.1. Rubber and Artificial Elastomers

The oldest commercial elastomer is natural rubber, which is made from a processes
sap of a tropical tree. Natural rubber (NR) is a biopolymer which is known as
polyisoprene. The rubber tree (Hevea brasiliensis) is the most common source of
natural rubber used today. Polyisoprene can also be synthesised by polymerization
from its monomer isoprene (CH2=C(CH3)CH=CH2), (IR). This is a rare example
of a natural polymer that we can make almost as well as nature does. Rubber
has been used for centuries by the South American Indians. They most probably
were the people who discovered that if latex (a milky fluid that circulates in the
inner portions of the bark of many tropical and subtropical trees and shrubs) is
dried, it can be pressed into useful objects such as bottles shoes and balls. Figure
3.9 shows the common use of rubber.
However, it was not until the 1830s (when John Haskins and Edward Chaffee

42
organised the first rubber-goods factory in the United States) that the commer-
cial rubber industry really began to flourish. But rubber had many weaknesses;
it softened with heat and hardened with cold; it was tacky, odorous, and per-
ishable. In 1834 the German chemist Friedrich Ludersdorf and the American
chemist Nathaniel Hayward discovered that if they added sulfur to gum, then
rubber lessened or eliminated the stickiness of finished rubber goods. Charles
Goodyear discovered in 1839, that cooking natural rubber with sulfur removed
the gum’s unfavorable properties and could be strengthened by cross-linking it
with approximately 30% sulfer and heating it to a suitable temperature. This
process is called vulcanization, and led to many and varied applications of nat-
ural rubber, since the rubber then has got increased strength and elasticity and
greater resistance to changes in temperature. It is also impermeable to gases, and
resistant to abrasion, chemical action, heat, and electricity, in addition to have
high frictional resistance on dry surfaces and low frictional resistance on water-wet
surfaces. The vulcanization process remains fundamentally the same as it was in
1839.
Vulcanized rubber has numerous practical applications because of its desirable
properties, such as the excellent abrasion resistance which makes it valuable for
the treads of vehicle tyres, conveyor belts (soft rubber), pump housings and piping
used in the handling of abrasive sludges (hard rubber). The flexibility character-
istics of vulcanized rubber make it suitable for use in hoses, tyres, and rollers
for a wide variety of devices ranging from domestic clothes wringers to printing
presses. Its elasticity makes it suitable for various kinds of shock absorbers and for
specialized machinery mountings designed to reduce vibration. Being relatively
impermeable to gases, rubber is useful in the manufacture of articles such as air
hoses, balloons, balls, and cushions. The resistance of rubber to water and to the
action of most fluid chemicals has led to its use in rainwear, diving gear, and chem-
ical and medicinal tubing, and as a lining for storage tanks, processing equipment,
and railroad tank cars. With their high electrical resistance, soft rubber goods are
used as insulation and for protective gloves, shoes, and blankets. Hence, hard rub-
ber is used for articles such as telephone housings, parts for radio sets, meters, and
other electrical instruments. The coefficient of friction (resistance to movement)
of vulcanized rubber, which is high on dry surfaces and low on wet surfaces, leads
to the use of rubber both for power-transmission belting and for water-lubricated
bearings in deep-well pumps. The uncertainty of price and supply of natural rub-
ber led to the development of artificial elastomers. Some artificial elastomers are
inferior to natural rubber, others have superior characteristics.

43
 Rubber that has not undergone the vulcanization process has few practical
uses because of its poor heat resistance and high plasticity. It is used for cements,
adhesive, insulating, friction tapes and for crepe rubber used in insulating blankets
and footwear.

Some other elastomers include:

Polybutadiene (BR): Polybutadiene was one of the first types of synthetic
elastomer, or rubber, to be invented. It is very similar to natural rubber, poly-
isoprene, and is good for uses which require exposure to low temperatures. Tires
treads are often made of polybutadiene copolymers. Belts, shoe soles, hoses, gas-
kets and other automobile parts are made from polyubutadiene, because it stands
up to cold temperatures better than other elastomers.
Polyisobutylene (PIB): Polyisobutylene is a synthetic rubber, or elastomer.
It is the only rubber that is gas impermeable, (can hold air for long periods of
time). For instance, balloons will go flat after a few days because they are made
of polyisoprene, which is not gas impermeable. Since polyisobutylene will hold
air, it is used to make things like the inner liner of tires, and the inner liners of
basketballs.
Polyisobutylene, sometimes called butyl rubber, is a vinyl polymer, and is very
similar to polyethylene and polypropylene in structure, except that every other
carbon is substituted with two methyl groups.
Poly(styrene-butadiene-styrene) (SBS) : Poly(styrene-butadiene-styrene),
is a hard rubber, and is therefore used in soles of shoes, tire treads, and other places
where durability is important. It is a type of copolymer called a block copolymer.
Its backbone chain is made up of three segments, where the first is a long chain
of polystyrene, the middle a long chain of polybutadiene, and the last segment is
another long section of polystyrene, see Figure 3.10.
Polystyrene is a tough hard plastic, which gives SBS its durability, while
polybutadiene is a rubbery material, and gives SBS its rubber-like properties.
The material the ability to retain its shape after being stretched; SBS is a type of
unusual material called a thermoplastic elastomer.
Polyurethanes (AU or EU): (See also 3.4.4) Polyurethanes are the most
well known polymers that are used to make foams. But, polyurethanes are more
than foam. Polyurethanes are the single most versatile family of polymers there is.
Polyurethanes can be elastomers, and they can be paints. They can be fibers, and
they can be adhesives. You can find them everywhere. A well-known polyurethane

44
 Figure 3.10: Poly(styrene-butadiene-styrene), or SBS.

is spandex (DuPont sells it under the trade name Lycra). Lycra is a fiber that
acts like an elastomer, and allows us to make fabric that stretches for exercise
clothing and the like.
Polychloroprene (CR) : Polychloroprene is usually sold under the trade
name Neoprene, and it is especially resistant to oil, and was the first synthetic
elastomer that became a hit commercially. It was Arnold Collins, while work-
ing under the same fellow who invented nylon, Wallace Carothers that invented
polychloroprene.
Silicones (Q): (See also 3.4.4) Silicones can be used for a lot of things. Sili-
cones are inorganic polymers, that is, there are no carbon atoms in the backbone
chain. The backbone is a chain of alternating silicon and oxygen atoms. Each
silicone has two groups attached to it, and these can be any organic groups. Sili-
cones can stand high temperatures without decomposing, but they have very low
glass transition temperatures.

3.8. Biopolymers
Biopolymers are an alternative to petroleum-based polymers (traditional plastics).
The field of biopolymers, is still in its early stage, but is growing in popularity
every day. The term biopolymers is often used for all polymers that are made
from natural renewable resources and/or are completely biodegradable.
Biopolymers can be produced by biological systems like micro-organisms, plants
and animals, or chemically synthesized from biological starting materials (e.g. sug-
ars, starch, natural fats or oils, etc.). Most of the biopolymers are biodegradable,
some of them are even water soluble, most of the biopolymers are compostable or
will biodegradate in landfill, time can vary from a couple of days to even years,

45
 Figure 3.11: Biopolymers.

but they will eventually degrade.

Biopolymers can be used in all kinds of applications, and with all kinds of pro-
duction techniques, like injection moulding, thermoforming and blow moulding!
Some biopolymers can directly replace synthetic plastics in traditional applica-
tions, while others possess unique properties that may open new applications.

3.8.1. What makes a polymer a biopolymer?

Biopolymers are defined as biologically degradable polymers. Biopolymers are
polymers that are generated from renewable natural sources, are often biodegrad-
able, and not toxic to produce. According to the American Society for Testing and
Materials (ASTM), biopolymers are degradable polymers in which degradation re-
sults from the action of naturally occuring micro-organisms such as bacteria, fungi
and algae.

3.8.2. Applications of biopolymers

Biopolymers can be used for a lot of aplications, from packaging to disposables,
from diapers to cottonsticks, from carparts to bottles, etc. In theory conventional
plastics may be substituted by biopolymers in many applications. In practice sub-
stitution is not alway feasible, wanted or the most lucrative way to use biopoly-
mers. Besides technical development which is needed for some applications, the
applications have to be economically feasible within a reasonable term. The eco-
nomic feasibility depends on the investments needed for material and product

46
development and the added value of the biopolymer in the application.

3.8.3. Properties of biopolymers

Properties of biopolymers depend on the raw material they are based on, on
additives used and on the (chemical) modifications during production.
Different types of biopolymers
Starch, proteins and peptides, and DNA and RNA are all examples of biopoly-
mers, in which the monomer units, respectively, are sugars, amino acids, and nu-
cleic acids. Biopolymers found in and used by living cells can be dividen into the
following four classes:

• Lipids (fats, oils, phospholipids waxes, and steroids)

• Carbohydrates (Starch, Cellulose, and Sugars as polysaccharides)

• Proteins (Protein is a polymer with the monomer made up of amino-acid

residues, and is contained in skin, bones, muscles, blood and hair )

• Nucleic acids (complex polymeric molecules which store and translate ge-
netic information )

The most common way to divide biopolymers in different types is on the

basis of the raw material used for production. However, some biopolymers can
be produced from different raw materials. Some examples of different types of
biopolymers are:

Starch-based polymers (SBP) are often a blend of starch and other plas-
tics (e.g PE), which allows for enhanced environmental properties. Starch is a
polymeric carbohydrate (a polysaccharide), in which the monomers are glucose
units joined to one another
Starch is abundantly present in many crops. The starch is stored in granules
within the plant. This facilitates the isolation from the plant. Starch may be mod-
ified in order to become a thermoplast. This makes the starch polymer suitable
for current processes in the plastics industry like: injection moulding and extru-
sion. Thermoplastic starch has an affinity with moisture. The material therefore
is not suitable for wet food packaging applications. Direct contact with water only
is possible for a short time. By acetylation a certain resistance to water may be

47
achieved. By adding PCL the flexiblity of the bioplastic increases. Starch polymer
has good oxygen barrier properties. Starch polymers are the most produced and
used biopolymers at the moment.
Cellulose polymers (cellulose esters, cellulose ethers, cellophane)
Cellophane is one of the oldest packaging materials. Cellulose pulp from trees
or coton may be used to produce cellophane. It is a relatively expensive packaging
material which can be used for a wide range of products such as cds, candy and
cigarettes. The higher price is a reason why a large market share was lost to
polypropylene. At the moment new applications in which the specific properties
may be used, are sought for. The material is transparant and has good folding
properties. The foil has a high gas barrier and if a coating is applied may resist
water vapour as well.
Protein polymers
There is no information about protein polymers available yet.

3.8.4. Additional information on raw materials in biopolymers

Lactic acid is produced by the microbial fermentation of sugars such as glu-
cose or hexose. Feedstocks can include potato skins and corn. The lactic acid
monomers can be used to create low or high molecular weight polylactide poly-
mers (PLA). PLA commodity polymers are being developed for use as pulping
additives in paper manufacturing and as biodegradable packing materials, clothes,
cups, packaging and many other everyday products.
Polylactic acid (PLA) is derived from lactic acid for which carbohydrates
in sugar beets, potatoes, wheat, maize and milk are the source. Polylactic acid
is a substance familiar to the human body, as we ourselves produce it by every
muscle contraction. It can be broken down by the body.
PLA can be processed through for example injection moulding, foil blowing
and deep drawing. PLA may be applied as a coating. PLA is water resistant but
cannot withstand high temperatures (>55◦ C). In comparison to starch biopolymer
the degradation process is very slow. However, within a composting facility it can
be broken down in 3 to 4 weeks.
Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs) (polyhydroxybutyrate (PHB), polyhydrox-
ybutyrate/valerate (PHB/HV))
PHA’s are generally derived through fermentation of glucose, sucrose of fatty
acids by micro-organisms.

48
 PHB can be processed through for example injection moulding and deep draw-
ing. It is an excellent material for the coating of paper coffee cups. The most
important features of PHB are the resistance to high temperatures up to 120◦ C
and the resistance to water.
Chitin, a polysaccharide found in the exoskeletons of insects and shellfish,
possesses many desirable characteristics. Chitin’s most important derivative, chi-
tosan, is nearly a ”model” biopolymer with it’s useful physical and chemical prop-
erties, high strength, biodegradability, and nontoxicity. In fact, chitosan brings
new meaning to the word ”biodegradable” as the human body easily breaks it
down into simple carbohydrates, carbon dioxide, and water. This accounts for
the research that is trying to use chitosan in drug delivery systems.
Other natural Biopolymers:
Protein
Proteins are biopolymers consisting of one or more strings of amino acid
residues joined head-to-tail via peptide bonds. Protein also makes up much of
the structure of animals: collagen and keratin are components of skin, hair, and
cartilage; and muscles are composed largely of proteins.
Peptides
Peptides are the family of molecules formed from the linking, in a defined
order, of various amino acids. Peptides differ from proteins, which are also long
chains of amino acids, by virtue of their size. Traditionally, those peptide chains
that are short enough to make synthetically from the constituent amino acids are
called peptides rather than proteins. The dividing line is at approximately 50
amino acids in length, since naturally-occurring proteins tend, at their smallest,
to be hundreds of residues long.
DNA
Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is the molecule in living things that contains
the coding information for creating proteins. It is also the molecule of heredity—
whenever an organism reproduces, each offspring gets a copy of its parents’ DNA.

RNA
Ribonucleic acid, a nucleic acid structurally distinguished from DNA by the
presence of an additional hydroxyl group attached to each pentose ring, and func-
tionally distinguished by its multiple roles in the intracellular transmission of

49
Figure 3.12: One fifth of urban rubbish is plastics like polystyrene. °
c GettyImages

genetic information from the site of transcription (from DNA) to the site of trans-
lation (into protein).

3.8.5. Plastic taste better with sugar

Chemists in India are lacing plastics with sugar to make them palatable to soil
bacteria1. The plastics, which normally survive for decades in landfills, start to
biodegrade within days.
The tweaked plastics are polythene, polystyrene and polypropylene. These
make up around a fifth of urban waste by volume. Bottles, bags and sacks are
made of polyethylene, food packaging is made of polypropylene, and drinking
cups, fast-food cartons and the hard casing of electronic equipment are fashioned
from polystyrene.
Digambar Gokhale and colleagues at the National Chemical Laboratory in
Pune mix the styrene subunits of polystyrene with small amounts of another
substance that provides a chemical hook for sucrose or glucose pieces. They then
add sugars to the styrene chains like pendants on a necklace.
By weight, less than 3% of the final polymer is sugar, so the material is more
or less the same. But bacteria such as Pseudomonas and Bacillus break open the
chains when they chomp on these sugary snacks, kicking off decay.
It remains to be seen whether the polymer biodegrades into entirely non-toxic
substances. Fully broken down, the end products are carbon dioxide and water.
But along the way, all sorts of other compounds are produced, such as organic
acids and aldehydes.

50
 Indeed, it is not yet clear how far, or how quickly, the plastic will break down
in the real world. And adding the sugar would require significant manufacturing
changes, which could be costly.
Other additives that make polythene, polystyrene and polypropylene biodegrad-
able have been toxic and can leach out of garbage. Another approach is to initiate
the breakdown process using heat, ultraviolet light or exposure to oxygen, but
this is cumbersome and expensive.
Published in: Nature News Service, 2.december 2002; see also
http://www.nature.com/nsu/021125/021125-12.html.
References:
Polymers:
http://www-materials.eng.cam.ac.uk/mpsite/
http://www.plasticsusa.com/
http://www.polymer-age.co.uk/directry/plastic.htm
http://www.mse.cornell.edu/courses/engri111/
http://www.amco.ws/home.asp
http://naturalrubber.cjb.net/
http://www3.jaring.my/inro/
http://www.phy.uni-bayreuth.de/theo/tp3/members/elast.htm
http://www.psrc.usm.edu/macrog/crystal.htm
http://www.uvi.edu/Physics/SCI3xxWeb/Structure/Polymerization.html
http://www.zeusinc.com/
http://islnotes.cps.msu.edu/trp/toc.html
http://abalone.cwru.edu/tutorial/enhanced/files/textbook.htm
http://www.thermosets.com/thermosets.html
http://www.aipma.org/t&ti/thermos.htm
http://www.polymer-age.co.uk/techlink.htm
Elastomers:
http://www.psrc.usm.edu/macrog/elas.htm
Biopolymers:
http://www.biopolymer.net/
http://www.biopolymer.com/
http://www.biotec.de
http://www-classes.usc.edu/engr/ms/125/MDA125/biopolymers/
http://online.itp.ucsb.edu/online/infobio01/lancet2/
http://www.cheresources.com/biopoly2zz.shtml

51
http://www.proterra.nl/norms.html
http://www.dblab.helsinki.fi/~rtuma/biopolymers.htm
http://www.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biopolymer
http://www.brooklyn.cuny.edu/bc/ahp/SDPS/PSLectNotes/SD.PS.LectP2.html
http://www.bipp.nl/about_3.html
http://www.forskning.no/Artikler/2002/desember/1038997297.18
http://www.nature.com/nsu/021125/021125-12.html
Galgali, P., Varma, A. J., Puntambekar, U. S. & Gokhale, D. V. Towards biodegrad-
able polyolefins: strategy of anchoring minute quantities of monosaccharides and
disaccharides onto functionalized polystyrene, and their effect on facilitating poly-
mer biodegradation. Chemical Communications, 2002, 2884 - 2885, (2002).
Questions
• Explain the expression thermosetting and thermoplastic?
• What is the glass transition temperature?
• What is the difference between an amorphous and crystallin plastic?
• What happens to a thermoplastic when it is cooled down below melting tem-
perature?
• How do thermosetting polymers respond to subsequent heating?
• What is the difference between a saturated and an unsaturated molecule?
• Describe the two different processes of forming polymers: addition and conden-
sation.
• What are some attractive engineering properties of plastics, and in what area
do they fall?
• What are some reasons that additive agents are incorporated into plastics?
• What kind of additive agents are there, and what are their objective?
• What is the primary engineering benefit of an oriented plastic?
• What is the unique mechanical property of elastomeric materials?
• What is vulcanization?
• What is rubber?
• What is a SPI code, and what is it good for?
• What groups of SPI codes are there?
• What is a biopolymer?
• What kind of different biopolymers exist?
• What products can be made from biopolymers?
Polymers can be described as being thermosetting or thermoplastic
a. Why are the thermosetting polymers so different from thermoplastic polymers?

52
b. What decides if a polymer will be thermosetting or thermoplastic?
c. What are three important, common thermosetting polymers?
d. What are three important, common thermoplastic polymers?
Polymers can be described as being amorphous or crystalline polymers
a. Compare the physical and chemical properties of amorphous and crystalline
polymers.
b. What are three important amorphous polymers?
c. What are three important crystalline polymers?
d. How does light penetration qualities depend on the degree of crystallization?

53
4. Composites
Composite materials are materials that combine two or more materials (a selected
filler or reinforcing elements and compatible matrix binder) that have quite differ-
ent properties that when combined offer properties which are more desirable than
the properties of the individual materials . The different materials work together
to give the composite unique properties, but within the composite you can easily
see the different materials, they do not dissolve or blend into each other.
The key characteristic of composites is the

• Specific strength (the strength to weight ratio σ/ρ)

• Specific stiffness or specific modulus (the stiffness-to-weight ratio E/ρ)

• Tailored material ( since composites are composed of 2 or more ”phases”,

they can be formulated to meet the needs of a specific application with
considerable ease)

Composites are not a single material but a family of materials whose stiffness,
strength, density, and thermal and electrical properties can be tailored. The
matrix, the reinforcement material, the volume and shape of the reinforcement,
the location of the reinforcement, and the fabrication method etc. can all be
varied to achieve required properties.

Composite applications
Specific composite applications are detailed in each market category:
• Transportation
• Electrical/Electronics
• Building Construction
• Infrastructure
• Aerospace/Defense
• Consumer/Recreation
• Medical Products
• Sport equipment

54
4.1. The history of composites
The theory behind the construction of composite materials comes from the need
to create a strong stiff and light material.
Materials such as glass, carbon and Kevlar have extremely high tensile and
compressive strength, but in solid form, many random surface flaws present in such
materials, cause them to crack and fail at a much lower stress that it theoretically
should.
To overcome this problem, the material is produced in a fibre form, although
the flaws will occur at the same frequency, the flaws will be reduced to a small
number of fibres at any one point, and the remaining ones will carry the load with
the materials theoretical strength. To prevent flaws occurring from abrasion on
the surface of the material, or from existing flaws transferring to other fibres, it is
necessary to isolate the fibres. This is why a resin matrix system is used.
Another well-known composite is concrete. Here, aggregate (small stones or
gravel) is bound together by cement. Concrete has good strength under compres-
sion, and it can be made stronger under tension by adding metal rods, wires, mesh
or cables to the composite (so creating reinforced concrete).
Most composites are made up of just two materials. One material (the matrix
or binder) surrounds and binds together a cluster of fibres or fragments of a much
stronger material (the reinforcement). There are both natural and man-made
composites.

4.2. Natural composites

Composites exist in nature. A piece of wood is a composite, see Figure 4.1, with
long fibres of cellulose (a very complex form of starch) held together by a much
weaker substance called lignin. Cellulose is also found in cotton and linen, but
it is the binding power of the lignin that makes a piece of timber much stronger
than a bundle of cotton fibres. Other examples of natural composites are:

Spider silk
Spider silk is a biopolymer fibre and a natural composite material, see Figure
4.2. Its composition is a mix of an amorphous polymer (which makes the fibre
elastic), and the two simplest proteins (which give it toughness), in other words, it
is simply a protein. The result is a good combination of strength and toughness.
It is five times as strong as steel, twice as strong as Kevlar at same weight,
twice as elastic as polyamide fibres (it can be stretched by 31% without breaking),

55
 Figure 4.1: The cell-structure of a natural composite, a tree.

more elastic than aramid fibre, finer than a human hair, and lighter than cotton.
Promises are: bulletproof vests, parachute cords, bridge suspension cables,
wear-resistant shoes and clothing, seat belts, rustfree bumpers for automobiles,
artificial tendons and ligaments, etc.
Spider silk is produced either by spider or (in the future) by bacteria or plants,
therefore in an environment-friendly way. It is an environment-friendly biopolymer
and is easy to recycle. Spider silk does not decompose like other proteins by fungi,
or bacteria because thay contain substances that makes it durable.
The thread of the garden spider (Araneus) would have to be 80 km long before
it would snap under its own weight. When synthesis of spider silk in bacteria or
plants becomes efficient, spider silk will have a commercial relevance.

Human hair, bone and muscles are also natural composites. These kind of
structures are also called hierarchical structures since they have structures in
many levels, see also chapter 8.4.

4.3. Man-made Composites

Humans have been using composite materials for thousands of years. Take mud
bricks for example. A cake of dried mud is easy to break by bending, which puts

56
 Figure 4.2: Spidersilk.

a tension force on one edge, but makes a good strong wall, where all the forces
are compressive. A piece of straw, on the other hand, has a lot of strength when
you try to stretch it but almost none when you crumple it up. But if you embed
pieces of straw in a block of mud and let it dry hard, the resulting mud brick
resists both squeezing and tearing and makes an excellent building material. Put
more technically, it has both good compressive strength and good tensile strength.
In the case of mud bricks, the two roles are taken by the mud and the straw; in
concrete, by the cement and the aggregate; in a piece of wood, by the cellulose
and the lignin. In fiberglass, the reinforcement is provided by fine threads or fibres
of glass, often woven into a sort of cloth, and the matrix is a plastic.
Composite materials are composed of a matrix material reinforced with any of
a variety of fibers made from ceramics, metals, or polymers. The reinforcing fibers
are the primary load carriers of the material, with the matrix component trans-
ferring the load from fiber to fiber. Reinforcement of the matrix material may be
achieved in a variety of ways. Fibers may be either continuous or discontinuous,
see Figure 4.3. Reinforcement may also be in the form of particles. The matrix
material is usually one of the many available engineering plastics/polymers. Selec-
tion of the optimal reinforcement form and material is dependent on the property
requirements of the finished part
The threads of glass in fiberglass are very strong under tension but they are
also brittle and will snap if bent sharply. The matrix not only holds the fibres
together, it also protects them from damage by sharing any stress among them.

57
 Figure 4.3: Composite materials with different types of reinforcements.

The matrix is soft enough to be shaped with tools, and can be softened by suitable
solvents to allow repairs to be made. Any deformation of a sheet of fiberglass
necessarily stretches some of the glass fibres, and they are able to resist this, so
even a thin sheet is very strong. It is also quite light, which is an advantage in
many applications.
Over recent decades many new composites have been developed, some with
very valuable properties. By carefully choosing the reinforcement, the matrix,
and the manufacturing process that brings them together, engineers can tailor
the properties to meet specific requirements. They can, for example, make the
composite sheet very strong in one direction by aligning the fibres that way, but
weaker in another direction where strength is not so important. They can also
select properties such as resistance to heat, chemicals, and weathering by choosing
an appropriate matrix material.

4.3.1. Fiber-Reinforced Composites

Fiber Reinforced Plastics (FRP) is a general term for composite materials or parts
that consist of a resin matrix that contains reinforcing fibers such as glass or fiber
and have greater strength or stiffness than the resin. FRP is most often used to

58
denote glass fiber-reinforced plastics.
Reinforcing fibers can be made of metals, ceramics, glasses, or polymers that
have been turned into graphite and known as carbon fibers.
Fibers increase the modulus of the matrix material. The strong covalent bonds
along the fiber’s length gives them a very high modulus in this direction because
to break or extend the fiber the bonds must also be broken or moved. Fibers are
difficult to process into composites, making fiber-reinforced composites relatively
expensive.
Fiber-reinforced composites are used in some of the most advanced, and there-
fore most expensive, sports equipment, such as a time-trial racing bicycle frame
which consists of carbon fibers in a thermoset polymer matrix. Body parts of
race cars and some automobiles are composites made of glass fibers (fiberglass) or
carbon fibers in a thermoset matrix.
On the basis of stiffness and strength alone, fibre reinforced composite materi-
als do not have a clear advantage particularly when it is noted that their elongation
to fracture is much more lower than metals with comparable strength. The ad-
vantage of composite materials appear when the modulus per unit weight (specific
modulus) and strength per unit weight (specific strengt) are considered.The higher
specific weight and high specific strength of the composite materials means that
the components weight can be reduced.
Although glass fibres are by far the most common reinforcement, many ad-
vanced composites now use fine fibres of pure carbon. Carbon fibres are much
stronger than glass fibres, but are also more expensive to produce. Carbon fibre
composites are light as well as strong. They are used in aircraft structures and in
sporting goods (such as golf clubs), and increasingly are used instead of metals to
repair or replace damaged bones. Even stronger (and more costly) than carbon
fibres are threads of boron.

4.3.2. Classification of composites

Many terms have been used to define FRP composites. Modifiers have been used
to identify a specific fiber such as Glass Fiber Reinforced Polymer (GFRP), Car-
bon Fiber Reinforced Polymer (CFRP), and Aramid Fiber Reinforced Polymer
(AFRP). Another familiar term used is Fiber Reinforced Plastics. In addition,
other acronyms were developed over the years and its use depended on geograph-
ical location or market use. For example, Fiber Reinforced Composites (FRC),
Glass Reinforced Plastics (GRP), and Polymer Matrix Composites (PMC) can

59
be found in many references. Although different, each of before mentioned terms
mean the same thing; FRP composites.
There are many ways of classifying composite materials. For instance, we can
classify the microcomposite materials based on the size, shape and distribution of
the different phases in the composite for instance like this:
• Continuous fibres in matrix: aligned, random
• Short fibres in matrix: aligned, random
• Particulates (spheres, plates, ellipsoids, irregular, hollow or solid) in matrix
• Dispersion strengthened, as for the point above, but the particle size <
−8
10 m
• Lamellar structures (used in laminates)
• Skeletal or interpenetrating neteworks
• Multicomponent, fibres, particles etc.
Clearly, the distinction between the diferent groups is not always a sharp one.
Nanocomposites are composites on nanoscale (10−9 meter). They have con-
stituents that are mixed on a nanometer-length scale.
Mostly, we classify composites according to their matrix phase. The role of the
matrix is to act as a medium to keep the fibers properly oriented and to protect
them from the environment. There are ceramic matrix composites (CMC’s), metal
matrix composites (MMC’s), and polymer matrix composites (PMC’s). Materials
within these categories are often called ”advanced” if they combine the properties
of high strength and high stiffness, low weight, corrosion resistance, and in some
cases special electrical properties. This combination of properties makes advanced
composites very attractive for aircraft and aerospace structural parts.

4.4. Ceramic matrix composites CMC

Ceramic Matrix Composites (CMC’s) are used in very high temperature environ-
ments.
The definition of the ceramic matrix can be rather broad. It includes inor-
ganic silica-based glasses, crystalline ceramics, glass-ceramics, intermetallics and
carbon. All of these have implicit unifying thread in that they are fairly high-
temperature structural materials. In CMCs, the ceramic matrix covers a wide
variety of inorganic materials, which are generally nonmetallic and are processed
at high temperatures. Common ceramic matrix materials include various glasses,
glass-ceramics and ceramics, such as carbon, silicon carbide, silicon nitride, alu-
minides and oxides. The reinforcements can include carbides, borides and oxides.

60
Figure 4.4: Service temperature ranges of some important polymers, metals and
ceramics

Specific examples of reinforcements include carbon, silicon carbide, titanium di-

boride, silicon nitride and alumina.
The important characteristics of advanced ceramics are: high modulus, high
strength; hardness; excellent high temperature capability; high melting points;
chemical inertness; abrasion; wear resistance; and low density. The drawback of
ceramics in comparison with metals is their extremely low fracture toughness. It
means that ceramics have a very low tolerance of crack-like flaws.

Figure 4.4 compares the approximate service temperature ranges of some im-
portant polymers, metals and ceramics. Clearly ceramics are the only class of
materials viable at very high temperatures. Ceramics have higher hardness and
stiffness than metals and polymers. Ceramics also have lower density, thermal
and electrical conductivity.
The CMC market is divided into two classes; the oxide and non-oxide mate-
rials (see Chapter 4.7.2). The oxide CMCs consist of oxide fibers (for instance
alumina Al2 O3 ), interfacing coatings and matrixs. The non-oxide CMCs consist
of non-oxide fibers (for instance silicone carbide SiC). Non-oxide CMCs are more
advanced than oxide CMCs since they have higher thermal conductivity, lower

61
thermal expansion and are more stable at high temperatures than oxide CMCs.
The non-oxide CMCs are used in thermally loaded components (combustor liners,
vanes, blades and heat exchangers). The oxide CMCs have good oxidation resis-
tance, alkali corrasion resistance, low dielectric constants and potentially low cost,
and are therefore usen for hot gas filters, exhaust components of aircraft engines,
and in long-life, lower temperature components.

Applications of Ceramics and CMCs

Potentially, ceramic components can be introduced into automobiles. The
most important resultant gain would be a reduction in fuel consumption because
of the light weight nature of ceramics and CMCs.
Other non-aerospace applications of CMCs include dies and tool bits, medical
implants and land-based power and transport engines.
Heat exchangers represent an area of application where ceramics or CMCs can
be cost-effective because of their high-temperature capability. One can use the
waste heat from the furnace exhaust to preheat the inlet combustion air and thus
save fuel consumption. Such heat exchangers can be used in industrial furnaces,
gas turbines and fluidized bed combustion units.
Ceramics and CMCs can also result in fuel efficiency in heat engines because of
higher operating temperatures, and reduction or elimination of cooling systems.
The temperature requirement in such applications is not as high as in aerospace
materials applications.
Other applications include wear parts, such as seals, nozzles, pads, liners,
grinding wheels, brakes, etc. For instance, carbon fiber reinforced carbon com-
posites are being used in aircraft brakes.

4.5. Metal Matrix Composites MMC

Metal Matrix Composites (MMC’s) are increasingly found in the automotive in-
dustry. These materials use a metal such as aluminium as the matrix, and rein-
force it with fibres such as silicon carbide. Metals containing ceramic particles,
whiskers or (short or long) fibers are also gaining importance. MMC are said to
be materials for the demands of the future:
When the demands for high thermal conductivity, reduced weight, heat dissipa-
tion, and high strength are factors for design, Metal Matrix Composites represent
the Next Generation of solutions for today’s electronic requirements. Metal-matrix
composites are either in use or prototyping for the Space Shuttle, commercial air-
liners, electronic substrates, bicycles, automobiles, golf clubs, and a variety of

62
other applications. While the vast majority are aluminum matrix composites,
a growing number of applications require the matrix properties of superalloys,
titanium, copper, magnesium, or iron.
Regardless of the variations, however, aluminum composites offer the advan-
tage of low cost over most other MMCs. In addition, they offer excellent thermal
conductivity, high shear strength, excellent abrasion resistance, high-temperature
operation, nonflammability, minimal attack by fuels and solvents, and the ability
to be formed and treated on conventional equipment.
Aluminum MMCs are produced by casting, powder metallurgy, in situ de-
velopment of reinforcements, and foil-and-fiber pressing techniques. Consistently
high-quality products are now available in large quantities, with major produc-
ers scaling up production and reducing prices. They are applied in brake rotors,
pistons, and other automotive components, as well as golf clubs, bicycles, machin-
ery components, electronic substrates, extruded angles and channels, and a wide
variety of other structural and electronic applications.
Compared to monolithic metals, MMCs have:
• Higher strength-to-density ratios
• Higher stiffness-to-density ratios
• Better fatigue resistance
• Better elevated temperature properties: -Higher strength
-Lower creep rate
• Lower coefficients of thermal expansion
• Better wear resistance

The advantages of MMCs over polymer matrix composites (PMCs) are:

• Higher temperature capability
• Fire resistance
• Higher transverse stiffness and strength
• No moisture absorption
• Higher electrical and thermal conductivities
• Better radiation resistance
• No outgassing
• Fabricability of whisker and particulate-
reinforced MMCs with conventional metalworking equipment
Some of the disadvantages of MMCs compared to monolithic metals and poly-
mer matrix composites are:

63
 • Higher cost of some material systems
• Relatively immature technology
• Complex fabrication methods for fiber-reinforced systems (except for casting)
• Limited service experience

4.6. Polymer Matrix Composites PMC

Polymer Matrix Composites (PMC’s) are the most common composites, and are
also known as FRP - Fibre Reinforced Polymers (or Plastics). These materials use
a polymer-based resin as the matrix, and a variety of fibres such as glass, carbon
and aramid as the reinforcement. Matrix materials are either thermosetting or
thermoplastic polymers. Reinforcing fibers are either continuous or chopped. In
general, polymer composites processing includes contracting of polymer and fibers,
shaping, controlled heating and/or reactions, and cooling. The technology of
polymer composites has been driven to a large extent by aerospace and military
applications.
Advantages of Polymer Composites
Polymer composites make the largest and most diverse use of composites due
to ease of fabrication, low cost and good properties. Also, they have:
• High specific strength properties (20-40% weight savings)
• Ability to fabricate directional mechanical properties
• Outstanding corrosion resistance
• Excellent Fatigue and fracture resistance
• Lower tooling cost alternatives
• Lower thermal expansion properties
• Simplification of manufacturing by parts integration
• Potential for rapid process cycles
• Ability to meet stringent dimensional stability requirements
Glass-fiber reinforced composites (GFRC) are strong, corrosion resistant and
lightweight, but not very stiff and cannot be used at high temperatures. Applica-
tions include auto and boat bodies, aircraft components.
Carbon-fiber reinforced composites (CFRC) use carbon fibers, which have the
highest specific module (module divided by weight). CFRC are strong, inert,
allow high temperature use. Applications include fishing rods, golf clubs, aircraft
components.

64
 Figure 4.5:

4.7. Composite fibers

Fibres (see [14]) are pliable hair-like substances, built up by long chains of basic
molecules. Fibres are very small in diameter in relation to their length. Long
continuous strands of fibers are called filaments. The only natural filament fibre
is silk from butterflies or spiders. Fibre’s properties depend strongly on both
the external and internal fibre structure as well as the chemical composition.
Properties therefore vary significantly. Crystalline areas give tensile strength,
stiffness and stability, while amorphous areas are weaker but more movable.
The fibers can be individual strands as thin as a human hair or they can be
multiple fibers braided in the form of a yarn (or tow). The fibers in advanced
composites are usually non-metallic in nature, consisting of such materials as
glass, carbon, silicon carbide, boron, alumina or Kevlar.

4.7.1. High-performance fibers

High-strength fibers utilized in high-performance composites include carbon, glass,
aramid, ultrahigh molecular-weight polyethylene (PE), boron, quartz, ceramic and
hybrid combinations. Continuous bundles (tow or roving) are the basic fiber forms
for high-performance composite applications. These forms may be used directly
in processes such as filament winding or pultrusion or may be converted into tape,
fabric and other forms.
In high-performance composites, the structural properties of the finished part
are derived primarily from the fiber. A fiber-to-matrix ratio of 60:40 or higher

65
is common for both thermoset- and thermoplastic-matrix composites. Desirable
properties are not achieved, however, without effective adhesion between fiber and
matrix, which requires sufficient saturation with resin (wetout) at the fiber-matrix
interface. Attention to fiber surface preparation, such as use of a surface finish
or coupling agent and selection of a compatible fiber and matrix combination,
ensures good adhesion.
For more details concerning fibers, see Chapter 4.7.

4.7.2. Choosing fibers

For most composite structures there are three fiber types to consider: glass;
Kevlar; and carbon or graphite. Other fibers such as boron, Spectra, quartz, and
ceramics are available, but these are usually reserved for specialized application.
The table below shows some advantages and disadvantages of some fibertypes,

Fiber Advantages Disadvantages

E-, S-Glass - High strength - Low stiffness
- Low cost - Short fatigue life
- High temp sensitivity
Aramid (Kevlar) - High tensile strength - Low comp. strength
- Low density - High moisture absorp.
Boron - High stiffness - High cost
- High comp. strength
Carbon (AS4, T300) - High strength - Moderate cost
- High stiffness
Graphite (pitch) - Very high stiffness - Low strength
- High cost
Ceramic (silicon - High stiffness - Low strength
carbide, alumina) - High use temp - High cost

while figure 4.6 shows some properties of some fibers.Figure 4.7shows a plot of
specific strength vs. specific stiffness of some fibers.
We will have a closer look at some types of fibres.

Glass fibre

66
 Figure 4.6: Properties of some fibers.

Figure 4.7: Specific strength vs. specific stiffness of some fibers.

67
 Glass fibres, see Figure 4.8, are made of silicon oxide with addition of small
amounts of other oxides. Glass fibres are characteristic for their high strength,
good temperature and corrosion resistance, and low price. Over 90% in the com-
posite industry is glass fibres.There are two main types of glass fibres: E-glass

Figure 4.8: Glasfibre.

and S-glass. The first type is the most used, and takes its name from its good
electrical properties (no electrical interference in thunderstorms, and no sparks).
The second type is very strong (S-glass), stiff, and temperature resistant ("S"
stands for "strength," and is a tradename of Owens-Corning Inc. Other names
are "Te-glass" and "R-glass"). Used as reinforcing materials in many sectors, e.g.
automotive and naval industries, sport equipment etc.

E-glass S-glass
◦ ◦
- softens at ≈850 C - softens at ≈1000 C
- most inexpensive fiber ≈ 30% stronger than E-glass
- most commonly used fiber today ≈ 15% stiffer than E-glass
- insulators and capasitors ≈ 3 times as expensive as E-glass

- high quality glass fiber

- high technical purposes

The most widely used composite material is fiberglass in polyester resin, which
is commonly referred to as just fiberglass. Fiberglass is light weight, corrosion
resistant, economical, easily processed, has good mechanical properties, and has

68
over 50 years of history. It is the dominant material in industries such as boat
building and corrosion equipment, and it plays a major role in industries such as
automotive, medical, recreational, and industrial equipment.

Aramid fibre (Kevlar)

Aramids are a family of nylons, including Nomex° R
and Kevlar° R
( Polyamide
-PA). Aramid fibres, see Figure 4.9 are known for their large hardness and resis-
tance to penetration.Thanks to their toughness aramid fibres are used where high

Figure 4.9: Aramid fibre.

impenetrability is required, e.g. bulletproof vests, bike tyres, airplanes wings, and
sport equipment. These fibres are not as spread as glass or carbon fibres, mostly
because of their cost, high water absorption, and their difficult post-processing.
(References: DuPont (Kevlar° R
) Fibers of KEVLAR° R
consist of long molec-
ular chains produced from poly-paraphenylene terephthalamide). PPTA is the
acronym for para-phenylen-terephthalamid.
Polymers are not only used for the matrix, they also make a good reinforcement
material in composites. For example, Kevlar is a polymer fibre that is immensely
strong and adds toughness to a composite. It is used as the reinforcement in
composite products that require lightweight and reliable construction (eg, struc-
tural body parts of an aircraft). Composite materials were not the original use
for Kevlar; it was developed to replace steel in radial tyres and is now used in
bulletproof vests and helmets. Kevlar, and aramid-fiber composite can be used
as textile fibers. Applications include bullet-proof vests, tires, brake and clutch
◦
linings. Servicetemperature of Aramid fibre is up to 250 C, and its melting tem-
◦
perature is 426.7 C.

69
 Figure 4.10: Carbon fibre.

Quartz fibers
Quartz fibers are very high silica version of glass with much higher mechanical
properties and excellent resistance to high temperatures and can be used con-
tinuously to 1048.9◦ C and for short-temperature applications, even to 1248,9◦ C..
They are more expensive than E-glass and S-glass, provide significantly better
electromagnetic properties than glass, making them a good choice for parts such
as aircraft radomes. Saint Gobain Quartz (Louisville, Ky.) is one supplier of
quartz fibers.

Boron fiber
Boron fiber is five times as strong and twice as stiff as steel. It is made by
a chemical vapor deposition process in which boron vapors are deposited onto a
fine tungsten or carbon filament. Boron provides strength, stiffness, light weight
and excellent compressive properties, as well as buckling resistance. Use of boron
composites ranges from sporting goods, such as fishing rods, golf club shafts, skis
and bicycle frames, to aerospace applications such as aircraft empennage skins,
space shuttle truss members and prefabricated aircraft repair patches. It has a
◦
melting point at 2180 C.

Carbon fibre
Carbon fibres, see Figure 4.10, are the stiffest and strongest reinforcing fibres
for polymer composites, the most used after glass fibres. Made of pure carbon
in form of graphite, they have low density and a negative coefficient of longitu-
dinal thermal expansion. Carbon fibres are very expensive and can give galvanic

70
corrosion in contact with metals. They are generally used together with epoxy,
where high strength and stiffness are required, i.e. race cars, automotive and space
applications, sport equipment.

Ceramic fibers
Ceramic fibers offer high to very high temperature resistance but poor impact
resistance and relatively poor room-temperature properties. Ceramic fibers are
typically much more expensive than other fibers. Like quartz, they are selected
when their advantages justify the extra cost. An application of ceramic fibers is
flame-resistant veil material produced by 3M Ceramic Fiber Products (St. Paul,
Minn.) used in laminates for aircraft interiors. The laminate can withstand
1093.33◦ C for 15 minutes without flame penetration.
Non-oxide fibers can be such as Siliciumcarbide (SiC), boron nitride (BN), and
multiphase fibers consisting of silicon, carbon, boron, nitride, titanium, (Si-C-B-
N-Ti).
Oxide fibers can be such as aluminium oxide (Al2 O3 ), alumina zirconia mix-
tures (Al2 O3 +Zr2 O2 ), yttria-alumina-garnet (YAG), and mullite (3Al2 O3 -2SiO2 ).

UHMW-PE - Ultra-high molecular weight polyethylene

UHMW, see Figure 4.11, is a polymer material composed of long chains with

Figure 4.11: UHMW.

a very high molecular weight. It even replaced Kevlar° R

for making bullet-proof
vests! UHMW-PE combines the traditional abrasion and cut resistance of metal
alloys with the impact and corrosion resistance of synthetic materials. Tough as
a metal, self-lubricating and slippery. UHMW-PE fibres have the tendency to
elongate under load (creep). They are extremely low density, and they can float.

71
 Figure 4.12: Liquid crystal polymer.

Melting-point between 120◦ and 150◦ C. Applications are being developed partic-
ularly in the areas of ballistic protection and ropes. The material is inflammable.
These fibres have a tensile strength 20 times greater than that of steel. Their
free breaking length is around 330 km (steel breaks at 25, glass at 135, carbon at
195 and aramid at 235).
Products: Bullet-proof vest, Cut-resistant gloves, Psychiatric clothing.

LCP - Liquid crystal polymer

LCP, see Figure 4.12 is a thermoplastic fibre with exceptional strength and
rigidity (five times that of steel), and about 15 times the fatigue resistance of
aramid. Very good impact resistance. It doesn’t absorb moisture, has very low
stretch, it doesn’t creep like UHMW-PE fibre, and has excellent abrasion, wear,
and chemical resistance. Its high melting-point (320◦ C) allows the retention of
these properties over broad ranges of temperatures. It is suitable for industrial,
electronic, and aerospace applications, as well as for ropes, and sport equipment.
Products: Fishing line, High performance rope, Tennis racket

Fiber hybrids
Fiber hybrids capitalize on the best properties of various fiber types, while
reducing raw material costs. Hybrid composites combining carbon/aramid and
carbon/glass fibers have been used successfully in ribbed aircraft engine thrust
reversers, telescope mirrors, drive shafts for ground transportation and infrastruc-
ture column-wrapping systems. For example, in hybrid-fiber flywheels for electric
vehicles, the composite components withstand energy forces as high as 2.5 million
ft-lb.

72
 Figure 4.13: Spidersilk.

Spider silk
Spider silk is a biopolymer fibre and a natural composite, see Figure 4.13 and
chapter 4.2.

4.8. Aerogel composites

Aerogel is 99.8% air, and provides 39 times more insulating than the best fiberglass
insulation, and is 1,000 times less dense than glass, see http://stardust.jpl.nasa.gov/
tech/aerogel.html where the picture 4.14 can be found. A cube 1x1x1 meter of
aerogel will only weight three kg. It can also be exposed to temperatures up to
1400◦ C before it willl soften.
Aerogel is not like conventional foams, but is a special porous material with
extreme microporosity on a micron scale. It is composed of individual features
only a few nanometers in size. These are linked in a highly porous dendritic-like
structure.
This exotic substance has many unusual properties, such as low thermal con-
ductivity, refractive index and sound speed - in addition to its exceptional ability
to capture fast moving dust. Aerogel is made by high temperature and pressure-
critical-point drying of a gel composed of colloidal silica structural units filled with
solvents.
Silica aerogel is just another form of glass. If aerogel is handled roughly, it will
break just like glass. However, if care is taken, the material can be handled and
shaped effectively.

73
 Figure 4.14: Crayons on Aerogel over a flame.

Silica aerogels are inorganic solids, very brittle and usually very low density
materials. A collapse of the solid network in the material occurs gradually, spread-
ing the force of impact out over a longer time, and is why they can be very useful
as energy absorbing materials.
Aerogels can be added different materials/particles in order to obtain special
effect of the materials. For instance can we add metal salts, or other compounds
to a sol before gelation. Then we may obtain a deep blue aerogel by adding nickel;
while a pale green color appears by adding copper; a black gel contains carbon
and iron; and orange aerogel is added iron oxide. It is also possible to obtain a
magnetic aerogel by using chemical vapor infiltration to get iron oxide introduced
in the material. The aerogel can also be made photoluminescent, which means
that it glows-in-the-dark by using a pigment that absorbs light and emits that
energy over a period of time -even after the light source has been removed. The
pigment is rechargeable.

4.9. Textile composites

There is a new ”class” of composites, called textile composites. The material
comes from a new technique which instead of the reinforcing fibres being put in
place individually, which is slow and costly, they can be knitted or woven together
to make a sort of cloth. This can even be three-dimensional rather than flat, see
Figure 4.15. The spaces between and around the textile fibres mat be filled with
the matrix material (such as a resin) to make the final product.
This process can quite easily be done by machines rather than by hand, making

74
 Figure 4.15: Three dimensional braiding of composite structures.

it faster and cheaper. Connecting all the fibres together also means that the
composite is less likely to be damaged when struck.

4.10. Advantages of composites

The greatest advantage of composite materials is strength and stiffness combined
with lightness and the possibility of tailoring the properties of the material or
structure that you want. By choosing an appropriate combination of reinforcement
and matrix material, manufacturers can produce properties that exactly fit the
requirements for a particular structure for a particular purpose.
With the costs coming down, other uses for composites are beginning to look
attractive. Making the hulls and superstructures of boats from composites takes
advantage of their resistance to corrosion. The Australian Navys new minehunters
have composite hulls, since the magnetic effect of a steel hull would interfere with
mine detection.
Also in the pipeline are carriages for trains, trams and other ’people movers’,
made from composites rather than steel or aluminium. Here the appeal is the
lightness of the composites, as the vehicles then use less energy. And we are going
to see more and more composites in cars for the same reason.
Modern aviation, both military and civil, is a prime example. It would be much
less efficient without composites. In fact, the demands made by that industry for
materials that are both light and strong has been the main force driving the
development of composites. It is common now to find wing and tail sections,
propellers and rotor blades made from advanced composites, along with much of
the internal structure and fittings. The airframes of some smaller aircraft are

75
made entirely from composites, as are the wing, tail and body panels of large
commercial aircraft.
In thinking about planes, it is worth remembering that composites are less
likely than metals (such as aluminium) to break up completely under stress. A
small crack in a piece of metal can spread very rapidly with very serious conse-
quences (especially in the case of aircraft). The fibres in a composite act to block
the widening of any small crack and to share the stress around.
The right composites also stand up well to heat and corrosion. This makes
them ideal for use in products that are exposed to extreme environments such
as boats, chemical-handling equipment and spacecraft. In general, composite
materials are very durable.
Another advantage of composite materials is that they provide design flexibil-
ity. Composites can be moulded into complex shapes a great asset when producing
something like a surfboard or a boat hull.
Summing up:
• High strength-to-weight or modulus-to-weight ratio
• Reduced weight
• Design flexibility
• Block widening of small crack and share the stress
• Properties that can be tailored
• Longer life (no corrosion)
• Lower manufacturing costs—lower part count
• Increased (or decreased) thermal and/or electrical conductivity
• Impermeable to chemicals, gases, liquids

4.11. Disadvantages of composites

The downside of composites is usually the cost. Although manufacturing processes
are often more efficient when composites are used, the raw materials are expensive.
Composites will never totally replace traditional materials like steel, but in many
cases they are just what we need. And no doubt new uses will be found as the
technology evolves. We haven’t yet seen all that composites can do.
Summing up:
• High cost of raw materials and fabrication
• Properties of laminated composites are not always ideal, there is a low
strength through-thickness and low interlaminar shear strength.

76
 • The performance of the material depends on the quality of the manufacturing
process
• Materials have limited shelf lives, and require refrigeration during transport
• Hot curing is necessary, meaning specialized heating equipment is needed on
site
• Composites must be completely cleaned and dried before repair, this is some-
times difficult
• Environmental degradation of matrix
• Difficulty in attaching
• Difficulty with analysis
• Some curing techniques can take a long time

4.12. Space-age materials

In the space-age, new materals are wanted. For instance, NASA is trying to
tailor new materials that can mimic the extraordinary structural and self-repairing
properties of biological substances such as bone or sea shells, also called bio-
inspired materials. Such biologically inspired materials can adapt to changing
conditions and therefore they can help to make airplanes and spacecraft lighter,
stronger and more reliable. New advanced materials can also be able to change
their shapes (i.e. airplane wings which today is done with hydraulics). The hope
is to find materials that change shape on command because then we could improve
for instance airplanes tremendously.
Also the so-called ’self-healing’ materials could be very important to space
exploration, thus even small sand grain particle of a meteor could puncture the
hull of existing space vehicles.

4.13. Self-healing composites

Mimicking biological systems, composite material heals itself; the paper is published
Feb. 15, 2001 in the journal Nature.
Inspired by biological systems in which damage triggers an autonomic heal-
ing response, researchers at the University of Illinois have developed a synthetic
material that can heal itself when cracked or broken.
The material — consisting of a microencapsulated healing agent and a special
catalyst embedded in a structural composite matrix — could increase the reliability
and service life of thermosetting polymers used in a wide variety of applications
ranging from microelectronics to aerospace.

77
 Figure 4.16: Self healing composite from http://www.cerncourier.com.

”Once cracks have formed within typical polymeric materials, the integrity of
the structure is significantly compromised,” said Scott White, a UI professor of
aeronautical and astronautical engineering and lead author of a paper published in
the Feb. 15 (2001) issue of the journal Nature that described the new self-healing
material.
”Often these cracks occur deep within the structure where detection is diffi-
cult and repair is virtually impossible.” In the new material, however, the repair
process begins as soon as a crack forms.
”When the material cracks, the microcapsules rupture and release the healing
agent into the damaged region through capillary action,” White said. ”As the
healing agent contacts the embedded catalyst, polymerization is initiated which
then bonds the crack face closed.”
In recent fracture tests, the self-healed composites recovered as much as 75
percent of their original strength. And because microcracks are the precursors to
structural failure, the ability to heal them will enable structures that last longer
and require less maintenance.
The concept of the autonomic healing system.
”Filling the microcracks will also mitigate the harmful effects of environ-
mentally assisted degradation such as moisture swelling and corrosion cracking,”
White said. ”This technology could increase the lifetime of structural components,
perhaps by as much as two or three times.”

78
Figure 4.17: (a) In a right-handed material, where both permittivity and permeability
are positive, the index of refraction is positive and the law of optics follow our intuition.
(b) This is not the case in a left-handed material with negative permittivity and perme-
ability. In that case the index of refraction is negative and a convergent lens becomes
divergent. Figure from: http://www.ifh.ee.ethz.ch/~martin/res10.en.html

The ability to self-repair and restore structural integrity also could extend the
lifetimes of polymer composite circuit boards, where microcracks can lead to both
mechanical and electrical failure.

4.14. Left-handed metamaterials

Metamaterials are engineered composites exhibiting properties that are not ob-
served in the constituent materials and not observed in nature.
The response of a material to electromagnetic fields is entirely characterized by
its permittivity and its permeability. The former gives the response to an applied
electric field, while the latter describes the response to a magnetic field. They
determine how electromagnetic waves (including microwaves and visible light)
interact with the material. These two parameters are not constant, but depend
on the illumination frequency (for example a semiconductor can be opaque in
the visible range, but transparent in the infrared). Quite surprising effects can
also arise for specific values of these two parameters. For example, when the
permittivity takes particular negative values plasmon resonances can be excited
in the material.

Composite Material with ”reversed” physical properties

79
 UCSD PHYSICISTS DEVELOP NEW CLASS OF COMPOSITE MATERI-
ALS WITH ’REVERSED’ PHYSICAL PROPERTIES NEVER BEFORE SEEN,
Appearing in the April 6, 2001 issue of Science.
Minneapolis, MN-Physicists at the University of California, San Diego (UCSD)
have produced a new class of composite materials with unusual physical properties
that scientists theorized might be possible, but have never before been able to
produce in nature.
”Composite materials like this are built on a totally new concept,” said the
two co-leaders of the UCSD team, Sheldon Schultz and David R. Smith, who
announced their discovery at a news conference. ”While they obey the laws of
physics, they are predicted to behave totally different from normal materials and
should find interesting applications.”
The unusual property of this new class of materials is essentially its ability
to reverse many of the physical properties that govern the behavior of ordinary
materials. One such property is the Doppler effect, which makes a train whistle
sound higher in pitch as it approaches and lower in pitch as it recedes. According
to Maxwell’s equations, which describe the relationship between magnetic and
electric fields, microwave radiation or light would show the opposite effect in this
new class of materials, shifting to lower frequencies as a source approaches and to
higher frequencies as it recedes.
Similarly, Maxwell’s equations further suggest that lenses that would normally
disperse electromagnetic radiation would instead focus it within this composite
material. This is because Snell’s law, which describes the angle of refraction
caused by the change in velocity of light and other waves through lenses, water
and other types of ordinary material, is expected to be exactly opposite within
this composite.
”If these effects turn out to be possible at optical frequencies, this material
would have the crazy property that a flashlight shining on a slab can focus the
light at a point on the other side,” said Schultz. ”There’s no way you can do that
with just a sheet of ordinary material.”
Underlying the reversal of the Doppler effect, Snell’s law, and Cerenkov ra-
diation (radiation by charged particles moving through a medium) is that this
new material exhibits a reversal of one of the ”right-hand rules” of physics which
describe a relationship between the electric and magnetic fields and the direction
of their wave velocity.
The new materials are known by the UCSD team colloquially as ”left-handed
materials,” after a term coined by Veselago, because they reverse this relationship.

80
What that means is physically counterintuitive-pulses of electromagnetic radiation
moving through the material in one direction are composed of constituent waves
moving in the opposite direction.
The UCSD physicists emphasized that while they believe their new class of
composites will be shown to reverse Snell’s law, the specific composite they pro-
duced will not do so at visible-light frequencies. Instead, it is now limited to
transmitting microwave radiation at frequencies of 4 to 7 Gigahertz-a range some-
where between the operation of household microwave ovens (3.3 Gigahertz) and
military radars (10 Gigahertz).
The composite constructed by the UCSD team-which also consisted of Willie
J. Padilla, David C. Vier, and Syrus C. Nemat-Nasser-was produced from a series
of thin copper rings and ordinary copper wire strung parallel to the rings. It is
an example of a new class of materials scientists call ”metamaterials.” ”Even
though it is composed of only copper wires and copper rings, the arrangement has
an effective magnetic response to microwaves that has never been demonstrated
before,” said Schultz.
What’s unusual about the new class of materials produced by the UCSD team
is that it simultaneously has a negative electric permittivity and a negative mag-
netic permeability, a combination of properties never before seen in a natural or
man-made material.
”And the interesting thing is that it’s produced with no magnetic material,”
said Schultz. ”It’s all done with copper.”
”The bottom line,” said Smith, ”is that this material- this metamaterial, at
frequencies where both the permittivity and permeability are negative, behaves
according to a left-handed rule, rather than a right-handed rule.”

Questions
• What is the theory behind composite materials?
• What is a composite material?
• How do we classify composite materials according to their matrix phase?
• What is the greatest advantage of composite materials?
• What is the greatest disadvantage of composite materials?
• Why is specific modulus and specific strengt important?
• What does Fiber Reinforced Plastics (FRP) mean?
• What kind of reinforcement can composites have? Illustrated them.
• What kind of fibers are there, and what are their advantages/disadvantages?

81
• What is so special about spider silk, can you find out the prospect for commer-
cialisation of spider silk?
• What is the primary function of the reinforcement and the matrix in the com-
posite material?
• How do we find the modulus of the entire composite?
• How do we classify composites?
•What is so special about high performance materials?
• What is the strength of the composite primarily depending on?
• What is CMC, MMC, and PMC? What are the differences? Where are the
applications?
• What is the advantages of MMCs compared to monolithic metals?
• What is the advantages of MMCs compared to PMC’s?
• What is the disadvantages of MMCs compared to PMC’s and monolithic metals?
• How doea a self-healing composite work?
• What is a left-handed material?
• What is a metamaterial?

References:
Natural composites:
http://www.imb-jena.de/~sponner/Current.html
MMC:
http://www.tms.org/pubs/journals/JOM/0104/Rawal-0104.html
http://www.electrovac.com/metall/indexe.htm
http://www.machinedesign.com/bde/materials/compsites/rvmat2d.html
http://www.pcc-aft.com/tech/mmc/mmc.html
Ceramics:
http://www.albint.com/web/techweav/techw.nsf/
http://www.engr.utk.edu/~cmc/
http://www.onera.fr/dmsc-en/matcer/
http://www.mmat.ubc.ca/other/courses/mmat382/cnc63.htm
http://books.nap.edu/books/0309059968/html/7.html#pagetop
PMC
http://www.npl.co.uk/npl/cmmt/cog/cmmthm098.html
http://www.egr.msu.edu/cmsc/nsf/polymeric.html
http://www.raypubs.com
http://www.raypubs.com/hpcsb/sbover2.html#partdesign

82
High-performance composites:
http://www.etcusa.com/hpc/
Material database on internet:
http://www.matweb.com/index.asp?ckck=1
Composites:
http://composite.about.com/mbody.htm
http://composite.about.com/cs/aboutcomposites/
http://www.mil17.org/
http://www.netcomposites.com/
http://www.science.org.au/nova/059/059key.htm
http://www.efunda.com/materials/polymers/properties/
polymer_cat.cfm?MajorID=PA
http://www.sdplastics.com/
http://www.howstuffworks.com/ question87.htm
http://www.users.globalnet.co.uk/~weeks/Composite%20Materials.htm
http://callisto.my.mtu.edu/my472/
http://home.earthlink.net/~ttc/about.html
http://www.mech.utah.edu/~rusmeeha/labNotes/composites.html
http://ice.chem.wisc.edu/materials/composite.html
http://www.psrc.usm.edu/macrog/index.htm
http://callisto.my.mtu.edu/MY472/
http://www.matweb.com/searchcompenglish.htm
http://plastics.about.com/library/weekly/aa980323.htm
http://www.advancedcomposites.com/technology.htm
http://www.nap.edu/books/0309059968/html/index.html
Aerogel materials:
http://www.ntnu.no/gemini/2002-05/16-19.htm
http://www.tu.no/snadder/article.jhtml?articleID=14148
http://stardust.jpl.nasa.gov/tech/aerogel.html
http://www.taasi.com/what.htm
Textile composites:
http://www.mtm.kuleuven.ac.be/Research/C2/poly/Modelling.htm
http://www.muratec.net/braider/
http://www.engr.ukans.edu/~rhale/textiles/index.htm
http://www.ntcresearch.org/pdf-rpts/AnRp00/I00-A06.pdf
http://www.innovationave.com/storage/PDF/advmaterials/ghosh.pdf

83
http://fiberarchitects.com/
http://www.mtm.kuleuven.ac.be/Research/C2/poly/wisetex.html
http://www.stru.polimi.it/Compositi/Compositi_dx.htm
John Summerscales, Microstructural characterisation of fibre-reinforced compos-
ites, ISBN 1 85573 240 8, 320 pages, 1998.
General:
http://claymore.engineer.gvsu.edu/~jackh/eod/
Race-car:
http://www.mse.cornell.edu/courses/engri111/racecar.htm
FRP manufact:
http://www.owenscorning.com/owens/composites/about/introduction.asp
Sspace-age materials:
http://www.spacedaily.com/news/materials-02zh.html
High-performance composites:
http://www.etcusa.com/hpc/
http://www.raypubs.com/hpcsb/sboverview.html
http://www.atlcomposites.com/products_composite_duflex_intro.htm
http://www.quadrantepp-europe.com/idqua001.asp
http://www.bayplastics.co.uk/
http://www.tstar.com/pdf/quadrant-DF.pdf
High-performance materials:
http://www.hiper-group.com/hcproducts.htm
Self-healing material:
http://www.news.uiuc.edu/scitips/01/0214selfheal.html
http://www.globaltechnoscan.com/21stFeb-27thFeb01/biological.htm
Left-handed composite materials/metamaterials:
http://ucsdnews.ucsd.edu/newsrel/science/mccomposite.htm
http://www-physics.ucsd.edu/lhmedia/
http://www.ing.dk/konf/root/redproduktion/sub/graenseland/html/0106.html
http://physics.ucsd.edu/~drs/left_home.htm
http://www.ifh.ee.ethz.ch/~martin/res10.en.html
http://physics.ucsd.edu/lhmedia/

84
5. Smart (intelligent) Materials and Structures
Smart materials are not smarter than you. Smart materials respond to environ-
mental stimuli with particular changes in some variables. For that reason they
are often also called responsive materials or functional materials. Depending on
changes in some external conditions, ”smart” materials change either their prop-
erties (mechanical, electrical, appearance), their structure or composition, or their
functions. They are materials able to transform other forms of energy to mechan-
ical energy and, sometimes, vice versa. These are unique type of materials and
have similarities in microstructures and deformation mechanisms. Fundamental
understanding on the behavior of these materials is still on the way, meanwhile,
various novel applications of these materials are found of successful.
The technological field of smart materials (see [16]) has evolved over the past
decades with increasing pace during the 1990s.
Typical applications include, sensors and actuators, vibration suppression and
damping device, micro-electro-mechanical-system, biomedical engineering, space,
robot, etc., to name a few. These materials will greatly help us to further improve
the way of living of our human being (see i.e.[19]).
Smart materials is a group of material systems with unique properties. Fur-
thermore one should note that the terms

• Smart materials
• Intelligent Materials
• Active Materials
• Adaptive Materials
• (and to some extent) actuators and sensors

are almost always, used interchangeably. We will consider the following 4 main
groups of smart materials in more detail

• — Color Changing Materials

— Light Emitting Materials
— Moving Materials
— Temperature Changing Materials

85
5.1. Color Changing Materials
Color changing materials are materials that change color due to different external
stimuli.

5.1.1. Photochromic materials

Photochromic materials change reversibly color with changes in light intensity,
see Figure 5.1. Usually, they are colorless in a dark place, and when sunlight or
ultraviolet radiation is applied molecular structure of the material changes and it
exhibits color. When the relevant light source is removed the color disappears.
Changes from one color to another color are possible mixing photochromic
colors with base colors.They are used in paints, inks, and mixed to mould or

Figure 5.1: Photochromic material.

casting materials for different applications.

5.1.2. Thermochromic materials

Thermochromic materials change reversibly color with changes in temperature,
see Figure 5.2.They usually are semi-conductor compounds. The change in color
happens at a determined temperature, which can be varied doping the material.
They are used to make paints, inks or are mixed to moulding or casting ma-
terials for different applications.

5.2. Light Emitting Materials

Light emitting materials are materials that change the light in some sence, due to
some external stimuli.

86
 Figure 5.2: Thermochromic material.

5.2.1. Electroluminescent materials

Electroluminescent materials produce a brilliant light of different colors when
stimulated electronically, see Figure 5.3.

Figure 5.3: Electroluminescent material.

Electroluminescent materials are a combination of phosphorous and fluorocar-

bons that produce a brilliant light of different colors when stimulated electronically
(e.g. by AC current). While emitting light no heat is produced.
They can be used for making lightstripes for decorating buildings, or for in-
dustrial and public vehicles safety precautions.

5.2.2. Fluorescent materials

Fluorescent materials produce visible or invisible light as a result of incident light
of a shorter wavelength. The effect ceases as soon as the source of excitment is

87
removed.

Figure 5.4: Fluorescent material.

Fluorescent materials produce visible or invisible light as a result of incident

light of a shorter wavelength (i.e. X-rays, UV-rays, etc.). The effect ceases as
soon as the source of excitment is removed, see Figure 5.4.
Fluorescent pigments in daylight have a white or light color, whereas under
excitation by UV radiation they irradiate an intensive fluorescent color.
They can be used for paints, inks or mixed to moulding or casting materials
for different applications.

5.2.3. Phosphorescent materials

Phosphorescent materials (or afterglow materials) produce visible or invisible light
as a result of incident light of a shorter wavelength (i.e. X-rays, UV-rays, etc.),
detectable only after the source of the excitement has been removed, see Figure
5.5.
Afterglow effect pigments are polycrystalline inorganic zinc sulphide (green
afterglow) or alkaline earth sulphides (red or blue afterglow), and can be used in
paints, inks or mixed to moulding or casting materials for different applications.

5.3. Moving Materials

Moving materials are materials that in some sence move when exposed to some
special external source.

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 Figure 5.5: Phosphorescent material.

5.3.1. Conducting polymers

Conducting polymers are conjugated polymers, through which electrons can move
from one end of the polymer to the other. The most common are polyaniline

Figure 5.6: Conducting polymer.

(PAni) and polypyrrole (PPY). Polipyrrole has been used for the development
of micro muscles. Polyaniline films sandwiched around a ion-conducting film are
considered as material for artificial muscles for robots. A current flow reduces one
side and oxidizes the other. Ions are transferred. One side expands and the other
contracts, resulting in a bending of the sandwich, see Figure 5.6. Electrical and
chemical energies are in this way transformed into mechanical energy.
Conducting polymers are still at a research level. Presently, the expected
lifetime of the muscle is of 100.000 actuations.

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5.3.2. Dielectric elastomers
Dielectric elastomers (also called electrostrictive polymers) exhibit a mechanical
strain when subjected to an electric field as shown in Figure 5.7.The most com-

Figure 5.7: Dielectric elastomers.

mon are PMMA-based electrostrictive polymers. Thanks to their electrostrictive

strain, they can be sandwiched between two electrodes to emulate the operation of
muscles. In an electric field, the elastomer expands in the plane of the electrodes,
amplifying the normal compression due to the electrostatic charges on the elec-
trodes. The result is a muscle with large strain capability, and a large actuation
pressure.

5.3.3. Piezoelectric materials

Piezoelectric materials produce an electric field when exposed to a change in di-
mension caused by an imposed mechanical force (piezoelectric or generator effect),
see Figure 5.8. Conversely, an applied electric field will produce a mechanical
stress (electrostrictive or motor effect). They transform energy from mechanical
to electrical and vice-versa and are used for sensing purposes (e.g. microphone,
transducer), and for actuating applications. Similar to piezoelectric materials are
electrostrictive and magnetostrictive materials used in high precision actuation.
They are ferromagnetic materials which experience an elastic strain when sub-
jected to an electric or magnetic field respectively.
Products: Smart skis, Mothra plain, Acoustic transducer, Multilayer cofired
actuator, Magnetostrictive linear motor, Smart skin.

90
 Figure 5.8: Piezoelectric material.

5.3.4. Polymer gels

Polymer gels consist of a cross-linked polymer network inflated with a solvent
such as water, see Figure 5.9.They have the ability to reversibly swell or shrink

Figure 5.9: Polymer gels.

(up to 1000 times in volume) due to small changes in their environment (pH,
temperature, electric field). Micro sized gel fibres contract in milliseconds, while
thick polymers layers require minutes to react (up to 2 hours or even days). They
have high strength and can deliver sizeable stress (approximately equal to that of
human muscles).
The most common are polyvinylalcohol (PVA), polyacrylicacid (PAA) and

91
polyacrylonitrile (PAN). There are many potential applications for these mate-
rials (e.g. artificial muscles, robot actuators, adsorbers of toxic chemicals), but
presently, few of them have a commercial diffusion. Response time is still not
fast enough for artificial muscles. Lifetime of a gel actuator is very short. Their
structure gradually degrades and they become unusable. Commercial reality is
still far away.

5.3.5. Shape memory materials (SMM)

Shape memory alloys (SMA) are metals that, after being strained, at a certain
temperature revert back to their original shape, see Figure 5.10. A change in their
crystal structure above their transformation temperature causes them to return to
their original shape. SMAs enable large forces (generated when encountering any
resistance during their transformation) and large movements actuation, as they
can recover large strains.

Figure 5.10: Shape memory alloys (SMA).

Shape-memory materials are also superelastic, namely they are able to sustain
a large deformation at a constant temperature, and when the deforming force
is released they return to their original undeformed shape. Typically, they can
undergoe elastic strain up to 10%.
The shape memory effect is a unique property of certain alloys. Even though
the alloy is deformed in the low temperature phase, it recovers its original shape on
being heated to a critical higher temperature. The material is one that undergoes
a change of crystal structure at a certain temperature called the transformation
temperature. Above this temperature the material has one crystal structure (cubic

92
in the case of Cu-Al-Ni) and below this temperature it has another (orthorhombic
for Cu-Al-Ni). The low temperature structure of these types of materials allows
the material to be easily and apparently permanently deformed. However on
heating the material returns to its high temperature structure which has only
one possible shape. Thus the material has ”remembered” its shape (see also
[20]). Generally, these materials can be plastically deformed at some relatively
low temperature, and upon exposure to some higher temperature will return to
their shape prior to the deformation. Materials that exhibit shape memory only
upon heating are referred to as having a one-way shape memory. Some materials
also undergo a change in shape upon recooling. These materials have a two-way
shape memory.
Products: SMA stent for veins, Superelastic glasses, Coffeepot thermostat,
Electrical connector.
Also shape-memory ceramics and polymers (SMP) exist. Shape-memory poly-
mer for instance, converts from a temporary shape (top) to its parent shape (bot-
tom) in 45 seconds at 65o C.
Commercial SME Alloys
The only two alloy systems that have achieved any level of commercial ex-
ploitation are the NiTi alloys and the copper-base alloys. Properties of the two
systems are quite different. The NiTi alloys have greater shape memory strain (up
to 8% versus 4 to 5% for the copper-base alloys), tend to be much more thermally
stable, have excellent corrosion resistance compared to the copper-base alloys’
medium corrosion resistance and susceptibility to stress-corrosion cracking, and
have much higher ductility. On the other hand, the copper-base alloys are much
less expensive, can be melted and extruded in air with ease, and have a wider
range of potential transformation temperatures. The two alloy systems thus have
advantages and disadvantages that must be considered in a particular application.

5.3.6. Nanostructured Shape Memory Materials

Nanoscale materials have enjoyed recent interest because of the changes that oc-
cur in material behavior as surface effects and grain boundary behavior play a
larger role in the overall mechanical behavior of the material. Shape memory
alloys continue to be explored for more dramatic superelastic behavior and sev-
eral of these alloys have already proven to have wide ranging applications in the
aerospace, biomedical, and microelectronics industries. A nanostructured shape
memory alloy is on the leading edge of materials development and will allow fur-

93
Figure 5.11: Magnetically controlled shape memory materials (MSM) replace machines.

ther advances in the application of shape memory alloys to microscopic structures

and miniaturized devices.
Foils of nickel-titanium alloy with nanoscale structure have been successfully
fabricated. Preliminary characterization testing has been conducted which con-
firms that the primary phase present in the material is NiTi which is the phase
displaying shape memory behavior.

5.3.7. Magnetic Shape Memory (MSM) Materials

Magnetic Shape Memory effect is a new invention in actuator materials field, al-
lowing even 50 times greater strains than in previous magnetically controlled ma-
terials (magnetostrictive materials). In MSM materials the magnetic field moves
microscopical parts of the material (so called twins) that creates a net shape
change of the material. The mechanism enables also more complicated shape
changes than conventional linear strain, such as bending and shear. Strains can
be even 5 % (depending on the material). Typically, present MSM materials pro-
duce 2 % strain at 0 to 2 MPa stress in actuator use. AdaptaMat is developing a
commercial grade MSM alloy. MSM material samples can be produce for research
use.
MSM materials field of application seems to be very wide, ranging from auto-
motive applications to home electronics. They can simplify complicated mechan-
ical structures. Consider a sewing machine, as in Figure 5.11: traditional sewing
machine has a rotating electric motor and a large number of parts in a rather
complicated mechanical transmission system, although the desired motion of the
needle is up and down. A sewing machine based on MSM technology could consist

94
of an electromagnet (coil) and a needle made of MSM-material.

5.4. Temperature Changing Materials

Temperature changing materials are materials that change temperature in some
way, when exposed to some sort of external source.

5.4.1. Thermoelectric materials

Thermoelectric materials are special types of semiconductors that, when coupled,
function as a ”heat pump”, see Figure 5.12.By applying a low voltage DC power

Figure 5.12: Thermoelectric materials.

source, heat is moved in the direction of the current (+ to -). Usually, they are
used for thermoelectric modules where a single couple or many couples (to obtain
larger cooling capacity) are combined. One face of the module cools down while
the other heats up, and the effect is reversible. Thermoelectric cooling allows for
small size and light devices, high reliability and precise temperature control, and
quiet operation. Disadvantages include high prices and high operating costs, due
to low energy efficiency.

95
 Figure 6.1: Aluminium foam / functional gradient material in car.

6. Functional Gradient Materials

Functional (FGM) gradient materials are materials that have a gradual variation
of material properties from one end to another, as shown in Figure 6.1.
A kind of special materials which can be used long-term in high temperature
and large difference of temperature is needed as aerospace industry is developing
at high speed. The thermal stress in materials is so large that neither pure metals,
pure ceramics nor cladding materials can meet this strict condition. The concept of
Functionally Gradient Materials(FGM) was first put forward for reducing thermal
stress. FGMs can be fabricated by for instance Powder Metallurgy (PM).
Considerable technical and economic benefits are possible by structuring com-
ponents and surface coatings through their thickness and laterally across their
surface. Tailored coatings and structured components are being produced by var-
ious powder metallurgy techniques, particularly for corrosion and wear resistant
applications (from [18]).
Man-made functionally graded materials (FGMs) copiy natural biomaterials,
such as bamboo, teeth and shell etc., with a gradient in chemical composition or
microstructure from one side to the other side in the material. Materials with a
gradual change in chemical composition or microstructure are expected to have
advanced or new properties. The concept of functionally graded materials was
proposed in 1984 by material scientists in the Sendai area in Japan. Since then
studies to develop high-performance heat-resistant materials using functionally
graded technology have continued. In recent years, another attempt to apply the

96
 Figure 6.2: Functional (FGM) gradient materials.

FGM concept to the functional materials has been initiated. Various techniques
have been employed to the fabrication of FGMs, including Chemical Vapor De-
position (CVD) / Physical Vapor Deposition (PVD), powder metallurgy, plasma
spraying, electro-plating and combustion synthesis.
The typical design of the FGMs is that the varying composition of the FGMs
from high ceramic content on one side of bulk material to high metal content on
the other side. This may lead to good wear resistance, good corrosion resistance,
good heat resistance on the high ceramic content side and good fracture resistance,
good thermal conductivity on the high metal content side.
The joining of ceramics to metals is of great engineering significance for vari-
ous advanced technologies, including high-temperature structural applications in,
e.g., turbine airfoils and combustors. A crucial matter in the ceramic-metal joint
system is to develop an efficient means to suppress the damage to be induced by
thermal stresses (cracking, interfacial decohesion, etc.), see Figure 6.2.
The objective in recent research projects is to establish a micromechanics-based
method for the optimal design of the graded interlayers in terms of the damage-
tolerant thermal stress distributions under various thermal loading conditions.
This new concept of engineering the material’s microstructure marks the beginning
of a revolution both in the materials science and mechanics of materials areas

97
 Figure 6.3: Functional (FGM) gradient materials.

since it allows one, for the first time, to fully integrate the material and structural
considerations into the final design of structural components, see Figure 6.3.

98
Figure 7.1: A ”nano-tube”, 1nm in diameter and may be 1000nm long. Carbon-atoms
in a ”periodic tube”.

7. Nano - materials - and technology

Nanoelectronics, Nanotechnology, Nanoconductor, Nanocomputer, Nanobots, from
[13] are all technology based on nanoparticles which is a new functional mater-
ial with length from 1 to 100nm, where 1 nanometer is 1·10−9 meter. In recent
years, it has attracted worldwide attention in research and development of nano
materials. The immediately available applications for these materials range from
transparent skin-care products to microelectronic components and high-stress en-
gine parts.
In this near to atomic size range, the particles and dynamic properties of
surface atoms can be exploited to modify and enhance the performance of basic
raw materials (e.g. iron, aluminum and titanium). These materials have unique
electrical, optical, chemical, structural and magnetic properties with potential
applications including information storage, color imaging, bioprocessing, magnetic
refrigeration, and ferrofluids.
Figure 7.1 is gives a picture of a so-called ”nano-tube”, see ref. Aftenposten
(graphics: J. P. MÆHLEN ). One gram of these tubes costs about 5000 NOK,
and is produced by Carbon Nanotechnology Inc. (CNI) which founder is Richard
Smalley who got the Nobelprize for the invention of the technology of the nano-
tubes in 1996.
This type of new composite materials can be molecularly engineered. The

99
capabilities allow products to achieve levels of strength and durability. It can
also be use to produce designer materials with electronic, mechanical, chemical,
magnetic, and optical behavior, beyond the capability of traditional materials.
New generations of products and processes become possible.
Nanoparticles are also widely applied in such fields as astronavigation, national
defense, magnetic recording devices, computerization, environmental protections,
surface modification and medical/biological engineering etc.
In the 21st century, Nanoparticles will be one of the most important materials
for the development of hi-tech machines (e.g. Nanoelectronics, Nanotechnology,
Nanoconductor, Nanocomputer, and Nanobots).
Manufactured products are made from atoms (see [17]). The properties of
those products depend on how those atoms are arranged. If we rearrange the
atoms in coal we can make diamond. If we rearrange the atoms in sand (and add
a few other trace elements) we can make computer chips. If we rearrange the
atoms in dirt, water and air we can make potatoes.
The greatest problem of nanocrystalline materials have been to move the tech-
nology out of the laboratory and put into commercial applications by developing
means to produce quality materials in commercial volume at affordable cost. How-
ever, these difficulties have been overcome. Todays manufacturing methods have
been very crude at the molecular level. Casting, grinding, milling and even litho-
graphy move atoms in great thundering statistical herds. It’s like trying to make
things out of LEGO blocks with boxing gloves on your hands. Yes, you can push
the LEGO blocks into great heaps and pile them up, but you can’t really snap
them together the way you’d like. In the future, nanotechnology will let us take
off the boxing gloves. We’ll be able to snap together the fundamental building
blocks of nature easily, inexpensively and in almost any arrangement that we de-
sire. This will be essential if we for instance want to continue the revolution in
computer hardware.
It’s worth pointing out that the word ”nanotechnology” has become very pop-
ular and is used to describe many types of research where the characteristic dimen-
sions are less than about 1,000 nanometers. For example, continued improvements
in lithography have resulted in line widths that are less than one micron: this work
is often called ”nanotechnology.” Sub-micron lithography is clearly very valuable
but it is equally clear that lithography will not let us build semiconductor devices
in which individual dopant atoms are located at specific lattice sites. Many of the
exponentially improving trends in computer hardware capability have remained
steady for the last 50 years. There is fairly widespread confidence that these

100
trends are likely to continue for at least another ten years, but then lithography
starts to reach its fundamental limits.
Whatever we call it, nano-technology should let us:

• — Get essentially every atom in the right place.

— Make almost any structure consistent with the laws of physics and
chemistry that we can specify in atomic detail.
— Have low manufacturing costs (not greatly exceeding the cost of the
required raw materials and energy).

There are two more concepts commonly associated with nanotechnology:

• — Positional assembly.
— Self replication.

Clearly, we would be happy with any method that simultaneously achieved

the first three objectives. However, this seems difficult without using some form
of positional assembly (to get the right molecular parts in the right places) and
some form of self replication (to keep the costs down).
The need for positional assembly implies an interest in molecular robotics,
e.g., robotic devices that are molecular both in their size and precision. These
molecular scale positional devices are likely to resemble very small versions of
their everyday macroscopic counterparts. Positional assembly is frequently used
in normal macroscopic manufacturing today, and provides tremendous advantages.
The requirement for low cost creates an interest in self replicating manufac-
turing systems. These systems are able both to make copies of themselves and
to manufacture useful products. If we can design and build one such system the
manufacturing costs for more such systems and the products they make (assuming
they can make copies of themselves in some reasonably inexpensive environment)
will be very low.

7.1. Nanocomposites
Materials with features on the scale of nanometers often have properties dramat-
ically different from their bulk-scale counterparts. For example, nanocrystalline
copper is five times harder than ordinary copper with its micrometer-sized crys-
talline structure. The development of such materials is currently a research area
of great interest.

101
 Figure 7.2: Picture from http://www.forskning.no.

Important among these nanoscale materials are nanocomposites, in which the

constituents are mixed on a nanometer-length scale. They often have properties
that are superior to conventional microscale composites and can be synthesized
using surprisingly simple and inexpensive techniques.
A nanoscale dispersion of sheet-like inorganic silicate particles in a polymer
matrix, for example, is superior to either constituent in such properties as opti-
cal clarity, strength, stiffness, thermal stability, reduced permeability, and flame
retardancy. The key to the synthesis of nanocomposites is how the silicates are
made to disperse in the polymer. Since the organic and inorganic components
are typically immiscible (like water and oil), the silicate surface is modified by
attaching surfactant molecules (like adding soap to water).
Polymer-based nanocomposites are also being developed for electronics ap-
plications such as thin-film capacitors in integrated circuits and solid polymer
electrolyes for batteries.
Nature also makes fabulous nanocomposites, and scientists are trying to em-
ulate such processes. The abalone shell, for example, has alternating layers of
calcium carbonate and a rubbery biopolymer; it is twice as hard and a thousand
times tougher than its components.
The study of nanocomposite materials requires a multidisciplinary approach,
involving novel chemical techniques and an understanding of physics, mathemat-
ics, material science and surface science. It is a field of broad scientific interest
with impressive technological promise.

102
Figure 7.3: (Left) This transmission electron micrograph of the cubic structure of
the new hybrid material shows pores of about 10 nanometers across. (Right) This
diagram shows molecular architecture of the flexible ceramic phase called a ”plumber’s
nightmare.” Wiesner Research Group

7.2. New, flexible ceramics

Using nanoscale chemistry, researchers at Cornell have developed a new class of
hybrid materials that they describe as flexible ceramics. The new materials appear
to have wide applications, from microelectronics to separating macromolecules,
such as proteins.
The Cornell researcher reasoned that the simplest way to mimic nature’s path-
ways was to use organic (or carbon-based) polymers — more particularly materials
known as diblock copolymers — that have the ability to self-assemble chemically
into nanostructures with different symmetries. If the polymer could somehow be
melded with an inorganic material — a ceramic, specifically a silica-type material —
the resulting hybrid would have a combination of properties: flexibility and struc-
ture control from the polymer and functionality from the ceramic. This, Wiesner’s
group has now achieved.
”The resulting material has properties that are not just the simple sum of
polymers plus ceramic, but maybe something quite new,” said Wiesner. Thus
far the Cornell researchers have made only small pieces of the flexible ceramic,
weighing a few grams, in petri dishes, but that is enough to test the material’s
properties. It is transparent and bendable but with considerable strength, and

103
unlike pure ceramic will not shatter. In one form the hybrid material is an ion
conductor (an ion is an electrically charged atom), with great promise as highly
efficient battery electrolytes. There also is the possibility that the new material
could be used in fuel cells, he said.
Published March 21, 2002, http://www.news.cornell.edu/Chronicle/02/3.21.02/
Wiesner-ceramics.html

7.3. Back to square one?

Published in : http://www.forskning.no/Artikler/2002/oktober/1034170456.0 10.
October 2002
An up-and-coming young physicist at Bell Labs in Murray Hill, New Jersey,
has been dismissed after being found guilty of 16 counts of scientific misconduct
by a review panel charged with investigating his research.
Formerly a rising star in the field of nanotechnology, Schön was renowned for
creating field-effect transistors, the backbone of modern electronics, out of tiny
molecules. His work won him numerous awards from magazines and scientific
organizations, and colleagues were beginning to tip him for a Nobel Prize.
But not everything was as it seemed. Many scientists were unable to reproduce
Schön’s results. In April, a small group of physicists noticed that graphs in three
unrelated papers appeared identical down to what should have been random noise.
Bell Labs rapidly launched an independent investigation, which soon expanded to
include two dozen papers.
What they found, according to Malcolm Beasley, a professor of electrical engi-
neering at Stanford University, who chaired the panel, was that Schön substituted
whole figures from other papers, removed data points that disagreed with predic-
tions, and even used mathematical functions in place of real data points.

References:
Nano SMM:
http://mrsec.wisc.edu/Seed_shape_memory/seed_shape_memory_alloys.htm
Aerogel:
http://eande.lbl.gov/ECS/aerogels/aerogels.htm
http://www.ntnu.no/gemini/2002-05/16-19.htm
FGM:
http://kenwww.pi.titech.ac.jp/Current_Subjects#Topic-3

104
http://www.grc.nasa.gov/
http://WWW/RT2000/5000/5920arnold3.html
http://www.lucifer.com/~sean/Nano.html
http://www.zyvex.com/nano/
http://web.mit.edu/tdp/www/composite.html
CVD:
http://chiuserv.ac.nctu.edu.tw/~htchiu/cvd/home.html
http://www.ultramet.com/4.htm
nano:
http://www.aftenposten.no/nyheter/iriks/article.jhtml?articleID=199118
http://www.aftenposten.no/nyheter/iriks/article.jhtml?articleID=198172
http://www.aftenposten.no/nyheter/iriks/article.jhtml?articleID=198173
http://www.dr.dk/videnom/12nano/nano2.htm
http://www.dr.dk/orbitalen/artikler/aktnat/nanoroer.shtm
http://www.tekblad.no/show_article.asp?id=4112
http://www.pa.msu.edu/cmp/csc/nanotube.html
http://www.sciencesite.dtu.dk/nano/
http://www.sciam.com/nanotech/
http://www.forskning.no/Artikler/2003/juni/1055493430.67
http://www.forskning.no/Artikler/2003/september/1063028534.1
Nanocomposites:
http://www.mse.cornell.edu/materials_science_discovering/nanocomposites.html
http://www.nanocor.com/nclays/nanocomposites.htm
http://www.pnl.gov/nano/conferences/smart.html
http://www.ntnu.no/gemini/2002-05/16-19.htm
Flexible cramics:
http://www.news.cornell.edu/Chronicle/02/3.21.02/ Wiesner-ceramics.html
Misconduct in nanotechnology:
http://www.smalltimes.com/document_display.cfm?document_id=4079
http://www.nature.com/nsu/020923/020923-9.html
http://www.nanoelectronicsplanet.com/briefs/
http://nanotechweb.org/articles/news/1/9

Questions
• What is the difference between a material and a structure?

105
• What is a smart material?
• What kind of smart materials are there, and how do they act?
• What is a FGM?
• What is the advantage of a functional gradient material compared with tradi-
tional ”solid” materials?
• What kind of products do you think could be made from a functional gradient
material?
• What kind of products is FGM used in today? Who make them? What kind of
materials are they made of?
• What is nano-technology?
• What future is there in nano-technology?
• What is a nanotube? What is the principle of fabrication of the nanotubes?
• What kind of commercial nano-tube-based products are available in the market,
and what can they be used as?
• What is a flexible ceramic?

106
 Figure 8.1: Cellular structure.

8. Cellular Solids, Structures & Foams

When modern man builds large load-bearing structures, he uses dense solids; steel,
concrete, glass. When nature does the same, she generally uses cellular materials;
wood, bone, coral. There must be good reasons for it ref: (Prof. M. F. Ashby,
University of Cambridge)
Cellular solids are defined as ”...an assembly of cells with solid edges of faces,
packed together so that they fill space...”, see [5], p. 1, and see Figure 8.1.Such
materials can be found in nature, for instance cork and wood. Man-made cellular
structures will in the future replace conventional materials because of the possi-
bility to construct structures with tailored properties. Cellular structures can ei-
ther consist of two-dimensional structures, like honeycombs, or three-dimensional
structures, like foam-structures.
Honeycombs are usually thought of as cells in a hexagonal form, but they
can also be in a triangular, square or rhombic form. We can find honeycombs in
the nature, like the bee-honeycomb and as the cross-section of the bambootree.
Honeycombs are often used as a core material in sandwich-constructions. The very
good stiffness-to-weight ratio and strength-to-weight ratio and the good shock
absorption ability in addition to the possibility for man-made tailored properties
of the structures are some of the answers to why the honeycomb-structures have
become so interesting as material structures.
Foams can now also be made of almost any material, like polymers, met-
als, ceramics, glasses, and composites. The properties of a foam are related to

107
its structure and the material of which the cell walls are made. Cellular solids
are often used for thermal insulation, packaging, filtering, structural applications
or for their buoyancy property among many other applications. Recently, there
has been an increased interest in the use of cellular solids that perform more
than just one function. These multi-functional materials would possess unique
combinations of thermophysical and mechanical properties. For example, a load
bearing cellular solid could also provide for additional things such as impact/blast
absorption, thermal management, conductance of electricity and/or shielding of
electromagnetic waves, electrical power storage, filtering or impeding of fluid flow,
retardation of chemical reactions and fire or in-growth of biological tissue. The
largest obstacle in creating these materials thus far has been the inability for
many manufacturers (using foaming or other methods) to gain control over the
distribution of material/pores at the cell level. In addition, the limited choice of
base material types has slowed the introduction of cellular solids as materials of
choice for multifunctional applications.

8.1. Metal Foams

Metal foams are a new type of materials, that is unknown to most engineers. They
are not perfectly characterized, but generally we say that they have low densities
and new type of physical, mechanical, thermal, electrical and energy absorbtion.
In recent years there has been an increased interest in metal foams in the field
of material science. The stress absorbing potential is one of the most interesting
properties for the application of aluminium foam (e.g. car manufacturing). Mate-
rial scientists need to investigate the structure of metal foams in order to optimize
their deformation behavior.
Most available metal foams are based on aluminium or nickel, but there also
exist methods for foaming magnesium, lead, zinc, copper, bronze, titanium, steel
and even gold. The methods are still imperfectly controlled. Metallic foams
(metfoams) offer significant performance gains in light, stiff structures since they
have an excellent stiffness-to-weight ratio. They can also be used as core materials
in sandwich constructions since they have low density with good shear and fracture
strength. The damping capacity of metal foams is larger than that of solid metals
by up to a factor of 10.
The most promising applications for metal foams appear to be as cores for
light-stiff sandwich panels; as stiffeners to inhibit buckling in light shell structures;
as energy absorbing units, both inside and outside of motor vehicles and trains; as

108
 Figure 8.2:

efficient heat exchanges to cool high powered electronics (by blowing air through
the open cells of the aluminium foam, , attached to the heat source) and as light
cores for shell casting. Several industrial designers have seen potential in exploiting
the reflectivity and light-filtering of open cell foams, and the interesting textures
of those with closed cells.

8.1.1. Aluminium foam:

Also aluminium foam is beginning to be a large group of foam cores. It can be
difficult to distinguish between aluminium foam as core material or as a functional
gradient material, which is used in for instance car production.
The properties (mechanical, thermal et.) of foam materials is studied in the
field of cellular solids.
Example of aluminium foam: A potential use for aluminum foam in the
shape of flat panels is as a core for a sandwich panel, see [15]. Two thin skins of
stiff material are adhered to the surface of the plates resulting in a lightweight,
stiff structure. Sandwich panels can be used in a variety of applications, including:
aircraft flooring, boat decking, firedoors.
The panels can also be coated or surface-treated and used as an architectural
material in wall-coverings, furniture, displays and signage.
Blocks of foam can be used as energy absorbers in various transportation-
related applications, such as automobiles, trucks and trains and highway crash
barriers. Cymat is capable of producing aluminum foam panels up to four feet
wide and 50 feet long with thickness ranging from 1 inch to 4 inches. The densities

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available are from 2.5% dense aluminum (0.0675 g/cc) to 20% dense aluminum
(0.54 g/cc).

8.2. Polymer foam:

Polymeric foams have important ecomomic impact on nearly every aspect of life
today. High-density cellular plastics are used in furniture, transportation, and
building products. Low-density foams are used as shock mitigation, insulation,
and rigid packaging.
The foam industry grows because cellular materials offer unique advantages
over traditional materials and non-cellular polymers. Foams have unique in-
sulating properties, impact-resistant characteristics, buoyancy, and outstanding
strength-to-weight ratios, among other attributes.
Applications: packaging, Automobile Interior Trim, Insulation Industry, Con-
struction, Industrial Application, Water Sport Articles & Others. Special charac-
ters of polymer foams:
• Low water absorption (closed-cell structure, no water absorption, non-decay
and lowest dampening rate insulating materials, fully water-resistance)
• Thermal insulation characters (fine-cell structure, low thermoconductivity
rate, insulation never deducted after a long period of use.)
• Particular durability (water, weather and medicine-resistance, excellent heat-
insulator,nontoxic and odorless, and rust free.)
• Lightweight: (density (0.033g/cm3) is 1/30 of water.)
• Flexibility & workability: easy to bend, easy to process, applied to architec-
ture and insulating equipment.
• Buffering and attractive appearance: perfect mechanical property, resilience,
and buffer, smooth surface, soft and aesthetic.

Foams are one of the most common forms of core material in lightweight sand-
wich constructions. They can be manufactured from a variety of synthetic poly-
mers including polyvinyl chloride (PVC), polystyrene (PS), polyurethane (PU),
polymethyl methacrylamide (acrylic), polyetherimide (PEI) and styreneacryloni-
trile (SAN). They can be supplied in densities ranging from less than 30kg/m3 to
more than 300kg/m3 , although the most used densities for composite structures
range from 40 to 200 kg/m3 . They are also available in a variety of thicknesses,
typically from 5mm to 50mm.
Polyvinyl chloride PVC - Often used in the manufacture of racing boats,

110
as the linear construction foams are flexible, and can be heat moulded around
curves.
Closed-cell polyvinyl chloride (PVC) foams are one of the most commonly
used core materials for the construction of high performance sandwich structures.
Although strictly they are a chemical hybrid of PVC and polyurethane, they tend
to be referred to simply as ’PVC foams’.
PVC foams offer a balanced combination of static and dynamic properties and
good resistance to water absorption. They also have a large operating tempera-
ture range of typically -240◦ C to +80◦ C , and are resistant to many chemicals.
Although PVC foams are generally flammable, there are fire-retardant grades that
can be used in many fire-critical applications, such as train components. When
used as a core for sandwich construction with fiber reinforced polymer (FRP)
skins, its reasonable resistance to styrene means that it can be used safely with
polyester resins and it is therefore popular in many industries. It is normally
supplied in sheet form, either plain, or grid-scored to allow easy forming to shape.
There are two main types of PVC foam: crosslinked and uncrosslinked with
the uncrosslinked foams sometimes being referred to as ’linear’. The uncrosslinked
foams are tougher and more flexible, and are easier to heat-form around curves.
However, they have some lower mechanical properties than an equivalent density
of cross-linked PVC, and a lower resistance to elevated temperatures and styrene.
Their cross-linked counterparts are harder but more brittle and will produce a
stiffer panel, less susceptible to softening or creeping in hot climates. Typical
cross-linked PVC products include the Herex C-series of foams, Divinycell H and
HT grades and Polimex Klegecell and Termanto products.
A new generation of toughened PVC foams is now also becoming available
which trade some of the basic mechanical properties of the cross-linked PVC
foams for some of the improved toughness of the linear foams. Typical products
include Divincell HD grade.
Owing to the nature of the PVC/polyurethane chemistry in cross-linked PVC
foams, these materials need to be thoroughly sealed with a resin coating before
they can be safely used with low-temperature curing prepregs. Although special
heat stabilisation treatments are available for these foams, these treatments are
primarily designed to improve the dimensional stability of the foam, and reduce
the amount of gassing that is given off during elevated temperature processing.
Applications of PVC foam are in maringe, aerospace, transportation, military
and defence, and industry.
Polystyrene (PS)- Very light - around 40kg/m3 , inexpensive and easily shaped.

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 Although polystyrene foams are used extensively in sail and surf board man-
ufacture, where their light weight (40kg/m3), low cost and easy to sand charac-
teristics are of prime importance, they are rarely employed in high performance
component construction because of their low mechanical properties. They cannot
be used in conjunction with polyester resin systems because they will be dissolved
by the styrene present in the resin (ester-based matrices cannot be used as adhe-
sives). PS or EPS (extruded PS) is primary used as thermal insulation materials
but also in some load carrying structures. Extruded polystyrene insulation offers
a service temperature range of (-183◦ C to +74◦ C).
Polyurethane (PU) (PUR earlier)- Is very rigid and has and good mechanical
properties, but tends to deteriorate with age and become delaminated.
Polyurethane foams exhibit only moderate mechanical properties and have a
tendency for the foam surface at the resin/core interface to deteriorate with age,
leading to skin delamination. Their structural applications are therefore normally
limited to the production of formers to create frames or stringers for stiffening
components. However, polyurethane foams can be used in lightly loaded sandwich
panels, with these panels being widely used for thermal insulation. The foam also
has reasonable elevated service temperature properties (150◦ C), and good acoustic
absorption. The foam can readily be cut and machined to required shapes or
profiles.
Polymethyl methacrylamide (PMI)
For a given density, polymethyl methacrylamide (acrylic) foams such as Roha-
cell offer some of the highest overall strengths and stiffnesses of foam cores. Their
high dimensional stability also makes them unique in that they can readily be
used with conventional elevated temperature curing prepregs. However, they are
expensive, which means that their use tends to be limited to aerospace composite
parts such as helicopter rotor blades, and aircraft flaps. Acrylics has the high-
est specific strength and stiffness for a given density. High stability makes them
ideal for use with prepregs, but they do not fit curves well. Maximum service
temperature of PMI is 180◦ C.
Styrene acrylonitrile (SAN) co-polymer Foams
SAN foams behave in a similar way to toughened cross-linked PVC foams.
They have most of the static properties of cross-linked PVC cores, yet have much
higher elongations and toughness. They are therefore able to absorb impact levels
that would fracture both conventional and even the toughened PVC foams. How-
ever, unlike the toughened PVC’s, which use plasticisers to toughen the polymer,

112
the toughness properties of SAN are inherent in the polymer itself, and so do not
change appreciably with age.
SAN foams are replacing linear PVC foams in many applications since they
have much of the linear PVC’s toughness and elongation, yet have a higher tem-
perature performance and better static properties. However, they are still thermo-
formable, which helps in the manufacture of curved parts. Heat-stabilised grades
of SAN foams can also be more simply used with low-temperature curing prepregs,
since they do not have the interfering chemistry inherent in the PVC’s. Maximum
service temperature of PMI is 125◦ C.
Polyethylene (PET)- A crystalline polyethylene terephthalate (PET) foam
by applying high-expansion foam extrusion and thermoforming to PET resin.
The PET foam combines light weight and outstanding shock resistance with good
thermal insulation. Because it withstands temperatures up to 220◦ C, PET foam
is an excellent material for oven-proof food containers. And because of its superior
shock absorption and moldability, it makes an ideal packing material for multiple
products.
Other thermoplastics
As new techniques develop for the blowing of foams from thermoplastics, the
range of expanded materials of this type continues to increase. Typical is PEI
foam, an expanded polyetherimide/polyether sulphone, which combines outstand-
ing fire performance with high service temperature. PEI is expensive, but can be
used in temperatures from -194◦ C - +180◦ C, and can be used in structural, ther-
mal and fire protection applications, for instance in aircrafts and train interiors,
as it can meet some of the most stringent fire resistant specifications.

8.3. Refractory foams / Ceramic foam

Refractory materials are ceramics that have been designed to provide acceptable
mechanical or chemical properties while at high temperatures.
Refractory foams are a new class of open cell, low density materials which
Ultramet has developed to produce lightweight refractory structures for a variety
of aerospace and industrial applications including thermal insulation, lightweight,
precision mirrors, impact absorption, catalyst support, and metal and gas filtra-
tion. By pyrolyzing a polymer foam, a reticulated vitreous carbon (RVC) foam
is created which has substantial mechanical and thermal properties. By further
CVI (chemical vapor infiltration) processing, ceramic (e.g. silicon carbide [SiC])
and/or metal or mixed material foams can be fabricated.

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 These cellular materials can be simultaneously optimized for stiffness, strength,
thermal conductivity, active surface area, and gas permeability. They are ther-
mally stable, low in weight and density, chemically pure, resistant to thermal
stress and shock, and are relatively inexpensive.
June 2001: A team of scientists from Technion, Israel, has succeeded in manu-
facturing the worlds lightest ceramic foam material, implementing a unique mech-
anism its members have developed. The new material is a ceramic foam that
contains 94% to 96% air by volume, but can resist temperatures above 1700◦ C.
The material is made of aluminum oxide, a common high-temperature ceramic,
but gets its extraordinary insulating powers from the many tiny air bubbles within
the material. The foam is generated from special crystals that contain the metal
components and all the foaming ingredients. Upon heating, the crystals form a
solution. Within this solution a reaction takes place, forming polymer chains.
After the chains grow sufficiently, the solution suddenly separates into a pure
solvent and the polymer. At this point, the solvent begins to boil, forming trillions
of tiny bubbles that blow the polymer into a foam, stabilized by the polymer
chains. Subsequent heating to high temperatures leaves behind the ceramic, metal
oxide foam.
The material will be used for a wide variety of advanced applications such
as acoustic insulation, thermal insulation, adsorption of environmental pollutants
or as a platform for bio-technology applications. The estimated market for this
product is worth billions of dollars.

8.3.1. Carbon foam

Touchstone makes thee carbon foam product, CFoam by transforming high-sulfur
bituminous coal into a strong but lightweight, fire-resistant, and thermally insu-
lating material. A slice of Carbon foam that is exposed to a 3000◦ flame, can be
held by a hand in the other end due to its conductivity which makes that the end
remains cool enough to touch. The carbon foam material can be used as for in-
stance lightweight thermal protection in aircraft and spacecraft, as a fire blocking
material in military vehicles, as a porous electrode for lightweight energy storage,
and to provide insulation and fire protection in home construction.

8.4. Hierarchical structures

Some cellular structures are made up in a different matter than the previous ones.
The hierarchical structures are structures that consist of structures in many size

114
 Figure 8.3: Human bone is a hierarchical structure.

scales or levels. They are also called multiscaled structures. Many such struc-
tures can be found in nature, and humans have begun to imitate the nature and
build man-made hierarchical structures. Weight-savings and tailored properties
are some of the benefit of such structures.
Human bone (bones in general) is for instance a natural hierarchical structure,
see Figure 8.3.
Eiffel-tower, on the other hand, is an example of an artifical/man-made hier-
archical structure, see Figure 8.4, is a hierarchical structure.
Most common materials or structues have a Poissons ratio 0.5 > ν > 0, but
hierarchical structures and foams have also been made with negativ Poissons ratio
(ν < 0), and Poisson’s ratio > 1, which give exciting respond to loads. The
applications for such structures/materials are not widely known, but will certainly
increase in future when the fabrication of such structures will be easier. Rod Lakes
(at: http://silver.neep.wisc.edu/~lakes/sci87.html) is maybe the person who has
done most in this field.

8.5. Biomaterials
A biomaterial is any material, natural or man-made, that comprises whole or part
of a living structure or biomedical device which performs, augments, or replaces
a natural function.

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 Figure 8.4: The Eiffel tower is also a hierarchical structure.

References:
Cellular structures:
http://www.hin.no/~dl/homo.html
http://web.mit.edu/dmse/csg/Research.htm
http://silver.neep.wisc.edu/~lakes/
Metal foam:
http://www.metalfoam.net/
http://www.porvair.com/fuelcell/metalfoam.htm
http://www.porvair.com/fuelcell/
http://www.ultramet.com/foamtech.htm
http://www.cymat.com/
http://www.npl.co.uk/npl/cmmt/metal_foams/index.html
http://www.grantadesign.com/solutions/metalfoams.htm

Polymer foam:
http://www.vitec.org.uk/
http://www.foamandform.com/seminars/foam/
Ceramic foams:
http://www.emgroup.nl

116
http://www.solgel.com/articles/june01/news06_101.htm
Refractory foams:
http://www.ultramet.com/
http://voyager.cet.edu/iss/techcheck/techcheck3/wvproduct.html
General:
http://www.npl.co.uk/npl/cmmt/metal_foams/applications.html
Hierarchical structures
http://silver.neep.wisc.edu/~lakes/Hierarch.html
Negative Poissons ratio materials
http://silver.neep.wisc.edu/~lakes/sci87.html
Biomaterials:
http://www.engr.sjsu.edu/WofMatE/Biomaterials.htm
Questions
• What is the definition of ”cellular solids”?
• What types of foams are there, and what products are they used in?
• What is the advantages of foam materials compared to conventional solid ma-
terials?
• What are the applications of foam materials?
• What is a refractory material/structure?
• What is hierarchical structures?
• Find two examples of man-made hierarchical structures and two examples of
natural hierarchical structures.
• Does foam with negative Poissons ratio exist? How does such a material act?
• Does foam with Poissons ratio >1 exist?

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Part II
Sandwich Constructions
Composite materials used today are often in the form of a sandwich construction,
see Figure 8.5.A sandwich panel is built up by two thin skins, also called the

Face sheet

Honeycomb core
(metal, composite
or paper)

Adhesive

Face sheet

Figure 8.5: A sandwich construction.

facings, separated by a lightweight core. The core helps to increase the moment of
inertia such that the structure becomes efficient for resisting bending and buckling
loads. This is why sandwich panels are being used in applications where weight-
saving is critical, for instance in aircraft and in portable structures.
Sandwich designs are also used by nature itself for instance in a human skull
and in plants. While nature often uses the same material in the facings as in
the core and only vary the density, man-made sandwich panels usually consist of
different materials, or even structures, in the facings and in the core.A sandwich
construction is built up by different face- and core materials and forms, see Figure
8.6 and [35, p.18].

118
 Figure 8.6: Sandwich materials and forms.

9. Why use sandwich constructions?

The mechanical behavior of a sandwich panel depends on the properties of the
face and the core mateirals and on its geometry.
The Figure 9.1 shows how the sandwich design works, the so-called sandwich-
effect.
In Figure 9.2 we see the sandwich-effect in and aluminium-sandwich compared
to solid aluminium plates of different thickness.

119
 Figure 9.1: The sandwich effect.

Figure 9.2: Aluminium foam used as core material compared with aluminium plate.

120
9.1. Face materials
The face material in a sandwich panel can be made of almost any material that
can be formed into thin sheets. The properties we seek for in a face material are:
• high stiffness, which gives high flexural rigidity
• high tensile and compressive strength
• impact resistance
• surface finish
• environmental resistance (chemical, UV, heat etc.)
• wear resistance
The most usual type of material used as facings are listed in the Table with a
summary of face materials.

Material
Metals: Mild steel
Stainless steel
Aluminium Alloy
Titanium Alloy
Wood: Pine
Plywood
Unidirectional fibre composites Carbon/Epoxy , (9.1)
(vf = 0.6 − 0.7) Glass/Epoxy
Kevlar/Epoxy
Bi-directional fibre composites Kevlar/Polyester
(vf = 0.3 − 0.4) Glass weave/Polyester
Glass WR /Polyester
Random fibres Glass CSM
(vf = 0.15 − 0.25) SMC
where WR=(woven roving), CSM= chopped strand mat, SMC = sheet mould-
ing compound and vf is the volume fraction of fibers.
The most used group of face-materials is the fibre composites since they have
a similar or even higher strength properties than metals, and are much easier to
fabricate. Also, the possibility to tailor the face materials because the anisotropic
behaviour of the fibres offer a very interesting addition. In this way fibres can be
placed in the direction where the loadcarrying is most important.

121
 Figure 9.3: Core exposed to shear.

9.2. Core materials and structures

The essential property of any core material is that it increases the thickness of the
laminate, without causing a great weight increase (engineering theory shows that
the flexural stiffness of any panel is proportional to the cube of its thickness). The
purpose of a core in a composite laminate is therefore to increase the laminate’s
stiffness by effectively ’thickening’ it with a low-density core material. This can
provide a dramatic increase in stiffness for very little additional weight.
Figure 9.3 shows a cored laminate under a bending load. Here, the sandwich
laminate can be likened to an I-beam, in which the laminate skins act as the
I-beam flange, and the core materials act as the beam’s shear web. In this mode
of loading it can be seen that the upper skin is put into compression, the lower
skin into tension and the core into shear. It therefore follows that one of the most
important properties of a core is its shear strength and stiffness.
In addition, particularly when using lightweight, thin laminate skins, the core
must be capable of taking a compressive loading without premature failure. This
helps to prevent the thin skins from wrinkling, and failing in a buckling mode.
The properties of primary interest for the core:
• Low density (add little weight to the total weight of the sandwch)
• Shear modulus (prevents wrinkling)
• Shear strength (prevents wrinkling)
• Stiffness perpendicular to the faces (prevents decrease in core thickness and
therefore a rapid decrease in the flexural rigidity)
• Thermal insulation
• Acoustic insulation
There are four main groups of core material used,

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 Figure 9.4: Honeycomb core.

• Foams
• Honeycombs
• Corrugated
• Wood

9.2.1. Foam Cores

Foams are one of the most common forms of core material. They can be manu-
factured from a variety of synthetic polymers including polyvinyl chloride (PVC),
polystyrene (PS), polyurethane (PU), polymethyl methacrylamide (acrylic), poly-
etherimide (PEI) and styreneacrylonitrile (SAN). They can be supplied in densi-
ties ranging from less than 30kg/m3 to more than 300kg/m3 , although the most
used densities for composite structures range from 40 to 200 kg/m3 . They are
also available in a variety of thicknesses, typically from 5mm to 50mm.

9.2.2. Honeycomb Cores

Honeycomb cores are available in a variety of materials for sandwich structures,
which ranges from paper and card for low strength and stiffness, low load appli-
cations (such as domestic internal doors) to high strength and stiffness, extremely
lightweight components for aircraft structures. Honeycombs can be processed into
both flat and curved composite structures, and can be made to conform to curves
without excessive mechanical force or heating.
Figure 9.4 shows the usual honeycomb shape. The cells can be triangular,
square or hexagonal cells which also can be filled with a rigid foam in order to

123
provide a greater bond area for the skins, increases the mechanical properties of
the core by stabilising the cell walls and increases thermal and acoustic insulation
properties. The following materials are commonly used in honeycomb structures.

• Aluminium - Has been used since 1950, several alloys can be used, but in
comparison it is old and heavy.

• Glass fibre reinforced plastic - Has a high temperature resistance and good
insulative properties, but is denser than other materials.
• Kraftpaper honeycoms - impregnated paper with resin to make it water
resistant. Good strength at low cost.
• Nomex honeycomb which is made from Nomex paper - a form of paper based
on KevlarTM (Aramid fibre), rather than cellulose fibres. High strength and
toughness with a low density makes it the most widely used honeycomb
core.The initial paper honeycomb is usually dipped in a phenolic resin to
produce a honeycomb core with high strength and very good fire resistance.
It is widely used for lightweight interior panels for aircraft in conjunction
with phenolic resins in the skins.Nomex honeycomb is becoming increas-
ingly used in high-performance non aerospace components due to its high
mechanical properties, low density and good long-term stability.

The figures below give the shear strength and compressive strength in Figure
9.5 of some of the core materials described, plotted against their densities, in
addition to Figure 9.6 which shows prices of some core materials. All the figures
have been obtained from manufacturers’ data sheets.

Honeycombs can be made with several different cell shapes:

Hexagonal
The most common shape is the one shown at Figure 9.4, but this can only be
used in flat components.
Overexpanded
The honeycomb in Figure 9.7 is over expanded, so that the cells are rectangular.
This gives better properties in the web direction, but worse in the other, it can
therefore be curved in the ribbon direction only. This shape is used for single
curvature components.

124
Figure 9.5: Compressive strength and shear strength of some of the core materials
plotted against their densities.

Figure 9.6: Comparative prices of some core materials.

125
 Figure 9.7: Overexpanded honeycomb structure.

Negative Poisson’s Ratio

Honeycombs can be made with negative Poissons Ratio, when the cell walls
are inverted as in Figure 9.8.

Figure 9.8: Honeycombs with negativ Poisson’s ratio.

Flex-core
Figure 9.9 shows a special core shape, which is created by pulling the hon-
eycomb in the opposite direction. It can curve in either direction, so is used for
irregular shapes.

9.2.3. Corrugated Cores

A corrugated core is shown in Figure 9.10.

126
 Figure 9.9: Honeycomb flex core.

Figure 9.10: Corrugated core.

9.2.4. Wood Cores

Wood can be described as ’nature’s honeycomb’ because on a microscopic scale
you find that it consists of closed-cell structure. It has a similar structure to
that of a hexagonal honeycomb, and consequently good mechanical properties.
When used in a sandwich structure with the grain running perpendicular to the
plane of the skins, the resulting component shows properties similar to those made
with man-made honeycombs. However, despite various chemical treatments being
available, all wood cores are susceptible to moisture attack and will rot if not well
surrounded by laminate or resin. Wood is only used in large projects, as it has a
relatively high density, of at least 100kg/m3 .

Balsa
The most commonly used wood core is end-grain balsa. Balsa wood cores first

127
appeared in the 1940’s in flying boat hulls, which were aluminium skinned and
balsa-cored to withstand the repeated impact of landing on water. This perfor-
mance led the marine industry to begin using end-grain balsa as a core material
in FRP construction. Apart from its high compressive properties, its advantages
include being a good thermal insulator offering good acoustic absorption. The
material will not deform when heated and acts as an insulating and ablative layer
in a fire, with the core charring slowly, allowing the non-exposed skin to remain
structurally sound. It also offers positive flotation and is easily worked with simple
tools and equipment.
Balsa core is available as contoured end-grain sheets 3 to 50mm thick on a
backing fabric, and rigid end-grain sheets up to 100mm thick. These sheets can
be provided ready resin-coated for vacuum-bagging, prepreg or pressure-based
manufacturing processes such as RTM. One of the disadvantages of balsa is its
high minimum density, with 100kg/m3 being a typical minimum. This problem
is exacerbated by the fact that balsa can absorb large quantities of resin during
lamination, although pre-sealing the foam can reduce this. Its use is therefore
normally restricted to projects where optimum weight saving is not required or in
locally highly stressed areas.
Balsa was the first material used as cores in load bearing sandwich structures
and is still often used as a core material.

Cedar
Another wood that is used sometimes as a core material is cedar. In marine
construction it is often the material used as the ’core’ in strip-plank construction,
with a composite skin on each side and the grain of the cedar running parallel to
the laminate faces. The cedar fibres run along the length of the boat giving fore
and aft stiffness while the fibres in the FRP skins are laid at ±45◦ giving torsional
rigidity, and protecting the wood.

9.3. Adhesives
Bonding of sandwich construction involve bonding of two very dissimilar con-
stituents, one solid and one softer cellular component, and the requirements con-
cerning bonding are therefore somewhat different than normal use. The adhesive
must be stronger than the tensile strength of the core. Some of the requirements
of the adhesives are:
Surface preparation

128
 The core and the face material have to be prepared before bonding, which
involves mechanically or chemically cleaning and sometimes priming.
Solvents
Core materials are often very sensitiv to certain solvents. For instance: Polystyrene
foams are sensitive to styrene (polyester and vinylester contains styrene), while
epoxies and polyurethanes may be used. Similar combinations needs to be inves-
tigated before bonding components.
Curing vapours
When curing, some adhesives (as phenolics) give off vapour when curing, which
can give rise to several bonding problems.
Bonding pressure
When pressure is needed to prevent pores to appear, be careful so that the
core will not fail due to the compression.
Adhesive viscosity
The adhesive must have exactly the right combination of surface wetting and
flow. In the case of foam or balsa core, the viscosity should be low enough to
enable the adhesive to fill the surface cells properly and leave as little as possible
trapped air. But the viscosity must not be too low,the the adhesive could be
squeezed out leaving too thin bonding line.
Bond thickness
If the bond is too thick, it adds extra unneccesary weight to the part. If it is
too thin, bonding will not be one properly.
Strength
The bond must be able to transfer the design loads, which means it must have
the desired tensile and shear strength, at the temperatures that might occur.
Thermal stresses
A frequent cause of debonding failures are thermal stresses. If for instance one
side is heated from sunligth it will deform due to thermal expansion. Most core
materials are very good insulators, and therefor it will be a very high thermal
gradient over the bond line. This lead to very high shear stresses in the bond
which may lead to debonding. In such environment, very ductile adhesives should
be chosen (high strain to failure).
Toughness

129
 Toughened adhesives which resist cracks better (improved impact resistance)
are on the market. They are ordinary resins which have elastomer particles added.
Viscoelastic properties
Highly viscoelastic adhesives may be advantageous for example where there
are high thermal gradients.
Curing shrinkage
As much as 7% decrease in volume can an adhesive (as polyesters) shrink when
its curing. This leads to high interface (bond) shear stresses and may decrease
the strength of adhesive joints.
Curing exotherm
Most adhesives exhibit an exotherm (curing process gives off heat) curing.
This is seldom a problem in thin bondings spread over a large area.
Different types of adhesives are for instance:
• Epoxy resins
• Modified epoxies
• Phenolics
• Polyurethanes Urethane acrylates
• Polyester and vinylester resins

References:
Alulight products:
http://www.alulight.com/en/products/products.html
Composites:
http://www.users.globalnet.co.uk/~weeks/Composite%20Materials.htm
http://www.netcomposites.com/education.asp
http://www.baltek.com/
Fibres
http:// www.netcomposites.com/ education.asp?sequence=45
Foam cores:
http://www.netcomposites.com/education.asp
http://www.polymer-age.co.uk/techlink.htm
http://www.hexcelcomposites.com
Adhesives:
http://www.hexcelcomposites.com/products/honeycomb/sand_design_tech/hsdt_p04.html

130
http://www.hexcelcomposites.com/products/
Questions
•Why are sandwich constructions used?
•What kind of face materials are used in sandwich constructions?
•What kind of core materials and/or structures are used in sandwich construc-
tions?
•What is the essential property of any core material
•Is End Grain Balsa used as core material in sandwich construction? If yes, what
kind of products, and what are the advantages of this product? (http://www.baltek.com/)
•What kind of core materials are there? Explain the difference between them.
•What reqirements must be taken into consideration when it comes to bonding
sandwich-constructions with adhesives?

131
10. Design of sandwich constructions
When we use sandwich panels in different applications we have to know the me-
chanical properties of the face and core materials and the geometry of the panel.
Often we formulate the design of a sandwich panel as an optimization problem
where the goal is to minimize the weight of the panel that meet the constraints
on stiffness and strength desired. With respect to the core and skin thickness, or
the materials, or the density of the core, the optimization can be carried out.
Design of sandwich beams are the basis for understanding more complicated
panels and constructions. We will mainly only consider sandwich beams.
An example of a sandwich beam is found in Figure 10.1. Here, the beam has
a given point load P at the middle of the length. We use the subscripts ”f”, and

Figure 10.1: A sandwich beam.

”c” which refer to the facings, and core, respectively.

10.1. Preliminaries
Let us start with recalling the problem of a straight beam subjected to a constant
bending moment giving the beam a curvature 1/Rx . The length of the curve, lc at
the neutral axis (N.A.), that has radius Rx and angle α, see Figure 10.2, is found
by the formula
lc = Rx α.

132
 Figure 10.2: A curved beam.

The strain εx in a new curveline at a distance z from the N.A. can be found as
follows:
(new curve length)-(old curve length) (Rx + z) α − Rx α
εx = =
(old curve length) Rx α
Rx α + zα − Rx α z
= = .
Rx α Rx
The stress σ x in the beam is then given by
z
σ x = Eεx = E .
Rx
The applied bending moment dMx caused by the force dF acting on a small
element of area dA = dydz at a point x by is

dMx = zdF = zσ x dA = zσ x dydz .

| {z } | {z }
dF dA

133
The total moment at the point x of the beam with height h and depth b is
X Z h/2 Z b/2 Z h/2 Z b/2
Mx = dMx = dMx = zσ x dA
−h/2 −b/2 −h/2 −b/2
Z h/2 µ
Z b/2 ¶ Z h/2 Z b/2
z z2
= z E dA = E dA
−h/2 −b/2 Rx −h/2 −b/2 Rx
Z h/2 Z b/2 Z h/2 Z b/2
1 1
= Ez 2 dA = Ez 2 dydz
Rx −h/2 −b/2 Rx −h/2 −b/2
Z h/2
1 1 1
= bEz 2 dz = (EI)eq = D,
Rx −h/2 Rx Rx
where Z h/2
(EI)eq = b Ez 2 dz (10.1)
−h/2

(often also denoted D) is called the equivalent flexural rigidity. The general ex-
pression for the strain will then be
µ ¶ Ã !
z 1 Mx Mx
εx = = z= z= z. (10.2)
Rx Rx D (EI)eq

The strain will vary linearly with z over the cross-section. The basic equations
for the sandwich beam are now established, and this makes it possible to find the
cross-sectional properties and stresses in such a beam.

10.2. The Flexural Rigidity and Shear Rigidity

The theory for engineering stresses in beams is easily adapted to sandwich beams
if we modify it slightly.

Flexural rigidity
In an ordinary beam the flexural rigidity also called the bending stiffness,
denoted EI, where E is the modulus of elasticity (Young’s modulus) and I is the
second moment of area. The equivalent flexural rigidity of a cross-section of a
sandwich (see Allan 1969) is the sum of flexural rigidities of the different parts in
the sandwich and can be found from (10.1) and is
bt3f btf d2 bt3
(EI)eq = Ef + Ef + Ec c = 2 (EI)f + (EI)o + (EI)c , (10.3)
6 2 12
134
where d (= tf + tc ) (see Figure 10.1) is the distance between the centroids of the
faces. The first term, 2 (EI)f , represents the flexural rigidity of the faces alone
when they are bending about their own neutral axes, and the third term, (EI)c ,
represents the flexural rigidity of the core. The first and the third term are small
compared to the second term, (EI)o , which corresponds to the stiffness of the
faces associated with bending about the centroid axis of the whole sandwich.

The faces in a sandwich are thin compared to the core (tf << tc ), hence the
first term in (10.3) is less than 1% of the second term if
µ ¶2
d d
3 > 100 or > 5.77 (10.4)
tf tf
and can therefor be neglected and (10.3) is the reduced to
btf d2 bt3
(EI)eq = Ef + Ec c = (EI)o + (EI)c .
2 12
If the core is weak, then Ec << Ef , the third term of (10.3) is less than 1% of
the second term if
6Ef tf d2
> 100, (10.5)
Ec t3c
and can therefore be neglected. Then (10.3) is reduced to the approximated simple
formula
Ef btf d2
(EI)eq = = (EI)o . (10.6)
2

Shear rigidity
The shear rigidity (shear stiffness) for a beam with a homogeneous cross-section
is often written as
bhG
AG = ,
k
where h is the height, G is the shear modulus, and k is a shear factor, which for
rectangular homogenous cross-sections equals 1.2.
The equivalent shear rigidity (shear stiffness) for a sandwich beam when Ec <<
Ef and tf << tc is given as
bd2 Gc
(AG)eq = ,
tc
where Gc is the shear modulus of the core.

135
10.3. Tensile and Compressive Stresses and Strains
10.3.1. Due to bending (transversal)
From (10.2) the tensile and compressive stresses (also called direct stresses) in the
sandwich due to bending is given by
à !
Mx
σ = εE = z E. (10.7)
(EI)eq

Thus, the stress in the face σ f of the sandwich due to bending can be written as
Mx zEf tc tc
σf = for < |z| < + tf . (10.8)
(EI)eq 2 2

If Mx is positive then the maximum stress in the face appears when z = tc /2 + tf :

¡ ¢ ¡ ¢
Mx zEf Mx t2c + tf Ef Ef Mx t2c + tf
σ f max = = = ³ ´
(EI)eq (EI)eq Ef btf d2
2
¡ tc ¢
2Mx 2 + tf Mx tc 2Mx
= 2
= +
btf d btf d2 bd2

while the minimum stress (in the same face) appears when z = tc /2:
¡ ¢ ¡ ¢
Mx zEf Mx t2c Ef Ef Mx t2c M t
σ f min = = = ³ 2
´ = x 2c .
(EI)eq (EI)eq Ef btf d btf d
2

Hence
Mx tc Mx tc 2Mx
2
≤ σf ≤ +
btf d btf d2 bd2
in that face. When tf << tc this shows that we can use the following approxima-
tive formula:
Mx tc Mx d Mx
σf ≈ ≈ = (10.9)
btf d2 btf d2 btf d
(in order to see this we just use that
2Mx
bd2 tf
Mx tc
=2 ≈ 0).
btf d2
tc

136
For the other face we obtain similarly that
Mx tc Mx d Mx
σf ≈ − 2
≈− 2
=− .
btf d btf d btf d

We obtain the opposite signs if Mx is negative.

The stress in the core σ c of the sandwich due to bending is

Mx zEc tc
σc = for |z| < . (10.10)
(EI)eq 2

If Mx is positive then the maximum stress in the core appears when z = tc /2, i.e.
¡ ¢ ¡ ¢
Mx zEc Mx t2c Ec Mx t2c Ec
σ cmax = = = ³ ´
(EI)eq (EI)eq Ef btf d2
2
¡ tc ¢
2Mx 2 Ec Mx tc Ec
= 2
=
Ef btf d Ef btf d2

while the minimum stress in the core appears when z = 0,

Mx zEc Mx (0) Ec
σ cmin = = = 0.
(EI)eq (EI)eq

Hence
Mx tc Ec Mx tc Ec Mx Ec
0 ≤ σc ≤ 2
≤ 2
= .
Ef btf d Ef btf tc Ef btf tc
Thus when Ec << Ef we can use the following approximative formula:

Mx tc Ec Mx dEc Mx Ec
σc = 2
≤ 2
= ≈ 0.
Ef btf d Ef btf d Ef btf d

The direct stress will vary linearly within each material constituent, but there
will be a jump in the stress at the interface between the face and the core, see
Figure 10.4.

137
 Figure 10.3: A small element.

10.3.2. Due to in-plane loading (axial)

The direct strain and stress in a sandwich due to in-plane loading is
Nx
εx0 =
b (2Ef tf + Ec tc )

where Nx is the normal force and εx0 is the strain at the neutral axis (N.A.) if the
two facings are of equal thickness (in order to see this, we note that the strain εx0
will be the same in the core and faces so that

Nx = Ef εx0 2tf b + Ec εx0 tc b = εx0 b (2Ef tf + Ec tc ))

| {z }|{z} | {z }|{z}
σf Af σc Ac

The stresses will be

σ f = Ef εx0 and σ c = Ec εx0 .

The stresses and strains due to bending and in-plane loading can be superim-
posed.

10.4. Shear stresses

Consider a small
P i volume element with sidelengths dx, dy and dz see Figure 10.3.
i
Using that Fx = 0 where Fx are the forces acting on the cell walls i in the
x-direction, we obtain
X ∂σ x
Fxi = −σ x dydz + (σ x + dx)dydz
∂x

138
 µ ¶
∂τ xy
−τ xy dxdz + τ xy + dy dxdz
∂y
∂τ xz
−τ xz dxdy + (τ xz dxdy + dz)dydx
∂z

∂σ x ∂τ xy ∂τ xz
= dxdydz + dydxdz + dzdydx
∂x ∂y ∂z
µ ¶
∂σ x ∂τ xy ∂τ xz
= + + dxdydz = 0.
∂x ∂y ∂z

Hence,
∂σ x ∂τ xy ∂τ xz
+ + = 0. (10.11)
∂x ∂y ∂z
P i P i
Similarily, by using that Fy = 0 and Fz = 0, we obtain the other two
equations for equilibrium:
X ∂τ yx ∂σ y ∂τ yz
Fy = + + =0 (10.12)
∂x ∂y ∂z
and
X ∂τ zx ∂τ zy ∂σ z
Fz = + + = 0. (10.13)
∂x ∂y ∂z
It can also be verified that

τ xy = τ yx , τ xz = τ zx , τ yz = τ zy . (10.14)

Equations (10.11), (10.12), (10.13), and (10.14) are called the equilibrium equa-
tions.

We assume that the shear stress in (10.11) will not vary with y, and therefore
∂τ xy /∂y = 0 (in fact we assume τ xy = 0 in all points). Thus we get that
X ∂σ x ∂τ xz
Fxi = + =0
∂x ∂z
and the shear stress τ xz can therefore be found as follows:
∂σ x ∂τ xz
=− .
∂x ∂z

139
This gives
Z (d+tf )/2 Z (d+tf )/2
∂σ x ∂τ xz
dz = − dz = −(τ xz ((d + tf )/2) − τ xz (z)) = τ xz (z),
z ∂x z ∂z | {z }
=0

(when using the fact that τ xz at (d + tf )/2 = 0) i.e.

Z (d+tf )/2
∂σ x
τ xz (z) = dz.
z ∂x

From equation (10.7) Ã !

Mx
σ = εE = z E
(EI)eq
and the fact that
dMx
= Tx
dx
we obtain that
³ ´
Z (d+tf )/2 d Mx
zE Z (d+tf )/2
(EI)eq Ez dMx
τ xz (z) = dz = dz =
z dx z (EI)eq dx
Z (d+tf )/2 Z (d+tf )/2
zE Tx Tx
= Tx dz = zEdz = B(z),
z (EI)eq (EI)eq z (EI)eq

where B(z) is the first moment of area

Z (d+tf )/2
B(z) = zEdz.
z

140
We observe that for |z| < tc /2
Z (d+tf )/2 Z tc /2 Z (d+tf )/2
B(z) = zEdz = zEc dz + zEf dz
z z tc /2
· ¸t /2 · ¸(d+tf )/2
1 2 c 1 2
= Ec z + Ef z
2 z 2 t /2
"µ ¶ # "cµ ¶2 µ ¶2 #
2
Ec tc E f d + tf tc
= − z2 + −
2 2 2 2 2
· 2 ¸ " #
Ec tc 2 Ef (d + d − tc )2 t2c
= −z + −
2 4 2 4 4
· 2 ¸ · 2 ¸
Ec tc 2 Ef Ec tc 2 Ef dtf
= −z + d[d − tc ] = −z + .
2 4 2 | {z } 2 4 2
=tf

Thus, the shear stresses in the core of the sandwich is

µ µ ¶¶
Tx Ef tf d Ec t2c 2 tc
τc = + −z for |z| < . (10.15)
(EI)eq 2 2 4 2

For tc /2 ≤ −z ≤ tc /2 + tf (in the upper face)

Z (d+tf )/2 Z −tc /2 Z tc /2 Z (d+tf )/2
B(z) = zEdz = zEf dz + zEc dz + zEf dz
z z −tc /2 tc /2
| {z }
=0
· ¸−tc /2 · ¸(d+tf )/2
1 2 1
= Ef z + Ef z 2
2 z 2 tc /2
"µ ¶ # "µ ¶2 µ ¶2 #
2
1 tc 1 d + tf tc
= Ef − z 2 + Ef −
2 2 2 2 2
· ¸ "µ ¶2 # õ ¶2 !
Ef t2c E f d + t f t2
Ef d + tf
= − z2 + − c = − z2
2 4 2 2 4 2 2
õ ¶2 ! µ ¶
Ef (tf + tc ) + tf 2 Ef 1 2 2 2
= −z = t + tf tc + tf − z .
2 2 2 4 c

141
For tc /2 ≤ z ≤ tc /2 + tf (in the lower face)
Z Z "µ ¶2 #
(d+tf )/2 (d+tf )/2
1 d + tf
B(z) = zEdz = zEf dz = Ef − z2
z z 2 2
õ ¶2 ! µ ¶
Ef (tf + tc ) + tf 2 Ef 1 2 2 2
= −z = t + tf tc + tf − z
2 2 2 4 c

(i.e. the same as for the upper face). Hence, the shear stress in the facings of the
sandwich is
µ ¶
Tx Ef 1 2 2 2
τf = t + tf tc + tf − z for tc /2 ≤ |z| ≤ tc /2 + tf . (10.16)
2 (EI)eq 4 c

Assume that Tx is positive (otherwise max is replaced by min and vice versa).

Then the maximum shear stress in the core appears when the expression
(t2c /4 − z 2 ) in (10.15) is maximized, i.e. when z = 0 (the neutral axis N.A.),
and is found in the following way:
µ µ ¶¶ µ µ ¶¶
Tx Ef tf d Ec t2c 2 Tx Ef tf d Ec t2c
τ c max = + −z = + −0 =
(EI)eq 2 2 4 (EI)eq 2 2 4
µ ¶ µ ¶
Tx Ef tf d Ec t2c Tx Ef tf d Ec t2c
= + =³ ´ + =
(EI)eq 2 8 Ef btf d2 2 8
2
µ ¶
Tx Ec t2c
= Ef tf d + . (10.17)
(Ef btf d2 ) 4

The minimum shear stress in the core appears when the expression (t2c /4 − z 2 )
in (10.15) is minimized, i.e. when |z| = tc /2 (the face/core interface), i.e.
µ µ ¶¶ µ µ ¶¶
Tx Ef tf d Ec t2c 2 Tx Ef tf d Ec t2c t2c
τ c min = + −z = + − =
(EI)eq 2 2 4 (EI)eq 2 2 4 4
µ ¶ µ ¶
Tx Ef tf d Tx Ef tf d Tx
= =³ ´ = . (10.18)
(EI)eq 2 Ef btf d2 2 bd
2

142
³ 2 The maximum shear ´ stress in the face appears when the expression
tc 2 2
4
+ tc tf + tf − z in (10.16) is maximized, i.e. when z = tc /2 (the face/core
interface) such that
µ 2 ¶ Ã µ ¶2 !
2
Tx Ef tc Tx Ef tc tc
τ f max = + tc tf + t2f − z 2 = + tc tf + t2f − =
(EI)eq 2 4 (EI)eq 2 4 2
µ ¶
Tx Ef t2c t2 Tx Ef ¡ ¢ Tx Ef ¡ ¢
= + tc tf + t2f − c = tc tf + t2f = ³ ´ tc tf + t2
f =
(EI)eq 2 4 4 2 (EI)eq E bt d2
2 f 2f
Tx Ef Tx Tx
= 2
(tc + tf ) = 2 (tc + tf ) =
Ef bd bd bd
(this also shows that τ c min = τ f max ).

³ 2 The minimum shear ´ stress in the face appears when the expression
tc 2 2
4
+ tc tf + tf − z in (10.16) is minimized, i.e. when |z| = tc /2 + tf
µ ¶ Ã µ ¶2 !
Tx Ef t2c Tx Ef t2c tc
τ f min = + tc tf + t2f − z 2 = + tc tf + t2f − + tf =
(EI)eq 2 4 (EI)eq 2 4 2
µ µ ¶¶
Tx Ef t2c 2 2 1 2 Tx Ef
= + tc tf + tf − tf + tf tc + tc = (0) = 0.
(EI)eq 2 4 4 2 (EI)eq
The deviation between the maximum and minimum shear stress in the core
from (10.17) and (10.18) will be less than 1 percent, i.e.
τ c max − τ c min 1
< ,
τ c min 100
if

µ Ã !
³ ´¶ ³ ´
|Tx | Ec t2c |Tx | ¶ Ef tf d
Ef tf d + − µ
Ef btf d2
(Ef btf d2 ) 4 2
τ c max − τ c min 2 1
= ³ ´ < .
τ c min µ |Tx | ¶ Ef tf d 100
Ef btf d2 2
2

143
This means that
Ec t2c 1
< ,
4Ef tf d 100
or
4Ef tf d
100 <
Ec t2c
which is often satisfied for sandwich beams because we often have that the core is
weak i.e. Ec << Ef and the faces are thin i.e. tf << tc . Thus we often use τ c min
as an approximation for the shear stress in the core (see Figure 10.4).

10.4.1. Summary of approximations

If we assume weak core i.e. Ec << Ef and thin facings i.e. tf << tc, the stresses
in the face and core in the sandwich are
Mx
σ f,max =
btf d

since tc ≈ d, and
σ cmax ≈ 0.
As an approximation for the shear stress in the core τ c min we can use
Tx
τc = .
bd
Summing up, we can say that the faces carry bending moments as tensile and
compressive stresses, while the core carries the transverse forces as shear stresses
as illustrated in Figure 10.4. The distribution of stresses and shear stresses in a
sandwich is shown in Figure10.4.

144
 Figure 10.4: Stresses at different approximation levels in a sandwich.

145
10.5. Sandwich design: stiffness, strength and weight
The deflection, δ of a sandwich beam in general is the sum of the bending and

Figure 10.5: Deflection of a cantilever sandwich beam with an end point load..

shear components, see Figure 10.5 (subscripts ”b” and ”s” denotes bending and
shear, respectively),

P L3 PL
δ = δb + δs = +
B1 (EI)eq B2 (AG)eq

where B1 and B2 are constants which depend on the geometry of the loading. The
table below contains constants for bending and failure of beams.

146
 Mode of loading,
B1 B2 B3 B4
(all beams of length L)
3
δb = B1P(EI)
L PL
δ s = B2 (AG) Mx= PBL3 Tx= BP4
eq eq
Cantilever,
end load, 3 1 1 1
P
Cantilever,
Uniformly distributed load, 8 2 2 1
q = P/L
Three-point bend,
central load, 48 4 4 2
P
Three-point bend,
384
Uniformly distributed load, 5
8 8 2
q = P/L
Ends built in,
Central load, 192 4 8 2
P
Ends built in,
Uniformly distributed load, 384 8 12 2
q = P/L

In the Table, Mx is the bending moment and Tx is the transverse force.

10.6. Example of beam calculations

A cantilever beam has Gc = 30 MPa (80kg/m3 PVC foam), Ef = 200000 MPa
(steel), L = 500mm, tf = 1 mm, tc = 30 mm (d = tc + tf = 31 mm), b = 1 mm,
as in Figure 10.6.
a) Find the total deflection, δ, and the deflection due to shear in precentage of
the total deflection.
The total deflection is described as
P L3 PL
δ = δb + δ s = + ,
3 (EI)eq (AG)eq

147
 Figure 10.6: Cantilever beam with end point load.

where the bending contribution is

P L3 P · L3 P · (500)3
δb = = ³ ´ = ³ ´ = 0.43P (mm/N)
3 (EI)eq Ef btf d2 200000·1·1·(31)2
3 2
3 2

and the shear contribution is

PL PL P · 500
δs = =³ 2 ´=³ ´ = 0.52P (mm/N).
(AG)eq bd Gc 1·(31)2 ·30
tc 30

The total deflection is

δ = δb + δ s = 0.43P + 0.52P = 0.95P (mm/N).

The deflection due to shear in precentage of the total deflection is

δs 0.52
100 = (100) = 54.7% (mm/N).
δb + δs 0.95

b) Compare with a homogenous steel beam with a rectangular cross-section of

height h=30 mm.
The total deflection is
P L3 PL
δ = δb + δ s = + ,
3 (EI)eq (AG)eq

148
where the bending contribution is
P L3 P L3 4P L3 4P · 5003
δb = = ¡ 3 ¢ = = = 0.0926P
3 (EI)eq 3 Eh
12
Eh3 200000 · 303
and the shear contribution is
PL PL P 500
δs = = ¡ ¢³ ´ = ¡ ¢³ ´ = 0.00026P
(AG)eq bh E 1·30 200000
k 2(1+ν) 1.2 2(1+0.3)

where h is a shear factor which for rectangular homogeneous cross-sections is 1.2,

and Poissons ratio ν = 0.3, then the total deflection
δ = δ b + δ s = 0.0926P + 0.00026P = 0.0 929P.
The deflection due to shear in precentage of the total deflection is
δs 0.00026
100 = (100) = 0.28% (mm/N).
δb + δ s 0.0 929
This explains why elementary beam theory usually neglects the contribution
of the transverse shear deformation.

c) Compare with a homogenous steel beam with a rectangular cross-section of

height h = 2tf = 2 mm.
Here, the bending contribution is
P L3 P L3 4P L3 4P · 5003
δb = = ¡ Eh3 ¢ = = = 312.5P
3 (EI)eq 3 12 Eh3 200000 · 23
and the shear contribution is
PL PL P 500
δs = = ¡ ¢³ ´ = ¡ ¢³ ´ = 0.0039P.
(AG)eq bh E 1·2 200000
k 2(1+ν) 1.2 2(1+0.3)

The total deflection

δ = δ b + δ s = 312.5P + 0.0039P = 312.5039P.
The deflection due to shear in precentage of the total deflection is
δs 0.0039
100 = (100) = 0.00125% (mm/N).
δb + δs 312.5039

149
11. Design Procedures
Designing a sandwich element is very often an integrated process of sizing and
material selection in order to get some sort of optimum design with respect to
the objective you have chosen for instance weight, strength, or stiffness. Note
that all material systems have both advantages and disadvantages. Therefore it is
difficult to state some general terms about choosing materials. But, some material
related properties can still be considered despite the choice of material, such as
density of the core material. An optimum design of a sandwich construction is
very difficult to obtain because there are so many different constraints that the
problem becomes complex. But, considering the most important constraints and
using a simple optimization technique could be very useful in the design process.
The stiffness can be estimated as shown in the previous chapter. The strength
is depending on the failure mode, which is depending on the internal structure of
the sandwich as well as the applied loading.

11.1. Failure modes of sandwich panel

A sandwich panel must have the strength to carry the design loads without failing
in one of the possible failure modes. We have to design against and consider all
the failure modes to be sure of that the structure will not fail. Examples on failure
modes is shown in Figure 11.1. A sandwich construction will fail by the failure
mode which occurs at the lowest load. The optimum design is when two or more
failure modes occur at the same load. The failure modes can be found on the basis
of when the mode occur. Some of the failure modes is described in the following.
The skin and core materials should be able to withstand the tensile, compres-
sive and shear stresses induced by the design load. Also the adhesive must be
capable of transferring the shear stresses between skin and core. The sandwich
panel should also have sufficient bending and shear stiffness to prevent excessive
deflection.

150
Figure 11.1: Some failure modes; a)face yielding/fracture, b) core shear failure, c) and
d) face wrinkling, e) general buckling, f) face dimpling, and g) local indentation.

(I) Face Yielding/fracture:

Face yielding/fracture occurs when the normal stress in the face σ f equals or
exceeds the (yield) strength of the face material, σ yf , such that:
Mx PL
σf = = ≥ σ yf .
btf d B3 btf d

(II) Face wrinkling:

Face wrinkling (local buckling) occurs when the normal stress in the face reaches
the wrinkling stress (the local instability stress). Wrinkling occurs when the com-
pressive stress in the face is
Mx PL p
σf = = = 0.5 3 Ef Ec Gc . (11.1)
btf d B3 btf d
Hence, the wrinkling load is independent of the sandwich geometry, and is only a
function of the face and core properties. It is the core that has most influence on
the wrinkling load.

151
 (III) Core shear failure:
Core shear failure occurs in a foam with a plastic-yield point when the principal
stresses satisfy the yield criterion. If the shear stress in the core is large compared
to the normal stress, failure occurs when the shear stress, τ c , equals or exceeds
the yield strength of the foam in shear, τ yc . The core failure is given by
Tx P
τ c max = = ≥ τ yc .
bd B4 bd

(IV) Failure of the adhesive bond (debonding):

Failure of the adhesive bond can occur due to overloading. Debonding (the adhe-
sive between the skin and the core fail) is the most difficult of the mechanisms to
analyze. The adhesive must have a strength equal or bigger than the shear stress
in the bonding line under loading which is almost the same as τ c max . To avoid
debonding therefore
Tx
τ c max = ≤ τ ya
bd
where τ ya is the yield shear stress in the adhesive. High thermal stresses, fa-
tigue,and aging are some of the reasons to debonding.

(V) Core indentation:

Core indentation is only a problem when loads are very localized and can be
avoided if we ensure that the load is distributed over a minimum area of at least
P
A≥ ,
σ yc

where σ yc is the compressive strength of the core.

(VI) General buckling:

General buckling can occur in sandwich constructions due to the transverse shear
deformation. The transverse shear deformation must be accounted for, since this
decreases the bukling load compared with the ordinary Euler buckling cases. The
critical buckling load can be written as:
1 1 1
= + ,
Pcr Pb Ps

152
where Pb is the buckling load in pure bending, and Ps in pure shear, and they are
given as follows
n2 π 2 (EI)eq
Pb = and Ps = (AG)eq ,
(βL)2
where β is the factor depending on the boundary conditions in Euler buckling.

(VII) Face dimpling (local buckling, or intercellular buckling):

Face dimpling may occur in sandwich structures with honeycomb or corrugated
as core material. For a square honeycomb this buckling stress equals
µ ¶2
tf
σ f = 2.5Ef for Poissons ratio ν f = 0.3,
a

where a is the length of the side of the cell. For hexagonal honeycombs the
buckling stress equals
µ ¶2 Ã µ ¶2 !
2Ef tf tf
σf = 2
≤ σ yf , when ν f = 0.3 then σ f ≈ 2. 2Ef ,
1 − νf s s

where s is the radius of the inscribed circle in the honeycomb cell.

(VIII) Fatigue:
Fatigue is said to cause more than 90% of all structural failures. For the face
material, a conservative way to use the fatie limit under which the material can
undrgo an infinite number of load cycles without exhibiting any damage by taking
the allowable face stress σ yf as the material fatigue stress at the given number
of load cycles and stress ratio. For the core material the reasoning is similar;
substitute the allowable shear stress τ yc with the fatigue limit. Be aware that
there is not always data for all materials available. Hopefully, more data will be
available in the future.

153
 Figure 11.2: A simply supported three-point bended beam.

11.2. Design example

A simply supported three-point bending beam, with uniform load case, has P =
qL = 10000N, Gc = 40MPa (80kg/m3 PVC foam), (Ec = 100 MPa), shear strength
τ c,cr = 1.5MPa, Ef = 20000MPa (GRP), strength σ f,cr = 100MPa, L = 1000mm,
tc = 50mm, b = 100 mm, see Figure 11.2. The maximum allowed deformation of
the beam is L/50.We assume Ec << Ef and tf << tc .
Find the face thickness, tf .

We know that
Ef btf d2 bd2 Gc
(EI)eq = and (AG)eq = ,
2 tc
µ ¶
P L P
Tx = − x , where |Tx |max =
L 2 2
and
P x (L − x) PL
Mx = , where |Mx |max = . (11.2)
2L 8

i) Strength design:
Calculate the face thickness, tf , for maximum allowable stress.

154
 We have the formulae
¡PL¢ ¡ 10000·1000 ¢
|Mx|max tc Ef t c E f 50 · 20000
σf = = ³8 2
´= ³8 2
´ =
2 (EI)eq E
2 f 2f
bt d
2
20000·(100)·t f ·50
2
¡ 10000·1000 ¢
50 · 20000 250.0
= ³8 ´ = ,
20000·(100)·tf ·502 tf
2 2

here d ≈ tc , thus the face thickness for maximum allowable stress

250 250
tf = = = 2.5 mm.
σf 100
The maximum shear stress in the core is
P
|Tx |max P 10000
τc = = 2 = = = 1MPa
db db 2db 2 · 50 · (100)
(which is satisfactory since τ c,cr = 1.5 MPa). Next, we want to check the wrinkling
stress 11.1
p √3
σ cr = 0.5 3 Ef Ec Gc = 0.5 20000 · 100 · 40 = 215 MPa

(which is satisfactory since σ cr > σ f = 100 MPa ).

ii) Stiffness design

Find the face thickness for allowable deformation. Total deflection is

δ = δb + δs.

We find that
P L3 PL
δb = 384 and δ s =
5
(EI)eq 8 (AG)eq
such that
P L3 PL P L3 PL
δ = δb + δs = 384 + = ³ ´+ ³ ´=
(EI)eq 8 (AG)eq 384 Ef btf d2 2
5 5 2
8 bdtcGc
10000 · 10003 10000 · 1000 52.1
= ³ 2
´+ ³ 2
´= + 6. 25.
384 20000·100·tf ·(50)
8 100·(50) ·40 tf
5 2 50

155
Thus, when allowed deformation δ = L/50
52. 08333 3 52. 08333 3
tf = = ¡ 1000 ¢ = 3.8 mm
(δ − 6. 25) 50
− 6. 25

which is the thickness we must use to fulfill the requirements!

Check the requirements due to the approximations. Since
µ ¶2 µ ¶2
d 53.8
3 = 3 = 601. 3 > 100
tf 3.8
d 53.8
(or = = 14. 2 > 5.77)
tf 3.8

then the first term of 10.3 is less than 1% of the second, and can therefor be
neglected, and since

6Ef tf d2 6 · 20000 · 3.8 · (53.8)2

= = 105. 6 > 100
Ec t3c 100 · (50)3

then the third term of 10.3 is less than 1% of the second , and can therefor be
neglected such that we can use the reduced form of 10.3. The assumption

Ef btf d2
(EI)eq = D =
2
is valid!

156
 Figure 12.1: Failure modes with their corresponding failure loads.

12. Failure modes and failure loads

The different failure modes with the corresponding failure loads for a rectangular
sandwich beam is shown in Figure 12.1.

12.0.1. Failure-mode maps

Failure-mode maps can be used to design sandwich constructions in a way that
will improve the performance of the sandwich due to that no single component is
over-designed. The designer can choose the anticipated failure mode, or making
two different failure modes equally likely occur. Also, this is an advantage for
cases where certain failure modes should be avoided.
The dominant failure mode mechanism for a given design, is the one giving

157
failure at the lowest load. A transition in failure mechanism takes place when two
or more mechanisms have the same load. This information can be displayed as a
diagram or map (failure-mode map).The most important transitions we get from
equating pairs of the failure-mode equations are: face yielding - face wrinkling,
face yield - core shear and face wrinkling - core shear. Failure-mode maps can
be constructed from the failure-mode equations that comes out as a result of the
analysis of the different failure modes. For more information see [5], p. 363.

Transition equation between face yielding and face wrinkling Face yield-
ing/fracture occurs when

|Mx | PL P
σf = = = t = σ yf .
btf d B3 btf d B3 b Lf d
hence the load P is given by
µ ¶
tf
P = σ yf B3 bd . (12.1)
L

Face wrinkling (local buckling) occurs when

|Mx| PL p
σf = = = 0.5 3 Ef Ec Gc .
btf d B3 btf d

Thus, P can be written as

µ ¶
tf 1 1 1
P = 0.5B3 bdEf3 Ec3 Gc3 . (12.2)
L

Putting the two expressions in (12.1) and (12.2) equal to each other, we obtain
that µ ¶ µ ¶
tf tf 1 1 1
σ yf B3 bd = 0.5B3 bdEf3 Ec3 Gc3 . (12.3)
L L
As we see from (12.3) the expression tf /L is in both (12.1) and (12.2) which
means that this transition is independent of tf /L and therefore it appears as a
horizontal line. Also B3 , b, and d appears on both sides, and (12.3) is reduced to
1 1 1
σ yf = 0.5Ef3 Ec3 Gc3 (12.4)

158
and then if we want the other axis to be the Youngs modulus of the core material,
we put   3
σ yf
Ec =  1 1
 (12.5)
0.5Ef Gc 3 3

which is the transition equation for the failure-mode face yield and face wrinkling.

Transition equation between face yield and core shear Core shear failure
occurs when
Tx P
τ c max = = ≥ τ yc ,
bd B4 bd
where
P = τ yc B4 bd. (12.6)
Face yielding/fracture occurs when
Mx PL
σf = = = σ yf ,
btf d B3 btf d
where
tf
d.
P = σ yf B3 b (12.7)
L
Putting the two expressions in (12.6) and (12.7) equal to each other
tf
τ yc B4 bd = σ yf B3 b d,
L
we obtain that the transition equation will be
tf τ yc B4 bd
= . (12.8)
L σ yf B3 bd

Transition equation between face wrinkling and core shear Face wrin-
kling (local buckling) occurs when
Mx PL p
σf = = = 0.5 3 Ef Ec Gc .
btf d B3 btf d
Hence, µ ¶
tf 1 1 1
P = 0.5B3 bdEf3 Ec3 Gc3 (12.9)
L

159
Core shear failure occurs when
Tx P
τ c max = = ≥ τ yc
bd B4 bd
and
P = τ yc B4 bd. (12.10)
Putting the two expressions in (12.9) and (12.10) equal to each other, we get
µ ¶
tf 1 1 1
0.5B3 bdEf3 Ec3 Gc3 = τ yc B4 bd.
L
Hence the transition equation will be
µ ¶
tf B4 τ yc
= 1 1 1 . (12.11)
L 0.5B E 3 Ec3 Gc3
3 f

Summing up:
The Face yield - Face wrinkling transition equation
 3
σ yf 
Ec =  1 1 , (1) (12.12)
0.5Ef3 Gc3

the Face yield - Core shear transition equation

tf τ yc B4
= , (2) (12.13)
L σ yf B3
and the Face wrinkling - Core shear transition equation
µ ¶
tf B4 τ yc
= 1 1 1 . (3) (12.14)
L 0.5B E 3 E 3 G 3
3 f c c

The failure modes are illustrated in the failure mode map in Figure 12.2, when
we use the result µ ¶2
ρc
Ec = Es (12.15)
ρs

160
Figure 12.2: A failure mode map for a sandwich construction.

161
Figure 12.3: The transition equations for the combinations of failure modes in a sand-
wich.

from [5], Cellular Solids, p. 186, 189 and 359, where ρc (is the same as ρ∗c ) is the
density of the core, ρs is the density of the cell wall in the core-material , and Es
is the Youngs modulus of the cell wall material in the core-material , and that the
Poissons ratio ν c = 1/3. The transition equations for the remaining combinations
are summarised in Figure 12.3
We can ignore bond failure as for most cases the stress for bond failure is
considerably lower than that for face yield.

Exercise
Construct a failure-mode map for 3 point bend sandwich, which has GRP
faces and PVC foam core, and the following properties B3 = 4, B4 = 2, σ yf =
100MPa, τ yc = 1.5MPa, Ef = 20000MPa, Ec = 100MPa, and Gc = 40MPa.

162
 Hints: (12.12), will be
 3 Ã !3
σ yf 100
Ec =  1 1
 = 1 1 = 10,
0.5Ef Gc
3 3 0.5 (20000) 3 (40) 3

(12.13) will be,

tf τ yc B4 (1.5) 2
= = = 0.0075,
L σ yf B3 (100) 4
and (12.14)
µ ¶
tf B4 τ yc 2 (1.5) 0.016
= 1 1 1 = 1 1 1 = 1
L 0.5B3 Ef3 Ec3 Gc3 0.5 (4) (20000) 3 (Ec ) 3 (40) 3 (Ec ) 3

Equations
³ ´ in the mode-map:
tf
a Ec , L =

163
12.1. The stiffness of sandwich structures and its optimization
An optimization on strength only does not ensure that the sandwich panel is stiff
enough. In most studies done in optimization they do not take into account all
possible failure modes as they should have. In [5], p. 366-370, ways of optimizing
sandwich structures for both strength and stiffness have been developed.
We consider a sandwich beam given a load P in three-point bending see Figure
12.4.The core moduli vary with the foam density, ρc , and are given by

Figure 12.4: A sandwich beam.

µ ¶2
ρc
Ec = C1 Es (12.16)
ρs

where ρs is the density of the solid material of the core, and

µ ¶2
ρc
Gc = C2 Es (12.17)
ρs

where C1 (≈ 1) and C2 (≈ 0.4) are proportionality constants.

Recall that
Ef bt3f Ec bt3c Ef btf d2
(EI)eq = + +
6 12 2
can be written as
Ef btf d2
(EI)eq = , (12.18)
2

164
and that the equivalent shear rigidity
bd2 Gc
(AG)eq =
tc
when d ≈ tc , is reduced to
(AG)eq = bdGc . (12.19)
The deflection,
P l3 Pl
δ = δb + δs = + . (12.20)
B1 (EI)eq B2 (AG)eq
If we insert (12.18) and (12.19) in (12.20) we obtain that the compliance of the
beam is
δ 2l3 l
= + . (12.21)
P B1 (Ef btf d2 ) B2 (bdGc )
If we want to minimize the weight, W , (also called the ”objective function” in the
optimization theory) for a given bending stiffness δ/P we get
W = mgV = 2ρf gbltf + ρc gbltc ≈ 2ρf gbltf + ρc gbld, (12.22)
| {z } | {z } | {z } | {z }
facings core facings core

where m is the mass, V is the volume, g is the acceleration due to the gravity and
ρf and ρc is the density of the face and core material, respectively. The only free
variables are d, tf and ρc . For simplicity we assume that the core density ρc , is
fixed. Then the optimization problem is quiet easy. With the use of (12.21) and
b = 1, we find that
B2 (bdGc ) 2l3 B2 2l3 (Gc )
tf = ¡ ¢ = ¡ ¢
B1 Ef bd2 Pδ − l B1 (Ef d) Pδ − l
and by substituting it into (12.22) we have that the objective function (W is to
be minimized) Ã !
B2 2l3 (Gc )
W = 2ρf gl ¡ ¢ + ρc gld (12.23)
B1 (Ef d) Pδ − l
which we minimize with respect to the only other free variable, d, by setting
∂W/∂d = 0 and then we obtain the optimum core thickness, dopt . Rearranging
(12.23) we get that
à !
B2 2l3 (Gc )
W = 2ρf gl ¡ ¢ d−1 + ρc gld,
B1 (Ef ) Pδ − l

165
and à !
∂W B2 2l3 (Gc )
= −2ρf gl ¡ ¢ d−2 + ρc gl = 0
∂d B1 (Ef ) Pδ − l
i.e. s
2ρf B2 2l3 (Gc )
dopt = ¡ ¢ .
B1 (Ef ) Pδ − l ρc
When we substitute dopt into (12.21) we finally find tf,opt to be
B2 2l3 (Gc )
tf,opt = r
2ρf B2 2l3 (Gc ) ¡δ ¢.
B1 Ef B1 (Ef )( Pδ −l)ρc P
−l

If the core density also should be treated as a variable the design optimization
problem is more complex.

12.1.1. Graphical solution

The weight minimization problem can be better understood by the help of a
graphical solution. Assume that the core density is fixed. We will now create a
graph where tf /l which is the same as t/l in Figure 12.5 is plotted as a function of
tc /l (which is the same as c/l in Figure 12.5). Also the two functions derived above
(Weight (12.22) and stiffness (12.21)) are plotted in Figure 12.5. Each equation
must be rewritten such that tf /l is a function of tc /l i.e. that (12.21)
δ 2l3 l
= +
P B1 (Ef btf d2 ) B2 (bdGc )
is rewrittes as
à !
tf 2B2 Gc 1
= ¡δ¢
l B1 Ef ( tlc ) B2 P bGc ( tlc ) − 1
which is the curve from the stiffness constraint, and
µ ¶
tf W ρc tc
= −
l 2bl2 ρf g 2ρf l
which plots as a straight line for any given weight, or a series of parallel straight
lines for different weights. The two functions are plottes below in Figure 12.5.

166
Figure 12.5: Graphical solution for a minimization problem.

167
Part III
Mechanics and Effective
Properties of Composite
Structures and Honeycombs
13. On effective Properties of Compostite Structures
Strongly non-homogeneous structures have fascinated people for a very long time.
Archaeological observations in Finland show that fibre- reinforced ceramics were
made about 4000 years ago, and that people already at this time had ideas and
theories for intelligent combinations of materials and structures. Analysis of the
macroscopic properties of composites was initiated by the physicists Rayleigh,
Maxwell and Einstein. Around 1970 one managed to formulate the physical prob-
lems of material structures and composites in such a way that this field became
interesting from a purely mathematical point of view. This formulation initiated a
new mathematical discipline called homogenization theory. Independently of this
development scientists within the field of micro-mechanics have developed their
own theory concerning the mechanics of composites and structures.
By using these theories we can determine locale and global (effective) proper-
ties of inhomogeneous structures which are too complex to be treated by conven-
tional computational methods. The theories make it possible to design material
structures with optimal properties with respect to weight, strength, stiffness, heat
conductivity, electric conductivity, magnetic permeability, viscosity etc.
Allmost all literature on this field assumes relatively high knowledge in math-
ematics. However, in this paper we give a short introduction to the theory which
require physical intuition rather than deep theoretical understanding. We hope
this treatment makes it easier to understand some basic aspects of the theory for
a broader audience, especially people with background in engineering.

14. The thermal problem

The heat flow in the direction of decreasing temperature. Moreover, for isotropic
materiels, the velocity v of the heat flow is proportional to the gradient of the

168
temperature, i.e.
 ∂u 
· ¸T λ ∂x
∂u ∂u ∂u 1
v = −λ grad u (= − λ ,λ ,λ = −  λ ∂x
∂u 
),
∂x1 ∂x2 ∂x2 ∂u
2
λ ∂x2

where u is the temperature and λ is called the conductivity. Assuming no heat

source in the body and no dependence of time, a simple application of the diver-
gence theorem (Gauss Satz) shows that
∂v1 ∂v2 ∂v3
div v = 0, (recall that div v = + + ).
∂x1 ∂x2 ∂x3
Some materials have different effective conductivities in each direction. This
means that the velocity v of the heat flow can be written as
· ¸T
∂u ∂u ∂u
v = − λ11 , λ22 , λ33 ,
∂x1 ∂x2 ∂x2
or even more generally as
v = −A grad u,
where A a symmetric matrix of the form
 
λ11 λ12 λ13
A =  λ12 λ22 λ23  .
λ13 λ23 λ33

In a composite material we distinguish between the local conductivity A (which

varies locally) and the effective conductivity
 ∗ 
λ11 λ∗12 λ∗13
A∗ =  λ∗12 λ∗22 λ∗23 
λ∗13 λ∗23 λ∗33

(which is constant). This matrix is found as follows. Imagine that the composite
is subjected to a homogeneous temperature-field, that is a temperature-field such
that the average value hgrad ui of grad u is constant. Letting hvi be the average
value of v = −A grad u we can obtain A∗ from the relation

hvi = A∗ hgrad ui .

169
The average is taken over some representative domain Y of the composite. In
general this volume should be much larger than the typical length-scale of the
material (e.g. fiber-diameter), but in the case of periodic materials we can as
well let Y be the cell of periodicity. Roughly speaking the effective conductivity
matrix A∗ is the matrix of a corresponding homogeneous material with the same
”effective” thermal properties as the actual composite. In particular, the ”the
thermal energy” in Y of the actual composite is equal to ”the thermal energy” in
the corresponding homogeneous material, i.e.
Z
1 1
(grad u · A grad u) dv = hgrad ui · A∗ hgrad ui |Y |. (14.1)
Y 2 2
| {z } | {z }
thermal energy in the composite thermal energy in corresponding
homogenized material.

For example, if we want to find λ∗11 we impose the thermal field such that hgrad ui =
[1, 0, 0]T then measure the energy W inside Y and obtain λ∗11 from (14.1):

W
λ∗11 = 2 .
|Y |

15. Isotropic elastic materials

For an isotropic material the shear modulus G and bulk modulus K in plane
elasticity (plane strain) are related to the well known Young’s modulus E and
Poisson’s ratio ν as follows:
E
K= ,
2 (1 + ν) (1 − 2ν)
E
G= .
2 (1 + ν)
The bulk modulus k of the three-dimensional theory is given by
E 1
k= .
3 1 − 2ν
Thus the plane strain bulk modulus K can be expressed as
G
K =k+ .
3

170
If the material is a thin plate, we consider the plane-stress problem. In this case
the plane stress bulk modulus is expressed as
µ ¶
E 1
K= .
2 1−ν
The shear modulus G is independent of the dimension and also independent of
whether we are dealing with the plane-strain -or plane stress problem.

16. Orthotropic composites

Consider a linear elastic composite material in R3 which is locally orthotropic,
and globaly orthotropic. This means that in each point of the structure we have
that the stress-strain relation is given as
    
σ 11 C1111 C1122 C1133 0 0 0 e11
 σ 22   C2211 C2222 C2233 0 0 0   
    e22 
 σ 33   C3311 C3322 C3333 0 0 0   
 =  e33 
 σ 12   0 0 0 C1212 0 0   
    γ 12 
 σ 23   0 0 0 0 C2323 0   γ 23 
σ 13 0 0 0 0 0 C1313 γ 13
| {z } | {z }| {z }
σ C e

and the average stress-strain relation of the form

   ∗ ∗ ∗
 
hσ 11 i C1111 C1122 C1133 0 0 0 he11 i
 hσ 22 i   ∗ ∗ ∗
C2211 C2222 C2233 0 0 0  he22 i 
    
 hσ 33 i   ∗ ∗ ∗
C3311 C3322 C3333 0 0 0  he33 i 
 =  , (16.1)
 hσ 12 i   0 0 0 ∗
C1212 0 0  hγ 12 i 
    
 hσ 23 i   0 0 0 0 ∗
C2323 0  hγ 23 i 
∗
hσ 13 i 0 0 0 0 0 C1313 hγ 13 i
| {z } | {z }| {z }
hσi C∗ hei

i.e
σ = Ce, hσi = C ∗ hei . (16.2)

171
Here we assume equilibrium of stresses in each direction:
∂σ 11 ∂σ 12 ∂σ 13
+ + = 0,
∂y1 ∂y2 ∂y3
∂σ 21 ∂σ 22 ∂σ 23
+ + = 0,
∂y1 ∂y2 ∂y3
∂σ 31 ∂σ 32 ∂σ 33
+ + = 0.
∂y1 ∂y2 ∂y3

where σ ij = σ ji (obtained by applying Gauss satz as for the heat problem) These
equations follows if we assume that the net force is 0. The symbol h·i denotes the
average taken over some representative domain Y of the composite. In general this
volume should be much larger than the typical length-scale of the material (e.g.
fiber-diameter), but in the case of periodic materials we can as well let Y be the
cell of periodicity. Roughly speaking the effective stiffness matrix C ∗ is the matrix
of a corresponding homogeneous material with the same ”effective” properties as
the actual composite. In particular, the actual strain energy stored in Y is equal
to the strain energy stored in the corresponding homogeneous material, i.e.
Z
1 1
(e · Ce) dv = hei · C ∗ hei |Y | . (16.3)
Y 2 2
| {z }
| {z }
strain energy in the composite strain energy in corresponding
homogenized material.

∗
Example 16.1. If we want to find C1111 we stretch the periodic structure in such
a way that average strain hei = [1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0]T , then measure (or compute) the
average stress hσi = [hσ 11 i , hσ 22 i , hσ 33 i , hσ 12 i , hσ 23 i , hσ 13 i]T and finally compute
∗ ∗
the coefficient C1111 from (16.1) which gives us that C1111 = hσ 11 i . Equivalently,
we can ask the FEM-program to compute the strain energy W (the left side of
∗
(16.3)) and then compute C1111 from (16.3), i.e. we obtain
Z
1 1 1 ∗
(e · Ce) dv = [1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0]T · C ∗ [1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0]T |Y | = C1111 |Y | ,
Y 2 2 2
| {z }
strain energy in the composite

thus
∗ 2(strain energy)
C1111 = .
|Y |

172
 The stiffness matrix is symmetric and the elements may be expressed as follows
(see e.g. [32]):

∗ 1 − ν ∗23 ν ∗32 ∗ ν ∗21 + ν ∗31 ν ∗23 ∗ ν ∗31 + ν ∗21 ν ∗32

C1111 = , C 1122 = , C1133 =
∆E2∗ E3∗ ∆E2∗ E3∗ ∆E2∗ E3∗
∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗
∗ 1 − ν 13 ν 31 ∗ ν 32 + ν 12 ν 31 ∗ 1 − ν ∗12 ν ∗21
C2222 = , C 2233 = , C3333 = (16.4)
∆E1∗ E3∗ ∆E1∗ E3∗ ∆E1∗ E2∗
∗
C1212 = G∗12 , C2323
∗
= G∗23 , C1313∗
= G∗13 ,

where
1 − ν ∗12 ν ∗21 − ν ∗23 ν ∗32 − ν ∗31 ν ∗13 − 2ν ∗21 ν ∗32 ν ∗13
∆= .
E1∗ E2∗ E3∗
Here, ’Ei∗ ’ are the effective Youngs moduli, ’G∗ij ’ are the effective shear moduli
and ’ν ∗ij ’ are the effective Poisson’s ratios. The inverse of the effective stiffness
matrix (the complience matrix) which (certainly) also is symmetric is given by
 
1 ν ∗12 ν ∗13
∗ − ∗ − ∗ 0 0 0
 E1ν ∗21 1 E2 E3
ν ∗23 
 − ∗ − 0 0 0 
 E∗1 E2 ∗ ∗ E3 ∗

 ν 31 ν 
 − E1∗ − E322∗ E13∗ 0 0 0 
 . (16.5)
 0 0 0 1
0 0 
 G ∗
12 
 0 0 0 0 1
0 
 ∗
G23 
1
0 0 0 0 0 G∗ 13

17. Square symmetric unidirectional two-phase structure

In the case of square honeycombs with locally isotropic material properties (local
shear moduli Go and GI and local plane strain bulk moduli Ko and KI with
corresponding volume fractions po and pI , respectively, where the subscript o and
I denote outer and inner material, respectively, see Figure 17.1) the stiffness
matrix reduces to a matrix of the form:
 ∗ 
K + G∗T K ∗ − G∗T l∗ 0 0 0
 K ∗ − G∗T K ∗ + G∗T l∗ 0 0 0 
 ∗ 
 l l ∗
n ∗
0 0 0 
 . (17.1)
 0 0 ∗
0 GT,45 0 0 
 
 0 0 0 0 G∗L 0 
0 0 0 0 0 G∗L

173
Figure 17.1: The structure of square honeybombs with locally isotropic material prop-
erties.

Figure 17.2: The 4 moduli measure resistence against the indicated average strains.

Here, K ∗ is the effective transverse (also called ”in-plane”) bulk modulus, G∗T ,
G∗T,45 are the effective transverse shear moduli and G∗L is the longitudinal (also
called ”out-of plane”) shear modulus, see Figure 17.2. In this case the complience
matrix reduces to

174
  ν∗ ν∗

1
ET∗
− ET∗ − EL∗ 0 0 0
 ν∗
T
ν∗
L

 − ET∗ 1
− EL∗ 0 0 0 
 T ET∗ L 
 ν∗ ν∗ 1 
 − EL∗ − EL∗ EL∗ 0 0 0 
 L L . (17.2)
 0 0 0 1
0 0 
 G∗T,45 
 0 0 0 0 1
0 
 G∗L 
1
0 0 0 0 0 G∗L

Using (16.4) and the symmetry we obtain the relations

ET∗
G∗T = (17.3)
2 (1 + ν ∗T )

4 1 1 4 (ν ∗L )2
= ∗ + ∗+ . (17.4)
ET∗ GT K EL∗
l∗ = ν ∗L 2K ∗ , n∗ = EL∗ + 4 (ν ∗L )2 K ∗ (17.5)
Moreover, it has been proved by Hill [11] that

4(ν o − ν I )2 1 1 1
EL∗ = po Eo + pI EI + ³ ´2 (po + pI − ∗ ), (17.6)
1 Ko KI K
Ko
− K1I

νo − νI 1 1 1
ν ∗L = po ν o + pI ν I − 1 1 (po + pI − ∗ ). (17.7)
Ko
− KI Ko KI K
These two formulae were proved in [11] for the case of transverse isotropy. How-
ever, by following the proof in [11] it is easy to check that the same facts hold in
our case.

17.1. Calculation of stiffness and complience matrix

We remark that (17.3), (17.4), (17.5), (17.6) and (17.7) hold for all two-component
unidirectional fiber composite (orientated in the direction x3 ) satisfying the prop-
erty of square symmetry, i.e. the case when the stiffness matrix is of the form
(17.1) (we say that the composite satisfies the property of transverse isotropy if
G∗T = G∗T,45 , see Figure 17.3). In order to compute all components stiffness ma-
trix (17.2) we only have to compute (e.g. numerically by using the finite element
method) the four components G∗L , G∗T , G∗T,45 , and K ∗ . The other two moduli

175
Figure 17.3: Hexagonal honeycomb. Exampel of structure satisfying the property of
transverse isotropy (i.e G∗T = G∗T,45 ).

l∗ and n∗ are the found by inserting the values of EL∗ (17.6) and ν ∗L (17.7) into
(17.5). If we also want to know ET∗ and ν ∗T we can evaluate these values by first
evaluating ET∗ from (17.4) and finally ν ∗T from (17.3).
It is possible to show that G∗L can be found exactly as the effective conductivity
in the similar 2-dimensional problem by letting Go and GI play the same role as
the local conductivity for that problem.

Exercise 17.1. Consider square symmetric unidirectional two-phase composite

with volume-fractions pI = po = 1/2, Poissons ratios ν I = ν o = 0.3 and Youngs
modulus EI = 0.5, Eo = 1.(no units)

1. Find KI , Ko , GI , Go .

2. By performing a FEM-calculation it is possible to find the following effective

moduli:

K ∗ = 0.658455,
G∗T = 0.273775,
G∗T,45 = 0.259418,
G∗L = 0.274426.

Find the effective stiffness matrix C ∗

3. Find also ν ∗L , EL∗ , ET∗ and ν ∗T . and find the effective complience matrix.

176
18. Numerical methods for periodic structures
In order to use conventional software to solve displacement field numerically for
periodic structures, e.g. by the finite element method, it is often necessary to
”translate” the information of the average strain hei into equivalent boundary
conditions for the on the cell of periodicity

Y = h0, y1 i h0, y2 i h0, y3 i

for the displacement  

u1
u =  u2  .
u3
This is obtained by letting each pair of points (xl− , xl+ ) (the latter point with
the largest coordinates) on opposite faces with normal vector nl be coupled to
each other in such a way that
     
u1 (xl+ ) u1 (xl− ) c1l
 u2 (xl+ )  =  u2 (xl− )  +  c2l  , (18.1)
u3 (xl+ ) u3 (xl− ) c3l
where  
c1l
 c2l 
c3l
is a constant vector. By integrating along the normal vector nl we obtain that
¿ À
∂uk uk (xl+ ) − uk (xl− ) ckl
= = ,
∂xl yl yl
thus, recalling that
∂uk
ekk =
∂xk
∂uk ∂ul
γ kl = +
∂xl ∂xk
we obtain the following useful relation
ckk
= hekk i
yk

177
 Figure 18.1: The Y -cell in the symmetric case.

ckl clk
+ = hγ kl i . (18.2)
yl yk
Hence
ckk = yk hekk i .
Observe that ckl and clk are not uniquely determined by this relation when k 6= l.
Thus in this case these constants can be chosen independently (as long as (18.2)
is satisfied). E.g. we can choose
hγ kl i
ckl = clk = 1 . (18.3)
yl
+ y1k

If the material properties are symmetric in each coordinate with respect to

the midpoint ((1/2)y1 , ..., (1/2)yn ) of the Y -cell-problem (see Figure 18.1) then
we can often use simpler boundary conditions than (18.1).
For example, in the case when all average shear strains hγ kl i = 0, we can in
(18.1) use the Dirichlet condition

ul (xl− ) = 0, ul (xl+ ) = cll (= yl hell i), l = 1, 2, 3, (18.4)

and drop all the other boundary conditions. The latter is equivalent with setting
a Neumann condition, ∂ui /∂xl = 0, i 6= l on the same faces. It is easy to
see physically that these simplified boundary conditions hold by considering the
deformation of the whole periodic structure, since it is obvious that the solution
(which indeed represents the deformed body) must inherit the same symmetry
as the material itself (see Figure 18.2). Moreover, in the case when all average
normal strains hekk i = 0, we can in (18.1) use the Dirichlet condition
hγ il i
ui (xl− ) = 0, ui (xl+ ) = cil (= 1 ), i 6= l (18.5)
yl
+ y1i

178
 Figure 18.2: Deformation of the periodic structure in the symmetric case.

and drop all the other boundary conditions. The latter is equivalent with setting
a Neumann condition, ∂ui /∂xi = 0, i 6= l for l = 1, 2, 3 on the same faces.
The boundary conditions for the conductivity case can be simplified in the
same way.

18.1. Coordinate transformation

For the computation of effective moduli it is sometimes convenient to rotate the
original coordinate system. Consider an orthonormal coordinate system with basis
vectors

n1 = [n11 , n12 , n13 ]

n2 = [n21 , n22 , n23 ]
n3 = [n31 , n32 , n33 ] .

A vector with coordinates x = (x1 , x2 , x3 ) (relative to the usual coordinate system)

will have coordinates x0 = (x01 , x02 , x03 ) (relative to the new coordinate system) given
by the relation  0    
x1 n11 n12 n13 x1
 x02  =  n21 n22 n23   x2 
x03 n31 n32 n33 x3
(see Figure 18.3). It is possible to show that the following relation between the
£ ¤T
strain e = e11 , e22 , e33, γ 12 , γ 23, γ 13 , γ ij = 2eij (in the usual coordinate system)
£ ¤T
and e0 = e011 , e022 , e033, γ 012 , γ 023 , γ 013 , γ 0ij = 2e0ij (in the new coordinate system):

e0 = Te,

179
 Figure 18.3: The two coordinate systems.

where

 
n211 n212 n213 n11 n12 n12 n13 n11 n13
 2
n21 2
n22 2
n23 n21 n22 n22 n23 n21 n23 
 
 2
n31 2
n32 2
n33 n31 n32 n32 n33 n31 n33 
T=

.

 2n11 n21 2n12 n22 2n13 n23 n11 n22 + n21 n12 n12 n23 + n22 n13 n11 n23 + n21 n13 
 2n21 n31 2n22 n32 2n23 n33 n21 n32 + n31 n22 n22 n33 + n32 n23 n21 n33 + n31 n23 
2n11 n31 2n12 n32 2n13 n33 n11 n32 + n31 n12 n12 n33 + n32 n13 n11 n33 + n31 n13

Moreover, we can obtain a similar relation between the corresponding stresses σ

and σ 0 :
σ 0 = T−T σ,
where T−T is obtained from T by changing the factors of 2 in T symmetrically
about the diagonal, i.e.
 
n211 n212 n213 2n11 n12 2n12 n13 2n11 n13
 n221 2
n22 2
n23 2n21 n22 2n22 n23 2n21 n23 
 
 2
n31 2
n32 2
n33 2n31 n32 2n32 n33 2n31 n33 
T−T =  n11 n21 n12 n22 n13 n23 n11 n22 + n21 n12 n12 n23 + n22 n13 n11 n23 + n21 n13
.

 
 n21 n31 n22 n32 n23 n33 n21 n32 + n31 n22 n22 n33 + n32 n23 n21 n33 + n31 n23 
n11 n31 n12 n32 n13 n33 n11 n32 + n31 n12 n12 n33 + n32 n13 n11 n33 + n31 n13

The stress-strain relation in the new coordinate system can therefore be written
as:
σ 0 = C 0 e0 ,

180
where
C = TT C 0 T.
Concerning these facts we refer to e.g. [3, p. 212].
In the plane strain case we put all strains related to the x3 -variable equal to
0. If we also assume that the new coordinate system is obtained from the stan-
dard one by a rotation in the x1 -x2 -plane then we obtain the following simplified
relations:
 
C1111 C1122 C1112
C =  C2211 C2222 C2212  ,
C1211 C1222 C1212
 
n211 n212 n11 n12
T =  n221 n222 n21 n22 ,
2n11 n21 2n12 n22 n11 n22 + n21 n12
 
n211 n212 2n11 n12
T−T =  n221 n222 2n21 n22 .
n11 n21 n12 n22 n11 n22 + n21 n12
As an example, let us consider the square symmetric case, i.e. when the stiffness
matrix is of the form
 ∗ 
K + G∗T K ∗ − G∗T 0
C ∗ =  K ∗ − G∗T K ∗ + G∗T 0 
∗
0 0 GT,45
h√ √ i
(c.f. (17.1)). Performing a rotation of 45◦ , i.e. [n11 , n12 ] = 22 , 22 and [n21 , n22 ] =
h √ √ i
− 22 , 22 , the corresponding stiffness matrix in the rotated coordinate system
becomes
 ∗ 
K + G∗T,45 K ∗ − G∗T,45 0
C ∗0 = T−T C ∗ T−1 =  K ∗ − G∗T,45 K ∗ + G∗T,45 0  , (18.6)
∗
0 0 GT
i.e. C ∗0 is the same as C ∗ except that the shear moduli G∗T,45 and G∗T have changed
place. This explains the use of the index ”45” and shows that we can calculate
G∗T,45 exactly as we calculate G∗T except by rotating the coordinate system 45◦ .

Exercise 18.1. Verify (18.6) by calculating C ∗ = TT C ∗0 T

181
Exercise 18.2. Let
 
K ∗ + G∗ K ∗ − G∗ 0
C ∗0 =  K ∗ − G∗ K ∗ + G∗ 0 
0 0 G∗

By matrix-multiplication it is possible to obtain that

TT C ∗0 T =C ∗0 . (18.7)

for any orthonormal coordinate system [n11 , n12 ] = [cos φ, sin φ] , [n21 , n22 ] =
[− sin φ, cos φ] This is done by simplifying each of the elements of the materix.
F.eks we find that
¡ T ∗0 ¢
T C T 11 = n411 K ∗ + n411 G∗ + 2n211 n221 K ∗ + 2n211 n221 G∗ + n421 k + n421 G∗

Verfy that (18.7) holds for this element. (Note that (18.7) explaines why compos-
ites with this type of effective stiffness matrixes are called tranversially isotropic).

Solution:

¡ ¢ ¡ ¢ ¡ ¢2
TT C ∗0 T 11 = (K ∗ + G∗ ) n411 + 2n211 n221 + n421 = (K ∗ + G∗ ) n211 + n221 =
¡ ¢2
= (K ∗ + G∗ ) cos2 φ + sin2 φ = (K ∗ + G∗ ) 12 = (K ∗ + G∗ ) .

Exercise 18.3. Consider the same square symmetric unidirectional two-phase

composite in subsection 17.1. Suppose that the composite is used as core material
in a sandwich construction. How should we direct the fibres in order to maximize
the stiffness of the sandwich (compare the three alternatives in Figure 18.4).

Solution: The deflection of the sandwich due to shear deformation in the

core is dependent of G∗L (in alternative 1), G∗T (in alternative 2) and G∗T,45 (in
alternative 3), where these parameters correspond ti the same coordinate system as
in 17.1). Using the values we see that alternative 1 is (insignificantly) better than
alternative 2 which is better than alternative 3. (For example when calculating
the deflection of a sandwich beam of type alternative 1 we use the same formulae
as in the isotropic case by using G = G∗L as the shear modulus of the core and the
same goes for alt. 2 and alt. 3).

182
 Figure 18.4: Sandwich plate with three alternative cores.

19. A computational example

In the case of square honeycombs with locally isotropic material properties (see
Figure 17.1) the structure is symmetric with respect to the midpoint of the Y -cell
Y = [−1, 1]3 in all the coordinates x1 , x2 , x3 , and also in the coordinates x01 , x02 , x3
in the coordinate system obtained by a rotation of 45◦ in the x1 -x2 -plane. The
effective stress/strain-relation (16.1) reduces in this case to
   ∗  
hσ 11 i K + G∗T K ∗ − G∗T l∗ 0 0 0 he11 i
 hσ 22 i   K ∗ − G∗T K ∗ + G∗T l∗ 0 0 0   
     he22 i 
 hσ 33 i   l∗ l ∗
n 0∗
0  
0   he33 i 
 = 
 hσ 12 i   0 0 0 GT,45 0∗
0   hγ 12 i  . (19.1)
     
 hσ 23 i   0 0 0 0 G∗L 0   hγ 23 i 
hσ 13 i 0 0 0 0 0 G∗L hγ 13 i

In order to compute the effective in-plane moduli K ∗ and G∗T we solve the cell
problem for hei = [1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, ]T and hei = [1, −1, 0, 0, 0, 0, ]T and compute the
corresponding values K ∗ = hσ 11 i /2 and G∗T = hσ 11 i /2, respectively. Alternatively
we can compute the strain energy W and compute K ∗ and G∗T from the identity
1
W = hei · C ∗ hei |Y | (19.2)
2

183
(discussed in (16.3)). For the computation it is enough to solve the two-dimensional
cell problem using plane strain. This is due to the fact that the solution of the
three dimensional cell problem in both cases will be independent of the x3 -variable
and we do not use any information of the strain or stresses in x3 -direction for the
computation of K ∗ and G∗T . Because of the symmetries it suffices to solve the prob-
lem on 1/4 of the Y -cell, e.g. on the square Y = [0, 1]2 . Since |Y | = 1, we obtain
from (19.2) that K ∗ = W/2 and G∗T = W/2. We can use uniform boundary con-
ditions on each face of this square (see Section 18), i.e. for hei = [1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, ]T
the boundary conditions are :

u1 (0, x2 ) = u2 (x1 , 0) = 0,
u1 (1, x2 ) = u2 (x1 , 1) = 1

and for hei = [1, −1, 0, 0, 0, 0, ]T :

u1 (0, x2 ) = u2 (x1 , 0) = 0,
u1 (1, x2 ) = 1
u2 (x1 , 1) = −1

(this follows from (18.4)). Due to symmetries the module G∗T,45 can be found
exactly as G∗T except that we must rotate the coordinate system 45◦ (see the last
part of Section 18.1).
Alternatively we can compute G∗T,45 more directly by solving the cell problem
for hei = [0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0]T and computing the corresponding value G∗T,45 = hσ 12 i · 1,
or equivalently, compute the strain energy W and find G∗T,45 from the identity
(19.2) (with |Y | = 1), which gives G∗T,45 = 2W . In this case we use the following
boundary conditions on each face of the square ( according to (18.5)

u2 (0, x2 ) = u1 (x1 , 0) = 0,
1
u2 (1, x2 ) = u1 (x1 , 1) = .
2

The module G∗L can be found by using hei = [0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1]T and computing
the corresponding value G∗L = hσ 13 i . The problem with doing this is that it often
requires a full 3D FEM computation regardless of the fact that the solution of
the cell problem is independent of the x3 -variable. Therefore it is often easier to
solve the corresponding 2D heat-conductivity problem (see Subsection 17.1) with

184
boundary conditions

u(0, x2 ) = 0
u(1, x2 ) = 1

using Go and GI as ”thermal conductivieties” and computing G∗L from the thermal
energy W (14.1), which gives
G∗L = 2W.
Once we have computed the 4 moduli K ∗ , G∗T , G∗T,45 , and G∗L we can easily
obtain all the other moduli (see Subsection 17.1).

As an example, let pI = po = 1/2, ν I = ν o = 0.3, EI = 0.5, Eo = 1 or equiv-

alently KI = 0. 48076923, Ko = 0. 96153846, GI = 0. 19230769, Go = 0.38461538.
By performing a FEM-calculation according to the above method we obtain the
following effective moduli:

K ∗ = 0.658455,
G∗T = 0.273775,
G∗T,45 = 0.259418,
G∗L = 0.274426.

Hence, by using (17.3), (17.4), (17.6) and (17.7) we obtain that

ν ∗L = 0.3,
EL∗ = 0.75,
ET∗ = 0.70779659,
ν ∗T = 0.29266111,

and by (17.5)

l∗ = 0. 39507,
n∗ = 0.98704.

Thus the effective stiffness matrix is written as

185
  
0.932226 0.384677 0.39507 0 0 0
 0.384677 0.932226 0.39507 0 0 0 
 
 0.395072 0.395072 0.98704 0 0 0 
 .
 0 0 0 0.259418 0 0 
 
 0 0 0 0 0.274426 0 
0 0 0 0 0 0.274426
and the effective complience matrix (17.2) takes the form

 
1.41284 −0.413482 −0.4 0 0 0
 −0.413482 1.41284 −0.4 0 0 0 
 
 −0.4 −0.4 1.33333 0 0 0 
 .
 0 0 0 3.8548 0 0 
 
 0 0 0 0 3.64397 0 
0 0 0 0 0 3.64397
In this example we used the same Poisson’s ratios in both phases. Let us consider
the case when ν I = 0.4, ν o = 0, EI = 0.5, Eo = 1 or equivalently KI = 0. 89285714,
Ko = 0.5, GI = 0.17857143, Go = 0.5. In this case we obtain the following effective
moduli:
K ∗ = 0.66335 ν ∗L = 0.22386372
G∗T = 0.3038805 EL∗ = 0.79338859
.
G∗T,45 = 0.269322 ET∗ = 0.79193337
G∗L = 0.307502 ν ∗T = 0.3030342
Remark 1. In the first example (where the Poisson’s ratios are the same in both
phases) ν ∗L and EL∗ equals the arithmetic mean of the corresponding phase prop-
erties (usually referred to as ”the law of mixtures”). From the last example we
observe that this may not be true when the Poisson’s ratios of the phases are
different.
Exercise 19.1. Verify the above values for K ∗ , G∗T , G∗T,45 , and G∗L by performing
a FEM-calculation according to the above method. Use e.g. ANSYS 7.0. Increase
Memory requested to 80 in the ANSYS interactive launcher. For the calculation
of K ∗ , G∗T , G∗T,45 use Structural problem, element type PLANE 82, elementsize
0.015, plane strain. For the calculation of G∗L use thermal problem, element type
PLANE 77, elementsize 0.015.

186
 Figure 20.1: Volume fraction.

Part IV
Cellular Solids
20. Some definitions of cellular solids
Cellular solids are described by the geometric structure of the cells, that is both
shape and size of the cells and the way the cells are distributed. Foams are three-
dimensional cellular solids and are more complex than the two-dimensional struc-
tures like honeycomb-structures. But, by studying the two-dimensional structures
we make a basis in understanding the more difficult and complex three-dimensional
structures of for instance foams.
One of the most important feature of a cellular solid is what we call the relative
density, defined by
ρ∗
ρ=
ρo
where ρ∗ and ρo are the density of the cellular material and the outer (connected)
material (which is the material that the cell-walls are made up of), respectively.
When the relative density increases, the cell wall gets thicker. Relative density of
the outer material is the same as the volume fraction of the outer material, po ,
defined by
volume of outer material (m3 ) Vo
po = 3 = ∗
volume of foam (m ) V
(see Figure 20.1). In order to see this, we observe that

187
 Figure 20.2: Volume fraction of square honeycomb cells..

mass of foam (kg) m∗

ρ∗ = =
volume of foam (m3 ) V∗

and
mass of outer (kg) mo
ρo = 3 = .
volume of outer (m ) Vo
The inner material for the case in Figure 20.1 and 20.2 is air, and therefore we
have that
m∗ = mo .
Thus,
mo
Vo ρo ρ∗
po = ∗ = m∗ = .
V ρ∗
ρo
Moreover, the volume fraction of the inner material is
mI
volume of inner (m3 ) VI ρI ρ∗
pI = 3 = = m∗ =
volume of foam (m ) V∗ ρ∗
ρI

and can also be expressed in the terms of side length, l and wall thickness, t.
When the cells are square honeycombs, as in Figure 20.2, the volume fraction of
the inner material
(l − t)2
pI = ,
l2
and the volume fraction of the outer material

2 (l − t)2
po = l − = l2 − pi
l2

188
 Materials ρ
Special ultra-low-density foams 0,001
Polymeric foams (packaging and insulation) 0,05-0,20
Cork 0,14
Softwoods 0,15-0,40
Table 20.1: Relative density for some cellular solids.

and if l = 1, then
(l − t)2
pI = = (1 − t)2
l2
and
(l − t)2
2
po = l − = 1 − (l − t)2 = 1 − pI .
l2
If the cell wall size t/l > 0.3 the structure will look more like a solid material
with isolated pores than a cellular structure (see [5], p. 2). Gibson and Ashby refer
to materials with relative density less than 0.3 as true cellular solids. Throughout
we assume a low density, so that t << l (wall thickness<<wall-length), see Figure
20.3 and that all the walls have the same thickness. Simple beam theory is valid
only when t/l < 1/4 (see [5], p. 110). Some examples of the relative density of
some cellular solids are given in Table 20.1.
In the same way we define the relative Young’s modulus as
E∗
E=
Eo
where E ∗ and Eo are the Young’s modulus of the cellular material and the solid
material, respectively.

20.1. Mechanics of honeycombs

The cells in a honeycomb-structure are usually hexagonal, but they can also be
triangular or square or rhombic. We will mainly consider the regular square and
regular hexagonal honeycombs. The honeycombs can be made of different types
of materials, such as metal, wood, polymer and ceramics or a combination of two
or more of these materials. For instance, foams of polymer inside the honeycomb
and thin metal on the outside will give a much more stiff/stabile construction so
that the wall thickness of the metal can be made even thinner to obtain an even
more light-weight structure.

189
 l

h
t

x2

x3

x1

Figure 20.3: Honeycomb structure.

If and when honeycombs are used in load-bearing structures it is important

to understand the mechanical behavior of these two-dimensionsl structures, illus-
trated as hexagonal honeycomb-structures in Figure 20.3.
Besides, many natural three-dimensional cellular solids (for instance wood)
that normally are too complex to be treated can be idealized and analyzed as
honeycomb-structures.

20.2. In-plane deformation properties, uniaxial loading

The study of the in-plane (also called transversal) properties will highlight the
different deformation and failure mechanisms of the cellular solids. In-plane prop-
erties are defined as (the stiffness and strength) properties in the X1 − X2 plane,
see Figure 20.4.
In-plane compression of honeycombs gives us first a bending of the cell walls
and we obtain a linear elastic deformation. If the compression increases beyond
a critical strain the cell walls will undergo collapse by elastic buckling, plastic
yielding, creep or brittle fracture depending on the type material the cell wall is
made of. If the honeycomb is exposed for tension the cell walls first bend but
they will not obtain elastic buckling. Instead the cell walls will show extensive
plasticity and if the cells are brittle it will fracture. The in-plane stiffness and
strength are the lowest ones because in this plane the cell walls will bend. We
will study only the linear-elastic deformation case of a hexagonal honeycomb in
uniaxial loading in detail.

190
 σ2

σ1

σ1

σ2

Figure 20.4: Honeycombstructure loaded in X1 or X2 −direction.

Figure 20.5: A regular hexagonal honeycomb.

The study of in-plane properties highlights the mechanisms by which cellular

solids deform and fail.

20.2.1. Linear-elastic deformation

If the hexagonal honeycomb is regular (all angles θ are 30◦ , and wall thicknesses
are equal as Figure 20.5 shows), then the in-plane properties are isotropic. This
means that the in-plane properties of the honeycomb can be described by only
two independent elastic moduli, for instance by Young’s modulus E ∗ and a shear
modulus G∗ . The notation ∗ means the effective value. If the honeycomb is not
regular , the in-plane properties is described with four moduli (e.g. E1,∗ E2,∗ G∗12

191
 σ2

σ1 σ1

x2 x2

x1 x1
σ2

Figure 20.6: Honeycomb deformed by normal stresss when loaded in X1 and X2 .

and ν ∗12 ). Here, ν ∗12 is the Poisson’s ratio. If the hexagonal honeycomb has a low
relative density, ρ∗ /ρo , (t/l is small) we have that
t h
ρ∗ ( + 2)
l l
≈ . (20.1)
ρo 2 cos θ( hl + sin θ)
When the honeycomb is regular (h = l and θ = 30◦ ) see Figure 20.5, then (20.1)
is reduced to
ρ∗ 2 t
=√
ρo 3l
which holds when strains are less than 20% or t/l is small.
The response of the honeycomb when loaded in x1 − or x2 −direction (see Figure
20.4),is bending of the cell walls (see Figure 20.6), and is described by five moduli:
two Young’s moduli E1∗ and E2∗ , a shear modulus G∗12 and two Poisson’s ratio ν ∗12
and ν ∗21 . The reciprocal relation

E1∗ ν ∗21 = E2∗ ν ∗12 (20.2)

reduces the five not independent moduli to four independent moduli.
When loading in x1 − or x2 − direction, respectively, the four independent
moduli are described as
µ ¶3
E1∗ t cos θ
= ¡h ¢ ,
Eo l l
+ sin θ sin2 θ
µ ¶3 ¡ h ¢
E2∗ t l
+ sin θ
= ,
Eo l cos3 θ

192
 τ τ
x2

x1

Figure 20.7: Honeycomb deformated by shear stress.

ε2 cos2 θ
ν ∗12 = − = ¡h ¢
ε1 l
+ sin θ sin θ
and
¡h ¢
ε 1 + sin θ sin θ
ν ∗21 = − = l 2
.
ε2 cos θ
For regular hexagonal honeycombs, the two Young’s moduli will be reduced to
µ ¶3
E1∗ E2∗ t
= = 2.3 ,
Eo Eo l
and the two Poisson’s ratio will be reduced to ν ∗12 = ν ∗21 = 1. The honeycomb
exposed to a shear stress is shown in Figure 20.7. It is possible to show that the
shear moduli G∗12 to be
µ ¶3 ¡h ¢
G∗12 t + sin θ
= ¡ h ¢2 l ,
Eo l (1 + 2h/l) cos θ
l
which for regular honeycombs is reduced to
µ ¶3
G∗12 t 1 E1∗
= 0.57 = .
Eo l 4 Eo

20.3. Out-of-plane deformation properties

Out-of-plane properties are defined as (the stiffness and strength) properties in the
x3 -plane, see Figure 20.8. The function of a honeycomb core in a sandwich panel

193
Figure 20.8: A honeycomb with out-of-plane loads (faces normal to X3 − direction).

is to carry the shear and normal loads in the x3 -direction. When honeycombs are
loaded either along the x3 −plane or in out-of-plane shear they are much stiffer
and stronger than if they are loaded in in-plane.
Out-of-plane tension and compression loading of a honeycomb imply that the
cell walls undergo only axial extension or compression and therefore the moduli,
collapse stresses, and strength will be much larger.
Also in the out-of-plane case we will only consider the linear-elastic defor-
mation case, as we did in the in-plane case. The out-of-plane analysis gives the
additional stiffness which is needed for the design of honeycomb cores in sandwich-
panels, and for the description of the behavior of natural honeycomb-like material,
such as wood.

20.3.1. Linear-elastic deformation

A total of nine moduli are needed to describe the out-of-plane deformation, that
means five new ones in addition to the four already described (E1∗ , E2∗ , G∗12 and
υ ∗12 ). We will now find the five new moduli. The Young’s modulus E3∗ , for normal
loading in the x3 -direction is obviously the same as the Young’s modulus for the
outer material, Eo , scaled by the loadbearing section area
E3∗ ρ∗ t
= ≈ .
Eo ρo l
The next two Poisson’s ratio are equal to the solid itself

194
 υ ∗31 = υ ∗32 = υ o ,
and the Poisson’s ratio υ ∗13 and υ ∗23 are found from the reciprocal relations (see
[5], p. 498)
E∗ E∗
υ ∗13 = 1∗ υ o ≈ 0, υ ∗23 = 2∗ υ o ≈ 0.
E3 E3
The shear moduli are more complicated to find because of the non-uniform
deformation in the cell walls due to stress distribution in the honeycomb. The
plane honeycomb may not remain plane, and exact calculations may only be done
using numerical methods. But, we can obtain upper and lower bounds for the two
shear moduli, with the help of the method in [23], by calculating the strain energy
associated first with the strain distribution and next by the stress distribution
(see [5], p. 149). If the two coincide, the solution is exact, but if not the true
solution lies somewhere in between the upper and lower bound. We will only give
the results here, for more information see [5], p. 150. The upper and lower bounds
for G∗13 , respectively: µ ¶
G∗13 cos θ t
≤ ,
Go h/l + sin θ l
µ ¶
G∗13 cos θ t
≥
Go h/l + sin θ l
which are identically, and therefore we have an exact solution. Reduced to the
regular hexagon we obtain that
µ ¶
G∗13 t
= 0.577 . (20.3)
Go l
The upper and lower bounds for G∗23 , respectively:
µ ¶
G∗23 1 h/l + sin2 θ t
≤ ,
Go 2 (h/l + sin θ) cos θ l
µ ¶
G∗23 h/l + sin θ t
≥
Go (1 + 2h/l) cos θ l
which are not identically. They will not coincide for a general honeycomb but for
a regular hexagon they will coincide against
µ ¶
G∗23 t
= 0.577 . (20.4)
Go l

195
As we see (20.3) and (20.4) are identical which confirm that regular hexagons are
isotropic in the x1 −x2 plane. The out-of plane shear moduli vary linearly with
the relative density (t/l) and are therefore larger that the in-plane moduli by the
factor (t/l)2 .
Now we have all the parameters describing the othrotropic structure, and we
can put them into the matrix 16.5.

Questions
• What is relative density?
• Show that relative density is the same as volume fraction. Assume air inside
the cell.
• Show that if the hexagonal honeycomb has a low relative density, ρ∗ /ρo , (t/l is
small) then
t h
ρ∗ ( + 2)
l l
≈ .
ρs 2 cos θ( hl + sin θ)
• If the relative density of a square honeycomb is 0.8, what is the wall-thickness
of the honeycomb?
• If the volume fraction of a hexagonal honeycomb is 0.8, what is the wall-thickness
of the honeycomb?
• When is simple beam theory valid, according to Ashby & Gibson?
• What is the difference between in-plane and out-of-plane properties of a honey-
comb structure?
• If a hexagonal honeycomb is regular (wall thicknesses are equal), are the in-plane
properties isotropic?
• What does isotropic mean?
• If the honeycomb is irregular and anisotropic, how many moduli for a complete
description of the in-plane properties is needed?
• What is the definition of Poissin’s ratio?

196
21. Laminate Theory
21.1. Failure in composites
Layer Cracking
This occurs in multi-angle laminates. When the load direction is perpendic-
ular to that of the fibres, the amount of stress on the material increases due to
transverse tension. Small cracks appear in the matrix of that layer, and as the
load increases they can be transferred to other layers.

Delamination
This usually occurs at plate edges, where out-of-plane loads can be placed on
some off-angle layers. This causes delamination. It can be avoided by altering the
stacking sequence.

Fibre Breakage
Discontinuities in an individual fibre cause weakness, and when subjected to
tensile stress or compressive buckling, can cause the fibre to fracture. This leads
to the matrix cracking, and due to the higher stress around the ’void’ left this
causes other fibres to fracture. These breaks can intrude into other layers, creating
a sizeable weakness.

Interfacial Debonding
Fibres manufactured for use in some composites have an applied coating which
protect the fibre from corrosion and act as a primer, to help the bond between the
matrix and fibre. This interface can debond under stress, and because the matrix
can no longer transfer the load to the fibre, cause a weakness.
This image show a broken section taken from the edge of the tennis racquet.
You can see the carbon fibres and some of the fractured epoxy resin in between
them.

21.2. Modulus of Fiber-Reinforced Composites

Fibers have a very high modulus along their axis, but have a low modulus perpen-
dicular to their axis. If the fibers are all parallel, the modulus of a fiber reinforced
composite depends upon which direction you’re measuring. The modulus of the
entire composite, matrix plus reinforcer, is governed by the rule of mixtures when
measuring along the length of the fiber:

197
 Ec = Ef Vf + Em Vm ,
where Ec is the modulus of the entire composite along the length of the fiber, Ef
is the modulus of the fiber along the length of the fiber, Vm is the volume percent
occupied by the fibers, Em is the modulus of the matrix (usually not dependent
upon direction), and Vm is the volume percent occupied by the matrix (equal to
(1-Vf )).

198
Part V
Fabrication processes
In this part we will study some of the fabrication processes concerning the mate-
rials and structures studied in Part I. In particular we consider the processes of
fabricating polymers, plastics and composites. Moreover, we study some of the
advanced manufacturing techniques of layer manufacturing technology (LMT).
From [4], we have the rough definition of what a material processing is: ”all
that is done to convert stuff into things”. Figure 21.1 gives an picture of the
different general materials processing types (independent of the material types).

Fabrication of an acceptable product involves the selection of both

i) an appropriate material and
ii) a companion method of processing,
such that the resulting combination can provide the desired shape, properties,
precision and finish.

22. Fabrication of plastics

The fabrication method depends on what raw material we have. Polymers are
formed by many low temperature processes. It is important to know for instance
whether the material is a thermoplastics or thermosetting. Thermoplastics can
be heated and then formed by either a formable solid or a liquid. Thermoset-
tings have far fewer options, because once the polymerization has occurred, the
framework structure is established and no further deformation can occur. Thus
the polymerization and the shape-forming are usually accomplished at the same
time.
We will have a closer look at some of most used fabrication processes:
Casting
In casting, no fillers or no pressure is required. The liquid polymer is poured
into a container having the shape of the desired part. It is an inexpensive process,
dimensional precision is quite high, but quality problems can occur due to inade-
quate mixing, air entrapment, gas evolution, and shrinkage.
Typical products: sheets, plates, rods and tubes as well as small objects such
as jewellery.

199
Figure 21.1: Materials processes.

200
 Figure 22.1: Pressure die casting.

Pressure die casting

Pressure die casting (also called compression molding) is used for net-shape
forming (dimensional accuracy and surface details) of high-quality parts with com-
plex shapes. Thanks to the high pressures involved, very thin walled parts can be
obtained, see Figure 22.1. Preformed thermosettings (now also thermoplastics)
are introduced into an open, heated cavity. Pressure are applied. Products are:
gaskets (pakninger), seals (forseglinger/låser), exterior automobile panels, aircraft
fairings (glatt kledning), and a wide variety of interior panels (flater).

Blow molding
In blow molding, thermoplastics are converted into bottles or other hollow-
shape containers. The melted polymer is put into a mold, then compressed air
is used to spread the polymer into the mold, see Figure 22.2.It is used to make
many containers such as plastic soda containers and milk jugs.

Cold molding
In cold molding, raw thermosetting is pressed to shape while it is cold. Cured
in a separate oven. It is a low cost process, but neither surface finish nor dimension
precision is good.

Injection molding

201
 Figure 22.2: Blow molding.

Injection molding is the most widely used process for high-volume production
of thermoplastics parts. The resulting form is usually a finished product, no need
for other work before assembly or use. If the process is applied to thermosettings,
the process must be modified to provide the temperature and pressure required
for curing (which is additional time in a heated mold).
Similar to extrusion, the polymer is heated to the liquid state, but it is prepared
in metered amounts, and the melt is forced into a mold to create the part, see
Figure 22.3. It is not a continous process. Many toys are made by injection
molding.

Transfer molding
Transfer molding combines elements from compression and injection molding.
Preformed raw thermosetting material is placed into a cavity, where it is heated
until molten which is forced into the channels in the die. Thin sections can
be made, with excellent detail, and good tolerance and finish. Inserts can be
incorporated into the product.
Products: switchgear (brytere) and wiring devices (ledningsinnretninger), house-
hold appliances (apparater) that require heat resistance, structural parts that

202
 Figure 22.3: Injection molding.

require hardness and rigidity under load.

Reaction injection molding

In reaction injection molding, two or more highly reactive liquid monomers are
mixed and immediately injected into the mold cavity where the chemical reactions
leading to solidification, occur, see Figure 22.4.
Heating is not required. Polyurethane (thermosettings urethane-groups), polyamids
(thermoplastics amids-group), composites with short fibers and flakes can be
molded. Different formulations result in elastomeric or flexible, structural foam
(foam core with a hard, solid outer skin), solid (no foam core), or composite prod-
ucts. The shapes can be quite complex (with variable wall thickness), and surface
finish is excellent.
Products: automobile products; steering wheels, instrument panels, door pan-
els, armrests, household; refrigerators, water-skis.

Insert molding
Insert molding is an injection molding process whereby plastic is injected into
a cavity and around an insert piece placed into the same cavity just prior to
molding. The result is a single piece with the insert encapsulated by the plastic.
The insert can be made of metal or another plastic.

203
 Figure 22.4: Reaction injection molding.

Like injection molding in general, insert molding can be accomplished with

a wide variety of materials, including polyethylene, polystyrene, polypropylene,
polyvinyl chloride, thermoplastic elastomers, and many engineering plastics. The
primary factors that restrict the use of insert molding are not process related,
but are determined by the strength and other properties required for the molded
product.
Processing Parameters: One of the chief causes of failure in an insert-
molded part is the cleanliness of the insert. It is absolutely imperative that the
insert be as clean as possible prior to molding. When molding with large metal
inserts, the inserts may need to be preheated to minimize the stresses caused by
differential thermal expansion and contraction. When inserts are manually loaded
it is important that the operator maintain a consistent cycle time.

Thermoforming
In thermoforming, thermoplastic sheet material is heated to a working tem-
perature and then formed into a finished shape by heat, pressure, or vacuum, see
Figure 22.5. There are two main steps in the process: heating and forming.
Products: range from panels for contoured (profiler) skylights (takvinduer),
large items such as bathtubs, to pages of text for the blind.

204
 Figure 22.5: An example of thermoforming.

The size of Thermo Pressure Formed parts is limited by the size of the thermo-
forming machines now in use and the size of plastic sheet stock which is available.
Commercially available sheet stock is attainable in sizes of 120 inches wide and
as long as required in thicknesses of up to .500 inches. Larger, thicker sheet stock
is available in special cases.
To date, the largest commercially available Thermo Pressure Formed parts are
in the size range of 48 inches long by 24 inches wide and 18 inches deep. However,
the size capabilities of the process increase almost daily.

Rotational molding
Rotational molding produce hollow, seamless products of a wide variety of
sizes and shapes, including storage tanks (lagertank), bins (kasse ), and refuse con-
tainers (søppelbøtte), doll parts, footballs, helmets, and even boat hulls (skrog).
Gravity is used inside a rotational mold to achieve a hollow form, see Figure
22.6. The polymer is heated and due to the rotation, distributed in the form of a
uniform thickness all over the mold
The process is principally for thermoplastics (thermosets and elastomers are
more and more common).

Extrusion
By extrusion, long plastic products with uniform cross section are produced.
Thermoplastic pellets or powder are the raw material. The polymer is heated to
the liquid state and forced through a die under pressure resulting in an endless
product of constant cross section, see Figure 22.7. Extrusion is a cheap and rapid
method.

205
 Figure 22.6: Rotational molding.

Products: tubes, pipes, window frames, sheet and even coated wires and cables.
60% of polymers are prepared in this way.

Film Blowing
Film blowing uses the same method as extrusion: the material coming out of
the die is blown into a film. An example is plastic wrap.

Foam molding
In foam molding, plastic foam is fabricated. Foaming agent is mixed with
the plastic resin and releases gas or volatilizes when the combination is heated
during molding. The materials expand to 2-50 times their original size. The
process produce open-cell foams and closed-cell foams. Open cell-foams have
interconnected pores that permit the permeability of gas or liquid. Closed-cell
foams have the property of being gas- or liquid-tight. Both thermoplastics and
thermosettings can be foamed.
Polyurethane is one of the most versatile polymers in use today. It’s chemistry
is based on the reaction of an isocyanate with a polyhydroxy compound (polyol).
Therefore, a polyurethane foam-in-place system is a combination of the above
two components which have been preformulated so they need to only be mixed
and dispensed to make polyurethane foam, see Figure 22.8. North Carolina Foam
Industries (NCFI) was awarded a Mission Success Medal on July 29, 1998 by

206
 Figure 22.7: Extrusion.

Figure 22.8: Foaming in-place. From: http://www.ncfi.com/foam-in-place.htm

Lockheed Martin Michoud Space Systems for production and delivery of a light-
weight spray-applied foam insulation system that Lockheed Martin applies on the
surface of the new super lightweight external fuel tank.
Products: Rigid foams are useful for structural applications, packaging, ship-
ping containers, interiors of thinskinned metal components, and flexible foams are
primarily used for cushioning.

22.1. Processing of Rubber and elastomers

The simplest of the fabrication processes is dipping, where a master form of metal
is first produced, which is dipped into the molten liquid of elastomers.

207
Figure 22.9: Glovedipping, picture from: http://www.accautomation.com/prodsysc.htm.

Dipping produce relatively thin parts with uniform thickness, such as boots,
gloves, balloons, swim caps, toys, and fairings (glatt kledning).
Adaptions of the previously discussed processes for plastics are also used to
produce the shapes (injection, compression, and transfer molding, and extrusion).

References:
Fabrication Processes:
http://islnotes.cps.msu.edu/trp/toc.html
http://www/designinsite.dk
Fabrication of plastics:
http://www.mse.cornell.edu/courses/engri111/polymer4.htm
Foam molding:
http://www.ncfi.com/foam-in-place.htm
Videos:
http://www.gwplastics.com/capabilities/amto.html
3D Body scanner, see http://www.tc2.com/RD/RDBody.htm
Design
http://www.machinedesign.com/
Application of plastics:
http://www.stug.com.au/Applications/Common.html

Questions

208
• What kind of main groups, subgroups and processes of fabrication processes are
there?
• How does the fabrication of a thermoplastic polymer differ from the processing
of a thermsetting polymer?
• What are some of the ways that plastic sheets, plastes and tubes can be fabri-
cated?
• What types of polymers are most commonly blow molded?
• What type of products are produced by rotational molding?
• How do we produce long plastic products with uniform cross-section?
• How are foamed plastics produced?
• What is the difference between open-cell foams and close-cell foams?

209
23. Fabrication of Fiber-Reinforced Composites (FRC)
Taking composite materials as a whole, there are many different material options
to choose from in the areas of resins, fibres and cores, all with their own unique
set of properties such as strength, stiffness, toughness, heat resistance, cost, pro-
duction rate etc. However, the end properties of a composite part produced from
these different materials is not only a function of the individual properties of the
resin matrix and fibre (and in sandwich structures, the core as well), but is also a
function of the way in which the materials themselves are designed into the part
and also the way in which they are processed. In this section we compare a few
of the commonly used composite production methods.

23.1. Manufacturing processes of Reinforcements

Individual fibres or fibre bundles can only be used on their own in a few processes
such as filament winding. For most other applications, the fibres need to be
arranged into some form of sheet, known as a fabric, to make handling possible.
Different ways for assembling fibres into sheets and the variety of fibre orientations
possible lead to there being many different types of fabrics, each of which has its
own characteristics. These different fabric types and constructions are explained
later.
Glass filaments are supplied in bundles either strands, rovings or yarns. A
strand is a collection of more than one continuous glass filament. Roving generally
refers to a bundle of untwisted strands wound in parallel to form a cylindrical,
flat-ended package, similar to thread on a spool. Single-end roving contains only
one continuous strand of multiple glass filaments. Multiple-end roving contains
numerous wound strands. Yarns are collections of filaments or strands (usually
smaller than rovings) that are twisted together.
Carbon Fiber: Fiber produced by carbonizing precursor fibers based on PAN
(polyacrylonitrile), rayon and pitch to eliminate non-carbon atoms. The term car-
bon fiber is often used interchangeably with graphite. Carbon fibres are produced
by the PAN or the pitch methods.
Pitch method pulls out graphite threads through a nozzle from hot fluid
pitch.
The PAN method separates a chain of carbon atoms from polyacrylnitrile
(PAN) through heating and oxidation. The polymer is stretched into alignment
parallel with what will eventually be the axis of the fiber. Then, an oxidation

210
 Figure 23.1: Woven mat.

treatment in air between 200 and 300◦ C transforms the polymer into a nonmeltable
precursor fiber. This precursor fiber is then heated in a nitrogen environment. As
the temperature is raised, volatile products are given off until the carbon fiber is
composed of at least 92% carbon. The temperature used to treat the fibers varies
between 1000◦ C and 2500◦ C depending on the desired properties of the carbon
fiber.
Aramid: A high strength, high stiffness fiber derived from polyamide. Kevlar ° R

and Nomex °
R
are examples of aramids.
Fiberglass: Filaments made by drawing molten glass, commonly used to reinforce
composite materials.
Woven mats: For applications where more than one fibre orientation is required,
a fabric combining 0◦ and 90◦ fibre orientations is useful.
Woven fabrics, see Figure 23.1, are produced by the interlacing of warp (0◦ ) fi-
bres and weft (90◦ ) fibres in a regular pattern or weave style. The fabric’s integrity
is maintained by the mechanical interlocking of the fibres. Drape (the ability of
a fabric to conform to a complex surface), surface smoothness and stability of a
fabric are controlled primarily by the weave style.
Filament winding: This is the automated process of wrapping resin impreg-
nated filaments, see Figure 23.2, (rovings or tows) in a geometric pattern over a
rotating male mandrel. The component is then cured under high pressure and
temperature.
Rovings: Rovings consist of one or more glass strands made up of varying num-
bers of continuous glass fibers of a specific filament diameter. These fibers are
coated with a sizing designed to protect the fiber during processing and to couple
with the customer’s resin to optimize laminate performance.

211
 Figure 23.2: Filament winding rovings.

Figure 23.3: Chop strand mat.

Rovings, the most common form of glass, can be chopped, woven or processed
to create secondary fiber forms for composite manufacturing, such as mats, woven
fabrics, braids, knitted fabrics and hybrid fabrics. Rovings are supplied by weight,
with a specified filament diameter. The term yield is commonly used to indicate
the number of yards in each pound of glass fiber rovings.
Mats: Mats are nonwoven fabrics that provide isotropic or equal strength in
all directions. They come in two distinct forms: chopped and continuous strand.
Chopped mats contain randomly distributed fibers cut to lengths typically ranging
from 1.5 to 2.5 inches and held together with a chemical binder. Inherently weaker
than continuous-strand mats, chopped-strand mats provide low-cost polymer re-
inforcement primarily in hand layup, continuous laminating and some closed-
molding applications.
Chopped Strand Mat: The chopped strand mats, see Figure 23.3, are made

212
from cut fibers laid in a random pattern and bonded with a powdered, highly
soluble resin binder.
Continuous Filament Mat: In a different production step, strands formed
below the bushings are treated with a binder and formed into a swirl pattern to
make continuous filament mat.

23.2. Prepregs, Preforms and Compounds

A prepreg is an intermediate composite form made by preimpregnating the rein-
forcement with resin prior to molding. Molding compounds prepared in this way
are mostly glass fiber mats or glass filament cloths processed to form molded parts
or semi-finished products by hot-press molding
Preforming is an intermediate molding process whereby the reinforcement is
assembled in the shape of the part to be molded. This helps to ensure uniform
properties in a composite product and speed the molding cycle.
Glass fiber-reinforced thermoplastic compounds are typically in the form of
pellets consisting of resin with fibers in it. They can have seeral different forms,
i.e. sheets and billets/bulk form, also called bulk molding compounds (BMC) and
sheet molding compound (SMC).
The pre-mixed material has the consistency of molding clay and is injected
into a mold cavity or placed on the bottom of two mold halves for compression
molding.

23.3. Fabrication processes of FRC

There are several processes that manufacture fiber-reinforced composites. Some
of the processes are almost the same as we studied for manufacturing plastics, but
somewhat modified in order to incorporate the reinforcements. We will consider
some of the most widely used processes in manufacture FRCs.

Centrifugal Casting
This process makes cylindrical, hollow shapes such as tanks, pipes and poles.
Chopped strand mat is placed into a hollow, cylindrical mold, or continuous roving
is chopped and directed onto the inside walls of the mold. Resin is applied to the
inside of the rotating mold.

Cold press molding

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 Cold press molding is a semi-open molding process. Reinforcements, usually
continuous filament mats (CFM), are placed into the tool and a highly filled
polyester resin is poured onto them. The press is closed and the part is cured.
The process requires lower pressures, 15 - 100 lb/in2, and temperatures averaging
55◦ C. Cycle times are in the range of 10 - 20 minutes. Other glass fiber fabrics,
mats, veils and preforms are also used. Parts usually have a fair-to-poor surface,
so uses are under-hood auto and truck components like fan shrouds, brackets and
battery supports.

Compression Molding (hot press molding)

The composite is formed under pressure between matching male and female
mold halves, at temperatures between 130 and 170◦ C. The material that is com-
pressed is typically one of several combinations of glass fibers and resin. These
combinations are: sheet molding compound, bulk molding compound, preform or
glass fiber-reinforced thermoplastic sheet.

Continuous Lamination
This is a process for making composite in sheet form such as composite glaz-
ing, corrugated or flat construction panels, and electrical insulating materials.
Reinforcement is combined with resin and sandwiched between two plastic carrier
films. The sheet takes shape under forming rollers, and the resin is cured to form
the composite.

Filament Winding
This process makes high strength, hollow and generally cylindrical products
such as pipe, storage tanks, pressure vessels and rocket motor cases. The fiber
is impregnated in a resin bath and pulled by the force of a rotating mandrel
which gives the part its shape, see Figure 23.4.Veils are used for inner and/or
outer surfaces to create a resin-rich surface for better corrosion resistance and
aesthetics.

Hand Lay-Up
This process is suited for making large, high strength parts at low to medium
volumes. A combination of reinforcements in roll form is laid into an open mold
and impregnated with resin. When the resin cures, the surface of the mold is
replicated on the side of the composite facing the mold.Resins are impregnated by
hand, see Figure 23.5, into fibres which are in the form of woven, knitted, stitched
or bonded fabrics. This is usually accomplished by rollers or brushes, with an

214
 Figure 23.4: Filament winding.

Figure 23.5: Hand lay-up.

increasing use of nip-roller type impregnators for forcing resin into the fabrics by
means of rotating rollers and a bath of resin. Laminates are left to cure under
standard atmospheric conditions.

Infusion molding
In infusion molding processes a single-sided mold which is covered with rein-
forcements and sealed with a flexible vacuum bag or film is used. A vacuum is
drawn on the space between the mold and the seal containing the reinforcements,
and a thermoset resin is allowed to infiltrate the reinforcements. The resin flows
through the reinforcements and cures to form the finished composite. Large parts
can be produced; such as boat hulls and windmill blades.

215
 Figure 23.6: Pultrusion.

Injection Molding
A thermoplastic or thermoset molding compound made of glass fibers and
resin is fed by a screw or plunger into a mold cavity. The mold halves are held
under pressure until the resin cures. Short glass fibers are commonly used as
reinforcements.

Pultrusion
This is a continuous process for making a lineal profile with a constant cross
section (such as rod stock, beams, channels and tubing) of fibre reinforced profiles.
After the reinforcement is impregnated with resin, the material is pulled through
a heated die that gives the part its cross sectional shape, see Figure 23.6.The resin
cures to create the composite profile.

Reaction Injection Molding (RIM)

This process uses a two-component resin system, see Figure 23.7. The two resin
components are combined and mixed together, then injected into a mold cavity
containing reinforcement. In the mold cavity, the resin rapidly reacts and cures
to form the composite part.the reinforcement is added to both resin components
before those components are reacted. The fiber-reinforced resin combination is
injected into the mold cavity where the resin rapidly reacts and cures to form the
composite part.

216
 Figure 23.7: Reaction injection molding.

RIM uses liquid raw materials unlike other methods (including injection and
compression) where plastic raw materials are in solid forms must first be melted,
then molded.

Resin Transfer Molding (RTM)

The reinforcement is placed in the bottom half of matching molds. After the
mold is closed and clamped, resin is pumped under pressure into the mold cavity.
The resin wets the reinforcement and cures to form the composite part.

Figure 23.8: Resin transfer molding.

Spray-Up
This is similar to and often combined with hand lay-up. With spray-up, glass
fiber roving is fed into a chopper ”gun” that chops the roving into fibers of pre-
determined length. The fibers are directed to a resin stream. The combination

217
 Figure 23.9: 3D woven sandwich fabric.

material is directed to the mold cavity when the composite part takes shapes.

23.4. Fabrication of sandwich constructions

3D woven sandwich
New methods makes it possible to braid, weave or knit sandwich structures, as
shown in Figure 23.9.The new research in this techniques and structures focuses
on integrated core sandwich panels, based on 3D-Woven sandwich fabrics. Inten-
sive research on the 3D woven sandwich panels has been carried out, proving the
advantages of this material. The very high skin-core debonding resistance of the
panels is in theory very beneficial in increasing the lifetime and damage tolerance
of the structure. The application of 3D woven sandwich composites in (semi-)
structural composites depends on the long-term behaviour and the damage tol-
erance of the panels. These properties have not yet been investigated. Three
load cases are considered to be essential for the further applicability of the panels:
fatigue, impact and static concentrated loads.

Manufacturing of honeycomb cores

There are two methods of constructing honeycombs:

• Corrugation Process

218
1) 2)

glue
honeycomb material

3) 4)

Figure 23.10: Fabrication of aluminiun honeycombcore.

Sheets of the material are passed through corrugating rolls, to give them shape,
are then cut to length. The sheets are then bonded together to make a complete
honeycomb. This process only works for denser materials, which will retain their
shape after corrugation.

• Expansion Process

Sheets of the material are covered in thin strips of adhesive, and are stacked
to form a block, see Figure 23.10. The block is sliced to the right thickness, and
then pulled into an expanded form. This method is used for less dense materials.
Both of these methods produce a honeycomb in which the original material
runs in one direction. This is known as the web direction. The finished composite
material will be twice as stiff in the web direction as it is in the other.

Manufacturing of foams
A new, inexpensive method for manufacturing cellular solids of highly repeat-
able and uniform open cell geometry has been developed. Pore sizes as small
as a few microns can be achieved. Materials choices include metals, ceramics,
glasses, polymers, semiconductors and composites. A significant advantage to
this method is that the distribution of material at the cell level is readily con-
trolled. This creates the possibility for optimally designed cellular structures with

219
exceptional thermophysical and mechanical properties. Multi-functional materi-
als are envisioned. These could include load bearing structures which also provide
for additional things such as impact/blast absorption, thermal management, con-
ductance of electricity and/or shielding of electromagnetic waves, electrical power
storage, filtering or impeding of fluid flow, retardation of chemical reactions and
fire or in-growth of biological tissue.
Thermoplastic foams are the result of deliberately adding at least one gas-
generating substance such as a chemical blowing agent, a soluble gas, or volatile
liquid under pressure to the polymer melt, then altering the environment to cause
the gas-generating substance to yield discrete bubbles. Foams offer unique process-
ing challenges, ranging from the technical aspects of controlling bubble nucleation
and growth to issues dealing with environmental concerns from diffusing diffusong
blowing agent gases.
Refractory foams can be fabricated from any material or materials combination
(either homogeneously combined or layered) which can be deposited by CVD
(chemical vapor deposition). Among the materials that can be deposited are the
refactory metals (e.g. niobium, tantalum, tungsten, rhenium) and their ceramic
compounds (e.g. the oxides, nitrides, carbides, borides, and silicides). Deposited
material densities of up to 50% of theoretical values can be readily achieved.
These materials can be furnished in various sizes and configurations, and are easy
to machine. Face sheets of either the same of different material can be applied to
enhance the flexural and tensile properties.
References:
Fabrication fiber-reinforced composites:
http://www.owenscorning.com/owens/composites/about/fabrication.asp
http://www.advancedcomposites.com/
http://www.giplastek.com/rim/
http://www.polymerprocessing.com/operations/rim/
http://www.raypubs.com/ctyp/ypoverview.html
Composite applications:
http://www.owenscorning.com/composites/applications/index.asp
About composites:
http://www.mdacomposites.org/materials.htm
http://www.netcomposites.com/
http://islnotes.cps.msu.edu/trp/toc.html
http://me.lsu.edu/~composit/

220
Manufacturing of foams:
http://www.uvapf.org/technology/viewInvention.cfm?inventionID=205
Fiber and Powder manufacturing
http://powdermetinc.com/
http://www.reade.com/home_index.html
http://www.wrigley-fibres.com/
http://www.claremontflock.com/
Design for Manufacturability
http://www.galorath.com/tools_manuf.shtm
http://www.npd-solutions.com/dfm.html
Design and analyse of composite materals:
Polymer Matrix Composites, http://mil-17.udel.edu/PMC/index.html
3D-woven sandwich:
http://www.mtm.kuleuven.ac.be/Research/C2/poly/PhD_hj.htm
http://www.muratec.net/braider/

Questions
• What is Prepreg?
• What is Preform?
• What is Compound?
• How is fiber manufactured?
• What are woven mats?
• How is carbon fiber manufactured?
• What different processes of making fiber-reinforced composites are there?
• How can honeycomb-cores be made?

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 Figure 24.1: Layer Manufacturing Technology.

24. Layer Manufacturing Technology (LMT)

Layer Manufacturing Technology (LMT), is based on the principle of adding ma-
terial in 2D-layers to build a complete 3D-model, that is why it is called additive
technologies. Figure 24.1 shows how the parts made from LMT looks like in 2D
and 3D and close-up. There are several names of such processes: e.g Rapid pro-
totyping (RP), 3D-printing, solid freeform fabrication (SFF), freeform fabrication
(FFF). The different technologies fabricate physical objects directly from CAD
data sources. These methods are unique in that they add and bond materials
in layers to form objects. Such systems offer advantages in many applications
compared to classical subtractive fabrication methods such as milling or turning:

• Objects can be formed with any geometric complexity or intricacy without

the need for elaborate machine setup or final assembly

• Objects can be made from multiple materials, or as composites, or materials

can even be varied in a controlled fashion at any location in an object

• Solid freeform fabrication systems reduce the construction of complex ob-

jects to a manageable, straightforward, and relatively fast process.

• Small series of parts

The latter has resulted in their wide use as a way to reduce time to market
in manufacturing. Today’s systems are heavily used by engineers to better un-
derstand and communicate their product designs as well as to make rapid tooling

222
to manufacture those products. Surgeons, architects, artists and individuals from
many other disciplines also routinely use the technology.
The names of specific processes themselves are also often used as synonyms
for the entire field of LMT. Each of these technologies has its singular strengths
and weaknesses.
LMT is an acronym for a group of processes capable of producing prototypes
of a complex geometry in various materials (wax, plastic, metal, etc.). The dom-
inating types of LMT processes, that will be studied in more detail, are:
• Ballistic particle manufacturing (inkjet)- BPM
• Fused deposition modelling - FDM
• Laminated object manufacturing - LOM
• Selective laser sintering - SLS
• Stereo lithography - SLA
• Solid ground curing - SGC (cubital)
• Three dimensional printing (3DP)
• Laser Engineered Net Shaping (LENS)
• Inkjets
• Powder metallurgy (PM)
Price is generally proportional to the time consumption on the machine. This
means that price increases with finer layer thickness, increased volume, as well as
increased part height.
The materials used in rapid prototyping are still pretty limited and dependent
on the method chosen. However, the range and properties available are grow-
ing quickly. Numerous plastics, ceramics, metals ranging from stainless steel to
titanium, and wood-like paper are available. At any rate, numerous secondary
processes are available to convert patterns made in a rapid prototyping process to
final materials or tools.
The ever increasing range of materials and processes in the group of additive
material processes make the processes possible to use in also fabrication of finished
products and not only prototypes. In for instance the SLS process, metallic powder
is the basis and the finished product has very good properties. Therefore, in
addition to prototypes, RP techniques can also be used to make tooling (referred
to as rapid tooling) and even production-quality parts (rapid manufacturing).
For small production runs and complicated objects, rapid prototyping is often the
best manufacturing process available. Of course, ”rapid” is a relative term. Most
prototypes require from three to seventy-two hours to build, depending on the

223
 Figure 24.2: Ballistic particle manufacturing.

size and complexity of the object. This may seem slow, but it is much faster than
the weeks or months required to make a prototype by traditional means such as
machining. These dramatic time savings allow manufacturers to bring products
to market faster and more cheaply.

24.1. Ballistic particle manufacturing (inkjet) BMP

BMP uses CAD-generated three-dimensional solid model data to direct streams
of material (waxes, plastics, photocurable polymers, ceramics, or metals) at a
target, building three-dimensional objects in much the same manner an ink jet
printer produces two-dimensional images. An object is built by a three-axis ro-
botic system controlling a piezoelectric ink-jet mechanism ”shooting” particles of
the material, producing multiple cross sections, onto a target, as shown in Figure
24.2.
There are different inkjet techniques (deposition systems), but all rely on
squirting a build material in a liquid or melted state which cools or otherwise
hardens to form a solid on impact.

24.2. Fused deposition modelling - FDM

FDM, see Figure 24.3 is another deposition method.The Titan machine from
Stratasys creates models using high performance engineering materials such as
polycarbonate, ABS and sulfones. Now with Titan, you can create prototypes
that have superior impact strength and also resist heat and corrosive agents such

224
 Figure 24.3: Fused deposition modelling.

as oil, gasoline and even acids. Multiple materials, coupled with one of the largest
build chambers in its class, make Titan a smart solution for building, large, strong
and durable parts. Parts up to 355 x 406 x 406 mm can be built.

24.3. LOM - Laminated object manufacturing

Laminated object manufacturing, see Figure 24.4 is a process suited for large and
heavy parts, e.g. models for metal castings. The process makes use of foils, where
the undersurface of this foil has a binder that when pressed and heated by the
roller causes it to glue to the previous foil. The foil is cut by a laser following
the contour of the slice. To help the removal of the excess material once the
parts have been built, the exterior of the slice is hatched, as opposed to fluid-
based processes (e.g.the SLA process), where the interior is hatched. Fine details
cannot be produced, and surplus material has to be removed manually from the
part.
Helisys invented this process, but they ceased operation in 2000. However,
there are several other companies with either similar LOM technology, or in early
commercial stages. Maximum dimension was about 1600 * 1200 * 1200 mm.

24.4. Selective laser sintering - SLS

SLS, see Figure 24.5 produces part from plastic, wax, or metal powders. Advan-
tages include the use of industrial plastic types.

225
 Figure 24.4: Laminated object manufacturing.

Selective Laser Sintering is a thermal process and starts with a thin, evenly-
distributed layer of powder. A laser is then used to sinter (fuse) only the powder
that is inside a cross-section of the part. The energy added by the laser heats the
powder into a glass-like state and individual particles coalesce into a solid. Once
the laser has scanned the entire cross-section, another layer of powder is layed on
top and the whole process is repeated.
The hardened layer is lowered, a new layer of powder is spread, and the process
is repeated. Maximum dimensions are about 500 * 500 * 500 mm.
The SLS technology is known for its ability to process a variety of prototyping
materials including thermoplastics, investment casting wax, and a powdered metal
material for the production of prototype injection molds.

24.5. Laser Engineered Net Shaping (LENS)

Laser-engineered net shaping (LENSTM ) builds on the SLS process with a few
notable exceptions. Instead of bonding material in a bed of powder, the powder
is delivered in a gas jet through nozzles. Solid material is formed by solidification
of a molten pool, thus forming a fully dense, free-standing deposit.
A variety of materials can be used such as stainless steel, Inconel (a special
nickel material), copper, aluminum etc. Of particular interest are reactive mate-
rials such as titanium. Materials composition can be changed dynamically and
continuously, leading to objects with properties that might be mutually exclusive

226
 Figure 24.5: Selective laser sintering.

using classical fabrication methods.

The strength of the process lies in the ability to fabricate fully-dense metal
parts with good metallurgical properties at reasonable speeds.

24.6. Stereo lithography - SLA

Stereo lithography - SLA is the most common RPT technique, and produces
acrylic and epoxy parts from a liquid. Initially, an elevator is located at a distance
from the surface of the liquid equal to the thickness of the first, bottom-most layer,
see Figure 24.7. The laser beam will scan the surface following the contours of
the slice. The interior of the contour is then hatched using a hatch pattern. The
liquid is a photopolymer that when exposed to the ultra-violet (uv) laser beam
solidifies or is cured. The elevator is moved downwards, and the subsequent layers
are produced analogously. Fortunately, the layers bind to each other. Finally, the
part is removed from the vat, and the liquid that is still trapped in the interior is
usually cured in a special oven.
Almost unlimited geometry possibilities, fine geometric details and high accu-
racy.
The required geometry is produced in thin layers (0.0254 mm layer thickness)
that yields a smooth finish. A CNC-controlled laser beam cures a pattern in the
surface of a fluid photosensitive polymer. The hardened layer is then stepwise
lowered allowing the fluid to cover the part.

227
 Figure 24.6: Laser Engineered Net Shaping.

Typical applications are prototypes of injected moulded plastic parts and mod-
elling of human bones and skulls. Maximum dimensions are about 500 * 500 *
600 mm.

24.7. Solid ground curing - SGC

With the solid ground curing technique, see Figure 24.8, parts are produced from
photosensitive polymers by hardening them in layers just as the SLA process.
However, this is a significantly different process. The vat moves horizontally
as well as vertically. The horizontal movements take the workspace to different
stations in the machine.
The light source a uv-lamp (mercury) is used to flood the chamber and expose
and solidify the entire layer at once (instead of using a laser beam as in SLA).
This avoids the need for post-curing the parts. To select the areas that should
be cured, a mask is built on a glass plate, and subsequently, erased after begin
used. The mask is built using a process similar to the one used in laser printers.
The glass plate with the mask is placed between the lamp and the surface of the
workspace.
Parts are built surrounded by wax, eliminating the need for support structures
(which is needed in SLA). Once a layer has been exposed to the uv-lamp, the un-
cured areas-those areas filled with residual, liquid polymer-are replaced by wax.
This is done by wiping away the residual polymer and applying a layer of wax.

228
 Figure 24.7: Stereo lithography.

The wax is hardened by a cold metal plate, and subsequently, the layer is milled
to the correct height. The milling station also allows for layers to be removed,
i.e.an undo operation is possible. The new layer of polymer is applied when the
workspace moves from the milling station back to the exposure chamber.
The process is well suited for large and heavy parts. No separate part support
is required during processing. Compared with SLA, it is more expensive and not
as accurate. Machines frm Cubital use SGC principle.

24.8. Three dimensional printing (3DP)

Three dimensional printing, see Figure 24.9 was developed at Massachusetts In-
stitute of Technology (MIT). It’s often used as a direct manufacturing process as
well as for rapid prototyping.
The process starts by depositing a layer of powder object material at the top
of a fabrication chamber. To accomplish this, a measured quantity of powder is
first dispensed from a similar supply chamber by moving a piston upward incre-
mentally. The roller then distributes and compresses the powder at the top of
the fabrication chamber. The multi-channel jetting head subsequently deposits a
liquid adhesive in a two dimensional pattern onto the layer of the powder which
becomes bonded in the areas where the adhesive is deposited, to form a layer of
the object.

229
 Figure 24.8: Solid ground curing.

Once a layer is completed, the fabrication piston moves down by the thickness
of a layer, and the process is repeated until the entire object is formed within
the powder bed. After completion, the object is elevated and the extra powder
brushed away leaving a ”green” object. No external supports are required during
fabrication since the powder bed supports overhangs.
Three dimensional printing offers the advantages of speedy fabrication and low
materials cost. In fact, it’s probably the fastest of all RP methods. Recently color
output has also become available. Parts can be made of any material (ceramic,
metals, polymers and composites).

24.9. PowderProcessing/PowderMetallurgy
Powder metallurgy is the process where both casting, forming and consolidation
are involved. Fine powdered materials are blended, pressed into a desired shape,
and then heated in a controlled atmosphere to bond the contacting surfaces of the
particles and establish the desired properties. Some of the advantages with the
process is that the material waste is very little, unusual materials or mixtures can
be used and the porosity or permeability can be tailored. There are many different
methods to manufacture products with powder metallurgy processes and in the
future even more methods will be introduced to the marked. Almost any metal,
metal alloy, or nonmetal such as ceramic, polymer or wax or graphite lubricant can

230
 Figure 24.9: Three dimensional printing.

be converted into powder and can thereby be produced by a powder metallurgy

method.
Powder metallurgy uses sintering process for making various parts out of metal
powder. The metal powder is compacted by placing in a closed metal cavity (the
die) under pressure. This compacted material is placed in an oven and sintered
in a controlled atmosphere at high temperatures and the metal powders coalesce
and form a solid. A second pressing operation, repressing, can be done prior to
sintering to improve the compaction and the material properties.
The properties of this solid are similar to cast or wrought materials of similar
composition. Porosity can be adjusted by the amount of compaction. Usually
single pressed products have high tensile strength but low elongation.
Powder metallurgy is useful in making parts that have irregular curves, or
recesses that are hard to machine. It is suitable for high volume production with
very little wastage of material. Secondary machining is virtually eliminated.
Typical parts that can be made with this process include cams, ratchets,
sprockets, pawls, sintered bronze and iron bearings (impregnated with oil) and
carbide tool tips.

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24.10. Vapor Deposition CVD/PVD
Deposition is a process of depositing a thin layer of film onto the surface of the
wafer.
Vapor deposition processes usually take place within a vacuum chamber. There
are two categories of vapor deposition processes: physical vapor deposition (PVD)
and chemical vapor deposition (CVD). In PVD processes, the workpiece is sub-
jected to plasma bombardment. In CVD processes, thermal energy heats the gases
in the coating chamber and drives the deposition reaction.

Chemical Vapor Deposition is done by putting the chemicals into a heated

vacuum chamber containing a wafer. These chemical are fed into the chamber in
a gas form. There are a couple of different forms of chemical vapor deposition.
Each form has its own advantages and disadvantages. These forms are:
APCVD Atmospheric Pressure CVD
LPCVD Low Pressure CVD
PECVD Plasma Enhanced CVD

Physical vapor deposition does not use a chemical to deposit a film on the
wafer but uses physical means. To do this a gas inside a vacuum is excited with
a source , like RF (Radio frequency) energy. The molecules of the gas become so
energetic that if they were to collide with some materials they might cause atoms
of that material to break free. PVD uses this as a way to deposit layers of material
onto a wafer. A ”target” is placed above the wafer and when the molecules of gas
strike the target and cause the atoms to break free then a layer of atoms will fall
onto the wafer.

24.11. Selection of a layered manufacturing process

Selection of a layered manufacturing process depends on the basic application as
well as material and accuracy requirements. Selection rules of thumb have evolved:
Applications involving injection molded parts and/or good accuracy, often lead
to stereolithography (SLA) as the best choice.
If a prototype part needs to be in final materials and with mechanical proper-
ties that emulate injection molded parts, selective laser sintering (SLS) might be
chosen.
If the requirement is for large objects that will ultimately be sand cast, lami-
nated object manufacturing (LOM) is often the way to go.

232
 If the need is for a quick concept model and physical properties are of secondary
importance, three dimensional printing (3DP) may be most economical.
If the requirement is for extreme accuracy and very high resolution, such as
in making jewelry or small parts, a good choice is often an inkjet system such as
the ModelMaker Series from Solidscape, Inc. (formerly Sanders Prototypes).
Direct fabrication of metal objects as tools or prototypes will require selective
laser sintering (SLS), or one of the methods based on laser fusing such as laser
engineered net shaping (LENS).
In order to get the beste finish of a product; rotate the geometry such that
the laser "draws" the 2D geometry that is most critical, and not let that surface
be step-wise.
Of course, such rules of thumb risk offending every system manufacturer be-
cause there is tremendous overlap in capabilities and specifications. The majority
of applications can probably be accomplished satisfactorily by several of the tech-
nologies.
References about additive technologies:
SLS- technology in action:
http://www.dtm-corp.com/
http://home.att.net/~castleisland/
http://lff.me.utexas.edu/sls.html
LMT Processes:
http://home.att.net/~castleisland/
http://designinsite.dk
http://www.efunda.com/processes/metal_processing/powder_metallurgy.cfm
http://www.efunda.com/processes/processes_home/process.cfm
http://www.efunda.com/home.cfm
http://www.precitech.ca/pmproc.htm
http://www.cs.hut.fi/~ado/rp/rp.html
http://home.att.net/~castleisland/rp_int1.htm
http://www-2.cs.cmu.edu/~rapidproto/manufacturing/mfgresources.html
http://home.att.net/~castleisland/rp_int1.htm
http://www-2.cs.cmu.edu/~rapidproto/manufacturing/mfgresources.html
http://www-2.cs.cmu.edu/~rapidproto/manufacturing/mfguniversity.html
http://emsh.calarts.edu/~mathart/R_Proto_ref.html
http://home.att.net/~castleisland/com_lks.htm
http://www.stratasys.com/ (also streaming video on FDM process)

233
Figure 24.10: Rapid Prototyping Technologies.

234
http://www.acceltechinc.com/nojava/sls.html
http://www.prototype3d.com/
http://www.3dsystems.com/
http://web.mit.edu/tdp/www/whatis3dp.html
http://www.myb2o.com/myb2ous/RapidPrototyping/Tools/Process/10265.htm
http://www.mit.edu/~tdp/ (pictures)= next link
http://web.mit.edu/afs/athena/org/t/tdp/www/
http://www.sandia.gov/media/lens.htm
http://www.tms.org/pubs/journals/JOM/9907/Hofmeister
/Hofmeister-9907.html (LENS)
CVD/PVD
http://www.corrosion-doctors.org/MetalCoatings/Physical.htm
http://entcweb.tamu.edu/zoghi/semiprog/deposit.htm
http://www.darpa.mil/dso/trans/fds_2.htm
Questions
• What are the different processes of LMT?
• What are the advantages and disadvantages of LMT-processes compared to
traditional processes?
• How does SLA work?
• Explain the powder metallurgy process

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25. Design Considerations
The goals of reducing a large manufacturing cost and improving product quality
has lead to certain processes and procedures that have come to be known as design
for manufacturability or design for manufacture (DFM). The closely related is also
the area of design for assembly (DFA).

25.1. Designing for Manufacturability (DFM) )

Design for Manufacturability (DFM) or Design for Fabrication (DFF) is a method
and the therory for designing products that can be produced. In addition this
method saves time compared to previous methods (or non-methods).
In the past, products have been designed that could not be produced. Prod-
ucts have been released for production that could only be made to work in the
model shop when prototypes were built and adjusted by highly skilled technicians.
Clearly, there must be some other way to develope a product that is smarter than
this.
A product can be designed in many different ways. The designer’s objective
must be to optimize the product design with the production system. A company’s
production system includes its suppliers, material handling systems, manufactur-
ing processes, labor force capabilities and distribution systems.
Generally, the designer works within the context of an existing production
system that can only be minimally modified. However in some cases, the produc-
tion system will be designed or redesigned in conjunction with the design of the
product. When design engineers and manufacturing engineers work together to
design and rationalize both the product and production and support processes, it
is known as integrated product and process design. The designer’s consideration of
design for manufacturability, cost, reliability and maintainability is the starting
point for integrated product development.
A designer’s primary objective is to design a functioning product within given
economic and schedule constraints. However, research has shown that decisions
made during the design period determine 70% of the product’s costs while deci-
sions made during production only account for 20% of the product’s costs. Fur-
ther, decisions made in the first 5% of product design could determine the vast
majority of the product’s cost, quality and manufacturability characteristics. This
indicates the great leverage that DFM can have on a company’s success and prof-
itability.

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 However, the application of DFM must consider the overall design economics.
It must balance the effort and cost associated with development and refinement of
the design to the cost and quality leverage that can be achieved. In other words,
greater effort to optimize a products design can be justified with higher value or
higher volume products.
Design effectiveness is improved and integration facilitated when:

• Fewer active parts are utilized through standardization, simplification and

group technology retrieval of information related to existing or preferred
products and processes.

• Producibility is improved through incorporation of DFM practices.

• Design alternatives are evaluated and design tools are used to develop a
more mature and producible design before release for production.

• Product and process design includes a framework to balance product quality

with design effort and product robustness.

25.2. Product design guidelines

Designers need to understand more about their own company’s production system,
i.e., its capabilities and limitations, in order to establish company-specific design
rules to further guide and optimize their product design to the company’s pro-
duction system. For example, they need to understand the tolerance limitations
of certain manufacturing processes.
DFM Guidelines:
• Minimize total number of parts
• Standardize components
• Use common parts across product lines
• Design parts to be multifuctional
• Design parts for ease of fabrication
• Aviod secondary operations
• Utilize the special characteristics of processes
In addition, colors, tolerances and materials also limits the process that should
be used.
Design guidelines

237
 There has been developed a number of rules for design. Briefly mentioned, the
list looks like this:
• Space holes in parts so they can be made in one operation without tooling
weakness. There is a limit in how close holes may be spaced due to strength in
the thin section between holes.
• Notes on engineering drawings must be specific and clear.
• Dimensions should be made from specific surfaces or points on the parts.
• Dimensions should all be from a single datum line.
• The design should aim for minimum weight consistent with strength and
stiffness requirements (this means minimized material cost and reduction in labor
and tooling costs).
• Adjust the design to the manufacture process chosen (wall thickness, fillets,
radi, dies etc.)
• Rotation of gometry

25.3. Evaluation of design alternatives

With the traditional approach, the designer would develop an initial concept and
translate that into a product design, making minor modifications as required
to meet the specification. DFM requires that the designer start the process by
considering various design concept alternatives early in the process. At this point,
little has been invested in a design alternative and much can be gained if a more
effective design approach can be developed. Only through consideration of more
than one alternative is there any assurance of moving toward an optimum design.
Using some of the previous design rules as a framework, the designer needs to
creatively develop design alternatives. Then alternatives are evaluated against
DFM objectives.
Design guide for composite materials, Part design concerns
The very nature of composites allows designers and manufacturers to tailor
fiber architecture to match performance requirements of a specific part. Fiber ori-
entation can be varied to allow wall-thickness variations, development of complex
shapes, and production of large parts with integral reinforcing members. Lam-
inates may be designed to be isotropic or anisotropic, balanced or unbalanced,
symmetric or asymmetric - depending on the in-use forces a component will en-
dure.
Understanding layered or laminate structural behavior is vital to designing
effective composite components. Adhesion of laminate layers - called plies - is

238
critical; poor adhesion can cause delamination under multiple stress, strain, im-
pact and load conditions. Ply layup designers must consider adhesion, strength,
weight, stiffness, operating temperature and toughness requirements, as well as
variables such as electromagnetic transparency and radiation resistance. Addi-
tionally, composite component design must encompass surface finish, fatigue life,
overall part configuration, and scrap or rework potential, to name just a few of
the many applicable factors.
The intended fabrication method will also affect design. For instance, man-
ufacturers of filament-wound or tape-layed structures use different reinforcement
forms and build-up patterns than those warranted for hand layed up laminate
panels or vacuum-bag-cured prepreg parts. RTM accommodates 3-D preforms
more easily than do some other manufacturing techniques. The varying benefits
and limitations of these fabrication techniques provide considerable flexibility to
achieve part performance and economies.

25.4. The meaning of colors

Are Colors Significant? Only for the sighted or only if one isn’t color-blind. For
those of us blessed with sight, we’ve been taught that colors can make us feel
good, excite us, generate fear and joy, or literally make us nauseated. As long
as we attach a certain meaning to a particular color, the legends of colors will
continue to persist.
Color is a very important part to web design. As human beings we are very
sensitive to color. We rely heavily on certain colors to give meaning to things. For
example we associate the color red to love. Like hearts or roses. We also associate
red to an emergency like fire trucks or exit signs. As North Americans we associate
black to death however I bet you didn’t know that the Chinese culture associates
black with happy and joyful. We associate white to purity or wholesomeness like
a wedding dress, while in the Chinese culture a bride would never wear white
on her wedding day because it symbolizes bad luck or death. So you can see by
this simple example that color not only is symbolic for all cultures but NOT all
cultures associate color the same way.

How Are Colors Symbolic?

Time and tradition have created strong, symbolic color connections. For ex-
ample, we associate red with festivity, blue with distinction, purple with dignity,
green with nature, yellow with sunshine, pink with health, and white with purity.

239
Context also gives color specific leaning, we know that red means stop, and green
means go.
White: White is associated with peace and purity such as in the white clouds
and sparkling snowflakes. Two of the most popular peace symbols are the white
dove and the truce flag.
Red - Vitality, Courage, Self Confidence: When red is featured in a
dream the tint or shade carries different meanings. A light tint of red - suggests
the glory of success, hot reds - signify the stress of family quarrels, crimson hues
- foretell of happy news from a friend and red hair on a beautiful woman suggests
that you will receive unexpected good news.
Yellow - Wisdom, Clarity, Self-esteem: Studies show that yellow is most
often associated with words like cheerful, jovial and sunny, somewhat associated
with exciting and stimulating and almost never associated with words like respon-
dent, dejected, melancholy or unhappy. In short, a wonderful color for lifting the
spirits and letting the sun shine in.
Orange - Happiness, Confidence, Resourcefulness: The meaning of or-
ange is inexorably linked to the sensations of radiant energy, heat and the glowing
presence of the setting sun. The link between red and yellow, orange takes its
traits from both. It is less passionate and intense than red, incorporating the
sunny disposition of yellow. To the human eye, orange is seen as the hottest of
all colors, both in temperature and appearance.
Blue - Knowledge, Health, Decisiveness: The Russian artist Kadinsky
captured the expansive essence of blue when he wrote that blue is ”the infinite
penetration into the absolute essence - where there is, and can be, no end.” People
who are strongly attracted to blue tend to be devoted and deliberate in their
actions and since blue is everywhere, they feel a unity with the world.
Purple - Beauty, Creativity, Inspiration: The purple family is the most
enigmatic of all colors. Purple is a combination of the excitement of red and the
tranquillity of blue, the marriage of two diametrically opposed emotions.
Green - Balance, Love, Self control: Green is the most refreshing, restful
color to the eye. The word ”green” comes from the same root as ”grow,” so green
symbolizes that which grows: rebirth, regeneration, the renewal of life. Indian
mystics see green as the marriage of balance and harmony, the ray that bridges
cause and effect.

240
Referencec:
Design guidelines:
http://www.devicelink.com/mddi/archive/96/04/008.html
http://www.arrem.com/designguide/dgdesvsmat.htm
http://www.tstar.com/pdf/quadrant-DF.pdf
http://www.npd-solutions.com/dfmguidelines.html
http://www.geplastics.com/webted/webted.html
Colors:
http://crumpledpapers.com/color.html
http://www.wevehadit.com/Publications/Color/page3.html
http://www.srsd.org/~arainone/color.html
Questions
• What is DFM?
• What is DFF
• What do we have to take into consideration when designing for fabrication?
• What kind of design-considerations would you take into consideration in general?
• How can colors affect our understanding of a product?
• If you would like a product to make you feel good, (happy), what color would
you choose on your product?

241
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