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The Casimir Effect As A Phenomenon Produced by Zero Point Energy
The Casimir Effect As A Phenomenon Produced by Zero Point Energy
SANTA CRUZ
BACHOLER OF SCIENCE
in
APPLIED PHYSICS
by
Joshua Najmi
June 2019
Thesis Advisor
are different; even in the ground state, a system has non-zero energy. We can
imposed by the conducting plates only allow discrete values of the energy to
exist. The energies of each of these modes are different than in the absence
free electromagnetic field on the boundaries shows that the Casimir force is
2
Contents
1 Introduction 4
tor 5
5 Conclusion 18
3
1 Introduction
After H.B.G Casimir and D. Polder published the first paper introducing
the Casimir effect called ”The Influence of Retardation on the London-van der
Waals Forces” in 1947, the source of this energy has been a point of controversy.
zero point energy. This paradigm stands in contrast to the original investigation
Originally, their investigations sought to calculate the Van Der Waals force
while treating it as a modified version of the Van Der Waals force by including
tum harmonic oscillators each with a discrete energy mode k. The energy mode
becomes quantized due to the boundary conditions from the setup of our model
4
netic field’s quanization with momentum p = h̄k. Each harmonic oscillator at
to be in terms of the strength of the electric field q and the radiation field’s
proportional to k, the energy mode can be integrated for each dimension over all
possible values. This value must be compared to the ground state energy that
exists without the imposed boundary conditions to see that there is a potential
monic Oscillator
d2 x
F = −kx = m (1)
dt2
The solution of this equation is given by sinusoidal functions of the form x(t) =
q
k
Asin(ωt) + Bcos(ωt) where the angular frequency is ω = m . The behavior
of this system is implied in its solution where the objects displacement path is
5
of the systems potential energy is reached. The energy of such a system can be
1 2
H= (p + (mωx)2 ) (2)
2m
The classical expression of the Hamiltonian gives us a defined value for the total
energy of the system which is conserved throughout time. This differs from the
as momentum p and position x are not definite quantities until acted on by its
To understand the quantum mechanical analog of this model, we must only use
allowed solutions to the Schrodinger equation with potential V (x) = 12 kx2 given
to us from the classical harmonic oscillator. For our purposes, we will only find
h̄2 d2 ψ
− + V ψ = Eψ (3)
2m dx2
1 2
[p̂ + (mωx̂)2 ]ψ = Ĥψ (4)
2m
d
where p = −ih̄ dx . The Hamiltonian has now changed the observables p and x
into operators that follow the canonical commutation relation, [x, p] = ih̄. The
6
is the basis of the Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle, a fundamental axiom of
h̄
quantum mechanics, restricting hxihpi ≥ 2 [7]. To find solutions to the TISE,
1
â = √ (−ip̂ + mωx̂) (5)
2h̄mω
1
↠= √ (ip̂ + mωx̂) (6)
2h̄mω
to create solutions that are linearly proportional to the base solution ψ0 for each
consecutive energy level, shown in equation 13 and 14. Ladder operators are
were integrated for all space and operated on by â and ↠respectively,
Z ∞ Z ∞
∗
f (x)âg(x)dx = ↠f ∗ (x)g(x)dx (7)
−∞ −∞
Since these ladder operators do not follow this condition, we must be careful
using them. Commutation with these operators does not work the same as with
ordered differently. Commutation of the ladder operators ↠â and â↠yield
1 1 1 1
h̄ω Ĥ + 2 and h̄ω Ĥ − 2 respectively. With the use of these operators, equation
4 can be rewritten as
1
Ĥ = h̄ω(a† a + ) (8)
2
1
Ĥ = h̄ω(aa† − ) (9)
2
7
for higher energy levels [6]. Thus, the Schrodinger equation for the harmonic
1
h̄(a† a + )ψ = Eψ (10)
2
1
h̄(aa† − )ψ = Eψ (11)
2
With these ladder operators, we shall scale the ladder of discrete energy levels
that may exist for the harmonic oscillator that is under investigation. At the
1 d
√ (h̄ + mωx)ψ0 (x) = 0 (12)
2h̄mω dx
get
mω 1 −mω x2
ψ0 (x) = ( ) 4 e 2h̄ (13)
πh̄
To progress up to the next energy level, we can use the raising operator to
the TISE, we plug in equation 13 for the ground state energy, n = 0, to get
the quantum harmonic oscillator must obey is consistent with the Heisenberg
yield hxi = 0 and hpi = 0. Yet, the uncertainty principle suggests that fluctua-
8
tions hx2 i > 0 and hp2 i > 0 can exist even in the ground state [7].
1 dB
∇×E =− (15)
c dt
which explains that a spatial and time varying magnetic field B induces a current
1 dA
∇ × (E + )=0 (16)
c dt
1 dA
which suggests that (E + c dt ) = ∇φ. Inversely, Amperes Law given by
4φ 1 dE
∇×B = j+ (17)
c c dt
field. In our model, the current source and electric charges are absent making
9
We must introduce the Coulomb gauge allowing us to measure the change of φ
the vector potentials of the electric and magnetic fields to give us ∇ · E = 0 and
(p − qA)2
H= + qφ (19)
2m
for a particle of mass m and charge q that interacts with a electromagnetic field
[3]. If we take into account the absence of a current source and charges and
Z
1
H= d3 r(E 2 + B 2 ) (20)
8π
1 d2 E
− ∇2 E = 0 (21)
c2 dt2
where the contribution to the electric field from charges and currents have been
set to zero. Solutions to this equation follow from the equation for a plane wave,
and ω is the wave’s angular frequency given by ω = ck. The general plane wave
equation would suffice to give us a value satisfactory our wave equation, yet
10
our purpose is to quantize the radiation field by imposing boundary conditions
meaning not all values of the wavenumber k are allowed to be solutions. This
implies that a general expression of the wave equation can be written as a sum
For our model of the existence of zero point energy in the cavity between a
we impose the boundary condition that the electromagnetic wave should not
exist beyond the boundary of the cubic walls. This implies that the exponential
in the wave equation, eikx , should die out at x = 0 and x = L. This would
To obey our imposed boundary conditions, the energy levels in each dimension
nx,y,z must take on only positive and negative integer values. Now, there only
potential A follows the form of the plane wave accounting for the discrete values
vector defining the polarization of the vector potential. For each discrete energy
mode k, the vector potential can be polarized in two directions both orthogonal
X eikr−ωt e−ikr−ωt
A(r, t) = (ck,λ (k, λ) √ + c∗k,λ (k, λ) √ ) (24)
k,λ
V V
11
where c∗k,λ and ck,λ are amplitude values for each plane wave with energy mode
k and V is the volume of the wave’s probability [5]. We can rewrite equation
25 to represent the electric and magnetic fields separately as they both take on
discrete values of k. These will look like: For the electric part,
X eikr−ωt ∗ e−ikr−ωt
E(r, t) = (Ek,λ (k, λ) √ + Ek,λ (k, λ) √ ) (25)
k,λ
V V
and we must plug equation 26 into equation 15 to get the magnetic part,
iX eikr−ωt ∗ e−ikr−ωt
B(r, t) = (Ek,λ (k, λ)∇ × √ − Ek,λ (k, λ)∇ × √ ) (26)
k V V
k,λ
[7]. Now, our goal is to express the Hamiltonian given in equation 20 with
our new expressions for E and B. When substituting equation 25 and 26 into
equation 20, we must recognize that k and λ values are summed over twice
because both the electric and magnetic fields are squared leaving a double sum.
k and k 0 will be used to make the distinction. To work through this integral,
Z
1 0
√ eikr e−ik r d3 r = δk,k0 (27)
V
The Kronecker Delta function helps us sum these distinct wave equations in-
dependently. This also applies to summation for each mode k with its unique
of the same form as for the energy mode k. Using these commutation relations
and integrating for cubic length, we get the Hamiltonian of the electromagnetic
1 X ω2 ∗
H= E Ek,λ (28)
2π c2 k,λ
k,λ
12
[7]. We can rewrite the Hamiltonian to generalize it for any vector potential,
giving us
1 X ω2 ∗
H= c ck,λ (29)
2π c2 k,λ
k,λ
With employing the change of variables used by Dirac where the coefficient c∗k,λ
gives us
1
qk,λ = √ (ck,λ + c∗k,λ ) (30)
c 4π
for the momentum. By manipulating equation 29 and 30 to solve for c∗k,λ and
ck,λ , we can plug the results back into equation 28, multiply through, and cancel
1X 2
H= (pk,λ + ω 2 qk,λ
2
) (32)
2
k,λ
This result is the Hamiltonian of the quantum harmonic oscillator for each
discrete energy mode k with polarization λ. We shall use the solution we derived
the quantum mechanical approach. These operators act on vectors that exist
in Hilbert space, a complete inner product space in any defined basis, which
of a system are defined by abstract vectors called ”ket” vectors, |ψi. For our
13
representation of the electromagnetic field as a quantum harmonic oscillator, we
The Hamiltonian itself must become an operator that acts on a vector |ψi.
The new Hamiltonian should be a quantum analog of that for classical three
X1
Ĥ = (p̂2n + mω 2 n̂2 ) (33)
n
2
where n = x,y,z for each dimension. The ladder operators given by equation 5
and 6 will help us transmute momentum p and charge q from equation 32 into
operators. For each value k and its polarization λ, we can use these operators to
scale through the energy levels to produce values for the desired observables. By
terms, we get
r
ω i
â†k,λ = (q̂k,λ − p̂k,λ ) (34)
2h̄ ω
r
ω i
âk,λ = (q̂k,λ + p̂k,λ ) (35)
2h̄ ω
for lowering the energy level. The coefficients ck,λ and c∗k,λ in Equation 29 that
r r
2πh̄ 2πh̄ †
c âk,λ c â (36)
ω ω k,λ
r
2πh̄ eikr−ωt e−ikr−ωt
+ â†k,λ (k, λ) √
X
Â(r, t) = c (âk,λ (k, λ) √ ) (37)
ω V V
k,λ
14
To derive the Hamiltonian, we can do the same treatment we did with the
that E and B derive from and integrating for cubic length, the new Hamiltonian
becomes
1
h̄ω(a†k,λ ak,λ + )
X
Ĥ = (38)
2
k,λ
[6]. The derivation of the Hamiltonian follows the commutation relations of the
Before using the Hamiltonian, we must recognise that the electric field E and the
magnetic field B do not exactly equal the position x and momentum p operators
in equation 33. In the normal quantum harmonic oscillator, the energy for a
state taking on only non-negative integer values. In our new expression for the
operators. The operators â and ↠count the number of photons with energy
E = h̄ck. The number of photons with each discrete excitation mode k will give
n its value. We assume that there are no photons (n = 0) that exists in vacuum
implying that |ψi = |0i. Taking the expectation value of the Hamiltonian with
X h̄ck
h0|H|0i = (40)
2
k,λ
[7]. As stated in section 2.2, this result supports our model that energy fluctu-
15
4 The Casimir Energy
To understand the energy that arises from ground state fluctuations producing
the Casimir effect, we will consider how two parallel uncharged conducting plates
distance s on the z-axis resulting in the Casimir force having s−4 dependence.
With this setup, Ex and Ey should vanish at the boundary of the plates requiring
satisfy the wave equation. At limL→∞ , we assume that the modes of kx and ky
nearly become infinite allowing them to become continuous variables that can
be integrated over. While in the z direction, the axis normal to the parallel to
πnz
the plates, kz is constrained only to have values equal to kz = s . We will
We will first start by writing an expression for the ground state energy within
h̄ck
the cavity. Since we know that the ground state energy is E0 = 2 , we can
∞ Z ∞Z ∞
h̄c X
E0cavity = k dkx dky (41)
2 n =0 0 0
z
q
where k = kx2 + ky2 + ( πns z )2 . To account for the polarization of vector (k, λ)
where can point in two different directions for each energy mode k, we will
π 2
multiply our integrand by 2. We must also divide by ( L ) to get integer values
∞ Z ∞Z ∞r
h̄c L 2 X πnz 2
E0cavity = ( ) 2 kx2 + ky2 + ( ) dkx dky (42)
2 π n =0 0 0 s
z
16
To calculate the potential contributed by the Casimir energy, we must compare
the difference of the ground state energy with and without the cavity. The
latter is given if we assume that the separation s of the plates is infinitely large
∞ Z ∞Z ∞Z ∞q
h̄c L 2 s X
E0nocavity = ( ) 2 kx2 + ky2 + kz2 dkx dky dkz (43)
2 π π n =0 0 0 0
z
The potential arising from the Casimir energy can now be calculated as U (s) =
E0cavity − E0nocavity .
∞ Z ∞Z ∞r
h̄c L 2 X πnz 2
U (s) = ( ) 2 kx2 + ky2 + ( ) dkx dky
2 π nz =0 0 0 s
Z ∞Z ∞Z ∞q (44)
h̄c L s
− ( )2 2 kx2 + ky2 + kz2 dkx dky dkz
2 π π 0 0 0
[1]. This integral diverges and the potential will be infinitely large. In the
original calculation for the Casimir energy, Casimir and Polder introduced a
cutoff function for high values of k causing limk→kc f (k) = 0, where kc is the
highest energy mode considered. Physically, this means that the function would
exclude high energy photons such as x-rays that would not be bounded by
π 2 h̄cL2
U (s) = − (45)
720s3
1 ∂U π 2 h̄c
F (s) = − = − (46)
L2 ∂s 240s4
17
[1].
5 Conclusion
only work for the specific model that was investigated with assumptions that the
vanish and the area of the plates parallel to the xy plane are nearly infinite
the first successful measurement of the Casimir force. He sought to confirm the
theoretical result for the force that Casimir and Polder predicted. Lamoreaux
be avoided. Due to the geometrical change from parallel plates, the force is
potential energy per unit area and R is the radius of curvature of the spherical
1 π 2 h̄c
F (s) = 2πR( ) (47)
3 240 s3
10µm and increases non-linearly at distances less than 0.5µm. These results
18
References
[3] Kobe, D.H., Wen, E.C.-T. (1999). Gauge invariance in quantum mechanics:
[4] Lamoreaux, S.K. (1997). Demonstration of the Casimir Force in the 0.6
10.1103/PhysRevLett.78.5.
[5] Passante, R., Rizzuto, L., Spagnolo, S., Tanaka, S., Petrosky, T. (2012).
[6] Tong-Zhong, Li. (2004). New Vacuum State of the Electromagnetic Field-
19