Topic 06: Zeros and Singularities

MA201 Mathematics III

Instructors: MGPP, DCD, AC, ST

IIT Guwahati

Instructors: MGPP, DCD, AC, ST Topic 06: Zeros and Singularities 1 / 28

Topic 06: Learning Outcome

We learn
Zeros of Analytic Functions
Zeros of Analytic Function are Isolated
Limit Point of Zeros of analytic function
Singularities
Classification of Singularities
Function behaviour in the neighborhood of singularities
Singularity at ∞
Meromorphic Functions

Instructors: MGPP, DCD, AC, ST Topic 06: Zeros and Singularities 2 / 28

 Zeros of Analytic Functions

Instructors: MGPP, DCD, AC, ST Topic 06: Zeros and Singularities 3 / 28

Zeros of Analytic Functions
Let f : D ⊆ C → C be an analytic function in D. Let z0 ∈ D.
Definition
A point z0 is called a zero of order (or multiplicity) m for the function f if

f (z0 ) = 0 and

f (k) (z0 ) = 0 for k = 1, 2, · · · (m − 1) and f (m) (z0 ) 6= 0 .

A zero of order 1 is called a simple zero.

f (z) = z m where m ∈ N, has a zero of order m at the point z = 0.
f (z) = (z − 1)(z − 2)5 has a simple zero at z = 1 and a zero of
order 5 at z = 2.
sin z has a simple zero at the points z = nπ where n ∈ Z.
ez has no zeros in C.
Instructors: MGPP, DCD, AC, ST Topic 06: Zeros and Singularities 4 / 28
Factorizing f
If a function f (z) is analytic at z0 and if f (z) has a zero of order m at z0
then the Taylor series of f about the point z = z0 takes the form
X∞ X∞
f (z) = ak (z − z0 )k = (z − z0 )m am+k (z − z0 )k .
k=m k=0

f (m) (z0 )
In the above expression, observe that am = 6= 0. If we set
m!
∞
X
g(z) = am+k (z − z0 )m+k then g(z) is analytic at z0 and g(z0 ) 6= 0
k=0
such that f (z) = (z − z0 )m g(z).

The function f (z) has a zero of order m at z0 if and only if f (z) can be
written as
f (z) = (z − z0 )m g(z)
where g(z) is analytic at z0 and g(z0 ) 6= 0.
Instructors: MGPP, DCD, AC, ST Topic 06: Zeros and Singularities 5 / 28
Zeros of analytic functions are isolated

Theorem
If f (z) is a non-constant analytic function in a neighborhood N (z0 ) of a
point z0 and if f (z0 ) = 0 then there exists a punctured disk
Dr (z0 ) = {z ∈ C : 0 < |z − z0 | < r} for some r > 0 such that f (z) is
analytic in Dr (z0 ) and f (z) 6= 0 for all z ∈ Dr (z0 ).

This shows that zeros of nonconstant analytic functions are isolated.

If the zeros of an analytic function f is not isolated then f will be either

identically equal to 0 or it will not be analytic at the limit point of the
zeros of f .

Instructors: MGPP, DCD, AC, ST Topic 06: Zeros and Singularities 6 / 28

Important Theorem on Zeros of Analytic Functions
Theorem
Let D be a domain (=connected, open set) and let f : D → C be an
analytic function in D. Then, the following statements are equivalent.
1 f ≡ 0 in D.
2 There exists a point z ∗ ∈ D such that f (n) (z ∗ ) = 0 for each n ≥ 0.
3 The set S = {z ∈ D : f (z) = 0} has a limit point in D.

Example:
Consider the analytic function f (z) = sin πz for z ∈ C \ {0}.

Then, the function f (z) has a simple zero at z = ± n1 where n ∈ N.

Therefore, by the above theorem, f (z) cannot be analytic at z = 0.

Corollary: Let f and g be two analytic functions in a domain D of C. If

there exists a sequence {zn } of points in D converging to z ∗ in D such
that f (zn ) = g(zn ) for all n ∈ N then f (z) = g(z) for all z ∈ D.
Instructors: MGPP, DCD, AC, ST Topic 06: Zeros and Singularities 7 / 28
Interpretation of Previous Theorem

For a nonconstant, analytic function on a domain D,

A zero of infinite order is NOT possible.
The set of zeroes of f cannot have a limit point in D.
Each zero must be isolated.

Instructors: MGPP, DCD, AC, ST Topic 06: Zeros and Singularities 8 / 28

 Singular Points (or Singularities)

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Singular Points/ Singularities

Definition
A point z0 is said to be a singular point of a function f (z) if f (z) is NOT
analytic at z0 and every neighborhood N (z0 ) of the point z0 contains at
least one point at which f (z) is analytic.

We say it as the function f (z) has a singularity at z = z0 .

1
The point z = 1 is a singular point of f (z) = (z−1)(z−2) .
The polynomials has no singular points.
1
The point zn = n where n ∈ Z is a singular point of f (z) = .
sin(πz)
1 1
The points zn = n for n ∈ Z are singular points of f (z) =
.
sin πz

Instructors: MGPP, DCD, AC, ST Topic 06: Zeros and Singularities 10 / 28

Isolated Singularities

Definition
If f (z) is not analytic at z0 and f (z) is analytic in the punctured
neighborhood Dr (z0 ) = {z ∈ C : 0 < |z − z0 | < r} for some r > 0 then
the point z0 is called an isolated singular point of f (z).

Examples:
The points z = 1 and z = 2 are isolated singular points of
1
f (z) = (z−1)(z−2) . The point z = 0 is an isolated singular point of
the function f (z) = exp(1/z).
π 
The function f (z) = sin has an isolated singularity at z = 0.
z
The point zn = n1 where n in is a non-zero integer, is an isolated
1
singular point of f (z) =
.
sin πz

Instructors: MGPP, DCD, AC, ST Topic 06: Zeros and Singularities 11 / 28

Non-Isolated Singularities
Definition
A singular point z0 of a function f (z) is said to be non-isolated if z0 is
not an isolated singular point of f .

That is, if f (z) is not analytic at z0 and if there is no punctured

neighborhood Dr (z0 ) = {z ∈ C : 0 < |z − z0 | < r} such that f (z) is
analytic in Dr (z0 ) then the point z0 is a non-isolated singular point of
f (z).
This means, every neighborhood of z0 contains another singular point
other than the singular point z0 .
1
The point z = 0 is a non-isolated singular point of f (z) =
.
sin πz
For the principal branch Log z of the logarithm function, all
non-positive real numbers are non-isolated singular points.
The function f cannot have a power series representation about a
non-isolated singular point z0 .
Instructors: MGPP, DCD, AC, ST Topic 06: Zeros and Singularities 12 / 28
Classification of Isolated Singularity
Suppose that the function f (z) has an isolated singularity at the point
z = z0 .
Based on the behaviour of f (z) as z approaches z0 , the isolated
singular point z0 is classified into three kinds, namely, removable
singularity, pole and essential singularity as follows:
Definition
Let f (z) have an isolated singularity at z = z0 . Then,
1 the point z0 is a removable singularity if lim f (z) = w0 where
z→z0
w0 ∈ C (That is, limit exists and finite).
2 the point z0 is a pole if lim f (z) = ∞.
z→z0
3 the point z0 is an essential singularity if lim f (z) does not exist.
z→z0

Note that if an isolated singular point is neither removable singularity

nor pole, then it is an essential singularity.
Instructors: MGPP, DCD, AC, ST Topic 06: Zeros and Singularities 13 / 28
Examples

sin z
The function f (z) = has a removable singularity at z = 0.
z
1
The function f (z) = has a pole at z = 1.
z−1
The function f (z) = exp(1/z) has an essential singularity at z = 0.

Instructors: MGPP, DCD, AC, ST Topic 06: Zeros and Singularities 14 / 28

Classification of Singularities

Instructors: MGPP, DCD, AC, ST Topic 06: Zeros and Singularities 15 / 28

Reasoning for the name: Removable Singularity
Suppose that f (z) has a removable singularity at z = z0 . Since z0 is an
isolated singularity, there exists a punctured neighborhood
Dr∗ (z0 ) = {z ∈ C : 0 < |z − z0 | < r} such that f (z) is analytic in
Dr∗ (z0 ).
Define (
f (z) if z ∈ Dr∗ (z0 )
g(z) = lim f (z) if z = z0
z→z0

Then, g(z) will become analytic in the neighborhood

Nr (z0 ) = {z ∈ C : |z − z0 | < r} and in particular it is analytic at z0 .

If f (z) has a removable singularity at z = z0 , then we can redefine the

function f (z) suitably at the point z0 so that f (z) becomes analytic at
z = z0 .

Due to this reason, it is called as a removable singularity. In advanced

complex analysis, it is actually not considered as a singular point.
Instructors: MGPP, DCD, AC, ST Topic 06: Zeros and Singularities 16 / 28
Order of a Pole
Theorem
A point z0 is a pole of f (z) if and only if z0 is a zero of 1/f (z).

Definition
We say that the point z0 is a pole of order m of f (z) if and only if it is a
zero of order m of 1/f (z).

A pole of order 1 is called the simple pole.

If f (z) has a pole of order m at z0 then it can be written in some

punctured neighborhood of z0 as

g(z)
f (z) = ,
(z − z0 )m

where g(z) is analytic at z = z0 .

Instructors: MGPP, DCD, AC, ST Topic 06: Zeros and Singularities 17 / 28
Reasoning for the name: Pole

Suppose that z0 is a pole of f (z). Consider a neighborhood N (z0 ) of

the point z0 .
Take any point z ∈ N (z0 ) and compute the value of |f (z)|.
Plot the point (<(z), =(z), |f (z)|) in the three dimensional space.
The surface obtained in this manner will have a pole structure
about the point z0 . That is why, it is called a pole of f (z).

Instructors: MGPP, DCD, AC, ST Topic 06: Zeros and Singularities 18 / 28

Reasoning for the name: Essential Singularity

If a point z0 is an essential singularity of f (z) then the limit of f (z) does

not exist as z approaches z0 .

The function behaviour as z approaches z0 is quiet complicated.

It is essential for the function f has a singular point. That is, we cannot
make the function f analytic at z0 .

Instructors: MGPP, DCD, AC, ST Topic 06: Zeros and Singularities 19 / 28

Characterization of Singular points in terms of form of
the Laurent series
Theorem
Suppose f has an isolated singular point at z0 . Let
∞
X
f (z) = an (z − z0 )n for 0 < |z − z0 | < r (r > 0)
n=−∞

be the Laurent series of f about z0 . Then

1 z0 is a removable singularity if and only if an = 0 for all negative
integers n.
2 z0 is a pole of order m if and only if a−m 6= 0 and an = 0 for all
n < −m.
3 z0 is an essential singularity if and only if an 6= 0 for infinitely many
negative integers.
Instructors: MGPP, DCD, AC, ST Topic 06: Zeros and Singularities 20 / 28
Examples

ez − 1 z z2 z3
f (z) = =1+ + + + · · · for 0 < z < ∞.
z 2! 3! 4!
So, z0 = 0 is a removable singularity of f .
Note: Defining f (0) = 1 you get f analytic at z0 = 0.
∞
1 −1 X
f (z) = = − (z − 1)n for 0 < |z − 1| < 1.
(z − 1)(z − 2) z−1
n=0
So, z0 = 1 is a simple pole of f . Similarly, z0 = 2 is a simple pole
of f .
∞  n
2 1

2 1 X 1 1
f (z) = z exp z = z + z + + for |z| > 0.
2! (n + 2)! z
n=1
So, z0 = 0 is an essential singularity of f .

Instructors: MGPP, DCD, AC, ST Topic 06: Zeros and Singularities 21 / 28

Properties of Removable Singularity
Theorem
Suppose that f is analytic in 0 < |z − z0 | < r for some r > 0, and z0 is a singular point
of f . Then the following are equivalent:
1 z0 is a removable singularity of f .
∞
X
2 f (z) = an (z − z0 )n for 0 < |z − z0 | < r.
n=0

3 There is an analytic function g in |z − z0 | < r such that g(z) = f (z) for

0 < |z − z0 | < r.
4 lim f (z) exists and is finite.
z→z0
 
5 lim (z − z0 )f (z) = 0.
z→z0

6 f is bounded in a deleted neighborhood of z0 .

∞ ∞
X a−n X
Look at the Laurent series f (z) = + an (z − z0 )n for 0 < |z − z0 | < r.
n=1
(z − z0 )n n=0
If (5) or (6) holds, then a−n must be zero for all n ∈ N.
Instructors: MGPP, DCD, AC, ST Topic 06: Zeros and Singularities 22 / 28
Properties of a Pole
Theorem
Suppose that f is analytic in 0 < |z − z0 | < r for some r > 0. Then the following are
equivalent:
1 f has a pole of order m at z0 .
1
2 has a zero of order m at z0 .
f
∞
X
3 f (z) = ak (z − z0 )k for 0 < |z − z0 | < r and a−m 6= 0.
k=−m

g(z)
4 f (z) = , where g is analytic at z0 and g(z0 ) 6= 0.
(z − z0 )m
5 The function (z − z0 )m f (z) has a removable singularity at z0 .
6 limz→z0 |f (z)| = ∞.

 0, if k > m,
7 lim (z − z0 )k f (z) = a−m , if k = m,
z→z0
∞, if k < m.


Instructors: MGPP, DCD, AC, ST Topic 06: Zeros and Singularities 23 / 28

Properties of Essential Singularities
Theorem
Suppose that f is analytic in 0 < |z − z0 | < r for some r > 0. Then the following are
equivalent:
1 f has essential singularity at z0 .
2 lim f (z) does not exist.
z→z0
∞
X
3 f (z) = ak (z − z0 )k for 0 < |z − z0 | < r and a−n 6= 0 for infinitely many
k=−∞
n ∈ N.
4 f is neither bounded nor approaches ∞ as z → z0 .

Theorem
Picard’s Great Theorem: Suppose f has an essential singularity at z0 . Then in each
deleted neighborhood N (z0 ) of z0 , f assumes every complex number, with possibly
one exception, an infinite number of times, i.e., the image of 0 < |z − z0 | < r under f
is an infinite number of copies of C \ {atmost one point}.

Instructors: MGPP, DCD, AC, ST Topic 06: Zeros and Singularities 24 / 28

Singularity at Point at Infinity (∞)

Definition
Suppose that f is analytic in R < |z| < ∞ for some R ≥ 0.
if f (1/w) has a removable singularity at w = 0 then f has a
removable singularity at z = ∞.
if f (1/w) has a pole of order m at w = 0 then f has a pole of order
m at z = ∞.
if f (1/w) has a essential singularity at w = 0 then f has a
essential singularity at z = ∞.

If f (1/w) has a non-isolated singularity at w = 0 then f has a

non-isolated singularity at z = ∞.

Instructors: MGPP, DCD, AC, ST Topic 06: Zeros and Singularities 25 / 28

Examples

If P (z) is a non-constant polynomial, then the function

1
f (z) = has a removable singularity at z = ∞.
P (z)
Any non-constant polynomial P (z) has a pole at z = ∞.
ez , sin(z), cos(z), sinh(z) have an essential singularity at z = ∞.
tan z has a non-isolated singularity at z = ∞.

Instructors: MGPP, DCD, AC, ST Topic 06: Zeros and Singularities 26 / 28

Result
An entire function has removable singularity at ∞ if and only if it is a
constant function.
[Hint. For only if part, show that f is bounded.]
Result
An entire function has a pole of order m at ∞ if and only if it is a
polynomial of degree m.

Instructors: MGPP, DCD, AC, ST Topic 06: Zeros and Singularities 27 / 28

Meromorphic Functions

Definition
A function f (z) is said to be meromorphic on an open set G of C ∪ {∞}
if f (z) is analytic in G except for removable singularities and poles in G.

Examples: 1/z and Rational Functions are meromorphic in C ∪ {∞}.

The function tan z is meromorphic in C, but not meromorphic in
C ∪ {∞}, because ∞ is a non-isolated singular point of tan z.
Exercises:
1 Analyze the nature of the point z = ∞ for the rational function
P (z)
R(z) = , where P (z) and Q(z) are polynomials of degrees m
Q(z)
and n, respectively.
2 A function f is meromorphic in C ∪ {∞} if and only if f is a
rational function in C ∪ {∞}.

Instructors: MGPP, DCD, AC, ST Topic 06: Zeros and Singularities 28 / 28