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VOL 9 - 3rd VT Visual Testing Handbook PDF
VOL 9 - 3rd VT Visual Testing Handbook PDF
HANDBOO
Volume 9
Visual
Testing
Editor
Patrick O. Moore
Technical Editors
Michael W. Allgaier
Robert E. Cameron
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NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING Third Edition
HANDBOOK
Volume 9
Visual Testing
Editor
Patrick O. Moore
Technical Editors
Michael W. Allgaier
Robert E. Cameron
FOU
NDED
1941 American Society for Nondestructive Testing
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Copyright © 2010
American Society for Nondestructive Testing, Incorporated
All rights reserved.
ASNT is not responsible for the authenticity or accuracy of information herein. Published opinions and statements do
not necessarily reflect the opinion of ASNT. Products or services that are advertised or mentioned do not carry the
endorsement or recommendation of ASNT.
IRRSP, Level III Study Guide, Materials Evaluation, NDT Handbook, Nondestructive Testing Handbook, The NDT Technician
and www.asnt.org are trademarks of the American Society for Nondestructive Testing. ACCP, ASNT, Research in
Nondestructive Evaluation and RNDE are registered trademarks of The American Society for Nondestructive Testing, Inc.
ASNT exists to create a safer world by promoting the profession and technologies of nondestructive testing.
TA417.2.V57 2010
620.1'127--dc22
2010018505
Errata
Errata if available for this printing may be obtained from ASNT’s Web site, <www.asnt.org>.
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President’s Foreword
Joel W. Whitaker
ASNT President, 2009-2010
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Preface
The first visual testing report is found accessible. As the light source progressed
written in the book of Genesis, “He saw from a candle to a light bulb, to a fiber
that it was good.” optic cable, to an illumination bundle,
Visual testing is the test that precedes the limiting factor was the lens optic
every other test. For years, a certification system and eventually the fiber optic
in magnetic particle testing or liquid system.
penetrant testing would suffice to be the The main content difference of this
equivalent of a visual testing edition of the visual volume of the NDT
qualification. Handbook is the significant addition of the
The inspector had to “look” at the topic of indirect (or remote) visual testing.
object, part, component or system before Coupling the recent advances in remote
performing any other nondestructive visual test techniques with modern image
testing (NDT) to “see” if the surface was recording capabilities makes the recording
suitable for further testing. and transferring of visual images a major
Its primary role as first test makes it the advance in recording, transferring and
most important of all the methods of retaining visual data of a test object. This
nondestructive testing. For years, how to technology is a major advantage over
look at something defined visual testing. other NDT methods.
What the inspector is looking at entails a Visual testing allows direct
broad spectrum of applications. This is interpretation of test results without
probably why visual testing was encoding, decoding, extrapolating and
formalized so late in industry — codified evaluating data from other NDT methods.
by the nuclear industry, in the 1980s, and To assess the condition of the test object,
appearing last in the sequence of NDT what the inspectors see is what they get.
Handbook volumes, in 1993. Visual is the most directly useful test
Its main limitation is that the test method to assess the condition of an
surface must be accessible. Direct visual object.
testing has always addressed direct line of
sight from the eyeball to the test surface. Michael W. Allgaier
With the help of a candle and a mirror, Robert E. Cameron
otherwise inaccessible surfaces became Technical Editors
Visual Testing v
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Editor’s Preface
Early in 1986, Robert McMaster sat up in One of the intriguing things about VT
his hospital bed and handed me a piece of is that very few publications have been
paper from a technical committee dedicated to it as nondestructive testing,
member. On the paper was scratched an distinct from fields such as astronomy or
outline for the book you are now reading. medical endoscopy. By 1990, there were
This book on visual testing (VT) began two books on VT, one on borescopes and
with Robert McMaster. McMaster was one mainly on direct viewing.
ASNT’s president from 1952 to 1953. He The next step was taken by Michael
compiled and in 1959 published the first Allgaier and ASNT’s VT Committee.
edition of the NDT Handbook. That Allgaier collected available material, and
edition was a milestone in the history of in 1993 ASNT published it as Volume 8 in
nondestructive testing (NDT). the second edition of the NDT Handbook.
McMaster is revered in ASNT because That volume defined the method.
of two major visions that he imparted. Henceforth, VT was to include both direct
First, he believed that NDT had a mission, and indirect techniques. It would be
an important role among applied sciences scientifically grounded in the physics of
such as engineering: NDT’s purpose was to light. Its study would include basic
improve the quality of products and optometry, since the eye is the primary
services, to preserve not just the quality of sensor. VT’s representation in standards
life but to preserve life itself through for industries such as energy and
public safety. He often compared petroleum would be duly noted.
nondestructive inspectors to physicians, Before that book, the method would
saving lives. Without NDT, airplanes crash usually go unnoticed: inspectors would
and buildings fall and boilers explode. not even realize that their visual
Second, McMaster wanted to ground inspection was actually nondestructive
NDT solidly as a material science. He had testing. After that book, the foundation
studied under Enrico Fermi and Robert was laid for an ASNT method — with
Millikan at CalTech. McMaster believed in trainers, qualifying examinations and a
the nobility of science, that it improved literature for study.
our lives through understanding natural The present volume builds on the
laws and applying that understanding. success of that 1993 volume. Information
His first edition of the NDT Handbook has been added on digital capabilities that
was monumental, 54 sections in two inspectors use routinely. The coverage of
volumes. There were fifteen sections for indirect techniques (sometimes called
radiographic testing and two for visual remote inspection) has been updated to
testing. That the visual method was reflect current technology for cameras and
represented at all is remarkable, and measurement. The discussions of
reflects McMaster’s scientific bent and the optometry and physics are updated. The
conviction that NDT should be chapter on metals is completely revised
represented in every band in the with an eye for practicality. The material
electromagnetic spectrum, even the visible on direct techniques is presented in one
radiation we call light. But on that winter chapter. References are updated
afternoon in 1986, an exasperated throughout. The entire book has been
McMaster pointed to the brief outline: revised to be clearly organized and
“It’s just a list of different kinds of functionally complete.
borescopes! Just borescopes!” McMaster’s stay in the hospital in the
The challenge for the writer of that winter of 1986 was one of several that
outline, as for McMaster in 1959 and for would end with his death in July. I like to
others since, is precisely how the method think that, if he had lived to see it, he
is to be defined. For some, it was defined would have celebrated this book and VT’s
by its instruments, mainly the industrial place as an NDT method.
endoscopes called borescopes. Others Dozens of contributors and reviewers
believed, wrongly, that the term visual freely shared their expertise; in particular
denoted viewing unmediated by lenses Technical Editors Michael Allgaier and
and that another word, optical, was Robert Cameron provided leadership and
needed to include instruments such as encouragement. On ASNT staff, Senior
borescopes. For McMaster, however, as for Manager of Publications Timothy Jones
every volume of the third edition of the provided essential administrative support.
NDT Handbook, the word visual carved out My colleague, Technical Publications
a niche in the electromagnetic spectrum Supervisor Hollis Humphries, proofed the
somewhere between infrared and X-rays entire book and supervised all its graphics.
(both of which, by the way, are also A hearty thanks to them all.
mediated through optics). Still, as late as
the 1980s, some people assumed that the Patrick Moore
term visual testing meant only “vision NDT Handbook Editor
acuity examination.”
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Acknowledgments
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Chapter 11. Aerospace Applications Chapter 13. Visual Testing
of Visual Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . 265 Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
Part 1. Visual Testing of Aircraft Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304
Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322
Part 2. Visual Testing of Jet
Engines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323
Part 3. Visual Testing of
Composite Materials . . . 278
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283 Figure Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330
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C
1
H A P T E R
Introduction to
Visual Testing
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PART 1. Nondestructive Testing
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radiographic testing are two test methods satisfaction and maintain the
that use electromagnetic radiation, each manufacturer’s reputation, (5) to aid in
in a defined wavelength range. The word better product design, (6) to control
technique, in contrast, denotes a way of manufacturing processes, (7) to lower
adapting the method to the application. manufacturing costs, (8) to maintain
Through-transmission immersion testing uniform quality levels and (9) to ensure
is a technique of the ultrasonic method, operational readiness.
for example. These reasons for widespread and
profitable nondestructive testing are
sufficient in themselves but parallel
developments have contributed to the
Purposes of technology’s growth and acceptance.
Nondestructive Testing
Since the 1920s, the art of testing without Increased Demand on Machines
destroying the test object has developed In the interest of greater performance and
from a laboratory curiosity to an reduced cost for materials, the design
indispensable tool of fabrication, engineer is often under pressure to reduce
construction, manufacturing and weight. Weight can be saved sometimes
maintenance processes. No longer is by substituting aluminum alloys,
visual testing of materials, parts and magnesium alloys or composite materials
complete products the principal for steel or iron but such light parts may
nondestructive test for quality. not be the same size or design as those
Nondestructive tests in great variety are in they replace. The tendency is also to
worldwide use to detect variations in reduce the size. These pressures on the
structure, minute changes in surface designer have subjected parts of all sorts
finish, the presence of cracks or other to increased stress levels. Even such
physical discontinuities, to measure the commonplace objects as sewing
thickness of materials and coatings and to machines, sauce pans and luggage are also
determine other characteristics of lighter and more heavily loaded than ever
industrial products. Scientists and before. The stress to be supported is
engineers of many countries have known as dynamic stress or dynamic
contributed greatly to nondestructive test loading, as opposed to static stress. It
development and applications. often fluctuates and reverses at low or
How is nondestructive testing useful? high frequencies. Frequency of stress
Why do thousands of industrial concerns reversals increases with the speeds of
buy the test equipment, pay the modern machines, so components tend to
subsequent operating costs of the testing fatigue and fail more rapidly.
and even reshape manufacturing Another cause of increased stress on
processes to fit the needs and findings of modern products is a reduction in the
nondestructive testing? Modern safety factor. An engineer designs with
nondestructive tests are used by certain known loads in mind. On the
manufacturers (1) to ensure product supposition that materials and
integrity and in turn reliability, (2) to workmanship are never perfect, a safety
avoid failures, prevent accidents and save
human life (Figs. 1 and 2), (3) to make a
profit for the user, (4) to ensure customer
FIGURE 2. Boilers operate with high internal steam pressure.
Material discontinuities can lead to sudden, violent failure
with possible injury to people and damage to property.
FIGURE 1. Fatigue cracks caused damage to aircraft fuselage,
causing death of flight attendant and injury to passengers
(April 1988).
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delaminations), (2) structure or Classification by Test Object
malstructure (such as crystalline structure,
Nondestructive test techniques may be
grain size, segregation and misalignment),
classified according to how they detect
(3) dimensions and metrology (such as
indications relative to the surface of a test
thickness, diameter, gap size and
object. Surface methods include liquid
discontinuity size), (4) physical and
penetrant testing, visual testing and moiré
mechanical properties (such as reflectivity,
testing. Surface/near-surface methods
conductivity, elastic modulus and sonic
include tap, holographic, shearographic,
velocity), (5) composition and chemical
magnetic particle and electromagnetic
analysis (such as alloy identification,
testing. When surface or near-surface
impurities and elemental distributions),
methods are applied during intermediate
(6) stress and dynamic response (such as
manufacturing, they provide preliminary
residual stress, crack growth, wear and
assurance that volumetric methods
vibration), (7) signature analysis (such as
performed on the completed object or
image content, frequency spectrum and
component will reveal few rejectable
field configuration) and (8) heat sources.
discontinuities. Volumetric methods
Material characteristics in Table 1 are
include radiography, ultrasonic testing
further defined in Table 2 with respect to
and acoustic emission testing.
specific objectives and specific attributes
Through-boundary techniques include
to be measured, detected and defined.
leak testing, some infrared thermographic
Methods that use electromagnetic
techniques, airborne ultrasonic testing
radiation (Table 3) can be divided
and certain techniques of acoustic
according to the segment of the spectrum
emission testing. Other less easily
each uses as interrogating energy: radar,
classified methods are material
thermography, visual testing and
identification, vibration analysis and
X-radiography (Fig. 3). Methods using
strain gaging.
vibration and ultrasound are in a different
No one nondestructive test method is
spectrum: the acoustic.
all revealing. In some cases, one method
The limitations of a method include
or technique may be adequate for testing
conditions (such as access, physical
a specific object or component. However,
contact and surface preparation) and
in most cases, it takes a series of test
requirements to adapt the probe to the
methods to do a complete nondestructive
test object. Other factors limit the
test of an object or component. For
detection or characterization of
example, if surface cracks must be
discontinuities or attributes and limit
detected and eliminated and if the object
interpretation of signals or images.
or component is made of ferromagnetic
Basic Categories
Mechanical and optical color; cracks; dimensions; film thickness; gaging; reflectivity; strain distribution and magnitude; surface
finish; surface flaws; through-cracks
Penetrating radiation cracks; density and chemistry variations; elemental distribution; foreign objects; inclusions; microporosity;
misalignment; missing parts; segregation; service degradation; shrinkage; thickness; voids
Electromagnetic and electronic alloy content; anisotropy; cavities; cold work; local strain, hardness; composition; contamination;
corrosion; cracks; crack depth; crystal structure; electrical conductivities; flakes; heat treatment;
hot tears; inclusions; ion concentrations; laps; lattice strain; layer thickness; moisture content;
polarization; seams; segregation; shrinkage; state of cure; tensile strength; thickness; disbonds; voids
Sonic and ultrasonic crack initiation and propagation; cracks, voids; damping factor; degree of cure; degree of impregnation;
degree of sintering; delaminations; density; dimensions; elastic moduli; grain size; inclusions;
mechanical degradation; misalignment; porosity; radiation degradation; structure of composites;
surface stress; tensile, shear and compressive strength; disbonds; wear
Infrared and thermal anisotropy; bonding; composition; emissivity; heat contours; plating thickness; porosity; reflectivity;
stress; thermal conductivity; thickness; voids; cracks; delaminations; heat treatment; state of cure;
moisture; corrosion
Chemical and analytical alloy identification; composition; cracks; elemental analysis and distribution; grain size; inclusions;
macrostructure; porosity; segregation; surface anomalies
Auxiliary Categories
Image generation dimensional variations; dynamic performance; anomaly characterization and definition; anomaly
distribution; anomaly propagation; magnetic field configurations
Signal image analysis data selection, processing and display; anomaly mapping, correlation and identification; image
enhancement; separation of multiple variables; signature analysis
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methods. The following section briefly
Nondestructive Testing’s describes major methods and the
applications associated with them.
Value
In manufacturing, nondestructive testing Visual Testing
may be accepted reluctantly because its
contribution to profits may not be Visual testing is the subject of the present
obvious to management. Nondestructive volume and of a volume in the previous
testing is sometimes thought of only as a edition.4
cost item and can be curtailed by industry Principles. Visual testing (Fig. 4) is the
downsizing. When a company cuts costs, observation of a test object, either directly
two vulnerable areas are quality and with the eyes or indirectly using optical
safety. When bidding contract work, instruments, by an inspector to evaluate
companies add profit margin to all cost the presence of surface anomalies and the
items, including nondestructive testing, so object’s conformance to specification.
a profit should be made on the Visual testing should be the first
nondestructive testing. The attitude nondestructive test method applied to an
toward nondestructive testing is positive item. The test procedure is to clear
when management understands its value. obstructions from the surface, provide
Nondestructive testing should be used adequate illumination and observe. A
as a control mechanism to ensure that prerequisite necessary for competent
manufacturing processes are within design visual testing of an object is knowledge of
performance requirements. When used the manufacturing processes by which it
properly, nondestructive testing saves was made, of its service history and of its
money for the manufacturer. Rather than potential failure modes, as well as related
costing the manufacturer money, industry experience.
nondestructive testing should add profits Applications. Visual testing is widely used
to the manufacturing process. on a variety of objects to detect surface
discontinuities associated with various
structural failure mechanisms. Even when
other nondestructive tests are performed,
Nondestructive Test visual tests often provide a useful
Methods supplement. When the eddy current
To optimize nondestructive testing, it is testing of process tubing is performed, for
necessary first to understand the example, visual testing is often performed
principles and applications of all the to verify and more closely examine the
X–rays
Visible
light
10 –9 10 –8 10 –7 10 –6 10 –5 10 –4 10 –3 10 –2 10 –1 1 10 102 103
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Eddy Current Testing wavelength or particulate radiation
(X-rays, gamma rays and neutrons).
Principles. Based on electromagnetic Different portions of an object absorb
induction, eddy current testing is perhaps different amounts of penetrating radiation
the best known of the techniques in the because of differences in density and
electromagnetic test method. Eddy variations in thickness of the test object
current testing is used to identify or or differences in absorption characteristics
differentiate among a wide variety of caused by variation in composition. These
physical, structural and metallurgical variations in the attenuation of the
conditions in electrically conductive penetrating radiation can be monitored
ferromagnetic and nonferromagnetic by detecting the unattenuated radiation
metals and metal test objects. The method that passes through the object.
is based on indirect measurement and on This monitoring may be in different
correlation between the instrument forms. The traditional form is through
reading and the structural characteristics radiation sensitive film. Radioscopic
and serviceability of the test objects. sensors provide digital images. X-ray
With a basic system, the test object is computed tomography is a
placed within or next to an electric coil in three-dimensional, volumetric
which high frequency alternating current radiographic technique.
is flowing. This excitation current
Applications. The principal industrial uses
establishes an electromagnetic field
of radiographic testing involve testing of
around the coil. This primary field causes
castings and weldments, particularly
eddy currents to flow in the test object
because of electromagnetic induction
(Fig. 7). Inversely, the eddy currents
affected by characteristics (conductivity,
FIGURE 7. Electromagnetic testing:
permeability, thickness, discontinuities
(a) representative setup for eddy current
and geometry) of the test object create a
test; (b) inservice detection of
secondary magnetic field that opposes the
discontinuities.
primary field. This interaction affects the
coil impedance and can be displayed in (a) Primary
various ways. electromagnetic Direction of
Eddy currents flow in closed loops in field primary alternating
the test object. Their two most important Coil in current
eddy current
characteristics, amplitude and phase, are probe
influenced by the arrangement and
characteristics of the instrumentation and
test object. For example, during the test of Induced field
a tube, the eddy currents flow Induced field
symmetrically in the tube when
discontinuities are not present. However,
when a crack is present, then the eddy
current flow is impeded and changed in
direction, causing significant changes in Direction of
the associated electromagnetic field. eddy current Conducting
test object
Applications. An important industrial use Eddy current intensity
of eddy current testing is on heat decreases with
exchanger tubing. For example, eddy increasing depth
current testing is often specified for thin (b)
wall tubing in pressurized water reactors,
steam generators, turbine condensers and
air conditioning heat exchangers. Eddy
current testing is also used in aircraft
maintenance. The following are some of
the typical material characteristics that
may affect conductivity and be evaluated
by eddy current testing: cracks, inclusions,
dents and holes; grain size; heat
treatment; coating and material thickness;
composition, conductivity or
permeability; and alloy composition.
Radiographic Testing
Principles. Radiographic testing (Fig. 8) is
based on the test object’s attenuation of
penetrating radiation — either
electromagnetic radiation of very short
Test object
Void Sensor
Discontinuity
Image plane images
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Applications. Ultrasonic testing is widely pressurized components or into evacuated
used in metals, principally for thickness components. The principles of leak testing
measurement and discontinuity detection. involve the physics of liquids or gases
This method can be used to detect flowing through a barrier where a pressure
internal discontinuities in most differential or capillary action exists.
engineering metals and alloys. Bonds Leak testing encompasses procedures
produced by welding, brazing, soldering that fall into these basic functions: leak
and adhesives can also be ultrasonically location, leakage measurement and
tested. In-line techniques have been leakage monitoring. There are several
developed for monitoring and classifying subsidiary methods of leak testing,
materials as acceptable, salvageable or entailing tracer gas detection (Fig. 11),
scrap and for process control. Also tested pressure change measurement,
are piping and pressure vessels, nuclear observation of bubble formation, acoustic
systems, motor vehicles, machinery, emission leak testing and other principles.
railroad stock and bridges. Applications. Like other forms of
nondestructive testing, leak testing affects
Leak Testing the safety and performance of a product.
Reliable leak testing decreases costs by
Principles. Leak testing is concerned with reducing the number of reworked
the flow of liquids or gases from products, warranty repairs and liability
claims. The most common reasons for
performing a leak test are to prevent the
FIGURE 10. Classic setups for ultrasonic loss of costly materials or energy, to
testing: (a) longitudinal wave technique; prevent contamination of the
(b) transverse wave technique. environment, to ensure component or
system reliability and to prevent an
(a) explosion or fire.
(a)
(b) Envelope
Leak detector
Crack System
under test
(b)
Envelope
Entry surface
Crack System
under test
Leak detector
Source of tracer gas
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PART 2. Management of Visual Testing
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each step. The following is a typical acceptance criteria and is required by the
format for an industrial procedure. designer, buyer or manufacturer of the
1. The purpose identifies the intent of the article it covers.
procedure. Specifications are written to eliminate
2. The scope establishes the items, tests variables of human operators and system
and techniques covered and not designs, to produce an accurate result
covered by the procedure. regardless of who performs the visual test.
3. References are specific documents from Specifications must be written with a full
which criteria are extracted or are knowledge of (1) visual test techniques,
documents satisfied by (2) a technique’s individual sensitivities,
implementation of the procedure. (3) the test object design, (4) its material
4. Definitions are needed for terms and characteristics and (5) the discontinuities
abbreviations that are not common critical to the test object’s service life. In
knowledge to people who will read the most mature manufacturing applications,
procedure. nondestructive tests are considered during
5. Statements about personnel requirements design and such specifications are
address specific requirements to specified on the test object’s original
perform tasks in accordance with the drawing.
procedure — issues such as personnel Visual specifications are produced to
qualification, certification and access standardize test results, not to eliminate
clearance. the initiative of the technician. There is
6. Calibration requirements and model no substitute for an experienced inspector
numbers of qualified equipment must who assumes personal responsibility for
be specified. the quality and accuracy of the test.
7. The test procedure provides a sequential Testing specifications are working
process to be used to conduct test documents that tell how to locate
activities. discontinuities in a specific test object.
8. A system performance check is needed Even well established and successful
before a test. The check might be daily specifications need periodic review and
or detailed. revision. It is very important that relevant
9. Acceptance criteria establish component knowledge of field proven techniques and
characteristics that will identify the advances in inspection technologies be
items suitable for service (initial use or incorporated as quickly as possible into
continued service). industry specifications.
10. Reports (records) document specific test
techniques, equipment used, Interpretation
personnel, activity, date performed Interpretation may be complex, especially
and test results. before a procedure has been established.
11. Attachments may include (if required) The interpreter must have a knowledge of
items such as report forms, instrument the following: (1) the underlying physical
calibration forms, qualified equipment process, (2) techniques and equipment,
matrix, schedules and others. (3) details about the test object
Once the procedure is written, an (configuration, material properties,
expert in the subject evaluates it. If the fabrication process, potential
procedure meets requirements, the expert discontinuities and anticipated service
will approve it for use. Some codes and conditions) and (4) possible sources of
standards also require the procedure to be false indications that might be mistaken
qualified — that is, demonstrated to the for meaningful visual indications.
satisfaction of a representative of a After interpretation, acceptance criteria
regulatory body or jurisdictional and rejection criteria are applied in a
authority. phase called evaluation.
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TABLE 4. Some standards specifying visual testing.
American Concrete Institute ASTM F 1236, Standard Guide for Visual Inspection of Electrical
ACI 201.1R, Guide for Conducting a Visual Inspection of Concrete in Protective Rubber Products (2007).
Service (2008). ASTM F 584, Standard Practice for Visual Inspection of Semiconductor
American National Standards Institute Lead-Bonding Wire (2006).
ANSI B3.2, Rolling Element Bearings — Aircraft Engine, Engine American Welding Society
Gearbox, and Accessory Applications — Surface Visual AWS B1.11, Guide for the Visual Examination of Welds (2000).
Inspection (1999). AWS D1.1M, Structural Welding Code — Steel (2008).
ANSI/EIA 699, Test Method for the Visual Inspection of Quartz Crystal AWS D8.1M, Specification for Automotive Weld Quality — Resistance
Resonator Blanks (1997). Spot Welding of Steel (2007).
American Petroleum Institute AWS D18.2, Guide to Weld Discoloration Levels on Inside of Austenitic
API 5D, Specification for Drill Pipe (2001). Stainless Steel Tube (1999).
API 5L, Specification for Line Pipe (2008). AWS G1.6, Specification for the Qualification of Plastics Welding
API 570, Piping Inspection Code: Inspection, Repair, Alteration, and Inspectors for Hot Gas, Hot Gas Extrusion, and Heated Tool Butt
Rerating of In-Service Piping Systems (2006). Thermoplastic Welds (2006).
API 620, Design and Construction of Large, Welded, Low-Pressure AWS QC1, Standard for AWS Certification of Welding
Storage Tanks (2008). Inspectors (2007).
API 650, Welded Tanks for Oil Storage (2007). Association Connecting Electronics Industries
API RP-5A5 [ISO 15463-2003], Recommended Practice for Field IPC-OI-645, Standard for Visual Optical Inspection Aids (1993).
Inspection of New Casing, Tubing and Plain End Drill Pipe (2005). Compressed Gas Association
API RP-5L8, Recommended Practice for Field Inspection of New Line CGA C-13, Guidelines for Periodic Visual Inspection and
Pipe (1996). Requalification of Acetylene Cylinders (2006).
API RP-7G, Recommended Practice for Drill Stem Design and Operating CGA C-6, Standards for Visual Inspection of Steel Compressed Gas
Limits (2003). Cylinders (2007).
API SPEC 5CT [ISO 11960], Specification for Casing and CGA C-6.1, Standards for Visual Inspection of High Pressure
Tubing (2006). Aluminum Compressed Gas Cylinders (2006).
API SPEC 7, Specification for Rotary Drill Stem Elements (2008). CGA C-6.2, Guidelines for Visual Inspection and Requalification of
API STD 1104, Welding of Pipelines and Related Facilities (2005). Fiber Reinforced High Pressure Cylinders (2005).
API STD 5T1, Imperfection Terminology (2003). CGA C-6.3, Guidelines for Visual Inspection and Requalification of Low
Pressure Aluminum Compressed Gas Cylinders (1999).
API STD 653, Tank Inspection, Repair, Alteration, and
Reconstruction (2008). CGA C-6.4, Methods for External Visual Inspection of Natural Gas
Vehicle (NGV) and Hydrogen Vehicle (HV) Fuel Containers and Their
ASME International Installations (2007).
ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code: Section I, Rules for Construction European Committee for Standardization
of Power Boilers (2007).
CEN EN 13508 [DIN 13508] P2, Conditions of Drain and Sewer
ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code: Section III, Rules for Systems Outside Buildings — Part 2: Visual Inspection Coding
Construction of Nuclear Power Plant Components (2007). System (2007).
ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code: Section IV, Rules for CEN EN 13018 [BS 13018], Non-Destructive Testing — Visual Testing
Construction of Heating Boilers (2007). — General Principles (2007).
ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code: Section V, Nondestructive CEN EN 13100-1 [BS 13100-1], Non-Destructive Testing of Welded
Examination. Article 9, Visual Examination (2009). Joints of Thermoplastics Semi-Finished Products — Part 1: Visual
ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code: Section VI, Recommended Rules Examination (2000).
for the Care and Operation of Heating Boilers (2007). CEN EN 3841-201 [BS 3841-201], Circuit Breakers — Test Methods
ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code: Section VII, Recommended — Part 201, Visual Inspection (2005).
Guidelines for the Care of Power Boilers (2007). Federal Aviation Administration
ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code: Section VIII, Rules for FAA AC 43-204, Visual Inspection for Aircraft (1997).
Construction of Pressure Vessels (Divisions 1, 2 and 3) (2007).
International Electrotechnical Commission
ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code: Section X, Fiber Reinforced
Plastic Pressure Vessels (2007). IEC 60748-23-2, Semiconductor Devices — Integrated Circuits —
PART 23-2: Hybrid Integrated Circuits and Film Structures —
ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code: Section XI, Rules for Inservice Manufacturing Line Certification – Internal Visual Inspection and
Inspection of Nuclear Power Plant Components (2007). Special Tests (2002).
ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code: Section XII, Rules for International Organization for Standardization
Construction and Continued Service of Transport Tanks (2007).
ISO 11960 [API SPEC 5CT], Petroleum and Natural Gas Industries —
ASME B 31.1, Power Piping (2007). Steel Pipes for Use as Casing or Tubing for Wells (2006).
ASME B 31.3, Process Piping (2008). ISO 17637, Non-Destructive Testing of Welds — Visual Testing of
ASME B 31.4, Pipeline Transportation Systems for Liquid Hydrocarbons Fusion-Welded Joints (2003).
and Other Liquids (2006). ISO 3058, Non-Destructive Testing — Aids to Visual Inspection —
ASME B 31.5, Refrigeration Piping and Heat Transfer Selection of Low-Power Magnifiers (1998).
Components (2006). Japanese Institute of Standards
ASME B 31.8, Gas Transmission and Distribution Piping JIS H 0613, Non-Ferrous Metals and Metallurgy — Visual Inspection
Systems (2007). for Sliced and Lapped Silicon Wafers (1978).
ASTM International JIS H 0614, Non-Ferrous Metals and Metallurgy — Visual Inspection
ASTM A 802M, Standard Practice for Steel Castings, Surface for Silicon Wafers with Specular Surfaces (1996).
Acceptance Standards, Visual Examination (2006). JIS Z 3090, Visual Testing Method of Fusion-Welded Joints (2005).
ASTM D 2562, Standard Practice for Classifying Visual Defects in Parts Manufacturers Standardization Society
Molded from Reinforced Thermosetting Plastics (2008).
MSS SP-55, Quality Standard for Steel Castings for Valves, Flanges
ASTM D 2563, Standard Practice for Classifying Visual Defects in and Fittings and Other Piping Components — Visual Method for
Glass-Reinforced Plastic Laminate Parts (2008). Evaluation of Surface Irregularities (2006).
ASTM D 4385, Standard Practice for Classifying Visual Defects in South African Bureau of Standards
Thermosetting Reinforced Plastic Pultruded Products (2008).
SAA AS 3978, Non-Destructive Testing — Visual Inspection of Metal
ASTM E 1799, Standard Practice for Visual Inspections of Photovoltaic Products and Components (2003).
Modules (1999).
SAA AS/NZS 3894.8, Surface Treatment and Coating — Site Testing
of Protective Coatings — Visual Determination of Gloss (2006).
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program should consult the complete text current testing; infrared thermographic
of SNT-TC-1A and other applicable testing; leak testing (hydraulic pressure
procedures and practices. If an outside tests excluded); magnetic particle testing;
agency is contracted for visual test penetrant testing; radiographic testing;
services, then the contractor must have a strain testing; ultrasonic testing; visual
qualification and certification program to testing (direct unaided visual tests and
satisfy the codes and standards in force. visual tests carried out during the
The minimum number of questions application of another NDT method are
that should be administered in the excluded).”
written examination for visual test The International Organization for
personnel is as follows: 40 questions in Standardization also publishes a standard
the general examination and 20 questions for something called limited certification.11
in the specific examination. The number Inspectors whose actions are limited
of questions is the same for Level I and sometimes have limited training
Level II personnel. Table 5 shows required requirements. Limited certification would
hours of training for Level I and Level II. not be applicable to visual testing
inspectors in the field, for example, but
Central Certification may be desired for assembly line operators
of remote visual testing equipment to
Another standard that may be a source for detect debris inside fabricated products.
compliance is published by the
International Organization for
Standardization (ISO). The work of
preparing international standards is Safety in Visual Testing12
normally carried out through technical This information is presented solely for
committees of this worldwide federation educational purposes and should not be
of national standards bodies. Each ISO consulted in place of current safety
member body interested in a subject for regulations. Note that units of measure
which a technical committee has been have been converted to this book’s format
established has the right to be represented and are not those commonly used in all
on that committee. International industries. Human vision can be disrupted
organizations, governmental and or destroyed by improper use of any
nongovernmental, in liaison with the radiation, including light. Consult the
International Organization for most recent safety documents and the
Standardization, also take part in the manufacturer’s literature before working
work. near any radiation source.
Technical Committee ISO/TC 135,
Non-Destructive Testing Subcommittee
SC 7, Personnel Qualification, prepared Need for Safety
international standard ISO 9712, Developments in optical testing
Non-Destructive Testing — Qualification and technology have created a need for better
Certification of Personnel.10 In its statement understanding of the potential health
of scope, ISO 9712 states that it “specifies hazards caused by high intensity light
the qualification and certification of sources or by artificial light sources of any
personnel involved in non-destructive intensity in the work area. The human
testing ... in one or more of the following eye operates optimally in an environment
methods: acoustic emission testing; eddy illuminated directly or indirectly by
sunlight, with characteristic spectral
distribution and range of intensities that
are very different from those of most
TABLE 5. Recommended training and experience (in artificial sources. The eye can handle only
hours) for visual testing personnel according to a limited range of night vision tasks.
Recommended Practice No. SNT-TC-1A.6 Evidence has accumulated that
photochemical changes occur in eyes
Level I Level II
under the influence of normal daylight
High school graduatea 8 h 16 h
illumination — short term and long term
visual impairment and exacerbation of
Two years of collegeb 4 h 8 h
retinal disease have been observed and it
Work experience in methodc 70 h 140 h is important to understand why this
Total hours in nondestructive testing 130 h 270 h occurs. Periodic fluctuations of visible and
a. Or equivalent. ultraviolet radiation occur with the
b. Completion with a passing grade of at least two years of engineering or regular diurnal light-and-dark cycles and
science study in a university, college or technical school. with the lengthening and shortening of
c. Minimum work experience in method, per level. Note: For Level II
certification, the experience shall consist of time as Level I or equivalent.
the cycle as a result of seasonal changes.
If a person is being qualified directly to Level II with no time at Level I, These fluctuations are known to affect all
the required experience shall consist of the sum of the times required for biological systems critically. The majority
Level I and Level II and the required training shall consist of the sum of of such light/dark effects is based on
the hours required for Level I and Level II.
circadian cycles and controlled by the
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response to intense infrared radiation is with ultraviolet: the source is enclosed
pain and the natural reaction is to move and provided with ultraviolet absorbing
away from the source so that burns do glass or plastic lenses. If injurious effects
not develop. continue to develop, the thickness of the
protective lens is increased.
Ultraviolet Hazards The photochemical effects of
ultraviolet radiation on the skin and eye
Before development of the laser, the are still not completely understood.
principal hazard in the use of intense Records of ultraviolet radiation’s relative
light sources was the potential eye and spectral effectiveness for eliciting a
skin injury from ultraviolet radiation. particular biological effect (referred to by
Ultraviolet radiation is invisible radiation photobiologists as action spectra) are
beyond the violet end of the visible generally available. Ultraviolet irradiance
spectrum with wavelengths down to may be measured at a point of interest
about 185 nm. It is strongly absorbed by with a portable radiometer and compared
the cornea and the lens of the eye. with the ultraviolet radiation hazard
Ultraviolet radiation at wavelengths criteria.
shorter than 185 nm is absorbed by air, is For purposes of determining exposure
often called vacuum ultraviolet and is levels, it is important to note that most
rarely of concern to the visual inspector. inexpensive, portable radiometers are not
Many useful high intensity arc sources equally responsive at all wavelengths
and some lasers may emit associated, throughout the ultraviolet spectrum and
potentially hazardous, levels of ultraviolet are usually only calibrated at one
radiation. With appropriate precautions, wavelength with no guarantees at any
such sources can serve very useful visual other wavelength. Such radiometers have
testing functions. been designed for a particular application
Studies have clarified the spectral using a particular lamp.
radiant exposure doses and relative A common example in the
spectral effectiveness of ultraviolet nondestructive testing industry is the
radiation required to elicit an adverse ultraviolet radiometer used in fluorescent
biological response. These responses liquid penetrant and magnetic particle
include keratoconjunctivitis (known as applications. These meters are usually
welder’s flash), possible generation of calibrated at 365 nm, the predominant
cataracts and erythema or reddening of ultraviolet output of the filtered 100 W
the skin. Longer wavelength ultraviolet medium pressure mercury vapor lamp
radiation can lead to fluorescence of the commonly used in the industry. Use of
eye’s lens and ocular media, eyestrain and the meter at any other wavelength in the
headache. These conditions lead, in turn, ultraviolet spectrum may lead to
to low task performance resulting from significant errors. To minimize problems
the fatigue associated with increased in assessing the hazard presented by
effort. Chronic exposure to ultraviolet industrial lighting, it is important to use a
radiation accelerates skin aging and radiometer that has been calibrated with
possibly increases the risk of developing an ultraviolet spectral distribution as close
certain forms of skin cancer. as possible to the lamp of interest.
It should also be mentioned that some If the inspector is concerned about the
individuals are hypersensitive to safety of a given situation, ultraviolet
ultraviolet radiation and may develop a absorbing eye protection and facewear is
reaction following, what would be for the readily available from several sources. An
average healthy human, suberythemal additional benefit of such protection is
exposures. However, it is unusual for these that it prevents the annoyance of lens
symptoms of exceptional photosensitivity fluorescence and provides the wearer
to be elicited solely by the limited considerable protection from all
emission spectrum of an industrial light ultraviolet radiation. In certain
source. An inspector is typically aware of applications, tinted lenses can also
such sensitivity because of earlier provide enhanced visibility of the test
exposures to sunlight. object.
In industry, the visual inspector may
encounter many sources of visible and
invisible radiation: incandescent lamps, Damage to Retina
compact arc sources (solar simulators), Although ultraviolet radiation from most
quartz halogen lamps, metal vapor of the high intensity visible light sources
(sodium and mercury) and metal halide may be the principal concern, the
discharge lamps, fluorescent lamps and potential for chorioretinal injury from
flash lamps among others. Because of the visible radiation should not be
high ultraviolet attenuation afforded by overlooked.
many visually transparent materials, an It is possible to multiply the spectral
empirical approach is sometimes taken for absorption data of the human retina by
the problem of light sources associated the spectral transmission data of the eye’s
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produce 10 to 100 times more retinal protection and other hazard controls have
damage (permanent decrease in spectral been provided on this basis.
sensitivity in this spectral range) than Eye protection filters for various
longer visible wavelengths. Note that workers were developed empirically but
there are some common situations in now are standardized as shades and
which both thermal and blue hazards specified for particular applications.
may be present. Other protective techniques include
use of high ambient light levels and
Photosensitizers specialized filters to further attenuate
intense spectral lines. Laser eye protection
Over the past few decades, a large number is designed to have an adequate optical
of commonly used drugs, food additives, density at the laser wavelengths along
soaps and cosmetics have been identified with the greatest visual transmission at all
as phototoxic or photoallergenic agents other wavelengths.
even at the longer wavelengths of the Always bear in mind that hazard
visible spectrum.17 Colored drugs and criteria must not be considered to
food additives are possible represent fine lines between safe and
photosensitizers for organs below the skin hazardous exposure conditions. To be
because longer wavelength visible properly applied, interpretation of hazard
radiations penetrate deeply into the body. criteria must be based on practical
knowledge of potential exposure
Eye Protection Filters conditions and the user, whether a
professional inspector or a general
Because continuous visible light sources consumer. Accuracy of hazard criteria is
elicit a normal aversion or pain response limited by biological uncertainties
that can protect the eye and skin from including diet, genetic photosensitivity
injury, visual comfort has often been used and the large safety factors required to be
as an approximate hazard index and eye built into the recommendations.
Greeks
The word optics comes from the Greek
word o∆ptikh√, optike, “sight.” For the
Greeks, optics was part of the study of
geometry. In Greek, the word geometry (b)
literally means “earth measurement.” B A E
Geometry was a practical science, used to
calculate distances and estimate the
height of objects.
Writing around BCE 300, Euclid, a
Greek, wrote a mathematical treatise that
has dominated geometry for more than
2000 years. He also wrote Optics, a treatise C
that described behaviors of light,
including perspective.18 D
Ptolemy, who lived in Alexandria in
Legend
the second century, also touched on
A. Light source.
optical principles in his exhaustive B. Point where extension of line CD meets extension of line AE.
astronomical treatise, called the Almagest, C. Point on illuminated surface.
“great work.”19 D. Point in line of refracted ray of light.
After the Roman Empire, Europe E. Point on surface CE such that AEC forms right angle.
entered a period often called the Dark
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Ages, when much ancient learning was burning targets at a distance. Ibn Sahl
lost. Some Greek philosophy survived departed from his predecessors in
because it had been translated into Arabic. studying reflection and refraction of the
Much later, the works of Ptolemy and Sun’s rays. The interest in refraction led
Aristotle were translated from Arabic into him to the study of lenses and their
Latin and so came to European scientists shapes in great detail. In these studies, Ibn
such as Roger Bacon and Johannes Sahl discovered the relationship between
Kepler.20 the incident and refracted rays of light,
the relationship rediscovered by
Willebrord Snellius some 650 years later
and now referred to as Snell’s law.23-26 In
Medieval Arab Optics Fig. 13, light from point A enters a new
The Greek era of science was followed by medium at point C and refracts along the
the Arab scientific Golden Age, from the line CD. If the line CD is extended to
eighth to the sixteenth century. Nearly all point B, the ratio of length AC to length
of the writing was in Arabic, the scientific BC is the index of refraction.
language before the twelfth century. This Lens and mirror shapes Ibn Sahl
period began with an intensive period of considered were the elliptical, parabolic,
translation of Greek books brought to hyperbolic and biconvex. Ibn Sahl went
Baghdad, the imperial and scientific further and designed machines for the
center. precise drawing of mathematical shapes.
Although early Arab scientists Ibn Sahl informed the work of another
contributed much to other disciplines optical physicist, Ibn al-Haytham.
such as chemistry, biology, medicine and
engineering, their enduring legacy was in Ibn al-Haytham
mathematics, astronomy and optics. They
were intrigued by the mechanism of Ibn al-Haytham (CE 965-1039), also
vision and the function of the eye and known as Alhacen or Alhazen, was born in
brain in processing this information.21,22 Basra, Iraq, and studied in Baghdad
The early Arab scientists were (Fig. 14). In pursuit of knowledge, he
fascinated by what they read in the Greek traveled to Iran and Syria and settled in
books and wanted to understand such Egypt. He wrote more than 90 books and
phenomena, but the respect these Arabs treatises on optics, astronomy,
had for the Greek authorities did not stop mathematics, philosophy, medicine and
them questioning their theories in a new logic.26-29
way, the scientific method known today. His most important work was a critique
The observation and measurement of data of Ptolemy’s Almagest. Ibn al-Haytham
were followed by the formulation and prefaced this critique by stating that his
testing of hypotheses to explain the data. methods will criticize premises and
exercise caution in drawing conclusions,
not to follow authorities blindly. On the
Ibn Sahl mechanism of vision, he was able to reject
Ibn Sahl (CE circa 940-1000) was an Arab the two competing Greek theories favored
mathematician and physicist. His by Euclid and Ptolemy. To test these
predecessors and contemporaries theories in experiments, Ibn al-Haytham
researched designs of military mirrors for invented the camera obscura (literally the
FIGURE 14. Ibn al-Haytham’s portrait on Iraqi currency, with optics diagram next to him.
FIGURE 15. Sixteenth century edition of Ibn al-Haytham’s treatise, in Latin: (a) cover page; (b) caption and engraving on “three
parts of vision, direct, reflected and refracted”; (c) engraved diagram of eye with parts labeled.30
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2. Are the right materials and (Fig. 17). The 1860s saw the introduction
components used throughout? Are of boiler inspection combined with boiler
bolts the right size, for instance? insurance in the United States and the
3. Are fasteners and supports spaced and United Kingdom.32,33
installed according to specification? Boiler inspection was an early
4. Are protective lubricants, weather application of visual testing. Insurance
strips and coatings applied according inspectors would, of course, look for
to specification? corrosion in the inservice boilers they
5. Are there signs of damage, such as insured. Early editions of the ASME Boiler
wear, corrosion, dents, strain, buckling Code asked the inspector to inspect
or visible cracking? components, that is, to look at them.34 A
These visual checks are, however, not half century would pass before other
necessarily nondestructive tests: the methods of nondestructive testing would
questions except for the last address provide the context needed to make it
fabrication and maintenance quality clear that this aspect of the boiler
rather than material discontinuities. inspector’s job was the visual test method
The introduction of steam power in the of nondestructive testing.
nineteenth century led to a rash of boiler The earliest standards of the American
explosions and to the need for inspection Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME),
although they emphasized proof tests and
destructive tests, say that the boilers must
be free of gross surface blemishes and
FIGURE 16. Thirteenth century manuscript other signs of poor workmanship. In
page from Hunayn ibn Ishaq, Book of Ten 1915, the first edition of the Boiler Code
Treatises on the Eye.22,31 expected the inspector to look at
malleable castings to determine that they
were “true to pattern, free from blemishes,
scale or shrinkage cracks. A variation of
1/16 in. per foot [1.6 mm per 0.3 m] shall
be permissible.” The finish of flat bars had
“to be smoothly rolled and free from
slivers, depressions, seams, crop ends,”
and burns. The inspector examined all
parts to be sure that “the finished material
shall be free from injurious defects and
shall have a workmanlike finish.”35
Twenty-first century versions of the Boiler
Code, although briefly, explicitly treat
visual testing as nondestructive testing.36
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decision making? Small areas would application. The patent also provided for
successively be brought into view to a a separate attachment to scour the tube’s
microscope, and a light sensitive cell inside surface before visual testing.
would detect brightness variations below
a selected threshold and trigger a sorting
armature. It is not known if this scheme
was ever implemented by industry. A later FIGURE 19. Borescopy of tubing: (a) drawing from 1941
design was advanced in 1938 for sheet patent54; (b) photograph of application.
metal.50 In the 1980s, microprocessing
made automated vision easier to (a)
implement.51
Legend
1. End of stand of pipe. 21. Reflector.
2. Pipe rack. 22. Guide horn.
3. Frame. 23. Barrel.
4. Strong back. 24. Joint clamp.
5. Viewing apparatus. 25. Body of joint sleeve.
6. Track. 26. Sleeve split to fit over barrel.
7. Trolleys. 27. Coupling nut.
8. Rollers. 28. Tapered bores.
9. Chain. 29. Tapered or conical outer face
10. Hook. of sleeve.
11. A frames. 31. Guide sleeves.
12. Legs. 32. Resilient bow or bar of sleeve.
13. Saddles. 33. Loose collar.
14. Set screw. 34. Collar clamped to barrel.
15. Clamp. 35. Tightening nut threaded onto
16. Lever with cam head. sleeve.
17. Tightening bolt. 36. Electric lamp cord.
18. Lighting guard. 37. Telescoping means.
19. Electric lamp. 38. Telescoping sections.
20. Crack. 39. Eye piece.
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workshop where he visually tested the The original Manhattan Project
bores of 37 mm antiaircraft guns and borescope was later improved with
other weapons.56 During the war, nondarkening optics and a swivel-joint
borescopes were widely used for testing eyepiece that permitted the operator to
warship steam turbines (particularly their work from any angle (this newer
rotating shafts). The United States Army instrument did not require the V trough).
also used borescopes for inspecting the It also was capable of considerable
barrels of tank and antiaircraft weapons bending to snake through the tubes in the
produced in Philadelphia. An even more reactor. Three borescopes were supplied
challenging assignment lay ahead. for this epochal project and they are
The scientists working to develop a believed to be the first optical instruments
successful nuclear chain reaction in the to use glass resistant to radioactivity.
top secret Manhattan Project asked Aircraft inspection soon became one of
Crampton to provide a borescope for the most important uses of borescope
inspecting tubes near the radioactive pile technology. In 1946, an ultraviolet light
at its guarded location beneath the borescope was developed for fluorescent
stadium seats at the University of testing of the interior of hollow steel
Chicago’s Stagg Field. Crampton devised propeller blades. The 100 W viewing
an aluminum borescope tube 35 mm instrument revealed interior surface
(1.4 in.) in diameter and 10 m (33 ft) discontinuities as glowing green lines.41
long. The device consisted of 2 m (6 ft) Later, in 1958, the entire United States’
sections of dual tubing joined by bronze B-47 bomber fleet was grounded because
couplings which also carried an 8 V of metal fatigue cracks resulting from low
lighting circuit. The inspector standing level simulated bombing missions. Visual
directly in front of the bore was subject to testing with borescopes proved to be the
radioactive emissions from the pile, so first step toward resolving the problem.
Crampton mounted the borescope outside The program became known as Project
of a heavy concrete barrier. The operator Milk Bottle, a reference to the bottle
stood at a right angle to the borescope, shaped pin that was a primary connection
looking through an eyepiece and between the fuselage and wing (Fig. 23).
revolving the instrument manually. The In the late 1950s, a system was
borescope contained a prism viewing head developed for automatic testing of
and had to be rotated constantly. It was helicopter blades. The borescope,
supported in a steel V trough resting on supported by a long bench, could test the
supports whose height could be varied. blades while the operator viewed results
Crampton also mounted a special on a television screen (Fig. 24). The
photographic camera on the eyepiece. system was used extensively during the
FIGURE 22. Using a borescope, inspector at a converted FIGURE 23. Inspector uses borescope to check for metal
automobile plant during World War II checks interiors of gun fatigue cracks in B-47 bomber during grounding of bomber
tubes for 90 mm antiaircraft guns. fleet in 1958.
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Welding Society implemented a program defined the scope and purpose of visual
that, following the United States Navy, testing (dimensional testing was
was the first to certify inspectors whose excluded). In 1984, the Visual Personnel
sole function was visual weld testing. Qualification Committee was formed in
During 1978, ASNT subcommittees ASNT’s Education and Qualification
were formed for the eastern and western Council. In 1986, a training outline and a
halves of the United States. These groups recommended reference list was finalized
verified the need for both visual standards and the Board of Directors approved
and trained, qualified and certified incorporation of visual testing into ASNT’s
inspectors. In 1980, a Visual Methods Recommended Practice No. SNT-TC-1A.
Committee was formed in ASNT’s
Technical Council and the early meetings
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Old units should not be used in science
Units for Visual Testing and engineering; Table 9 gives some
conversions to SI units. Footcandle (ftc)
Terms for some quantities have been and phot convert to lux (lx). Stilb (sb),
replaced. Brightness is now luminance; footlambert and lambert convert to
illumination is illuminance; transmission candela per square meter (cd·m–2).
factor is transmittance. Names of some In visual testing, units express
units have changed: the meter candle is measurements of visible light as part of
now lux; the nit is now candela per the electromagnetic spectrum. Nanometer
square meter (cd·m–2). (nm) is used rather than angstrom (Å) for
wavelength. The velocity c of light is
expressed as a ratio of distance in meters
TABLE 8. SI prefixes and multipliers. (m) to time in seconds (s): in a vacuum,
2.997 924 58 × 108 m·s–1.
Prefix Symbol Multiplier
36 Visual Testing
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References
38 Visual Testing
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46. Schindler, R. Gastroscopy. Chicago, IL: 56. “Crampton to Get Original of His
University of Chicago (1937). Famous ’Scope.” Philadelphia Inquirer.
47. Huston, C.L. United States Patent Philadelphia, PA (1946).
1 454 677, Inspection Lift (1923). 57. Spencer, S.M. “Amiable Oculist Is
48. Contant, W.A. United States Patent Expert on Device for U.S. Cannon.”
1 468 803, Inspection Table (1923). Philadelphia Bulletin. Philadelphia, PA
49. Firestone, F. United States Patent (July 1941).
1 640 567, Machine for Detecting Flaws 58. NAVSHIPS 250-1500-1, Welding
(1927). Standard. Washington, DC: United
50. Gulliksen, F.H. United States Patent States Department of Defense, for
2 229 451, Photosensitive Apparatus for Naval Sea Systems Command.
Inspecting Materials (1941). 59. IEEE/ASTM SI 10, Standard for Use of
51. Pryor, T.R.P. United States Patent the International System of Units (SI):
4 576 482, Electro-Optical Inspection The Modern Metric System. New York,
(1986). NY: IEEE (2002).
52. Lyon, S.P. United States Patent 60. Thompson, A. and B.N. Taylor.
1 602 233, Inside Rivet Inspection Device NIST SP 811, Guide for the Use of the
(1926). International System of Units (SI).
53. Fisher, J.H. United States Patent Washington, DC: United States
1 775 452, Instrument for Examining the Government Printing Office (2008).
Interior of Gun Barrels (1930). 61. Taylor, B.N. and A. Thompson.
54. Helfer, D. United States Patent NIST SP 330, The International System
2 010 301, Device for Examining the of Units (SI). Washington, DC: United
Diameter of Bores (1935). States Government Printing
55. Huntsinger, F. United States Patent Office (2008).
2 251 739, Method and Apparatus for
Inspecting Tubing (1941).
Light
Portions of this chapter are reprinted with permission from the IES Lighting Handbook: Reference Volume,2 © Copyright 1981, Illuminating
Engineering Society of North America (IESNA). Reference numbers superscripted in headings indicate sections adapted. ASNT has revised the
text in 1993 and 2010, and deficiencies are not the responsibility of the IESNA.
Portions of Part 3 are reprinted from NIST SP 250-37, Photometric Calibrations8 — a work of the United States government and
not subject to copyright.
http://www.mohandes-iran.com
PART 1. Physics of Light
Electromagnetic Theory
Overview of Light1-3 The electromagnetic theory was advanced
Most nondestructive tests are performed by James Clerk Maxwell and is based on
by a probing energy such as X-rays, these premises.5
ultrasound or magnetism to a test object. 1. Luminous bodies emit light in the
In visual and optical testing, the probing form of radiant energy.
medium is light — that portion of the 2. This radiant energy is propagated in
electromagnetic spectrum that has a the form of electromagnetic waves.
wavelength of 360 to 830 nm and that 3. The electromagnetic waves act on the
can excite the human retina. The upper retina of the eye, stimulating the optic
and lower limits of visible radiation vary nerves to produce the sensation of
from one individual to another. sight.
Radiant energy at the proper wavelength
makes visible anything from which it is
emitted or reflected in sufficient quantity Quantum Theory
to activate the receptors in the eye. The The quantum theory is an updated
quantity of such radiant energy may be version of the corpuscular theory. It was
evaluated in many ways, including: advanced by Max Planck and is based on
radiant flux (measured in joules per these premises.
second or in watts) and luminous flux
(measured in lumens). 1. Energy is emitted and absorbed in
discrete quanta (photons).
2. The energy E in each quantum is the
product of Planck’s constant h and
Radiant Energy Theories1,2 frequency n:
Several theories describing radiant energy
have been proposed.4 The text below (1) E = hv
briefly discusses the primary theories.
where h = 6.626 × 10 -34 J·s and n (Greek
Particle Theory letter nu) is in hertz.
The particle theory, or corpuscular theory,
was advanced by Isaac Newton and is Unified Theory
based on the following premises. The unified theory of radiant energy was
1. Luminous bodies emit radiant energy proposed by De Broglie and Heisenberg
in particles. and is based on the premise that every
2. These particles are intermittently moving element of mass is associated
ejected in straight lines. with a wave of length l:
3. The particles act on the retina of the
eye, stimulating the optic nerves to h
produce the sensation of light. (2) l =
mv
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nondestructive testing. Whether it Inverse Square Law1-3
behaves like a wave or like a particle, light
is radiation produced by atomic or The inverse square law (Fig. 1a) states that
molecular processes. That is, in an the illumination E (lux) at a point on a
incandescent body, a gas discharge or a surface varies directly with the luminous
solid state device, light is produced when intensity I (candela) of the source and
excited electrons have just reverted to inversely as the square of the distance d
more stable positions in their respective (meter) between the source and the point.
atoms, thereby releasing energy. If the surface at the point is normal to the
The general limits of the radiant energy direction of the incident light, the law
spectrum extend over a range of may be expressed as:
wavelengths varying from 10 –16 to over
105 m. Radiant energy if visible has (4) I
E =
wavelengths between 380 and 770 nm. d2
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spread out on a surface if the lamp is held
off to one side. The lighted area will be
larger but less bright than if the lamp
Wavelength and
were directly above the surface. Frequency3
The important variables in light
propagation include wavelength,
FIGURE 1. Principles of photometry: (a) inverse square law, frequency, reflection and refraction. The
illustrating how same quantity of light flux is distributed over concern of the nondestructive test
greater area as distance from source to surface is increased; engineer revolves around the effects of
(b) cosine law, showing that light flux striking surface at light based on the intensity or the
angles other than normal is distributed over greater area; wavelength and frequency of the light.
(c) cosine cubed law, explaining transformation of inverse Optical radiation covers the spectrum
square formula. from 10 -9 to 10 –3 m. Visible radiation is
generally considered to be that portion of
the spectrum from 360 × 10 -9 to
(a) 830 × 10 -9 m. The nanometer (10 -9 m) is
Source the unit for measuring the wavelength of
light. Figure 2 shows the place of light in
the electromagnetic spectrum.
d
All forms of electromagnetic radiation
travel through a vacuum at the same
speed, 299 793 km·s–1 (186 282 mi·s–1).
When light travels through any other
medium, the velocity is altered. The
d frequency remains fixed and is
independent of the medium. The
difference in the time it takes light to
travel through different media is
responsible for the operating principles of
optical instruments.
The following formula gives the
relationship between the velocity,
frequency and wavelength:
(b)
ln
(8) v =
n
X-rays
rar
θ d
Ultraviolet Visible
ed
a θ radiation light
Wavelength (m)
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PART 2. Refraction and Color
Vv
(9) n =
Reflection and Refraction3 Vm
Light is reflected when it strikes a surface.
Regular, or specular, reflection is caused where n is index of refraction, Vm is the
when light strikes a smooth surface. The velocity (meters per second) in a medium
direction of the reflected beam can be and Vv is the velocity (meters per second)
determined by constructing a line in a vacuum.
perpendicular to the reflecting surface. Based on Eq. 9, the actual angle of
The angle of reflection is the same as the refraction is determined by a
angle of incidence compared to the mathematical relation, discovered by Ibn
perpendicular, or normal line, as Sahl in the tenth century and later called
illustrated in Fig. 3. Snell’s law. The index of refraction is equal
Diffuse reflection is caused when light to the ratio of the sine of the angle of
strikes a rough surface. The rough surface incidence to the sine of the angle of
has many different plane surfaces. Each refraction. Equation 10 applies the law of
incident light beam strikes a different refraction:
reflecting plane and is reflected at an
angle that corresponds to the relative
angle of the plane surface. The difference (10) n0 sin θ0 = n1 sin θ1
from a regular reflection forms the basis
of some optical techniques.
Refraction is the bending or pivoting of Figure 4 demonstrates the angles in
light from its original direction at the Eq. 10.
interface of two different media. If the The science of optics provides an
optical density of the new medium is explanation for the operation of many
greater than the density of the original, visual and optical tools from simple
the path of light is bent, or refracted, magnifying glasses to metallographs.
toward a line normal to the object’s Light is commonly focused in the mirrors
surface. If the optical density of the new and lenses of optical devices using the
medium is less than that of the original, principles of reflection and refraction
the light is refracted away from the built into the device. Classical optics
normal. explains the manipulation of light to
The amount of refraction depends on produce an image for human viewing by
the angle of the incident light and the
index of refraction. The index of
refraction is given by the ratio of the FIGURE 4. Refraction of light.3
velocity of light in a vacuum to the
velocity of light in the medium:
Glass
θ1
Air
φ θ
Legend
Legend θ0 = angle of incidence
φ = Angle of incidence θ1 = angle of refraction
θ = Angle of reflection
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mechanical devices: lenses, mirrors and The magnification produced by a
prisms. diverging lens may be calculated by
manipulating the lens law. Magnification
Lenses is the size of the image divided by the size
of the object:
A lens is a device that converges or
disperses light by refraction. Converging Di Si
lenses focus light on a single point while (12) M = =
divergent lenses disperse light. When Do So
describing lenses, the conventional
standard is to describe the shape of the where Di is image distance from principal
lens surface from left to right using the plane, Do is object distance from principal
following terminology. Plano describes a plane, M is magnification, Si is image size
flat surface. Convex lenses are converging and So is object size.
lenses; they are thicker in the center than Thick lenses may consist of a single
at the edge. Concave lenses are divergent; thick lens, combinations of thin lenses, or
they are thinner in the center than at the compound arrangements of thin lenses.
edge. Figure 5 shows examples of these Compound lenses (Fig. 8) are used in
lenses. most optical systems from doublet and
Thin lenses are those where the triplet magnifiers to sophisticated zoom
thickness of the lens is small compared to camera lenses. Compound lenses provide
the focal length. The properties of thin for high magnification and close control
lenses are described using the lens law. of the focal plane. When properly
This law relates the image distance, object
distance and focal length of a lens as
follows:
FIGURE 6. Converging lens geometry.3
1 1 1
(11) = + Principal
f d u Focal
plane plane
Object
Focal length
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designed, compound lenses also can Prisms
correct the chromatic and spherical
On most surfaces, incident light is
aberrations inherent to a single lens.
partially reflected and partially refracted.
The greater the angle of incidence and the
Mirrors difference in the refractive indices of the
Mirrors change the direction of light by material, the more light will be reflected
reflection. Mirrors can be flat, convex, instead of refracted. The angle above
concave, or parabolic. Flat or plane which all light is reflected is known as the
mirrors are arranged singularly or in series critical angle. Prisms use the critical angle
to transmit an image or light. Convex to change the direction or the orientation
mirrors provide an enlarged field of view of the image produced by light rays. Two
of the reflected image. common types of prisms are the right
A concave or spherical mirror has a angle prism and the porro prism (Fig. 9).
reflecting focal point. If light is projected The right angle prism deflects the light
onto a spherical mirror normal to the rays 90 degrees. The porro prism produces
curve of the surface, the light will be a 180 degree reflection. Both prisms are
focused slightly in front of the mirror. If a common in optical instruments.
point light source is placed at its focal Prisms are also used to separate the
point, the light will be reflected from the frequencies of a chromatic light source by
mirror so that it is parallel to the normal diffraction. Because the two refracting
of the curve. surfaces of the prism are not parallel, the
A concave mirror can also be used for distance the light paths travel varies from
image enlargement. An image that is the top to the bottom of the prism.
small compared to the width of the mirror Because the index of refraction changes
will be reflected back in a diverging and with the frequency of the light, the
optically reversed image. higher frequency portions of the spectrum
emerge from the base of the prism.
(a) (a)
(b)
(b)
(c)
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1. The concept of the blackbody is used
Spectral Emissivity1,2 to define and measure emissivity, a
physical characteristic of light sources.
The wave theory permits a convenient Emissivity is a material’s ability to
representation of radiant energy in an radiate energy and is measured as a
arrangement based on the light’s ratio of source emissivity to blackbody
wavelength or frequency. This emissivity, the blackbody having an
arrangement is called a spectrum and is emissivity of one for a given
useful for indicating the relationship wavelength.
between various radiant energy 2. The theoretical blackbody is used to
wavelength regions. Such a representation define colors, and working blackbodies
should not be taken to mean that each are used to generate colors.
region of the spectrum is physically
divided from the others — actually there Some inspection devices such as lamps
is a small but discrete transition from one and gloss meters include emissivity in
region to the next. their technical data.
All forms of radiant energy are A perfect blackbody is a theoretical
transmitted at the same speed in a ideal; no perfect blackbody instrument
vacuum: 299 793 km·s–1 exists in the real world. The theoretically
(299 792.458 mi·s–1). Table 1 gives the perfect performance of the blackbody can
speed of light in different media for a be approximated in the laboratory by
frequency corresponding to a wavelength constructing a hollow cylinder or sphere,
of 589 nm in air. with a small hole in its wall (Fig. 10).
Each form of energy differs in Radiation at a controlled wavelength is
wavelength and therefore in frequency. introduced into the hole and reflects until
The wavelength and velocity may be completely absorbed by the wall. The
altered by the medium through which the absorption of the light’s energy produces
radiation passes, but the frequency is uniform heating of the wall. Radiation
fixed independently of the medium. that exits through the small hole will
Equation 8 above shows the relationship have the characteristics of a perfect
between radiation speed, frequency, radiator for that specific temperature.
wavelength and the medium’s index of
refraction. Graybody1-3
No known radiator has the emissive
Blackbody1-3 power of a blackbody. The spectral
Light sources are frequently compared to emissivity ε(l) of a light source is the ratio
a theoretical light source known as a of the light source output to the output of
blackbody. A blackbody absorbs all of the the theoretical blackbody. The blackbody’s
radiant energy that falls on it. A ideal emissivity equals one.
blackbody is also a perfect radiator, When the spectral emissivity is
radiating more total power at any uniform for all wavelengths, the radiator
wavelength than any other source for an is known as a graybody. No known
equivalent area. radiator has a uniform spectral emissivity
Most real approximations of theoretical for all visible, infrared and ultraviolet
blackbodies emit in the infrared range and wavelengths. In the visible region, a
are often used to calibrate instruments carbon filament exhibits very nearly
that measure infrared radiation.
Nevertheless, the concept of the
blackbody is of value for inspectors in FIGURE 10. Small aperture in an enclosure
visual testing for two reasons. exhibits blackbody characteristics.1,2
Absorption by walls
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uniform emissivity and is nearly a distributions at various temperatures only
graybody. with this important limitation.
The emissivity of all known materials Stefan-Boltzmann Law. The
varies with wavelength. In Fig. 11, the Stefan-Boltzmann law is obtained by
radiation curves for a blackbody, a integrating Planck’s expression for the
graybody and a selective radiator spectral radiant exitance from zero to
(tungsten), all operating at 3000 K, are infinite wavelength. The law states that
plotted on the same logarithmic scale to the total radiant power per unit area of a
show differences in output. blackbody varies as the fourth power of
the absolute temperature. The
Physical Laws for Blackbody Stefan-Boltzmann law is explained in
Radiation1,2 introductory physics texts. This law
applies to the total power in the entire
Planck’s Radiation Law. Data describing spectrum, not only in the visible portion.
blackbody radiation curves have been
obtained by using a specially constructed Color3
and uniformly heated tube as a blackbody
source. Planck, introducing the concept of The color temperature of a given light
discrete quanta of energy, developed an source is determined by the temperature
equation depicting these curves. It gives at which a blackbody must be operated to
the spectral radiance of a blackbody as a produce the spectral distribution that
function of wavelength and temperature. most closely matches the spectral
distribution of the light source. The color
Wien’s Displacement Law. Wien’s
temperature may be used to measure the
displacement law gives the relationship
color from incandescent light sources. For
between the wavelength at which a
example, as a blackbody source heats up,
blackbody at temperature T (kelvin) emits
the color temperature of emitted light
maximum power per unit wavelength at
increases as the visible color changes from
that temperature. In fact, the product of
dull red to bluish white. In many
absolute temperature T and the peak
photographic and electronic imaging
wavelength is a constant. It gives the
applications, the color of the light source
relationship between blackbody
must be known to get accurate color
response in the imager. Figure 12
illustrates the color temperature of some
FIGURE 11. Radiation curves for blackbody, graybody and natural and artificial light sources.
selective radiators operating at 3000 K.1,2
100 9000
20 7000
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Rigorously speaking, color temperature
is used only for light sources that have FIGURE 14. Primary colors and formation of secondary colors:
planckian-like spectral distributions. The (a) additive primary colors; (b) subtractive primary colors.3
term correlated color temperature is used for
sources (such as fluorescent lamps) that
have different spectral distributions. (a)
The color of light is determined by its
wavelength components. (There is no
characteristic wavelength for white light.) Green
Figure 13 illustrates the wavelengths of
the colors of the visible portion of the
spectrum. A spectral color is
monochromatic, consisting entirely of Yellow Cyan
light of one wavelength. Most light
sources are not monochromatic, meaning
they are comprised of a variety of White
wavelengths. Sunlight and white light are
mixtures of the entire visible light
spectrum. Red Blue
All of the visible colors can be created
by mixing the proper amounts of the Magenta
primary colors. Emitted light of any color
can be created by mixing the additive
primaries (red, green and blue
components) in color displays or
projectors. The color of objects created by (b)
reflected light is created using subtractive
primaries. Each subtractive primary Magenta
absorbs one of the additive primaries and
reflects the other two. The subtractive
primaries are magenta, yellow, and cyan.
The rest of the spectrum is created by
Violet/blue Red/orange
mixing pigments of these three
subtractive primary colors, as shown in
Fig. 14. Brown/black
FIGURE 13. Wavelength of light colors: (a) refraction of colors Cyan Yellow
at different wavelengths; (b) color wavelengths.3
Green
(a)
Red
Orange
White Yellow
light Green
Refracted
Blue
light
Indigo
Violet
(b)
Wavelength (nm)
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PART 3. Photometry1-3,8
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1. Laboratory photometers are fixed in This method of photometry is called
position and yield very accurate visual photometry. Such meters are seldom
results. used in the twenty-first century; they
2. Portable photometers are of lower have been replaced by photodetectors,
accuracy for making measurements in quantitative meters sensitive to light’s
the field. physical properties. The technology of
Both types of meters may be grouped measuring radiant energy incident on a
according to the quantity measured: receiver and measuring electrical
luminous intensity (candelas), luminous quantities is referred to as physical
flux, illuminance, luminance and light photometry. Physical photometers are more
distribution. Devices measuring accurate and simpler to operate than their
reflectance and transmittance, color, earlier counterparts.
spectral distribution and visibility are not To achieve the aim of photometry, the
considered photometers. characteristics of human vision must be
In the twenty-first century, most taken into account. The relative spectral
photometers contain solid state devices responsivity of the human eye is called
such as photovoltaic cells. A photovoltaic the spectral luminous efficiency function for
cell converts radiant energy directly into photopic vision, or the V(l) function, and is
electrical energy. It provides a small defined by the International Commission
current proportional to the incident on Illumination (Commission
illumination and also produces a small Internationale de l’éclairage, International
electromotive force that forces this current Commission on Illumination, CIE). The
through a low resistance circuit. V(l) function is in the domain 360 to
With modern metering techniques, 830 nm and is normalized at its peak,
electronic alterations can be accomplished 555 nm (Fig. 16). This model is used by
to keep the output of a receiver and the International Committee for Weights
amplifier combination in range of and Measures (Comité International des
linearity and readability. Poids et Mesures, CIPM) to help define
the candela. The values of the function at
1 nm increments are tabulated and
referenced.8,13 A photodetector having a
Photometric spectral responsivity matched to the V(l)
function replaces human eyes in
Measurement8 photometry.
Photometry is the measurement of light Radiometry concerns physical
and its properties, and the measuring measurement of optical radiation as a
instrument is a photometer. The primary function of its wavelength. As specified in
aim of photometry is to measure visible the definition of the candela by CIPM, a
optical radiation, light, in such a way that photometric quantity Xv is defined in
the results correlate with visual sensation relation to the corresponding radiometric
to a normal human observing that quantity Xe,l by the equation:
radiation. Before 1940, visual comparison
dominated photometry: an observer was 830 nm
1.2
FIGURE 15. Geometry for detector based candela realization.8
1.0
Illuminance value (ratio)
0.6
Light Precision aperture
source
0.4
0.2
0
V(l) correction filter Silicon photodiode 350 400 450 500 550 600 650 700 750
Wavelength (nm)
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The constant Km relates the photometric light sources, lighting materials and
quantities and radiometric quantities and lighting installations may be measured,
is the maximum spectral luminous including (1) illuminance, (2) luminance,
efficacy (of radiation) for photopic vision. (3) luminous intensity, (4) luminous flux,
Km is rounded to 683 lm·W–1 with (5) contrast, (6) color appearance and
negligible errors.8 color rendering, (7) spectral distribution,
(8) electrical characteristics and (9) radiant
Photometric Quantities energy. Photometric quantities are defined
below.
Radiometry is the measurement of radiant
Luminous Intensity. The basis of all
energy, both visible and invisible.
photometric quantities is luminous
Photometry in Greek means simply light
intensity, measured in candelas. The
measurement. Radiometry and photometry
candela (cd) is based on the radiation
have the same principles but different
from platinum at solidification
units of measure (Table 2). As indicated in
temperature, emitting monochromatic
Table 3, many characteristics of light,
Light
Colora none spectrophotometer and colorimeter
Illuminance (flux density)b lux photometer
Polarization degreea percent (dimensionless ratio) polarization photometer
Polarization orientationa degree (angle) analyzing prism
Wavelengtha meter spectrometer
Light Sources
Angle, direction or zonal distributiona lumen or candela per direction goniophotometer
Color temperatureb kelvin colorimeter or filtered photometer
Energy radiateda joule per square meter calibrated radiometer
Luminanceb candela per square meter photometer or luminance meter
Luminous flux (light output)a lumen integrating sphere photometer
Luminous intensityb candela photometer
Power consumptionb watt watt meter, or volt meter and ammeter c
Spectral power distributiona watts per nanometer spectroradiometer
Lighting Materials
Optical density dimensionless number densitometer
Reflectanceb percent (dimensionless ratios) reflectometer
Spectral reflectance and transmittancea percent (at specific wavelengths) spectrophotometer
Transmittanceb percent (dimensionless ratios) photometer
a. Can be measured in laboratory.
b. Can be measured in field or laboratory.
c. For direct current and for unity power factor alternating current.
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radiation of frequency 540 THz with a Luminous Exitance. Luminous exitance Mv
radiant intensity in that direction of is the density of luminous flux leaving a
1/683 W·sr –1. surface at a point. The equation is the
Luminous Flux. Although the candela is a same as Eq. 16, with dΦv meaning the
base unit, luminous flux is a more luminous flux leaving a surface. This
fundamental photometric quantity in that quantity is rarely used in photometry.
the four other photometric quantities are Luminous Exposure. Luminous exposure is
defined in terms of lumen with the time integral of illuminance over a
appropriate geometric factors. Luminous given duration and is not discussed here.
flux Φv is measured in lumens and is the Color temperature. Color temperature Tc
time rate of flow of light as weighted by is the temperature of a planckian radiator
V(l): with radiation of the same chromaticity as
that of the light source. Because the
(14) Φ v = Km ∫Φ e,l V (l ) d l chromaticity coordinates of most lamps
do not fall on the planckian locus, actual
l
lamp calibrations use either distribution
temperature or correlated color
where Φe,l is the spectral concentration of temperature.
radiant flux (W·nm–1) as a function of
wavelength l in nanometers. Distribution Temperature. Distribution
temperature Td is the temperature of a
Luminous Intensity. Luminous intensity Iv blackbody with a spectral power
is the luminous flux from a point source distribution closest to that of the light
and emitted per unit solid angle in a source in question and it is useful for
given direction: quasiplanckian sources.
Correlated Color Temperature. This
dΦv
(15) I v = quantity is used for sources (for example,
dΩ discharge lamps) whose spectral power
distribution differs significantly from that
where dΦv is the luminous flux leaving of planckian radiation. The correlated
the source and propagating in an element color temperature Tcp is the temperature
of solid angle dΩ containing the given of the planckian radiator whose perceived
direction. color most closely resembles that of the
Illuminance. Illuminance Ev is the density light source in question. Informally, the
(in lux) of luminous flux incident on a phrase color temperature can denote
given area of a planar surface at a given correlated color temperature.
instant: General information (definitions,
symbols, and expressions) on many other
d Φv physical quantities and units, including
(16) E v = photometric and radiometric quantities,
dA
are given elsewhere.8,14,15
where dΦv is the luminous flux incident
on an element dA of the surface.
Luminance. Luminance Lv (in candelas per Calibration8
square meter) is the luminous flux at a
given surface where the angle of incidence
or refraction is considered. The luminous Luminous Flux Calibration
flux may be exiting, passing through, or The NIST luminous flux unit is based on
arriving at the surface. Historically, the candela and is derived by using an
luminance has been referred to as integrating sphere (Fig. 17) and an
photometric brightness: external source. An integrating sphere is
an optical device, a hollow sphere to
d 2 Φv control light for testing and calibration of
(17) L v = optical instruments such as luminous flux
dΩ dA cosθ
measuring devices or standard lamp
emitters. The total flux of a lamp is
where d2Fv given in Eq. 17 is the measured inside the sphere and compared
luminous flux emitted (reflected or to a known amount of flux introduced
transmitted) by an elementary beam into the sphere from a source outside the
passing through the given point and sphere. The measurement device is at an
propagating in the solid angle dΩ aperture cut into the sphere. The light
containing the given direction; dA is the may be introduced through another
area of a section of that beam containing aperture or by a source positioned in the
the given point; and θ is the angle center of the sphere. The interior of the
between the normal to that section and sphere is painted white with a high
the direction of the beam. reflectance paint such as barium sulfate,
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so that light of all colors is diffusely aperture or a flat diffuser on the front are
reflected, not absorbed by the interior recommended.
walls. The cavity is spherical so that light Some illuminance meter heads have a
is diffusely reflected and distributed dome shaped or mesa shaped diffuser in
uniformly in the cavity. the front. In this case, it is usually
difficult to define the correct reference
Precautions for Photometers and plane. Such illuminance meters should
not be used as standard photometers
Illuminance Meters unless they are always used at the same
An understanding of how a photometer is distance from the source. Also,
contructed can help in understanding its illuminance meters with poor spectral
operation. match or with only a three-digit display
A standard photometer head should are not adequate as standard photometers.
have either a limiting aperture (whose Illuminance meters may have various
area is much smaller than the photodiode structures of the light receiving surface for
area) or a flat diffuser such as an opal cosine correction. The reference plane of
glass in front of the V(l) correction filter an illuminance meter head can be used
so that the reference plane of the during calibration. The reference plane of
photometer is accurately and clearly photometer heads (without an aperture or
defined. Some commercial photometer a diffuser) and illuminance meter heads
heads only have a V(l) correction filter can be experimentally determined.
attached in front of the silicon
photodiode. If a photometer head does Standard Photometers
not have an aperture or a diffuser, the
photodiode surface might be used as the At the National Institute of Standards and
reference plane of the photometer head. Technology, the candela is realized and
In this case, because of the refraction maintained on a group of standard
index of the V(l) correction filter, which photometers (referred to as the NIST
is usually several millimeters in thickness, standard photometers) calibrated for
the effective reference plane can be illuminance responsivity in amperes per
several millimeters from the photodiode lux (A·lx –1). A standard photometer
surface. consists basically of a silicon photodiode,
Sometimes, the front surface of the a V(l) correction filter, and a precision
filter is simply defined as the reference aperture (Fig. 15).
plane of such photometer heads, in which These standard photometers also
case the true reference plane can be more embody the NIST illuminance unit and
than 10 mm from the filter surface. When allow luminous intensity to be
the reference plane is not correctly determined from measured illuminance
defined, the departure from the inverse and distance. The realization and
square law causes the responsivity of the maintenance of the photometric units at
photometer to vary with distance to the NIST are shown in Fig. 18. The NIST
source, and serious errors may occur when cryogenic radiometer serves as the starting
the photometer is close to the source. The point at the top of the chain.
same problem occurs with a large lamp at The illuminance responsivity (A·lx–1) of
close distances. To avoid these difficulties, each photometer is calculated from the
standard photometers having a limiting spectral responsivity, the aperture area
and other correction factors. The standard
photometers are recalibrated annually by
using the detector spectral responsivity
FIGURE 17. Geometry (top view) of integrating sphere for scale. The details of the candela
luminous flux measurement. realization are described elsewhere.8
Table 4 provides a list of the photometric
Open calibration services currently available at
NIST. The complete description of these
services is reported in a user’s guide.16 The
guide covers details of optical radiation, of
calibration procedures and of
measurement ranges and uncertainties.
Internal NIST issues calibrated artifacts to
source Baffle 1
Detector customers and calibrates artifacts
submitted by customers.
Baffle 2
External
source
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Integrating Sphere Photometer
Related Instruments1,2 The total luminous flux from a source can
be measured by an integrating
sphere.1-2,6,17-20 Other geometric shapes
Reflectometers and Gloss Meters have also been used. The theory of the
Reflectometers are instruments used to integrating sphere assumes an empty
measure reflectance of materials or sphere whose inner surface is perfectly
surfaces in specialized ways. The diffusing and of uniform nonselective
reflectometer measures diffuse, specular reflectance. Every point on the inner
and total reflectance. Those instruments surface reflects to every other point and
designed to determine specular reflectance the illuminance at any point is made up
are known as gloss meters. of two components: the flux coming
One traditional reflectometer used a directly from the source and that reflected
collimated beam. The beam source and from other parts of the sphere wall. With
receiving cell were mounted in a fixed these assumptions, it follows that, for any
relationship in the same housing. The part of the wall, the illuminance and the
housing had an aperture through which luminance from reflected light is
the beam travels. This head (aperture) was proportional only to the total flux from
set on a standard reflectance reference the source, regardless of its distribution.
with the aperture against the standard. The luminance of a small area of the
The head was placed on the test surface wall or the luminance of the outer surface
and the reading is recorded. of a diffusely transmitting window in the
Two cautions are recommended with wall, carefully screened from direct light
reflectometers. The reference standard from the source but receiving light from
should be in the range of the value other parts of the sphere, is therefore a
expected for the surface to be measured. relative measurement of the flux output
Also, if the area to be considered is large, of the source. The integrating sphere is
several measurements should be taken not perfect: its interior contains a light
and averaged to obtain a representative source, its supports, electric wires, an
value. aperture and a baffle between the light
Absolute cryogenic
(W)
radiometer
56 Visual Testing
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sources and the aperture. The various Radiometers
elements entering into the considerations
Radiometers are used to measure radiant
of a sphere, as an integrator, make it
power over a wide range of wavelengths,
difficult to use a sphere for absolute
including the ultraviolet, visible or
measurement of flux without correction
infrared spectral regions.
factors.
The overall response of such detectors
can be modified by using appropriate
Equivalent Sphere Illumination filters to approximate some desired
Photometers function.
Equivalent sphere illumination may be
used to evaluate lighting systems. The Spectrophotometers1-3
equivalent sphere illumination of a visual Spectrophotometers21 and
test object at a specific location in a room spectroradiometers include two main
illuminated with a specific lighting system components.
is defined as that level of perfectly diffuse
(spherical) illuminance that makes the 1. A monochromator separates or
test object as visible in the equivalent disperses the wavelengths of the
sphere as it is in the real lighting spectrum using a prism (diffraction
environment. grating) to disperse the luminous flux
into a spectrum for analysis. Any
given wavelength of light is isolated
by an exit slit. Monochromators often
TABLE 4. Light measuring instruments calibrated by use optical glass for the visible
National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST). spectrum. Measurement in the
This list is subject to agency revision. Restrictions may ultraviolet or infrared spectrum
apply. requires specialized quartz optical
components.
Devices Issued by NIST
2. A receptor measures the power
1000 W tungsten quartz halogen lamp in two-post base
contained within a certain wavelength
30 W deuterium arc lamp in two-post base range of the dispersed light.
Color temperature standard lamps
When a spectroradiometer measures
Luminous intensity standard lamps
the spectral power distribution of a
Opal glass luminance coefficient standards
radiant energy source, the radiation enters
Spectral radiance standard, integrating sphere source the entrance window (entrance slit) and is
Spectral radiance standard, tungsten strip lamp diffracted by the diffraction grating. The
Standard reference photometer exit and focusing lens are positioned to
Devices accepted for test or calibration isolate the desired wavelength. This
Color measuring instruments for displays wavelength passes through the exit slit
Flashing light photometers and is measured by a photosensitive
Illuminance meters device.
Incandescent and florescent lamps, for total luminous flux, Spectrophotometers measure the light
luminous Intensity or color temperature reflected from the test surface. The
Lamps, for color temperature concept and operation is very similar to
that of a spectroradiometer. The
Light emitting diodes, for luminous intensity and luminous flux
spectrophotometer compares the reflected
Luminance meters
or transmitted light to the incident light.
Luminance sources and transmitting diffusers Many spectrophotometers have a built-in
Material, for spectral reflectance light source. The values measured by any
Material, for spectral transmittance photometer depend on the quality of the
Material, for specular gloss incident light.
Material, for surface color (illuminated at normal and measured at
45 degrees to surface)
Goniophotometer
Photodetectors, for spatial uniformity of responsivity
Photometers A goniometer is an instrument designed
to measure an angle precisely — for
Spectral transmittance filters (carbon yellow glass)
example, the angle of a cutting blade, the
Spectral transmittance filters (cobalt blue glass)
surface tension on a drop of liquid or the
Spectral transmittance filters (copper green glass) range of motion of an artificial limb.
Spectral transmittance filters (selenium orange glass) Goniometers are used to triangulate the
sources of radar or radio signals. If the
goniometer is also a photometric
instrument, it is called a goniophotometer
and measures precisely the direction of
light — that is, its angles of propagation
and incidence.22
Light 57
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References
1. Section 2, “The Physics of Light.” 13. CIE 18.2, The Basis of Physical
Nondestructive Testing Handbook, Photometry, second edition. Vienna,
second edition: Vol. 8, Visual and Austria: Commission Internationale
Optical Testing. Columbus, OH: de l’éclairage [International
American Society for Nondestructive Commission on Illumination] (CIE)
Testing (1993): p 29-50. (1983).
2. IES Lighting Handbook: Reference 14. ISO 31, Quantities and Units. Geneva,
Volume. New York, NY: Illuminating Switzerland: International
Engineering Society of North America Organization for Standardization
(1981). Superseded by IESNA Lighting (2005).
Handbook: Reference and Application, 15. Appendix. IES Lighting Handbook,
ninth edition. New York, NY: eighth edition. Washington, DC:
Illuminating Engineering Society of Illuminating Engineering Society of
North America (2000). North America (1993): p 946-949.
3. Sayler, G.[C.] ASNT Level III Study 16. NIST Special Publication 250, NIST
Guide: Visual and Optical Testing Calibration Program: Calibration
Method. Columbus, OH: American Services Users Guide. Gaithersburg,
Society for Nondestructive Testing MD: National Institute of Standards
(1998, revised 2006). and Technology (2009).
4. Born, M. and E. Wolf. Principles of 17. Rosa, E.B. and A.H. Taylor. Paper 447,
Optics: Electromagnetic Theory of “Theory Construction and Use of the
Propagation, Interference and Diffraction Photometric Integrating Sphere.”
of Light, seventh edition. Cambridge, Bulletin of the NBS. Washington, DC:
United Kingdom: Cambridge National Bureau of Standards
University (1999). [National Institute of Standards and
5. Maxwell, J.C. A Treatise on Electricity Technology] (September 1921).
and Magnetism, third edition (1891). 18. Buckley, H. “The Effect of Non-
New York, NY: Dover (1960). Uniform Reflectance of the Interior
6. Walsh, J.W.T. Photometry, third Surface of Spherical Photometric
edition. London, England: Constable Integrators.” Transactions of the IES.
(1958). Vol. 41. London, United Kingdom:
7. “General Guide to Photometry.” Illuminating Engineering Society
Illuminating Engineering. Vol. 50. (July 1946): p 167.
New York, NY: Illuminating 19. Hardy, A.C. and O.W. Pineo. “The
Engineering Society of North America Errors Due to the Finite Size of Holes
(March 1955): p 147. and Sample in Integrating Spheres.”
8. Ohno, Y. NIST SP 250-37, Photometric Journal of the Optical Society of America.
Calibrations. Gaithersburg, MD: Vol. 21. Washington, DC: Optical
National Institute of Standards and Society of America (August 1931):
Technology (1997). p 502.
9. Forsythe, W.E. Measurement of Radiant 20. IESNA LM-78, Approved Method for
Energy. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Total Luminous Flux Measurement of
(1937). Lamps Using an Integrating Sphere
10. CIE 81, Mesopic Photometry: History, Photometer. New York, NY:
Special Problems, and Practical Solutions Illuminating Engineering Society of
(1989). Vienna, Austria: Commission North America (2007).
Internationale de l’éclairage 21. Larason, T.C. and J.M. Houston. NIST
[International Commission on SP 250-41, Spectroradiometric Detector
Illumination] (CIE) (1989). Measurements: Ultraviolet, Visible, and
11. IESNA TM-12, Spectral Effects of Near-Infrared Detectors for Spectral
Lighting on Visual Performance at Power. Gaithersburg, MD: National
Mesopic Light Levels. New York, NY: Institute of Standards and Technology
Illuminating Engineering Society of (2008).
North America (2006). 22. IESNA LM-75, Goniophotometer Types
12. Wright, W.D. Photometry and the Eye. and Photometric Coordinates. New York,
London, United Kingdom: Hatton NY: Illuminating Engineering Society
Press (1949): p 31, 80, 123, 124. of North America (2001).
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IESNA LM-115, Guide for Reporting General
Bibliography Lighting Equipment Engineering Data for
Indoor Luminaires. New York, NY:
Bureau of Naval Personnel. Basic Optics Illuminating Engineering Society of
and Optical Instruments. New York, NY: North America (2003).
Dover (1969). Ohno, Y. and Yuqin Zong. “Detector-
CIE 17.4, International Lighting Vocabulary. Based Integrating Sphere Photometry.”
Vienna, Austria: Commission Proceedings, 24th Session of the CIE
Internationale de l’éclairage [Warsaw, Poland, 1999]. Vol. 1-1.
[International Commission on Wien, Österreich [Vienna, Austria]:
Illumination] (CIE) (1987). Commission Internationale de
CIE 81, Mesopic Photometry: History, Special l’Éclairage [International Commission
Problems and Practical Solutions. on Illumination] (CIE) (1999);
Vienna, Austria: Commission p 155-160.
Internationale de l’Éclairage
[International Commission on Color
Illumination] (CIE) (1989).
Fowles, G.R. Introduction to Modern Optics, CIE Report 15-2004, Colorimetry, third
second edition. New York, NY: edition. Wien, Österreich [Vienna,
Dover (1989). Austria]: Commission Internationale
Hecht, E. Optics, second edition. Reading, de l’Éclairage [International
MA: Addison Wesley (2001). Commission on Illumination] (CIE)
Hecht, E. Schaum’s Outline of Theory and (2004).
Problems of Optics. New York, NY: CIE S 014-2; ISO 1164-2, CIE Standard
McGraw-Hill (2007). llluminants for Colorimetry. Wien,
IESNA Lighting Handbook: Reference and Österreich [Vienna, Austria]:
Application, ninth edition. New York, Commission Internationale de
NY: Illuminating Engineering Society l’Éclairage [International Commission
of North America (2000). on Illumination (CIE)] (2006).
Johnson, B.K. Optics and Optical Schanda, J. Colorimetry: Understanding the
Instruments: An Introduction, third CIE System. New York, NY: Wiley
edition. New York, NY: Dover (1960). (2007).
Smith, W.J. Modern Optical Engineering,
fourth edition. New York, NY:
McGraw-Hill (2007).
Measurement Units
IEEE/ASTM SI 10, Standard for Use of the
Calibration International System of Units (SI): The
Modern Metric System. New York, NY:
IESNA LM-45, Electrical and Photometric IEEE (2002).
Measurements of General Service Taylor, B.N. and A. Thompson. NIST
Incandescent Filament Lamps. New York, SP 330, The International System of
NY: Illuminating Engineering Society Units (SI). Washington, DC: United
of North America (2000). States Government Printing Office
IESNA LM-46, Photometric Testing of Indoor (2008).
Luminaires Using High Intensity Taylor, B.N. and C.E. Kuyatt.
Discharge or Incandescent Filament NIST TN 1297, Guidelines for Evaluating
Lamps. New York, NY: Illuminating and Expressing the Uncertainty of NIST
Engineering Society of North America Measurement Results. Gaithersburg,
(2004). MD: National Institute of Standards
IESNA LM-51, Electrical and Photometric and Technology (1994).
Measurements of HID Lamps. New York, Thompson, A. and B.N. Taylor. NIST
NY: Illuminating Engineering Society SP 811, Guide for the Use of the
of North America (2000). International System of Units (SI).
IESNA LM-59, Electrical and Photometric Washington, DC: United States
Measurement of Low Pressure Sodium Government Printing Office (2008).
Lamps. New York, NY: Illuminating
Engineering Society of North America
(2000).
Light 59
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C
3
H A P T E R
http://www.mohandes-iran.com
PART 1. Vision
62 Visual Testing
http://www.mohandes-iran.com
from one group to the other. On the other Experimentation in the area of visual
hand, the tilted Ts share no edge search tasks encompasses several tests of
orientations with the upright Ts, making many individuals. Such experiments start
them stand out in the figure. with studies of features that should stand
Differentiation of colors is more out readily, displaying basic elements of
difficult when the different colors are in early vision recognition. The experiments
similarly shaped objects in a pattern. The cover several categories, including
recognition of geometric similarities tends quantitative properties such as length or
to overpower the difference in colors, number. Also included are search tasks
even when colors are of interest. Also, in a concentrating on single lines, orientation,
group of different shapes of unlike colors, curves, simple forms and ratios of sizes.
where no one form is dominant, a All these tests verify that visual systems
particular form may hide within the respond more favorably to targets that
varied field of view. However, if the have something added (Q versus O) rather
particular form contains a major color than something missing.
variance, it is very apparent. Experiments In addition, it has been determined
have shown that such an object may be that the ability to distinguish differences
detected with as much ease from a field of in intensity becomes more acute with a
thirty as it is from a field of three.4 decreasing field intensity. This is the basis
of Weber’s law. The features it addresses
Searching in Field of View1 are those involved in the early visual
processes: color, size, contrast, orientation,
The obstacles to differentiation discussed curvature, lines, borders, movement and
above indicate that similar objects are stereoscopic depth.
difficult to identify individually. During
preattentive processing, particular objects
that share common properties such as
length, width, thickness or orientation are Fluorescent Materials1
not different enough to stand out. If the Fluorescence is the absorption of light at
differences between a target object and one wavelength and reemission of this
the general field is dramatic, then a visual light at another wavelength. Fluorescence
inspector requires little knowledge of is a complex phenomenon that occurs in
what is to be identified. When the target gases, liquids and solids. For the purpose
object is similar to the general field, the of visual nondestructive testing,
inspector needs more specific detail about fluorescence is used with long wave
the target. In addition, the time required ultraviolet radiation as an excitation
to detect a target increases linearly with source.
the number of similar objects in its Studies show that the intensity of
general field. fluorescence in most situations is directly
When an unspecified target is being proportional to the intensity of the
sought, the entire field must be ultraviolet radiation that excites it. Care
scrutinized. If the target is known, it has must be taken when using short wave or
been shown statistically that only about wide bandwidth ultraviolet sources. A
half of the field must be searched. safety habit is to hold the lamp so the
The differences between a search for light is directed away from you. Long
simple features and a search for wave ultraviolet is generally safe, but
conjunctions or combinations of features individuals should use adequate
have implications in nondestructive protection if they are photosensitive or
testing. For example, visual inspectors subjected to long exposure times.
may be required to take more time to Fluorescence and ultraviolet radiation
check a manufactured component when are discussed in this volume’s chapter on
the possible errors in manufacturing are physics and in the discussion of safety in
characterized by combinations of the book’s introductory chapter.
undesired properties. Less time could be
taken for a visual test if manufacturing
errors always changed a single property.5
Another aspect of searching the field of Components of the
view addresses the absence of features.
The presence of a feature is easier to Human Eye
locate than its absence. For example, if a The components of the human eye
single letter O is introduced to a field of (Fig. 2) are often compared to those of a
many Qs, it is more difficult to detect camera. The front window (the cornea)
than a single Q in a field of Os. The same and the interior crystalline lens are the
difficulty is apparent when searching for primary focusing elements of the eye.
an open O in a field of closed Os. In this These two elements together work like the
case statistics show that the apparent lens of a camera.
similarity in the target objects is greater The cornea is the highly curved front
and even more search time is necessary. surface that provides most of the focusing
Retina
64 Visual Testing
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Signals from the rods and cones are condition is called nearsighted and
transmitted to bipolar cells before experiences blurred far vision. If the
transmission to the retinal ganglion cells. refracting power is too weak, or if the eye
Axons of the retinal ganglion cells is too short, the best optical focus is
comprise the optic nerve and transmit behind the retina. An eye with this
visual signals to the brain. It is interesting condition is called hyperopic; a person
to note that light first passes through with this condition is called farsighted and
retinal cells and elements and around experiences blurred near vision. In these
retinal blood vessels before forming the cases, lenses can be prescribed either in
retinal image at the layer of the rods and spectacles or contact lenses to modify the
cones. Vision is improved centrally, overall refracting power to get a sharply
however, when the inner retinal layers are focused image of the world onto the
pulled aside at the fovea centralis to allow retina. Additionally, if the shape of the
straight passage directly to the cones in cornea or crystalline lens surface is toric
the central retina. (flat on one side) and not spherical, a
To focus an image sharply on the clear image is not found at any location.
retina, the refracting power of the eye In this case, astigmatism is present. To
must be precisely tuned to the overall eye correct for astigmatism, the correcting
length.11 If the eye power is too strong, or lenses must be toric in an opposite
if the eye is too long, the optical focal orientation.
point falls short of the retina. Thus, the Additional information about the eye is
image is poorly focused on the retina available elsewhere.1,9-13
when viewing a distant object. This eye is
called myopic; a person with this
FIGURE 3. Vision acuity letter and test distance: (a) letter of given size moved to one third of
original test distance subtends angle three times larger and therefore represents vision acuity
three times worse (for example, 6/6 at 6 m but 2/6 = 6/18 at 2 m [20/20 at 20 ft but
6.67/20 = 20/60 at 6.67 ft]); (b) small, near object and large, distant object subtend same
visual angle, so nearer letter must be smaller to subtend same angle to the eye as larger,
more distant letter.
6 m (20 ft)
(b)
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Angles Subtended by Snellen 6 6 6
(6) = ≅
Letters 6 × 2.88 17.28 18
For example, at 6 m (20 ft) distance, a
letter 25 mm (1 in.) tall would subtend an or as follows in English units:
angle of 14.4 minutes of arc to a test
subject, where 60 min = 1 deg. The 20 20 20
calculations are shown below: (7) = ≅
20 × 2.88 57.6 60
68 Visual Testing
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2. The Mars™ letter contrast sensitivity navy blue, orange with yellow and
test (Fig. 6) is similar in design to the blue/green with white (or gray).
Pelli-Robson™ letter sensitivity chart These dichromats are different from
but calls for a normal reading distance. red/green defectives: those with
It also uses letters of varying contrast. protanopia, whose long wavelength (red)
Both the Pelli-Robson™ and Mars™ sensitive cones are missing or defective,
letter charts are easily understood by and those with deuteranopia, whose
patients and require little testing time, middle wavelength (green) sensitive cones
and their repeated results appear to are missing or defective.
have excellent reliability.19,20 The Red/green color vision defects are
Mars™ chart, however, is hand held inherited with sex linked recessive
and is easily stored and carried for use transmission. The controlling genes for
at short notice. the red and green photopigments are
3. The Vistech™ chart presents grating located on the X chromosome, so males
targets of five different spatial have red/green color deficiencies much
frequencies.21 Subjects report the more often than females. Inherited
orientation of the gratings (tilted left, blue/yellow defects involve cones
right, vertical, or target is blank) as sensitive to short wavelengths and are
contrast is slowly decreased. The rare, affecting 0.003 percent of people.
results provide a measure of contrast They are as likely to affect women as men
sensitivity to various spatial frequency (Table 2).
targets. It is reported,22 however, that
the Vistech™ chart has lower reliability Anomalous Trichromatism
(that is, repeatability from test to test)
than other contrast sensitivity tests. Six percent of males and 0.35 percent of
women have all three component systems
but with an abnormal sensitivity in one of
the two longer wavelength sensitive
components. The abnormal red/green
Color Discrimination photopigments have sensitivities shifted
Human color vision is possible because of
the three chromatic components of the
color processing system in a normal visual
system.23 In bright light, the retinal cone FIGURE 6. Mars™ letter contrast sensitivity
cells are the predominant photoreceptors chart. Vision test images in this book are
for vision. The perception of color is provided for educational purposes and must
based on differences in wavelength not be used for vision examinations.
responses among three types of retinal Contrasts have been altered in printing and
cone cells: short wavelength are not accurate for vision examinations.
(blue/yellow), middle wavelength (green)
and long wavelength (red).
Dichromatism
About 92 percent of males and over
99 percent of females have normal cone
systems.24 Of the 8 percent of males and
0.45 percent of females who have
inherited abnormal components, color
discrimination can vary from nearly
normal to severely inferior. Deficient color
discrimination is commonly and
erroneously called color blindness. About
two percent of males and 0.05 percent of
women are dichromats, limited by a
dichromatic (two-color) system. These
individuals must judge all colors using
only the system sensitive to short
wavelengths and one of the two systems
sensitive to longer wavelengths. Although
these individuals are not totally color
blind, their color discrimination is
substantially reduced. Colors that are
easily perceived as different by color
vision normals can look identical and be
confused by dichromats, so color naming
errors are commonplace. Common color
confusions for severe red/green defectives
are brown with dark green, purple with
TABLE 2. Comparative prevalence of color vision TABLE 3. Acquired color vision deficiencies from diseases
deficiencies for individuals of European descent. affecting eyes.
Noncaucasians show about half of percentages. Structure Primary Axis of
Red/green deficiencies are inherited as sex linked Affected Pathology Confusion
recessive traits. Blue/yellow (tritanomalous) deficiencies
are inherited as autosomal dominant traits. Crystalline lens aging cataracts blue/yellow
Males Females Retina age related macular degeneration blue/yellow
Color Vision Cones (percent) (percent) retinitis pigmentosa blue/yellow
Optic nerve glaucoma blue/yellow
Normal normal 92 99.55 Leber’s hereditary optic atrophy red/green
Anomalous deficiencies (abnormal cone) optic neuritis red/green
Protanomalous long wavelength sensitive 1 0.02 Systemic diseases diabetic retinopathy blue/yellow
Deuteranomalous middle wavelength sensitive 5 0.40 hypertensive retinopathy blue/yellow
Tritanomalous short wavelength sensitive unknown unknown
Dichromatic deficiencies (missing cone)
Protanopic long wavelength sensitive 1 0.02
Deuteranopic middle wavelength sensitive 1 0.01
Tritanopic short wavelength sensitive 0.003 0.003
70 Visual Testing
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PART 3. Vision Testing
Vision Acuity
Standardization
In a typical vision screening examination,
vision acuity is measured for a far (3 m
[10 ft] or greater) and a near (0.5 m
[20 in.] or closer) observation distance. In
the twentieth century, standardized
testing changed only slightly; however,
scoring methodology changed
significantly after 1994.
Chart Design
In 1994 the Committee on Vision of the
National Research Council26
recommended that vision acuity charts be
designed such that there is general
uniformity from one row of letters to the
next (Fig. 7). That is, the only difference
between rows should be the size of the
optotypes (chart symbols) on the row. The
spacing between optotypes at each level
and the spacing between successive rows
should be proportional to the size of the
optotypes on the row in question. Also,
all optotypes should have about the same
difficulty of recognition and each row of
72 Visual Testing
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The most common natural cause of J1 corresponds to 6/6 (20/20) when held
poor near vision is presbyopia, the natural at 356 mm (14 in.) but corresponds to 6/7
loss of focusing ability with age. Workers (20/23) when held at 300 mm (12 in.) and
over the age of 45 years need reading 6/5 (20/17) when held at 400 mm
glasses or bifocals to ensure clear vision (16 in.). The snellen equivalent acuity, for
for work inside 500 mm (20 in.). example 6/6 (20/20), may be specified on
Additionally, it is important to note that the jaeger test card; however, this
reading glasses or bifocals do not provide specification applies only when the test
clear vision at all near distances: chart is held at the distance for which the
depending upon the power of the reading chart was designed. It has been
glasses, vision may not be clear at the recommended25 that jaeger notation
specific distance required for near should not be used for standardized
inspection tasks. For example, a bifocal testing because jaeger letters on charts
power of +2.50 diopters (a diopter is the from one manufacturer may be twice as
reciprocal of the focusing distance in large as those from another.33
meters) provides clear vision at 400 mm The height of letters on reading cards
(about 16 in.). If visual inspection is varies according to the reading distance
required at an intermediate distance (for specified on the individual card. There is
example at arm’s length, about 660 mm), usually a set of numbers down the center
the material may be blurred through both of a card, one for each jaeger size and one
the top and lower segment of the bifocal for each distance at which that size text is
glasses. Care must be taken to wear to be read. At that distance, the letters
corrective eyewear based upon the
working distances of a worker’s inspection
tasks to ensure vision is good at all
required distances. As an example, the FIGURE 8. Jaeger reading chart for performance examination
Federal Aviation Administration (FAA)31 of near vision acuity. Vision test images in this book are
requires commercial pilots over the age of provided for educational purposes and must not be used for
50 to demonstrate good vision acuity at vision examinations.
far distance, near distance (400 mm
[16 in.]) and an intermediate distance of
800 mm (32 in.). These requirements
ensure that pilots can read paperwork,
charts, gages and controls of aircraft at
near and intermediate distances.
Near point vision acuity testing is most
often accomplished at a distance of
400 mm (16 in.): the distance from the
plane of the eyeglasses (or the bridge of
the nose) to the center of the reading
material. Because vision acuity is a
measure of the visual angle of the smallest
letters read, it is imperative that the test
distance be accurate for proper
documentation.
Near vision testing for nondestructive
testing personnel can be challenging
because of nonstandardized wording of
vision requirements set by different
agencies overseeing nondestructive testing
personnel training and qualification. A
sample requirement is as follows.
The NDT inspector shall have natural
or corrected near distance acuity in at
least one eye capable of reading the
Jaeger Number 1 Test Chart or
equivalent at a distance of not less
than 30 cm (12 in.).32
The jaeger near point chart (Fig. 8) is
widely used in the United States for
performance examinations of near vision
acuity. English language text is arranged
into groups of gradually increasing size.
Letter size is designated as J1, J2 and so
forth, according to the font size of the
text. The vision acuity equivalent of each
classic jaeger designation depends upon
the distance at which the chart is held.
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Color vision tests are designed with designed only to identify inherited
precise color and brightness red/green discrimination deficiencies. As
characteristics. If test conditions are not many acquired color deficits begin by
controlled, test symbols may differ from showing decreased blue/yellow
their backgrounds in brightness as well as discrimination, the Ishihara® plates may
color. Thus, an inspector with defective need to be supplemented if all types of
color vision may erroneously pass the test color discrimination are important.
not by having normal color Several instructions help use of
discrimination but by having normal isochromatic plates.
brightness discrimination. All testing 1. Use standard illuminant C (or its
should be accomplished using standard equivalent) to illuminate the test
illuminant C, the International plates with a minimum of 200 lx
Commission on Illumination’s standard illumination.
light source for color vision testing.36,37 2. Allow only 3 to 5 s per plate; more
This source simulates daylight: sunlight time leads to correct identification.
plus skylight. Incandescent lamps will 3. Subjects who fail the plates can be
have too much red light for testing and referred for further testing to grade the
typical fluorescent bulbs may have too type and severity of the apparent color
much blue light for testing. Fluorescent deficiency.
daylight bulbs are available that are 4. Do not allow subjects to touch the
acceptable for color vision testing. plates as this will greatly decrease plate
Standardized testing procedures are life, invalidating the relationship of
also required especially when tests have color and brightness between the test
strict pass/fail criteria. For example, figures and the background.
pseudoisochromatic plates should be 5. Close the test booklet and store it in a
viewed for only 3 to 5 s.37 An inspector closed drawer. Exposure to ultraviolet
even with a severe color deficiency may radiation and visible light will, over
be able to identify test symbols if a longer time, bleach out the plate colors.
viewing time is allowed. Also, shorter
viewing times (1 to 2 s) are not
encouraged even if a correct response is Farnsworth-Munsell 100 Hue Test
provided. This may give an unfair cue to
whether a correct or an incorrect response The farnsworth-munsell 100 hue test
was provided. Testers should display the was developed to measure the fine color
plates unhurriedly and in a consistent discrimination in persons with normal
manner that provides no feedback to the color vision and to evaluate losses in
examinee. those with defective color vision.37 The
Several standardized color vision tests test consists of 85 caps of color from
are described below along with their around the color circle. The colors of the
vocational uses. caps were chosen so that approximately
equal perceptual steps of color are
represented from one cap to the next.
Pseudoisochromatic Plates Subjects work with one-fourth of the caps
These tests are the most used tests in at a time and must replace the caps into a
clinical practice. Subjects must report tray in order of color. The test can be very
which figure made from dots or spots is difficult for a person with defective color
seen against a similar background. The vision because the difference in color
tests are typically designed to identify between adjacent caps is very small. The
subjects with congenital red/green test is rarely used for vocational
deficiency.37 For this purpose, they usually evaluations, because it requires 15 to
do an exceptional job. Nearly all subjects 20 min for administration. This test,
with defective color vision fail the tests, however, does present colors around the
while nearly all subjects with normal entire color circle so that any color
color vision pass: few false positives or discrimination deficiency can be
negatives are found. Also, in general, identified (red/green, blue/yellow or
whereas mild defectives make relatively overall discrimination loss). A total error
few errors and severe defectives make score is calculated for the test which
many, the number of errors made on provides an indication of the subject’s
these tests is not highly correlated with ability to see fine differences in color.
functional performance. There is a moderately wide variation in
Pseudoisochromatic plate tests are easy to total error score even for subjects showing
administer, however, and are frequently normal color vision by passing a
used as color vision screening pseudoisochromatic plate test. It has been
instruments. Individuals who fail the reported that 95 percent of adults with
pseudoisochromatic plate screening test normal color vision will have an error
are referred for further testing. score of 100 or less; however, 78 percent
The Ishihara® color plates have high scored 60 or less and 41 percent scored 40
screening efficiency; however, they are or less.38 The overall mean error score for
8
15
14 9
13 10
12 11
Legend
D = deutanomalous
P = protanomalous
S = sample, presumed median deutanomalous
T = tritanomalous
76 Visual Testing
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specifically to evaluate subtle color value of 1.3 mm (0.05 in.) for
discrimination changes as a result of nondestructive testing specialty
acquired color vision deficiencies. The test procedures. For the visual inspection, the
has been also used as an indicator of fine length of the crack, crack width, contrast
color discrimination. It is quickly and inspector accessibility all affected
administered and the results are relatively detection performance. These data suggest
easy to evaluate. Approximately that calculation of a minimum acceptable
75 percent of congenital color deficient vision acuity limit is not possible given
subjects fail this test.40 the many variables at work. Discontinuity
length, width, and contrast, light level
and viewing distance are all factors
contributing to the vision acuity demand
Occupational Vision of a given discontinuity. Also, in none of
Requirements the studies mentioned did the researchers
attempt to manipulate, restrict or even
Many professions require good visual document viewing distances. With a
functioning for safe and efficient greater viewing distance, a discontinuity
accomplishments of their essential tasks. of a given size subtends a smaller angle
This is especially true when visual error and hence will demand greater vision
can result in injury or death. For example acuity.
within the aerospace industry, if a crack or One study44 analyzed the visual task
area of corrosion is missed during a visual for inspections in terms of distinguishing
inspection of an airframe, a catastrophic a signal from background noise. The study
event could occur. concluded that the greater the strength of
To ensure good vision in workers, a signal (that is, the visibility of a crack)
vision requirements must be met during relative to the background noise, the
the application for certain occupations. more likely detection will occur on site.
Periodic vision evaluations may then be Relative signal strength can be increased
required to ensure good vision in workers by decreasing the viewing distance (crack
during their entire tenure. subtends larger angle to the observer), by
Within industry, it has been reported41 ensuring a focused retinal image (proper
that vision testing for inspectors goes back correcting lens for the specific working
about 40 years. In spite of the varied distance), or by improving the quality and
visual tasks inspectors in different quantity of light, that is, eliminate glare
occupations face, the vision requirements and increase illumination. Additionally,
they list from various standards are just as performance is enhanced by
surprisingly similar. The report states that, increasing target size and contrast above
in spite of new technology and changes in threshold levels, requiring vision better
specifications of inspections, vision than predicted from calculation of
testing changed little in the twentieth minimum target detail is advisable. Better
century. Standards have been shared and vision is important particularly because
not based upon essential tasks of sensitivity decreases with prolonged
individual occupations, nor have searching, especially when discontinuities
standards been empirically determined. are rare. This phenomenon is known as
What constitutes the minimum vigilance decrement.45
acceptable vision for an inspector in the Another study46 investigated the vision
aviation industry is difficult to determine. requirement for the identification of a
In terms of vision acuity, the standard small crack in an airframe as a
should be based upon the angular size of representative task for aviation assembly.
the smallest detail for which detection is It is an interesting example of an
required. empirical determination of vision acuity
Rummel42 generated probability of required for crack detection in aviation
detection (POD) curves to standardize maintenance. Using a computer model of
nondestructive testing by the National a standard observer as the inspector, a
Aeronautics and Space Administration for probability of detection curve was
the space shuttle. This and other research generated for a representative crack.
led to the use of an anomaly size of Results showed that if the probability of
1.3 mm (0.05 in) as the 90/95 level — the detection is 0.99 with normal vision,
size that operators performing special probability of detection drops to 0.90
nondestructive testing procedures must with 20/25 vision acuity and to 0.60 with
detect 90 percent of the time with vision acuity of 20/30. For cracks more
95 percent confidence. In a benchmark difficult to see (that is, those with a
study of probability of detection,43 probability of detection of only 0.90 with
inspectors were to identify cracks visually 20/20 vision acuity), a drop in vision
in an out-of-service Boeing 737. In this acuity has an even greater effect on
study, the 90 percent detection point was inspection performance. In this case,
found for cracks around 7.5 mm (0.3 in.). probability of detection drops to 0.60
This value is much larger than the 90/95 with 20/25 vision acuity and to 0.20 with
78 Visual Testing
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Society for Nondestructive Testing “Repeatability and Intercorrelations of
(December 1984): p 1546-1550. Standard Vision Tests as a Function of
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Eye.” Borish’s Clinical Refraction, Publishing Group (June 2007):
second edition. St Louis, MO: p 749-52.
Butterworth-Heinemann (2006):
p 3-34.
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40. Atchison, D.A., K.J. Bowman and Bailey, W.H. “Requirements for Visual
A.J. Vingrys. “Quantitative Scoring Acuity in the Aerospace Industry.”
Methods for D15 Panel Tests in the Materials Evaluation. Vol. 46, No. 13.
Diagnosis of Congenital Color Vision Columbus, OH: American Society for
Deficiencies.” Optometry and Vision Nondestructive Testing (December
Science. Vol. 68, No. 1. Philadelphia, 1988): p 1625-1630.
PA: Lippincott Williams and Wilkins, Bailey, W.H. “Color Vision Testing — Who
for American Academy of Optometry Needs It?” Materials Evaluation.
(January 1991): p 41-48. Vol. 43, No. 10. Columbus, OH:
41. Kleven, S. and L. Hyvärinen. “Vision American Society for Nondestructive
Testing Requirements for Industry.” Testing (September 1985):
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p 797-803. Vol. 40, No. 8. Columbus, OH:
42. Rummel, W.[L.] “Probability of American Society for Nondestructive
Detection as a Quantitative Measure of Testing (July 1982): p 826-829.
Nondestructive Testing End-to-End Bailey, W.H. “Charts for Visual Testing of
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Evaluation. Columbus, OH: American Evaluation. Vol. 41, No. 7. Columbus,
Society for Nondestructive Testing OH: American Society for
(January 1998): p 29-35. Nondestructive Testing (June 1983):
43. Spencer F.[W.], D. Schurman, p 849-853.
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DOT/FA/AR-96/65, Visual Inspection Evaluation. Vol. 54, No. 9. Columbus,
Research Project Report on Benchmark OH: American Society for
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Technical Information Service, for 1996): p 974–979. Erratum, Vol. 54,
United States Department of No. 11, November 1996, p 1284.
Transportation, Federal Aviation Beard, B.L., W.A. Hisle and A.J. Ahumada,
Administration, Office of Aviation Jr. Occupational Vision Standards:
Research (October 1996). A Review. Moffett Field, CA: NASA
44. Drury, C.G. “Good Practices in Visual Ames Research Center [2002].
Inspection.” Human Factors in Aviation Functional Vision: A Practitioner’s Guide to
Maintenance, Phase Nine Progress Evaluation and Intervention, first
Report. Washington, DC: United States edition. New York, NY: American
Department of Transportation, Federal Foundation for the Blind (2004).
Aviation Administration, Office of Good, G.W. and V.B. Nakagawara. Final
Aerospace Medicine (2001). Report [FAA Grant 02-G-031], Vision
45. Mackworth, N.H. “The Breakdown of Standards and Testing Requirements for
Vigilance During Prolonged Visual Nondestructive Inspection (NDI) and
Search.” Quarterly Journal of Testing (NDT) Personnel and Visual
Experimental Psychology. Vol. 1, No. 1. Inspectors. Washington, DC: Federal
London, UK: Taylor and Francis, for Aviation Administration, (AAR-100)
Psychology Press (April 1948): p 6-21. Aviation Maintenance and Human
46. Beard, B.L., K.M. Jones, C. Chacon and Factors (2005).
A.J. Ahumada [Jr.]. DRFA-2045, Riley, J.N., E.P. Papadakis and S.J. Gorton.
Empirical Basis for an Occupational “Availability of Training in Visual
Vision Standard. Washington, DC: Inspection for the Air Transport
United States Department of Industry.” Materials Evaluation. Vol. 54,
Transportation, Federal Aviation No. 12. Columbus, OH: American
Administration (2002). Society for Nondestructive Testing
(December 1996): p 1368-1372,
1374-1375.
Weatherly, S.L. “Testing Visual Acuity
Bibliography with the Jaeger Eye Chart.” Materials
Evaluation. Vol. 60, No. 8. Columbus,
Bailey, W.H. “Fluorescent Penetrant OH: American Society for
Testing and Color Vision Deficiencies.” Nondestructive Testing (August 2002):
Materials Evaluation. Vol. 61, No. 6. p 928-929.
Columbus, OH: American Society for Weatherly, S.[L.]. “The Equivalency of
Nondestructive Testing (June 2003): Vision Acuity Exams for NDT
p 660-663. Personnel.” Materials Evaluation.
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American Society for Nondestructive
Testing (March 2007): p 289-290.
Portions of Parts 1 and 3 are reprinted with permission from Nondestructive Testing: Remote Visual Inspection,
training modules © [2005] General Electric Corporation, Lewistown, PA. Reference numbers superscripted in
headings indicate sections adapted. ASNT has revised the text in 2010, and deficiencies are not the responsibility of
General Electric Corporation.
http://www.mohandes-iran.com
PART 1. Photography in Visual Testing1
84 Visual Testing
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In the twentieth century, articles about like that in the reference standards used
photography of surface tests featured for discontinuity evaluation.
advice specific to photographic film.2-4 Some conditions are controlled at the
Digital techniques have obviated much of time of photography — illumination, for
this information.5,6 example. Some photographic settings can
Also, in liquid penetrant and magnetic be modified later — a color image may be
particle testing, surface indications have changed to gray scale for printing in a
been documented by using transfers, manual, for example.
strips of cellophane or transparent
adhesive tape, to lift indications and
attach them to reports.2,7 These transfers
had drawbacks: photocopy machines Photographing of
picked up glare from the tape, and lifting Indications5,6
was impractical for wet techniques.
Fluorescence itself would not be visible Photography is art. Digital technology has
later and could not be photocopied. Film made it faster, easier and less expensive
photography also kept the inspector from than it was in the twentieth century, but
judging the adequacy of an image until doing it well requires training and
the film was developed. Digital practice. Basic principles still apply, with
photography provides an immediate
image, and many more photographs can
be taken if an image is unsatisfactory, FIGURE 1. Cracked engine truss mount
without having to return to the site or showing critical areas and crack orientation.
repeat a test.
Documentation5,6
Inspectors need to save images of test
objects for various reasons — comparison,
process control, training, documentation
and quality assurance. Photographs
demonstrate that the job was performed.
The following measures can make
photography a useful part of the
inspection.
1. Few cameras let the operator name
files, so keep a written log of
photograph file names, who
performed the tests, when, test
parameters and any circumstances of
interest.
2. Write information such as the test
number, location and time —
information like that used to identify
radiographs — on a small card or piece
of paper and place it by the test object
within the camera’s field of view. This
step makes it easier to identify and
sort test photographs later. A ruler or
tape measure in the photograph will
provide scale. FIGURE 2. Archival photograph of exfoliation
3. Photograph the reference standard at corrosion damage on aircraft wing spar.
the time of inspection and include its
image with the documentation.
4. Specify or describe photography in the
written procedures.
The visible characteristics of
photographs are affected by the
photographer’s choice of settings. Some
options are hardware specific and can be
selected at the moment a test is
documented — zoom, for example.
Camera models change every year: for
desired settings, inspectors should consult
the owner’s manual of the camera used. A
good rule of thumb is that the resulting
image should provide visible information
86 Visual Testing
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available via the menu. The histogram Fluorescent Indications
appears as a mountain and valley profile
In some cases, the indications to be
in the display. The right side of the
photographed will be fluorescent. A
display indicates the amount of bright
magnetic particle or liquid penetrant
tones; the left side, dark tones. Ideally, the
inspector does not want to photograph
display should look like a mountain more
ultraviolet radiation as such but instead
or less in the middle. If the mountain is
wants to photograph the nonultraviolet
off to either side of the display, the
radiation known as fluorescence.
photograph is either overexposed or
Ultraviolet radiation is invisible to the
underexposed. Should this be the case,
human eye; to be seen, its energy needs to
reset the camera and retake the shot if
be converted into visible light. A
possible.
fluorescent magnetic particle indication is
Badly underexposed shots can often be
not ultraviolet, or else no one could see it.
brightened to a usable degree with image
Similarly, photographs called ultraviolet
editing software, but excessive graininess
are usually visible translations of
may be present. Software can often make
ultraviolet originals.
slightly overexposed shots usable with
As in night photography, the ambient
some loss of detail. Badly overexposed
area will be partially dark and bright
areas cannot be corrected and are lost.
indications will stand out in the
Therefore, if one must err in exposure
photograph. The following measures may
with digital photography, underexposure
help the inspector photograph fluorescent
is better than overexposure.
indications.
1. Try night camera settings if the image
White Balance is taken in a dark area.
Photographs can have unnatural tints. 2. Notice if wavelengths or colors are
When the picture is taken, this effect can being filtered or enhanced, either with
be mitigated through a control called hardware (by a screen at the lens, for
white balance on digital cameras. instance) or digitally. A test object
Unrealistic tints can be removed so that viewed with protective goggles may
objects that appear white on site are white look different in a photograph.
in the image. If skin appears too pink or 3. Consult reference standards with
too green, for instance, then the problem known discontinuities to select camera
may be corrected through white balance. settings and filters.
The white balance control lets the 4. Keep notes about circumstances that
photographer adjust the tint of an image might affect discontinuity evaluation.
by scrolling through a spectrum of tint
To prevent haze on a dark background,
options in a single dial and selecting the
the ultraviolet radiation must be filtered.
most realistic one.
The background and indications should
Most digital cameras also have a way
be visible. Brightness in the image can
for the user to tell the camera under what
sometimes be adjusted with image
type of illumination a photograph is
processing software.
being taken. White balance takes into
account the colors of the light source and
adjusts the relative amounts of red, green
and blue primary colors so that neutral
colors are correct before the image is
Photographic Equipment
recorded.
Color can be balanced again later, in Basic Equipment1
image processing. The selection of the
Typical equipment for producing a
RAW file format, discussed below, makes
photographic record of visual tests
this easier.
includes a camera, a stable tripod, an
When photographing indications,
automatically regulated flash and a
color is often unimportant. Therefore,
shutter release. Digital photography
white balance is usually not critical as it is
requires the above items plus a computer
in most photography. In fact, gray scale
and associated equipment including a
(black and white) indication photographs
power source, connections, file storage
may be preferable. Digital cameras
media and software for image processing
normally record in color, but in some
and file management.
cases they can be set to produce gray
A macro lens is useful for closeups
scale. And it is easy for software to
(Fig. 3), particularly in analog
convert images to gray scale.
photography. The macro lens with a 28 to
Photography is a process which has
80 mm zoom lens can be made to focus
many variables. It is necessary to do some
on objects some 300 mm (12 in.) from the
experimentation to get good results. As
lens or to magnify objects difficult or
equipment becomes better, the process
dangerous to approach. A tripod and
should become still easier and more
shutter release are used to stabilize the
accurate.
camera for long exposures in dim light.
Focus10
Focal Point
The focal point is where light rays from a
lens or mirror come together. The focal
FIGURE 5. Depth of field.10
Focal point
Light source
Depth of field
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distance that the subject is still in focus given eyepiece. Theoretically, a field of
and is expressed as a range from a certain view is three-dimensional, like a room,
minimum point close to the camera to a and not two-dimensional, like a wall. The
certain maximum point as distant from area of interest in a field of view, however,
the camera. Everything in this range will is often a flat surface.
be in focus and everything beyond, closer Different lenses can be attached to an
or farther, will be out of focus (Fig. 6). instrument to achieve different fields of
view. Figure 7 represents the field of view
Field of View as represented by a rigid borescope. In this
example, the field of view of the system is
The field of view is the entire area that 60 degrees.
can be seen through an optical system as For different lenses, the grinding
light is received from the conical angle specific for each side results in desired
subtended by the system’s optics. An features: closeup, close focus and high
astronomical telescope’s field of view is magnification; or short focus, wide angle
the area of the sky that can be seen with a views and high magnification. Table 1 and
Fig. 8 show the interrelationship of depth
of field and field of view.
FIGURE 6. Objects closer and farther than focal point are
blurred.
Capturing Details5,6
To capture maximum detail, the inspector
wants the area of interest to be as large as
possible within the camera’s field of view.
Many cameras offer optical zoom, letting
Blurred
a 2a
60 degrees
90 80
70 80 70
60 60 (b)
50 50
40 40 2b
30 30
20 20 2a
10 10
0
Legend
a = target in field of view
b = aperture diameter
d = distance to target
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zoom group is positioned correctly, it sees portion of the scene that is of particular
the image produced by the objective interest.
group and creates a new image from it.
The rear relay group picks up the image
from the zoom group and relays it to the
camera sensor. In a well designed zoom Effect of Magnification11
lens, a scene in focus at the wide angle The benefits of magnification come with a
(short focal length) setting remains in price — not only does magnification
focus at the narrow angle (telephoto) increase the size of the image, it also
setting and everywhere in between. increases the effect of camera motion and
Figure 10 shows the continuously noise. A camera that has magnification is
variable nature of the zoom lens. The field difficult to position accurately. To
of view of the camera can be changed minimize the effect of motion, it is
without replacing the lens. Surveillance important to have as many adjustments
elements in the lenses are physically as possible within the camera itself. For
moved to vary the focal length and scanning where no specific fixturing is
thereby vary the angular field of view and involved, a zoom lens is very useful: the
magnification. By adjusting its zoom ring camera can be positioned with the lens in
setting, the zoom lens permits viewing of the wide angle mode and then focused on
narrow, medium and wide angle scenes. the area of interest.
This allows a person to initially view a Some underwater cameras have integral
scene with a wide angle perspective and panning. Such units let the lens scan over
then use close telephoto viewing of one a 180 degree segment, looking forward
and to each side of the camera — a useful
feature in restricted locations.
FIGURE 10. Operation of zoom: (a) lens If a camera with internal focusing is
system; (b) wide view; (c) maintaining focus not available, it is especially important to
while zooming; (d) closeup. Notice that provide a stable operating platform. The
lens 1 moves to maintain focus.10 camera mount should let the camera
freely rotate so that accessible areas can be
(a) viewed from all angles. In nuclear reactor
applications, the camera is mounted on
the refueling bridge and may be working
Focus Zoom Iris Lens at depths up to 30 m (100 ft). At these
mount depths, water pressure increases at
roughly 10 kPa·10 m–1 (about 0.5 lbf·ft –1).
Field of view
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stereoscope, a three-dimensional image of Monocular Photogrammetry
the object is reconstructed.
Monocular photogrammetry superimposes
Instead of looking directly at the
a transparent layer on a photographic
object, it can be photographed from two
image. The transparent material has a
points analogous to the location of the
reticle, a calibrated scale for measurement.
two eyes. If these pictures are then
The distance between the reticle and the
viewed, left picture with left eye and right
image surface is part of the measurement
picture with right eye, the object appears
calculation. Unless the reticle is flush with
again in three dimensions.
the test surface, magnification is also a
For various points on an object,
factor. This monocular photogrammetry
relative differences in distance from the
resembles viewing with a loupe such as
camera can be found by determining their
the measuring magnifier described in the
parallax differences. With the aid of a
chapter on direct visual testing.
parallax bar or stereo plotter, parallaxes
The visual inspector using monocular
can be measured with a precision of
photogrammetry needs to account for
10 µm (0.0004 in.). If the distance
several factors.
between camera stations (base), camera
focal distance and object-to-camera 1. When held touching the test surface, a
distance are known, absolute contact reticle can measure surface
measurements on the object can be made. features directly. If the reticle is
In petrochemical furnaces, close range positioned at a distance, the
photogrammetry can be applied to differences in focal distance (distance
noncontact, on-stream monitoring of the to image surface versus distance to
condition of furnace tubes through reticle) must be known if features of
measurement of bulging, bowing and the test surface are to be measured.
creep as well as deterioration of 2. If the surface measured is a
components such as cracks in hangers and photograph, then its scale relative to
tubesheets or spalling of refractory and the depicted surface must also be
brickwork. Photogrammetry could prove known before features on the test
useful as a quantitative tool applied surface can be measured.
periodically for charting the condition of 3. A further consideration for precise
furnace internals. measurement is viewing angle. The
There are two kinds of viewing angle from feature to feature
photogrammetry: monocular and stereo. varies from one spot on the image to
another. The visual inspector,
however, needs to know if the camera
has introduced distortion by using a
FIGURE 12. Stereo effect: (a) schematic; (b) view from left
fish eye lens, for instance, or by
eye; (c) view for right eye.
panning the scene.
4. The photograph is flat, but is the test
(a) (b) surface flat or curved? If curved, like
L R the inside of a pipe, did the camera
L F
rotate to pan the scene?
These factors that affect measurements
must be weighed in relation to the
(c) demands of rejection criteria. Visual tests
F
F R typically call for verification by other
methods before rejection. In many cases,
these factors will be trivial and can be
ignored.
Stereo Photogrammetry
Stereo viewing is related to the optical
phenomenon called parallax, in which the
position of an observed object appears to
vary with the viewer’s line of sight
(Fig. 12). In binocular vision, two
overlapping fields of views enable depth
perception and distance estimates. For
photogrammetry, the purpose of
measuring parallax difference between
two object points is to develop the
contour or shape of a surface so that
Legend
information on deformation, relief
F = object in foreground
L = left object (contour) or movement of the component
R = right object can be determined.
(a)
High Temperature
Limitations 1.38 m
Cameras for documenting conditions in (54.5 in.)
5.41 m
high temperatures are subject to several (213 in.)
constraints and limitations. The most
serious problem in furnaces, for example,
is the protection of the camera from high
intensity radiant energy emitted through
the viewing ports. This high temperature A B
environment usually limits the placement
period and exposure times to a few (b)
minutes. The relatively small size of the
viewing ports cuts down the angle of view
and limits the area that can be pictured
within the furnace. Lighting conditions
significantly affect the production of
shadows and modeling of the surface of
subjects. In this respect, a single lighting
source is desirable. However, in a furnace
the many burners, as lighting sources,
tend to produce diffuse lighting effects
that reduce overall shadow contrast and
surface modeling. Flame luminosity,
particularly from oil fired burners, is
undesirable because the unburned
94 Visual Testing
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PART 2. Digital Processing and Archiving for
Visual Testing5,6
96 Visual Testing
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of interest remain visible: a fluorescent manipulated independently but to
nondestructive test indication in brilliant prevent distortion usually undergo the
green may disappear entirely if it changes same processes as the horizontal.
to a shade of gray like that in an adjacent The number of pixels in an image can
area. be decreased or increased in a step called
Color Balance. The camera setting of resampling or conversion. Resampling
white balance, discussed above, can cannot add more data to a photograph
improve the realism of color photographs once it has been shot.
by preventing unnatural tints. Image
processing programs also enable Resolution
improvement of color balance. Program The resolution of an image is its ability to
menus may refer to it by other terms, distinguish small adjacent objects. Two
such as color intensity or hue saturation. thin adjacent lines appear as two thin
If a photograph is taken in a digital lines, for instance, and not as one thicker
camera’s RAW file format, image colors line. Resolution depends on the number
can be fixed without information loss. of pixels in the image and hence on its
Most cameras take RAW photos in twelve- file size. In Fig. 16, two versions of the
bit color (4096 shades per color) instead same image show the difference between
of eight-bit color (256 shades per color), high and low resolution. Details in an
enabling powerful balance adjustments image cannot be restored simply by
without visible loss in quality. converting it to a higher resolution or
from a lossy to a lossless format. Once an
Size image’s resolution is reduced, details are
The more pixels in an image, the more lost. If a display’s resolution exceeds an
information it carries. An image’s quantity image’s resolution, the image will look
of pixels is its true size in the blurry.
dimensionless electronic space of the Resolution is measured in dots per inch
computer. (DPI) for printers or square pixels per inch
To be viewed, the image must be (PPI) for computer displays, measured
translated to a medium such as a along the horizontal axis. Alternatives
computer display or printed page, where using SI metric units are to specify pixels
details become visible to human eyes in per centimeter (pixels·cm–1) or the pixel
order to be interpreted. In a process width in micrometers (µm).
known as scaling, the pixels can be Because the number of pixels in a
compressed or spread out to fit the desired scalable image is fixed, however, an
viewing surface (Fig. 15). Scaling affects expression of resolution is meaningless
resolution, discussed below.
Image size and resolution are usually
expressed in terms of image width, in the FIGURE 16. Visible light photograph showing
horizontal dimension. The size and magnetic particle indication under
resolution of the vertical scale can be ultraviolet lamp: (a) high resolution, at
40 pixels·cm–1 (100 PPI); (b) low resolution,
at 10 pixels·cm–1 (25 PPI). Lower resolution
FIGURE 15. Example of scaling of digital blurs details. Lowering resolution sometimes
images. enhances contrast or increases hue intensity
— side effects better achieved by image
processes that do not sacrifice detail.
(a)
50 mm (2 in.)
(b)
Scaling
100 mm (4 in.)
FIGURE 17. Photograph of cracked rod: (a) high contrast, high brightness; (b) high contrast, low brightness; (c) low contrast,
high brightness; (d) low contrast, low brightness.
98 Visual Testing
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1. Local features including indications 1. The vision acuity of the viewing
must not be exaggerated or obscured human can be impaired by medical
using image processing tools having conditions such as myopia and color
descriptors such as pencil, eraser, flood, blindness.
spray or smudge. These alterations of 2. The visibility of a shot is affected by
an image could be considered things such as light and camera
falsification of test results. position.
2. Image settings such as zoom, 3. The useful detail in an image is
brightness and contrast may be freely affected by its size and by its quality in
adjusted, as photographers have done terms of features such as contrast and
for generations. resolution.
3. A photograph of the reference Technology has given the inspector
standard should be included in the options beyond the scope of the present
archive and used to evaluate discussion: (1) light measurement and
modifications made to test images. illumination, (2) optical gaging and range
How do the same modifications affect finding, (3) photography sensitive to
discontinuity visibility in the reference other wavelengths, including ultraviolet
standard? and infrared, and (4) video
For some applications, a written documentation of inspection, more for
statement on image processing may be a procedures than for indications. These
desirable part of an inspection procedure. and other options depend on hardware.
Accept/reject decisions are usually made The present discussion also does not
at the moment of inspection and in the consider marine environments or
presence of the test object. If some extremes of altitude or temperature.
decisions are made later, that protocol can Most inspectors already use a computer
be documented in the procedure. for communication, for research and for
In some archives, a file’s metadata, writing procedures. With the investment
including its creation date, are part of its of a few hundred dollars for a camera and
documentation. These metadata can be software, an inspector can add digital
lost if an image is saved in another photography to the inspection options.
format. With practice and planning, digital
photography can be a valuable tool for
inspection and quality control.
Closing
In practice, the viewing quality of a
digital photograph depends on several
factors.
The considerations discussed above for fluctuations in the signal are meaningful.
still images pertain also to motion The primary disadvantage of analog
pictures, or movies. The term video applies signaling is that, if any signal acquires
specifically to movie signals transmitted random noise as it is copied or
electronically. There have been three transmitted, these random variations
different platforms for moving pictures. become dominant. Electrically these losses
1. Film projection was used for are lessened by shielding, good
commercial cinema in the twentieth connections including coaxial and twisted
century. Each frame was in effect an pair cables.
individual color slide, and they were A digital system uses a series of discrete
sequenced on spools, or reels. A long values rather than a continuum of values.
movie consisted of thousands of Waves are encoded as digital signals in a
frames and required several reels. Film sequence of ones and zeros in the binary
of smaller width, and hence less language of computing. Each selected
resolution, was widely used at home individual point on the line is an integral
and by industry. Some film was in single value. When reproduced on a video
black and white. screen, a large number of single values
2. Analog video was used for television. appear as a stream of values representing
The moving images were converted the original wave.
electronically into a series of It should be pointed out that videotape
horizontal lines that scanned across presents its analog signal as individual
the screen successively in a raster frames that appear as a succession of
pattern. Analog television can be in discrete image signals. These frames,
color or in black and white. however, are an artifact of the display
3. In digital displays, a movie consists of medium. What appears to be a single
a series of still images, or frames, analog frame is built out of adjacent lines
viewed in succession to recreate the in a raster arrangement. The signal input
appearance of motion (Fig. 18). Digital to the video recorder is continuous, the
video can be viewed on a computer raster lines succeed each other more
display or on a digital television quickly than the human eye can track
screen. and the whole screen display is a
composite of these line signals.
A great variety of analog devices persist
in the twenty-first century: film cameras,
Analog versus Digital10 microphones, speakers, luminaires
(lamps), switches, machinery controls (for
An analog signal is any continuous sorting in assembly lines, for example),
variable signal and consists of a cathode ray tubes and closed circuit
continuum of values (Table 3). It differs monitors. In electronics, a
from a digital signal in that small digital-to-analog converter is needed to
convert a digital, usually binary, code to
an analog signal, usually an electric
FIGURE 18. Falling object in video: (a) 30 frames per second; current or voltage. Signals are converted
(b) 25 frames per second. with switches or a network of resistors or
current (electricity) sources. An
(a) analog-to-digital converter performs the
reverse operation. Many digital devices,
1. Pasquazzi, D.[A.] and W.R. Tweddell. 10. Nondestructive Testing: Remote Visual
Chapter 11, “Other Applications of Inspection (training modules).
Visual and Optical Tests”: Part 2, Skaneateles, NY: General Electric
“Applications of Photography in Corporation, General Electric
Visual Testing.” Nondestructive Testing Inspection Technologies [2005].
Handbook, second edition: Vol. 8, 11. Generazio, E.R., D.J. Roth and
Visual and Optical Testing. Columbus, V. Torrey. Chapter 5, “Other
OH: American Society for Instrumentation and Electronic Aids
Nondestructive Testing (1993): for Visual Testing”: Part 2, “Video
p 313-319, 336. Technology.” Nondestructive Testing
2. Schmidt, J.T. Section 11, “Recording of Handbook, second edition: Vol. 8,
Magnetic Particle Test Indications.” Visual and Optical Testing. Columbus,
Nondestructive Testing Handbook, OH: American Society for
second edition: Vol. 6, Magnetic Particle Nondestructive Testing (1993):
Testing. Columbus, OH: American p 131-147, 154.
Society for Nondestructive Testing 12. Sayler, G.[C.] ASNT Level III Study
(1989): p 271-290. Guide: Visual and Optical Testing
3. Schmidt, J.T. “Color Photography of Method. Columbus, OH: American
Magnetic Particle and Penetrant Society for Nondestructive Testing
Indications.” Materials Evaluation. (1998, revised 2006).
Vol. 31, No. 3. Columbus, OH: 13. Mikhail, E.M., J.S. Bethel and
American Society for Nondestructive J.C. McGlone. Introduction to Modern
Testing (March 1973): p 39-42. Photogrammetry. New York, NY: Wiley
4. Mosher, T.A. “Ultraviolet Photography: (2001).
A System for the Nonprofessional 14. Manual of Photogrammetry, fifth
Photographer.” Materials Evaluation. edition. Bethesda, MD: American
Vol. 45, No. 7. Columbus, OH: Society for Photogrammetry and
American Society for Nondestructive Remote Sensing (2004).
Testing (July 1987): p 778-779, 781. 15. Luhmann, T., S. Robson, S. Kyle and
5. Chapter 9, “Recording of Magnetic I. Harley. Close Range Photogrammetry:
Particle Indications”: Part 5, “Digital Principles, Methods and Applications.
Photography and Image Archiving.” Dunbeath, Caithness, United
Nondestructive Testing Handbook, third Kingdom: Whittles (2006).
edition: Vol. 8, Magnetic Testing. 16. Linder, D. Digital Photogrammetry:
Columbus, OH: American Society for A Practical Course. New York, NY:
Nondestructive Testing (2008): Springer (2009).
p 243-250, 257. 17. ISO/IEC 11172, Information Technology
6. Moore, P.O. “Digital Photography and — Coding of Moving Pictures and
Image Archiving.” Materials Evaluation. Associated Audio for Digital Storage
Vol. 66, No. 7. Columbus, OH: Media at up to about 1.5 Mbit/s
American Society for Nondestructive [MPEG-1]. Geneva, Switzerland:
Testing (July 2008): p 717-722. International Organization for
7. Stephens, P. “Liquid Penetrant Panel Standardization (1993, 2008).
Calibration.” Materials Evaluation. 18. ISO/IEC 13818, Information Technology
Vol. 65, No. 10. Columbus, OH: — Generic Coding of Moving Pictures and
American Society for Nondestructive Associated Audio Information [MPEG-2].
Testing (October 2007): p 1016-1018. Geneva, Switzerland: International
8. Ang, T. Advanced Digital Photography: Organization for Standardization
Techniques and Tips for Creating (1996, 2009).
Professional-Quality Images, revised 19. ISO/IEC 14496, Information Technology
edition. Garden City, NY: Amphoto — Coding of Audio-Visual Objects
Books (2007). [MPEG-4]. Geneva, Switzerland:
9. Kelby, S. The Digital Photography Book. International Organization for
Berkeley, CA: Peachpit (2006). Standardization (2004, 2009).
http://www.mohandes-iran.com
PART 1. Circumstances of Viewing
Direct visual testing is a technique of the in a scene far exceeds the typical
visual testing method of nondestructive description of the scene. And a great deal
testing. The American Society for of information is potentially available to
Nondestructive Testing divides the observer immediately after viewing. If
nondestructive testing into methods and an observer has the intention of looking
subdivides methods into techniques. for certain aspects of a scene, only certain
Direct viewing is a technique of visual visual information enters the awareness,
testing in the same way that bubble yet the total picture is certainly imaged
testing is a technique of leak testing and on the retina. If a scene or an object is
gamma radiography is a technique of the viewed a second time, many new
radiographic test method. characteristics can be discerned. This new
Direct visual testing differs from information directly influences perception
indirect techniques, sometimes called of the object, yet such information might
remote visual testing, because the direct not be available to the viewer without a
inspector is in the presence of the test second viewing.
object and has an unmediated view of the Vision is selective in many common
test surface, even if he looks through a situations. An individual can walk into a
device such as a magnifier or camera. In room full of people and notice only the
remote, or indirect, techniques, the face of an expected friend. The same
inspector uses a borescope or propelled individual can walk right by another
camera to view surfaces otherwise friend without recognition if the
inaccessible. The distinction is fine, for encounter is unexpected. Vision is
the inspector may use a “remote” strongly selective and guided almost
apparatus on a test object held in his entirely by what the observer wants and
hand, and an inspection may be viewed does not want to see. Any additional
“directly” through a system of lenses and details beyond the very broadest have
mirrors. been built up by successive viewing. Both
the details and the broad image are
retained as long as they are needed, and
then they are quickly erased.
Observer’s Attitude1 The optical image on the retina is
A complete representation of the visual constantly changing and moving as the
field probably is not present in the brain eye moves rapidly from one point to
at any one time. The brain must contain another — the sensing rods and cones are
electrochemical activity representing some stimulated in ways that vary widely from
major aspects of a scene, but such a one moment to the next. The mental
picture typically does not correspond to image is stationary for stationary objects
how the observer describes the scene. This regardless of the motion of the optical
discrepancy occurs because the observer image or, for that matter, the motion of
adds experience and prejudices that are the observer’s head. It is very difficult to
not themselves part of the visual field. determine how a unique configuration of
Such sensory experience may reflect brain activity can result from a particular
physical reality or may not. set of sensory experiences. A unique visual
Sensory data entering through the eye configuration must be a many-to-one
are irretrievably transformed by their relationship requiring complex
contexts — an image on the retina is interpretation. If an observer does not
perceived differently if its background or apply experience and the intellect, it is
context changes. Perceptually, the image likely that a nondestructive visual test will
might be a dark patch in a bright be inadequate.
background that can, in turn, appear to
be a white patch if displayed against a
dark background. No single sensation
corresponds uniquely to the original Viewing Angle1-3
retinal area of excitation. Eye muscles may manipulate the eye to
The context of a viewed object can align the image on the lens axis. Different
affect perception and, in addition, the sensors in the retina receive images of
intention of the viewer may also affect different objects in the field of view
perception. The number of visible objects (Fig. 1), and different banks of sensors
ngl
e FIGURE 3. Range of viewing angle.
er al a
Periph
Eye
Task Lighting
Task lighting may be classified based on
its layout or orientation to the task to be
performed. General task lighting provides
approximately uniform illuminance over
a broad area. It is generally produced by
the area or room lighting.
(c)
General Lighting
Occasional visual tasks 100 to 200
Tasks with high contrast or large size 200 to 500
Task Lighting
Tasks with medium contrast or small size 500 to 1000
Tasks with low contrast or very small size 1000 to 2000
FIGURE 7. Types of light sources: (a) condenser reflector; (b) spot projector; (c) diffuse light
source; (d) collimated light source.
Opaque
material
Reflector Hole
lens Translucent
material
Beam divider
FIGURE 9. Cross sections: (a) triplet
magnifier; (b) coddington magnifier.
(a)
Light source
(b)
(b)
3
— —5 1
— —3 1
— —1
8 11
—
32
16
—9
32
4
—7
32
16
—5
32
8
—3
32
16
provides a true view of depth, so that test
1 DIV = 0.005”
objects may be inspected in three
0” .1 .2 .3 .4 .5 dimensions.
1 DIV = 01 MM
0 1 2 3 4 5
MM
6 7 8 9 10 Shop Microscope (Medium
Power)
.001 .002
The shop microscope is similar to a wide
.003 field tube. It has a power of 40× and
contains a built-in light source that may
be operated from a battery or 115 V line
current. The shop microscope contains a
Surface characteristics that can be visually 3. When the object of controlling surface
tested include surface texture (roughness roughness is to control waviness and
or waviness), color (including gloss) and roughness, the profile variation may
cleanliness. Cleanliness is a prerequisite be removed by using a line that
for certain processes such as painting and describes the average surface. This line
liquid penetrant testing. Surfaces may also can then be applied as a profile filter.
be visually tested closely to identify Surface roughness may be measured
discontinuities and damage mechanisms, with photogrammetry or profilometry. In
such as porosity, blistering, corrosion, photogrammetry, surface details are
flaking and fatigue. The visual inspector measured by comparing two photographic
must flag apparent cracks for evaluation images offset from each other. In
by other methods. profilometry, points on the surface are
The variation from a specified nominal successively measured and a series of
surface condition is controlled by optical or mechanical measurements are
dimensional tolerances and surface compiled.
roughness specifications. Surface texture is Average roughness Ra is the average
usually measured in accordance with distance of the profile to the mean line.
published standards.6-11 When controlling the height of individual
peaks and valleys is important,
measurements of maximum peak-to-valley
Surface Texture height Rmax and mean peak-to-valley
Inspection methods that measure mass or and depth, and they can be either direct
length are often excluded from reading or indirect reading.
nondestructive testing because, although 1. Indirect reading, or transfer type,
mass and length are material properties, calipers (Fig. 13) are used to transfer
the methods do not seek discontinuities. the dimension of an item from the
Nevertheless, the visual inspector is often item to a steel rule. For example, the
given the task of measuring test objects measurement of an outside diameter is
for various purposes. made by adjusting the caliper so that
1. In receiving inspection, the visual both legs lightly touch the widest
inspector may confirm that portion of the item. This distance is
components received were the then transferred to a steel rule to
components ordered. For instance, obtain the measurement. If performed
does the tubing have the needed properly, this type of measurement is
diameter? accurate to 0.04 mm (0.016 in.).
2. In assembly, the visual inspector may
confirm that the correct parts are
being used. For instance, are bolts of
the correct size being installed? FIGURE 13: Indirect calipers: (a) for outside
3. In machining, the visual inspector measurement; (b) for inside measurement.
may confirm that the operation is
performed to specification. For (a)
instance, are rivets placed far enough
from the edge of a plate?
4. In finishing, the visual inspector may
confirm that the surface is treated to
specification. For instance, has sheet
metal been burnished or coated?
5. In nondestructive testing, the visual
inspector needs to describe a visual
indication. How long is the crack?
How extensive is the blistering on the
boiler’s surface?
In many industries, the direct visual
testing of bolts requires steel rulers,
micrometers, vernier calipers, depth
micrometers, thread gages and
magnifying glasses.
(b)
Rulers and Tape Measures
Rulers and tape measures are familiar and
easy to use. In the United States, these
tools almost always show units of the
English system (inches) on one side and
of the International System (centimeters,
millimeters) on the other side.
Increasingly, the International System is
specified for goods and services.
Calipers3
Calipers are used to obtain accurate linear
measurements. Calipers come in a wide
variety of sizes and configurations for
measuring length, width, height, diameter
Barrel Thimble
Frame
Tolerance Standards2
The physical features of an object (form,
profile, orientation, location and size)
(b)
must be controlled. The blueprint or
drawing for the object must specify the
(c)
(b)
(d)
Leg length
MM
Portions of Parts 1 and 2 are reprinted with permission from Visual Examination Technologies (EPRI learning modules), © [ca. 1982 and] 1996,
the Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI), Charlotte, NC. ASNT has revised the text in 1993 and 2010, and deficiencies are not the
responsibility of the Electric Power Research Institute.
Portions of Part 3 are reprinted with permission from Nondestructive Testing: Remote Visual Inspection, training modules © [2005] General
Electric Corporation, Lewistown, PA. ASNT has revised the text in 2010, and deficiencies are not the responsibility of General Electric
Corporation.
http://www.mohandes-iran.com
PART 1. Introduction to Indirect Visual Testing
Discontinuity
Test object
Entry port
(a)
Entry port
(b)
(b)
FIGURE 11. Borescope images with fixed FIGURE 12. Borescope images with variable
focus (compare Fig. 12): (a) at 75 mm focus (compare Fig. 11): (a) 75 mm (3 in.);
(3 in.); (b) at 200 mm (8 in.); (c) at (b) 200 mm (8 in.); (c) 300 mm (12 in.).
300 mm (12 in.).
(a) (a)
(b) (b)
(c) (c)
(c) View
60
Light 80 90 80
70 70
60 60
50 50
40 40
30 30
20 20
(d) 10 10
View
0
Light
FIGURE 16. Internal reflection of light in FIGURE 17. Light paths in fiber bundles:
optic fiber can be used to move light path (a) uncoated fibers allow light to travel
in curve. laterally through bundle and (b) coated
fibers restrict light’s path to original fiber.
(a)
Cladding
General Characteristics
Desirable properties of borescopic systems
are large field of vision, no image
distortion, accurate transmission of color
values and adequate illumination.
The brightest images are obtained with
borescopes of large diameter and short
Objective
length. As the length of the borescope is
Eyepiece
increased, the image becomes less brilliant
Image
guide Objective lens
Diopter ring
Light guide exit
Light source
Projection lamp
(b)
Grabber 127 µm
8 mm comparison
magnet Brush measurement
Alligator gage
Hook
Principles of Measurement
There are several designs that permit
optical systems to measure objects and Techniques of
indications in the field of view. Three Measurement
fundamental approaches may be used in The three means of measurement —
combination: (1) triangulation, triangulation, comparison and pixel
(2) comparison with a reference object (in counting — are used in various
the field of view or memory) and (3) pixel combinations by three significant
counting. measurement techniques: stereo, shadow
and comparison (Table 2).
Triangulation
Indirect systems incorporate calibrated
lens assemblies and image processing FIGURE 26. Triangulation.
programs to perform measurements
automatically, so the visual inspector does Object
not need to learn trigonometry to
measure indications. Understanding the
principles behind the measurement,
however, is valuable for purposes of test
planning and interpretation.
Triangulation has been used for
indirect measurements for centuries. The
tangent of an angle is the ratio of the side
opposite the angle divided by the side
adjacent to the angle. The adjacent side is
Distance
the inspector’s position, and the opposite to test
side is the distance to the object (Fig. 26). surface
Using a calculator with a tangent
function, the inspector can set up a ratio
and solve for the distance to the object.
For example, given a right triangle with
an adjacent side of 10 m and a side angle
of 70 degrees, what is the target
distance X?
90 degrees
70 degrees
Opposite side
(1) Tan = Viewer or
Adjacent side probe 10 m
X
(2) Tan 70 = 2.7475 =
10 m
Shadow Measurement A A
A known distance of a light source to an
offset from the center hairline obstruction Near
yields a known angle of the shadow being Left Right
cast (Fig. 28). A shadow measurement is
made with an image recalled from
Push Cameras
A “push” camera is mounted on a rigid
rod that the inspector inserts into an
aperture or cavity; additional rods can be
attached to extend the total length. A
separate electronics cable controls the
camera and carries images to the inspector
or work station. A push camera can be
adapted to various applications with
specific cable lengths, camera diameters
Cable connector
(b)
(b)
Direction of travel
Debris or obstacle
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PART 1. System Architecture of Machine Vision
System
Machine vision is the application of vision does not necessarily mean the use
computer vision to industry and of a computer. Specialized image
manufacturing. It is a specialization processing hardware is even capable of
within system engineering, which achieving a higher processing speed and
encompasses computer science, optics, can replace the computer.1 The modern
mechanical engineering, and industrial approaches may use a camera with the
automation. One definition of machine capability to interface directly with a
vision is “the use of devices for optical, personal computer, a system designed on
noncontact sensing to automatically an image processing board, or a vision
receive and interpret an image of a real engine that plugs into a personal
scene in order to obtain information computer.2
and/or control machines or processes.”1 A smart camera is a self-contained and
For nondestructive inspection, visual standalone unit with communication
inspection is usually performed by an interfaces. A typical smart camera may
experienced inspector. However, a tedious consist of the following components:
and difficult task may cause the inspector image sensor, image digitization circuit,
to tire prematurely and degrade the memory, digital signal processor,
quality of inspection. Repetitive and communication interface, input/output
dangerous inspection demands machine ports and a built-in illumination device.
vision to replace human inspection so An embedded vision computer, which is a
that precise information can be extracted standalone box with frame storage and
and interpreted consistently. With intelligence, is intermediate to the
technological advances on computer, personal computer based vision system
camera, illumination, and and a smart camera.2 The system differs
communication, widespread application from smart cameras, in that the camera is
of machine vision systems to tethered to the unit rather than
nondestructive testing is foreseen. self-contained. Different system
The basic architecture of a personal configurations have their own advantages
computer based machine vision system is for different applications. A personal
given in Fig. 1. The main components computer based machine vision system
include light source, detector, optics, has the greatest flexibility and capability
frame grabber and computer. Machine of handling a wider range of applications.
FIGURE 1. Typical architecture of machine FIGURE 2. Four basic parameters for optics.
vision system.
Light source
Frame
grabber
Cameras
Specimen
Working
distance
Depth
of view Resolution
Computer
Field of
view
Illumination
Illumination can be provided by one or
more of the following techniques: front (b)
lighting, backlighting, coaxial lighting,
structured illumination, strobed
illumination or polarized light.
As illustrated in Fig. 3a, the bright field
mode for front lighting uses any light
source in the line of sight of the camera
upon direct reflection from the test
surface. Matte surfaces will appear darker
than specular surfaces because the
scattering of the matte surface returns less
light to the camera. In contrast, sharp
reflection returns more light. Dark field is
any light source that is outside the line of Bright field
sight of the camera upon direct reflection.
In a dark field, light scattering from a
matte surface will reach the camera and Dark field
create a bright region. Similarly, a bright
field for backlighting is any light source in
the line of sight of the camera upon direct
(b)
FIGURE 5. Illumination: (a) backlighting;
(b) coaxial illumination.
(a)
Light box
(c)
(b)
Fluorescent lighting Illumination using electricity to excite mercury vapor to produce short wave ultraviolet radiation, which causes
a phosphor to fluoresce, producing visible light.
Quartz halogen lamp Incandescent light bulb with envelope made of quartz and with filament surrounded by halogen gas.
Light emitting diode (LED) Semiconductor diode that emits light when electrical current is applied.
Metal halide lamp Lamp that produces light by passing an electric arc through high pressure mixture of argon, mercury and
various metal halides.
Xenon Element used in arc and flash lamps. Xenon arc lamps use ionized xenon gas to produce bright white light;
xenon flash lamps are electric glow discharge lamps that produce flashes of very intense, incoherent, full
spectrum white light.
Sodium Element used in some vapor lamps. Sodium gas discharge lamps use sodium in excited state to produce light.
There are two types: low pressure and high pressure lamps.
G B
FIGURE 7. Pinhole camera: (a) model; (b) transformation
Color wheel between camera frame coordinates and pixel coordinates.14
Image scene
(a) Y
X
(b)
G RG B p
GRGB
GRGB P
G RG B
G RGG
O o
G R GG Z
CCD Optical
GGGB
f axis
G GG B
G RG R
G RG R Image plane
Image scene G BG B
G BG B
(b) Yw
(c) Yc
CCD 1
R
Beam
splitter G Xw
CCD 2 Zc
Xc
Pw Pc
B
Zw
CCD 3
Camera Link® Automated Imaging Association, serial communication protocol that extends base
Ann Arbor, MI technology of Channel Link® for vision application19
USB USB Implementers Forum universal serial bus
GigE Vision® Automated Imaging Association, based on gigabit ethernet standard with fast data
Ann Arbor, MI transfer, allowing standard, long, low cost cables21
IEEE 1394 IEEE, New York, NY Interface standard for high speed communication and
isochronous (real time) data transfer for high
performance and time sensitive applications22
Topology master and slave master and slave networked, peer to peer
(“on the fly”) peer to peer
Maximum bit ratec 2380 Mbps 480 Mbps 1000 Mbps ~400 ~800 Mbps
Isochronous mode yes yes no yes
Maximum sustained bit rate 2380 Mbps 432 Mbps 930 Mbps ~320 to ~640 Mbps
Cable distance (copper) 10 m 5m 25 m ~4.5 to ~100 m
Bus power none up to 0.5 A none up to 1.5 A
a. USB = universal serial bus
b. IEEE = IEEE [formerly Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers], New York, NY
c. Mbps = 106 bits per second
0 0 0
(b)
0 0 0
0 1 0
0 –1 0
Image I(x,y) Operator w(i,j)
1 –4 1
Noise Reduction
In image data, there are various noises of
0 1 0
which the noise called salt and pepper is
typical. Such noises are expressed by
(b)
1 1 1
FIGURE 10. Operators for edge detection:
(a) roberts operators; (b) prewitt operators;
(c) sobel operators. 1 –8 1
(a)
1 1 1
0 0 0 0 0 0
0 1 0 0 0 1 (c)
–1 2 –1
0 0 –1 0 –1 0
2 –4 2
(b)
–1 2 –1
–1 0 1 –1 –1 –1
–1 0 1 0 0 0
(c)
1/9 1/9 1/9
–1 0 1 –1 –2 –1
Frequency
4 4 3
2 10 3 Sorting 4
P percent
5 2 4
2 2 3 3 4 4 4 5 10
(11) X ⊕ Y = {z z = x + y for x ∈ X , y ∈ Y }
σ 2bc σ 2bc
(10) =
σ 2wc σ 2 − σ 2bc
FIGURE 16. Examples of dilation with different structuring
elements: (a) 2 × 2 set; (b) four connected sets.
Because σ2 is fixed, when σbc2 reaches
its maximum value, the separation metric (a)
is maximized. Therefore, in the Image X
discriminant analysis technique, σbc2 is
calculated by changing the value of t and
searching for the adequate threshold in
case of maximum σbc2 .
By using discriminant analysis, the
threshold is uniquely estimated for any
monochrome images. Although only the
case of binarization (two classes, black
and white) is demonstrated, this
technique can also be applied to estimate
multiple thresholds. Origin
Structuring element Y
FIGURE 15. Discriminant analysis technique.
(b)
Image X
Frequency
Class 2
Class 1
Origin
t Intensity
ω1, m1, σ1 ω2, m2, σ2 Structuring element Y
(a)
Image X
(c) x
Origin
Structuring element Y
(b) Image X
(d) x
Origin
Structuring element Y y
⎡ x′⎤ ⎡1 0 t ⎤ ⎡ x ⎤
⎢ x⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
(17) ⎢ y ′⎥ = ⎢0 1 t y ⎥ ⎢y ⎥
⎢⎣ 1 ⎥⎦ ⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥
⎣0 0 1 ⎦ ⎣1⎦
θp
Equation 18 gives rotation as an angle
from the X axis around the origin
(Fig. 18d):
y
(b)
⎡ x′⎤ ⎡cos θ − sin θ 0 ⎤ ⎡ x⎤ x
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥
(18) ⎢ y ′⎥ = ⎢ sin θ cos θ 0 ⎥ ⎢ y ⎥ θq
⎢ 1 ⎥⎦
⎣
⎢ 0
⎣ 0 1 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣1⎥⎦
⎡ x′⎤ ⎡1 p 0 ⎤ ⎡ x ⎤
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥
(19) ⎢ y ′⎥ = ⎢ q 1 0 ⎥ ⎢ y ⎥
⎢⎣ 1 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣0 0 1 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣1⎥⎦
t w −1 t h −1
(25) RNCC ( x, y ) = ∑ ∑ ⎡⎣I (x + i, y + j)
i =0 j =0
× T (i , j )⎤⎦
⎡ t w −1 t h −1
⎢ 2
÷ ⎢
⎢
∑ ∑ I ( x + i , y + j)
⎣ i =0 j =0
y
t w −1 th −1 ⎤
2⎥
(b)
x × ∑ ∑ T (i , j ) ⎥
⎥
i=0 j= 0 ⎦
(c) x
Tw
Th
y=x
Image I(x,y) Template
y T(i,j)
(27) b = ( −x ) a + y
^ ^
(a, b)
This formulation shows another straight
line in a-b space. Here, the a-b space is
called the parameter space. b = (–x2) a + y2
As shown in Fig. 22a, when a line
a
crosses two points (x1,y1) and (x2,y2) in x-y 0
(32) − w 2 + h2 ≤ ρ ≤ w 2 + h2
^
ρ
^
θ
(33) 0 ≤ θ ≤ π x
0
where: ^
ρ,^
θ
and where: θ
0
x1
(36) α = tan −1
y1
(a)
High frequency
High pass emphasized image
filter
Live image
Low pass
Fraction
filter
(a)
Input Output
(b)
LH HH Image
Feature vectors
HH = high high
HL = high low Image preprocessing:
LH = low high · enhancement;
LL = low low · denoising;
· segmentation;
(b) · others
Image
Wavelet transform
Feature extraction:
· spatial domain;
· transform domain
Feature extraction
Classification
Classification
Postprocessing Postprocessing
Result Result
1. Batchelor, B.G. and P. F. Whelan. 13. Charge Injection Device Research at RIT.
Intelligent Vision Systems for Industry. Web site. Rochester, NY: Rochester
Bruce G. Batchelor, Cardiff, United Institute of Technology, Center for
Kingdom; Paul F. Whelan, Dublin, Imaging Science (2009).
Republic of Ireland (2002). 14. Trucco, E. and A. Verri. Introductory
2. Zuech, N. “Smart Cameras vs. Techniques for 3-D Computer Vision.
PC-Based Machine Vision Systems.” Upper Saddle River, NJ :Prentice Hall
Machine Vision Online. Ann Arbor, MI: (1998).
Automated Imaging Association 15. Bouguet, J.-Y. Camera Calibration
(October 2002). Toolbox for Matlab. Web pages.
3. Zuech, N. “Optics in Machine Vision Pasadena, CA: California Institute of
Applications.” Machine Vision Online. Technology (2009).
Ann Arbor, MI: Automated Imaging 16. Wang, J., F. Shi, J. Zhang and Y. Liu.
Association (August 2005). “A New Calibration Model of Camera
4. Fales, G. “Ten Lens Specifications You Lens Distortion.” Pattern Recognition.
Must Know for Machine-Vision Vol. 41, No. 2. Amsterdam,
Optics.” Test and Measurement World. Netherlands: Elsevier, for Pattern
Web page. Waltham, MA: Reed Elsevier Recognition Society (February 2008):
(27 October 2003). p 607-615.
5. “What is Structured Light?” Web page. 17. IEEE 1394, High-Performance Serial Bus.
Salem, NH: StockerYale (2009). New York, NY: IEEE (2008).
6. Casasent, D.[P.], Y.F. Cheu and 18. Wilson, A. “Camera Connections.”
D. Clark. Chapter 4: Part 4, “Machine Vision Systems Design. Tulsa, OK:
Vision Technology.” Nondestructive PennWell Corporation (April 2008).
Testing Handbook, second edition: 19. Specifications of the Camera Link
Vol. 8, Visual and Optical Testing. Interface Standard for Digital Cameras
Columbus, Ohio: American Society of and Frame Grabbers. Ann Arbor, MI:
Nondestructive Testing (1993): Automated Imaging Association
p 92-107. (Annex D, 2007).
7. Forsyth, D.A. and J. Ponce. Computer 20. “Universal Serial Bus,” Web site.
Vision: A Modern Approach. Upper Beaverton, OR: USB Implementers
Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall (2002). Forum (2008).
8. Martin, D. Practical Guide to Machine 21. “GigE Vision®.” Web page. Machine
Vision Lighting. Web pages. Austin, TX: Vision Online. Ann Arbor, MI:
National Instruments Corporation Automated Imaging Association
(November 2008). (2009).
9. Hainaut, O.R. “Basic Image 22. 1394 Technology. Web page. Southlake,
Processing.” Web pages. Santiago, TX: 1394 Trade Association (2008).
Chile: European Organisation for 23. Sgro, J. “USB Advantages Offset Other
Astronomical Research in the Southern Interfaces.” Vision Systems Design.
Hemisphere, European Southern Tulsa, OK: PennWell Corporation
Observatory (December 1996). (September 2003).
10. Users Manual MTD/PS-0218, Kodak 24. Jain, R., R. Kasturi and B.G. Schunck.
Image Sensors. Revision 2.0. Rochester, Machine Vision. New York, NY:
NY: Eastman Kodak (July 2008). McGraw-Hill (1995).
11. Peterson, C. “How It Works: The 25. Gonzalez, R.C. and R.E. Woods. Digital
Charged-Coupled Device, or CCD.” Image Processing: Upper Saddle River,
Journal of Young Investigators. Vol. 3, NJ: Prentice Hall (2002).
No. 1. Durham, NC: Journal of Young 26. Otsu, N. “A Threshold Selection
Investigators, Incorporated (March Method from Gray-Level Histograms.”
2001). SMC-9, IEEE Transactions on Systems,
12. Litwiller, D. “CCD vs. CMOS: Facts Man, and Cybernetics. Vol. 9, No. 1.
and Fiction.” Photonics Spectra. Vol. 35, New York, NY: IEEE
No. 1. Pittsfield, MA: Laurin (January 1979): p 62-66.
Publishing (January 2001): p 154-158.
Portions of Part 6 are reprinted with permission from Donald J. Wulpi, Understanding How Components Fail, © 1985, ASM International,
Materials Park, OH. Reprinted with permission. Reference number 9 superscripted in headings indicates sections adapted. ASNT has revised the
text in 1993 and 2010, and deficiencies are not the responsibility of ASM International.
http://www.mohandes-iran.com
PART 1. Metal Processing
Sheet Lamination
Pipe
During solidification, molten metal
shrinks. In the case of a casting, there
eventually can be insufficient molten
metal for completely filling the top of the
mold. Shrinkage occurs all over the
casting as the metal cools. As a result, a
cavity forms, usually in the shape of an
inverted cone or cylinder (Fig. 3).
If this shrinkage cavity is not
completely removed before rolling or
forging into final shape, it becomes
elongated and appears as voids called pipe
in the finished product. Pipe can also
Cold shuts surface or subsurface meeting of two streams of liquid metal that do not fuse
Hot tears surface adherence to core or mold during cooling
Inclusions surface or subsurface contaminants introduced during casting process
Pipe, shrinkage subsurface absence of molten metal during final solidification
Porosity surface or subsurface entrapped gases during solidification of metal
Segregation surface or subsurface localized differences in material composition
Pipe
Porosity
Porosity
Rolling direction
Legend
Indicates section of ingots used for
rolling bars below
Segregation
Segregation is a localized difference in a
material’s chemical composition. During
solidification of molten metal, certain
13 mm elements may concentrate in limited
(0.5 in.)
areas, resulting in an uneven distribution
of some of the alloying elements of the
steel. Equalization of the compositional
differences can be achieved by hot
working (forging or rolling). However,
segregation is sometimes carried into the
wrought product.
When not detected, segregation can
(b) affect corrosion resistance, forging and
welding characteristics, mechanical
properties, fracture toughness and fatigue
resistance. Furthermore, quench cracks,
hardness variations and other
discontinuities are likely to result during
heat treating of materials that exhibit
segregation of alloying elements.
(c)
Rolling
direction
(b)
(c)
Hydrogen Flakes
Flakes are formed while cooling after the
FIGURE 10. Stretcher strains are irregular
forging or rolling operations. Flakes are
surface patterns of ridges and valleys that
internal fissures attributed (1) to stresses
develop during drawing.
produced by localized metallurgical
transformations and (2) to hydrogen
embrittlement, decreased solubility of
hydrogen after rapid cooling.
Hydrogen is available in abundance
during most manufacturing operations.
When permitted, hydrogen dissipates
(a)
25mm
(1 in.)
(b)
(a)
(b)
(b)
Rolling direction
Rolling direction
Rolling direction
Rolling
direction
Rolling direction
Rolling direction
Rolling direction
Rolling direction
Rolling direction
The discontinuities described below relate Porosity is usually spherical but can
mainly to fusion welding; a few may also occur in various shapes and sizes,
apply to resistance and solid state depending on welding conditions. The
processes. The discussion covers pores usually lack sharp edges and
discontinuities that lend themselves to corners.
detection by visual testing (Table 3). 1. The porosity may consist of single,
Acceptance or rejection of a weldment, isolated pores.
based on the detection of a particular 2. The distribution of porosity within the
discontinuity, is determined by the weld metal may be clustered, usually
requirements of the designer and the because of improper initiation or
applicable code. The Structural Welding termination of the welding arc.
Code, published by the American Welding 3. The porosity within the weld metal
Society, is specified for many diverse may be linear. Linear distribution can
projects.8 result from welding over a
Although many of the following contaminant in a linear junction such
discontinuities occur in several types of as a corner or crevice.
welded joints, the differences in joint
geometry produce differences in the Porosity can be distributed in ways
location and orientation of the related to welding condition and may be
discontinuities. found anywhere throughout the weld
metal. It will not be found in the
unmelted heat affected zone.
Porosity often results from dirt, rust or
Porosity moisture on the base or filler metal
Porosity is composed of cavities or pores surface before welding and can be
that form when the weld metal solidifies. prevented by maintaining cleanliness and
Gases result from chemical and physical dryness. Other contributing factors
reactions during welding. These gases include base metal composition (such as
dissolve in the metal while it is hot and high sulfur content), high solidification
then separate as it cools. The solubility of rate and improper welding technique
gases in metals can be very high at high (such as excessive arc length or lack of
temperatures. A certain amount of gas is shielding gas).
always generated in standard welding but Most welds contain some porosity. All
is usually not detectable. At times, but the smallest surface pores should be
however, excessive gas is produced and visible to the unaided eye.
leads to the discontinuity called porosity. The restrictions on porosity in some
welds may be rather lenient. Spherical
Cold cracking surface or subsurface combination of atomic hydrogen, hardenable material and high residual stresses
Hot cracking surface or subsurface segregation during solidification (see Liquation and Solidification)
Inclusions, oxide subsurface mixing oxides on base metal surface into weld pool
Inclusions, slag subsurface improper cleaning of a previous weld pass
Inclusions, tungsten subsurface molten weld pool or filler metal comes in contact with tip of tungsten electrode
Lack of fusion surface or subsurface failure of weld metal to coalesce with base metal
Lack of penetration surface or subsurface inadequate penetration of weld joint root by the weld metal
Lamellar tearing surface delamination of the base material during solidification and cooling of weld metal
Liquation surface or subsurface segregation in heat affected zone of material
Porosity surface or subsurface vaporized constituents in molten weld metal are entrapped during solidification
Overlap surface insufficient amperage or travel speed
Solidification surface or subsurface dendritic segregation of low melting point constituents opening during solidification
Undercut surface oversized weld pool (related to excessive amperage, travel speed and electrode size)
Hot Cracking
Hot cracking is a term applied to several
varieties of weld metal and heat affected
zone cracking, all of which occur at
elevated temperatures. The following
types are the most common hot cracks. 20 mm
(0.8 in.)
Arc Strike
Lamellar Tearing
A lamellar tear is a base metal crack that
occurs in plates and shapes of rolled steel
exhibiting a high nonmetallic inclusion
content. These inclusions are rolled flat in
the steel plate manufacturing process, 10 mm (0.4 in.)
severely reducing strength and ductility in
the through-thickness direction. When
the shrinkage stresses induced by weld
solidification are imposed in that
direction on the base metal plate,
Arc Strikes
Arc strikes are discontinuities that result
from establishing the welding arc in zones
other than a weld. They consist of
remelted metal or portions of electrode
metal in unscheduled places. Their
potential danger arises from steep changes
in metal properties that develop when a
material such as steel has been subjected
to very rapid heating and cooling.
Excessive hardness can result, leading to
possible fracture during welding or
service.
The condition is identified by its
position (away from the weld metal) and
by a small patch of extra thickness that is
often intermittent but linear.
Grinding cracks surface localized overheating of material because of improper grinding procedure
Heat treating cracks surface stresses from uneven heating or cooling and beyond tensile strength of material
Machining tears surface improper machining practice or dull tool
Pickling cracks surface residual stress being relieved
Plating cracks surface residual stress being relieved
Quench cracks surface sudden cooling from elevated temperature
Pickling Cracks
A pickling operation is used to remove
unwanted scale (Fig. 27) for the purpose
of a more thorough test of the base
material. It can also be used to prepare the
surface for finishing operations such as
plating. Pickling cracks are predominantly
found in materials that have high residual Rolling direction
stresses (hardened or cold worked metals)
and in materials with voids or similar
discontinuities.
Creep surface or subsurface high temperature and stress below yield strength
Fatigue surface or subsurface cyclically applied stress below ultimate tensile strength
Hydrogen cracking surface or subsurface applied tensile or residual stress in hydrogen enriched environment
Stress corrosion cracking surface static tensile load in corrosive environment
Erosive Wear
Wear9 Erosive wear (or erosion) occurs when
particles in a fluid or other carrier slide
Wear is the undesired removal of material and roll at relatively high velocity against
from contacting surfaces by mechanical a surface. Each moving particle contacting
action. Although typically not as serious the surface cuts a minute particle from
as fracture, wear is expensive and is often the surface. An individual particle is
predictable. Contacting surfaces are insignificant, but removal of many
expected to wear in any machine. In particles is erosion.
many cases the deterioration can be Erosive wear can be marked during
minimized by lubrication, oil filtering, visual tests by any of the following
materials engineering and proper design, conditions, depending on the test object.
among other measures.
In many respects, wear is similar to 1. A general removal of soft surface
corrosion. Both have many types, of coatings or material is a common form
which two are usually occurring of wear for fan and propeller blades. In
simultaneously. Both are somewhat automotive applications, for example,
predictable in stable environments. Both the paint on the trailing end of the
are extremely difficult to evaluate in concave side of the fan blade is usually
accelerated laboratory or service tests, removed by the scouring or cutting
with rankings of materials subject to action of dust and dirt particles in the
change depending on seemingly minor air.
changes in the test conditions. Finally, 2. Grooves or channels eroded in the test
wear and corrosion both are of enormous surface are common in assemblies that
economic importance. move liquids or gases where the design
In visual testing, it is necessary to of the component is such that the
understand the history and operation of fluid flows faster or in a different
the mechanism involved. In many cases, direction at certain locations.
Examples include impellers with vanes
that push particle laden fluids into
various passages. The inside of tubes
FIGURE 30. Photograph of hydrogen or pipes is often damaged at curves
cracking found in heat affected zone next to because the inertia of the particles and
weld. the fluid forces them against the
outside of the curve. Sudden, sharp
curves or bends cause more erosion
problems than gentle curves. In textile
machinery, high velocity thread or
yarn can cause erosion when a sudden
change in direction causes grooving in
an eyelet. Grooving and channeling
are also quite common in various
types of nozzles where high speed or
high pressure fluids scour through the
metal. Drops of liquid can lead to
erosive wear, as is frequently seen on
the leading edges of high speed
aircraft.
Fretting Wear
Fretting wear is similar to adhesive wear
in that microwelding occurs on mating Wear debris
surfaces. The difference is that adhesive particle
wear is related to moving surfaces and
Temperature
________________________________________
Metal (°C) (°F)
Portions of Part 2 are reprinted with permission from Welding Inspection (1968), © American Welding Society. ASNT has revised the text in
1993 and 2010, and deficiencies are not the responsibility of the American Welding Society.
Portions of Part 2 are reprinted with permission from the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code (1989) and ANSI/ASME B31, ASME Code for
Pressure Piping (1990), © ASME International. ASNT has revised the text in 1993 and 2010, and deficiencies are not the responsibility of ASME
International.
Portions of Part 2 are reprinted with permission from API 620, Design and Construction of Large, Welded, Low-Pressure Storage Tanks (1990), and
API 650, Welded Steel Tanks for Oil Storage (1988), © American Petroleum Institute. ASNT has revised the text in 1993 and 2010, and
deficiencies are not the responsibility of the American Petroleum Institute.
http://www.mohandes-iran.com
PART 1. Chemical and Petroleum Industry
Slip mark
The following information is provided for discontinuities such as distortion (Fig. 4).
instructional purposes only and includes The size of a normal equal leg fillet weld
information from various standards. A is expressed as the leg length of the largest
source document for each section is isosceles right triangle that can be
indicated by the reference appended to its inscribed within the fillet weld cross
heading. section. The size of a groove weld is the
Those who perform work according to joint penetration (depth of the groove
code or contract need to refer to the face plus the root penetration when
applicable published standard or specified). Welds that are not adequate in
specification and identify the edition in size may be detected visually using a weld
their written procedure. gage or by comparison with approved
Other anomalies in metals are reference standards. The profile of a
discussed in the chapter on visual testing finished weld may have considerable
of metals. effect on its performance under load. In
addition, the profile of one pass in a
multipass weld may increase the tendency
toward certain discontinuities (incomplete
Weld Discontinuities4 fusion or slag inclusions) when
A discontinuity is an interruption of the subsequent layers are deposited. Specific
continuity of a typical structure, such as requirements concerning the acceptability
heterogeneity in the mechanical, of discontinuity types are usually included
metallurgical or physical characteristics of in the specifications. Overlap is another
a material. A discontinuity is not dimensional anomaly — weld metal is
necessarily a defect, but all defects are deposited beyond the weld toe (Fig. 5) in
discontinuities. Discontinuities associated butt joints or is not fused into the base
with welds may be divided as follows:
(1) dimensional, (2) process,
(3 mechanical or chemical and (4) base FIGURE 4. Weld alignment: (a) incorrect
metal properties. Dimensional angular alignment; (b) correct alignment
discontinuities include distortion; using proper control methods.
incorrect weld size, profile or proportions;
and excess weld reinforcement. Process (a)
discontinuities include porosity,
inclusions, incomplete fusion, inadequate
joint penetration, undercut, cracks and
surface irregularities.
Couplings
Couplings require a visual test for the 1
detection of discontinuities such as visible
Legend
seams and cracks. Certain depths of pits
1. Length covered under drill pipe classification system.
and round bottom gouges are permitted, 2. Length covered under tool joint testing standard.
requiring a mechanical pit depth gage. 3. Caution: length not covered by testing standard.
Sharp bottom imperfections have separate
criteria for acceptance and also require
depth measurement.
Before the assembly of the downhole discontinuity that would interfere with
tubular structure of an oil well, casing and the ability of the connection to be
tubing threads must undergo visual properly “made up,” that is, screwed
testing. These types of tubular products in together.
the oil field are referred to as oil country
tubular goods. The term casing applies to
the many strings of pipe that are used to
line the hole during and after drilling. Types of Seal
This pipe protects the hole from There are three types of seals used on oil
formation collapse, keeps the formation field tubing and casing: interference
fluids out of the hole and — perhaps most sealing threads, gasket seals and metal to
importantly — keeps the oil well fluids metal seals. The interference sealing
out of the water tables. The casing strings threads, or interference fitted threads, use
are a permanent part of the well and a tapered connection made up under great
many are cemented into the formation. pressure, forcing the mating surfaces
The tubing string is the production together more tightly than is possible by
string, the pipe through which the oil or hand alone. Figure 12 shows the flank
gas is brought to the surface. To do this, it engagement for American Petroleum
is important that the connections not Institute (API) round threads, and Fig. 13
allow the fluids to leak out. shows the root and crest engagement for
API buttress threads.
al
nk
tac
contact seal
tac
con
Pipe
Coupling
t se
nk
al
Designed clearance
Fla
Flank
0.001 (nominal)
(a)
Chamfer
FIGURE 14. Gasket seal using resilient ring.
Face
Lc Non Lc Pipe
Groove for ring cut
into coupling
Field end
Coupling face
(b)
Resilient ring CL
Coupling
Pipe
Pin face
Field end
(b)
CL
Face Coupling
Pipe
17.8 mm (0.7 in.)
12.7 mm (0.5 in.)
First perfect
thread Mill end
J area
Burr
TABLE 6. Criteria for visual testing of round threads.26 Anomalies described below are considered defects.
Area Anomalies
TABLE 7. Criteria for visual testing of buttress threads.26 Anomalies described below except triangle
stamps are considered defects. Triangle stamp errors need to be reported.
Area Anomalies
1. Bajula, D.R. Chapter 13, “Chemical 13. API STD 653, Tank Inspection, Repair,
and Petroleum Applications of Alteration, and Reconstruction, third
Magnetic Testing”: Part 1, “Chemical edition. Washington, DC: American
and Petroleum Industry.” Petroleum Institute (with errata,
Nondestructive Testing Handbook, third 2008).
edition: Vol. 8, Magnetic Testing. 14. API STD 1104, Welding of Pipelines and
Columbus, OH: American Society for Related Facilities. Dallas, TX: American
Nondestructive Testing (2008): Petroleum Institute (2008).
p 324-326. 15. Stanley, R.K. Section 7, “Codes,
2. CFR 1910.119, Process Safety Standards and Specifications for Visual
Management Regulations. Washington, and Optical Testing”: Part 3, “Oil Field
DC: Government Printing Office. Tubular Specifications.” Nondestructive
3. Section 6, “Visual and Optical Testing Testing Handbook, second edition:
Procedures”: Part 3, “Visual Testing Vol. 8, Visual and Optical Testing.
Acceptance Criteria for Welds.” Columbus, OH: American Society for
Nondestructive Testing Handbook, Nondestructive Testing (1993):
second edition: Vol. 8, Visual and p 188-191.
Optical Testing. Columbus, OH: 16. ISO 3183/API SPEC 5L, Specification for
American Society for Nondestructive Line Pipe. Dallas, TX: American
Testing (1993): p 163-175. Petroleum Institute (2009).
4. Welding Inspection. Miami, FL: 17. API RP 5L8, Recommended Practice for
American Welding Society (1968). Field Inspection of New Line Pipe. Dallas,
Superseded by Welding Inspection TX: American Petroleum Institute
Handbook. Miami, FL: American (1996).
Welding Society (2000). 18. API RP 7G, Recommended Practice for
5. ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code: Drill Stem Design and Operating Limits.
Section I, Power Boilers. New York, NY: Dallas, TX: American Petroleum
ASME International (1989, 2007). Institute (2009).
6. ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code: 19. ISO 13534/API RP 8B, Recommended
Section VIII, Rules for Construction of Practice for Hoisting Tool Inspection and
Pressure Vessels. New York, NY: ASME Maintenance Procedures. Dallas, TX:
International (1989, 2007). American Petroleum Institute (2005).
7. ANSI/ASME B 31.1, ASME Code for 20. API SPEC 5D, Specification for Drill Pipe.
Pressure Piping: Power Piping (1990, Dallas, TX: American Petroleum
2007). Institute (2001).
8. ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code: 21. API SPEC 7, Specification for Rotary Drill
Section X, Fiber Reinforced Plastic Stem Elements. Dallas, TX: American
Pressure Vessels. New York, NY: ASME Petroleum Institute (2009).
International (1989, 2007). 22. API 570, Piping Inspection Code:
9. ASME B 31.3, ASME Code for Pressure In-Service Inspection, Rating, Repair, and
Piping: Process Piping. New York, NY: Alteration of Piping Systems. Dallas, TX:
ASME International (1990, 2008). American Petroleum Institute (2009).
10. ASME B 31.8, ASME Code for Pressure 23. Mackin, J.L. Section 11, “Other
Piping: Gas Transmission and Applications of Visual and Optical
Distribution Piping Systems. New York, Tests”: Part 4, “Visual Testing of
NY: ASME International (1990, 2007). Threads in Oil Country Tubular
11. API STD 650, Welded Steel Tanks for Oil Goods.” Nondestructive Testing
Storage. Dallas, TX: American Handbook, second edition: Vol. 8,
Petroleum Institute (1988). Superseded Visual and Optical Testing. Columbus,
by API 650, Welded Tanks for Oil OH: American Society for
Storage. Dallas, TX: American Nondestructive Testing (1993):
Petroleum Institute (2007). p 322-327.
12. API STD 620, Design and Construction 24. Raulins, Max. “How Loading Affects
of Large, Welded, Low-Pressure Storage Tubular Thread Shoulder Seals.”
Tanks. Dallas, TX: American Petroleum Petroleum Engineering International.
Institute (2008). Dallas, TX: Otis Engineering
Corporation, Premium Threading
Services Division (March 1984).
http://www.mohandes-iran.com
PART 1. Visual Testing of Welds1,2
Complete Penetration
Metal Joint Configurations Complete joint penetration (Fig. 3) is
The geometry of metal joints is joint penetration in which the weld metal
determined by the requirements of their completely fills the groove and is fused to
host structure. The five basic joint types the base metal throughout its thickness.
are the butt, corner, edge, tee and lap Assuming that the weld metal strength
joints (Fig. 1). is equal to or greater than that of the base
metal, which is nearly always the case, the
weld joint in Fig. 3 could be considered
(a)
(b)
(c) (b)
(d)
(c)
(d)
(e) (e)
(f)
Toe 6
8
7
Crown or face
2
Leg
Actual throat 3 1
Theoretical throat
Toe Legend
1. Root opening: separation between members to be joined at root of joint
(sometimes called gap).
Root
Leg 2. Root face: groove face adjacent to root of joint (also called land).
3. Groove face: surface of member included in groove (also called bevel face).
4. Bevel angle: angle formed between prepared edge of plane perpendicular
to surface of member.
5. Groove angle: total included angle of groove between parts to be joined
by groove weld (also called included angle).
FIGURE 10. Components of fillet weld: (a) concave face; 6. Size of weld: joint penetration (depth of chamfering plus root penetration
when specified).
(b) convex face. 7. Plate thickness: thickness of welded plate.
8. Counterbore: boring of pipe inside diameter to correct for out of
(a) roundness caused during manufacture.
Leg
Actual throat and
effective throat Size
Toe Toe
Cross section or
throat of weld
Toe Toe
Theoretical throat
Root
(b) Root reinforcement
Convexity
Actual throat
Leg and
size
FIGURE 13. Stringer bead weld pattern.
Effective throat
Theoretical throat
Duplicate fillet
weld on this side Polish and etch this surface
50 mm (2 in.) minimum
Macro sample
200 mm (8 in.)
minimum 25 mm (1 in.) minimum
(a)
Test Conditions
Direct visual tests may be used if there is
access to the area of interest without
personal injury and if the unaided eye
(b) may be placed within 600 mm (24 in.) of
the test surface at an angle no less than
30 degrees. Mirrors can be used to
improve the angle of vision.
Natural or artificial lighting of
sufficient intensity and placement is
needed to illuminate the test areas and to
allow proper reading of weld gages and
Pipe wall other equipment. Criteria for vision acuity
are specified in various procedures and in
the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code3
— for example, in Section XI, IWA-2211.
Remote visual test systems may be
(c) needed if access is impaired or if personal
injury could result from direct visual
testing.
Testing Procedure
The following are some issues that a
visual inspector should address before
welding.
(d) 1. Verify the procedure’s qualification.
2. Verify welder or welding operator
qualification status and limits of
qualification, including limits of base
and welding material type, limits of
base material thickness and diameter
limits, limits of welding position and
currency of qualification date.
3. Verify that lighting on the test surface
is sufficient.
4. Verify identification of base material
(e) and visually examine joint
Fillet weld preparation. This part of examination
should verify that base material
(including backing ring, if used) are
13 mm (0.5 in.) compatible with the detailed weld
procedure; that the welding follows
the drawing; that the weld preparation
is free from base material
discontinuities such as laminations,
laps, nonmetallic inclusions or
pinhole porosity.
Root reinforcement
(a) Ruler
(a)
a (b) Ruler
(b)
a
FIGURE 20. Gage to determine fillet weld
concavity.
a
b
Size of
weld
64 mm (2.5 in.)
45 degrees
Size Size 25 mm (1 in.)
64 mm (2.5 in.)
Legs
25 mm (1 in.)
Remove after welding
(b)
(b)
25 mm (1 in.) Remove after welding
Size Size 64 mm (2.5 in.)
Size Size
C
C
(a)
4:1 template
(b)
Template shows
more than Cut out for
4:1 taper weld joint
(b) FIGURE 30. Presence of undercut: (a) in fillet weld joint; (b) in
butt weld joint.
90 degrees
(a)
(b)
<90 degrees
Crater crack
Arc strikes
Throat crack
Toe crack
Root crack
Test Procedures
A direct VT-1 test should be performed FIGURE 35. Pressurized water reactor vessel.
with the eyes no more than 600 mm
(24 in.) away from the test object, at an
angle no greater than 30 degrees to the
surface. The illumination on the object is
such that a 0.75 mm (0.03 in.) wide line
inscribed on an 18 percent neutral gray
card can be seen by the inspector. Remote
13
viewing aids such as video cameras work
if conditions equivalent to direct
inspection can be met.
It is very unlikely that a gray card test 14
1
could be used with an underwater closed
circuit television system. In some cases, 2
the closed circuit television must resolve a 15
stretched wire of a known diameter placed 3
against the test material (Fig. 34).
16
4
Pressurized Water Reactor
Internals 5
All of the internals of the pressurized 17
water reactor (Fig. 35) may be removed 18
6
from the vessel for testing. To do this, the 19
fuel must also be removed. Consequently, 7
the inservice inspection program 20
21
8
12 24
Legend
1. Control rod drive shaft.
2. Lifting lug.
3. Upper support plate.
4. Internals support ledge.
5. Core barrel.
6. Outlet nozzle.
7. Upper core plate.
8. Reactor vessel.
9. Lower instrumentation guide tube.
10. Bottom support forging.
11. Radial support.
12. Tie plates.
Wire 13. Control rod drive mechanism.
14. Thermal sleeve.
15. Closure head assembly.
16. Hold-down sharing.
17. Inlet nozzle.
18. Fuel assemblies.
19. Baffle.
20. Former.
21. Lower core plate.
22. Irradiation specimen guide.
Aluminum frame
23. Neutron shield pad.
24. Core support columns.
15
3
16 FIGURE 37. Video camera positioner.
4 Motion control
17 console
Light control console
5
18 Quick clamp
turning handle
6 19
Quick detachable Refueling bridge
20 support clamps trolley
7
Vertical drive winch Support frame
21
8
22
Swivel pin connection
9 23
Rotator/light cable
10 Camera cable
Legend
1. Vent and head spray. Winch cable
2. Steam outlet.
3. Core spray inlet.
4. Low pressure coolant injection inlet.
5. Core spray sparger.
6. Jet pump assembly.
7. Fuel assemblies.
8. Jet pump/recirculation water inlet. Quick connect extension
9. Vessel support skirt. tube
10. Control rod drives.
11. In-core flux monitor.
12. Steam dryer lifting lug.
13. Steam dryer assembly.
14. Steam separator assembly.
15. Feedwater inlet.
16. Feedwater sparger.
17. Core spray line.
18. Top guide.
19. Core shroud.
20. Control blade.
21. Core plate.
22. Recirculation water outlet.
23. Shield wall.
24. Control rod drive hydraulic lines.
Camera support yoke
Stem
Stuffing box
Stem
Disk or plug
Body
Fixed seat
Seat face
Wedge
Ring
Disk
Hinge pin
Closure device
Body
J K
In place ultrasonic
testing (JKLM)
Face of
25 mm (1 in.) flange of
Threaded bushing component
(where used) 25 mm
(1 in.)
H G C B
DB DS
Recording
Any area where a visual test reveals
surface discontinuities (physical damage,
wear, cracks, gouges, corrosion, erosion,
misalignment, nicks, oxidation, scratches)
on studs, washers, nuts or bolts is
recorded on a data sheet regardless of
Threads Head-to-shank Midgrip Dished head
fillet discontinuity size. Unspecified movement
and the looseness of bolts is also recorded.
(b)
If there are areas or indications that
cannot be easily recorded on a data form,
a sketch or photograph is included with
the report, to clarify the results.
(c)
(a)
Laminations
Seam
Aerospace Applications of
Visual Testing
Part 2 is a work of the United States government and not subject to copyright.
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PART 1. Visual Testing of Aircraft Structure1,2
Diffracted Light
A technique using diffracted light has
been developed for visualizing surface
distortions, depressions or protrusions as 90 degrees to screen
small as 10 µm (0.0004 in.). A real time
technique particularly applicable to rapid Surface
inspection of large surfaces, the diffracted
light technique has been used to inspect Lens
automobile body panels and metal 1.2 m (4 ft) Lamp
working dies. Commercial versions of
diffracted light equipment have ranged
from a manual handheld system, in 30 degrees 1.2 m (4 ft)
which the operator directly views the
inspected part, to systems with video 1.5 m (5 ft)
cameras and computer based image
processors. This technique has been used
to inspect composite structures for barely
visible impact damage.3,4
Computer based image processing has
been applied to diffracted light technique
images. An image from a previous
Forward
Bell crank
Typical crack
Bore inspection
for pits Collar
Borescope
Eyepiece Typical
crack
70 degree forward
oblique borescope FIGURE 5. Wing rear spar doubler and web crack location:
(a) from above; (b) from side.
(a)
Forward
Light source
Tee cap
Inboard
(b)
Typical crack Rear spar web
Doubler or Fitting
web crack
Fitting assembly
Doubler
(b)
Up
Typical crack
Inboard
Borescope
Wing skin
Rudder Flange Cracks
Borescope
Radiographic tests can reveal cracks
developing in the rib flanges of the Trace
rudder. In one case, analysis determined
that cracking of the rib flanges resulted (b) Fitting
from acoustically induced vibration. It
was also determined that installation of
stiffeners on the rudder ribs strengthens
the rudder and minimizes the possibility
of further crack development. A service
bulletin was issued giving criteria for
flyable crack lengths based on the number
of cracked ribs and the length of the
cracks. Unrepaired rib flange cracks may
cause cracks to occur in the rudder skins,
thereby requiring more extensive repairs.
A radiographic test is first conducted and
if cracks are detected in the rib flanges at Crack position 2
or adjacent to the skin attachment Borescope Crack position 3
fastener holes, their lengths must be
determined. The cracks may run upward
into the flange radius and progress into Up
the rib area, where their lengths may be
difficult to determine from radiographs Inboard
alone (Fig. 7). If cracks occur within or
progress into the flange upper radius,
Rigid
Flange upper borescope
radius
Typical rib web
D
Fiber optic
Fiber optic light source
light source
Rudder skin
D
Typical
Flange upper cracks
radius Flexible
borescope
Rigid
borescope Cracked Flexible
flange borescope
Up
(b)
(c)
(b)
(d)
FIGURE 10. Borescopic visual test of wing lower forward spar cap tang for fatigue cracks.
Footstool fitting
Forward
Footstool fitting
Pylon fitting
Inboard
Fastener
Access hole
Inboard side of footstool fitting
J tube guide
Pylon fitting and footstool fitting left side
Light source
Diffuser case
Access ports
338 degrees
277 degrees
Fourth stage stator
(bleed valve opening) 225 degrees
FIGURE 15. Coloration change only, no cracks. FIGURE 17. Voids exposed on composite surface.
25 mm (1 in.)
(b) (c)
Techniques Allied to
Visual Testing
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PART 1. Indications Not from Visual Testing
As a nondestructive test method, visual 2. Visual tests are often used to inspect
testing is defined by its interrogating and or verify the data of the other tests. It
indicating energy: light, in the visible part might be said, for example, that
of the electromagnetic spectrum. Light radiography is ultimately a visual test
and images are used to display, observe, of the radiograph — to determine that
analyze, communicate and record the the radiographic images are properly
results of all nondestructive tests. exposed, that the areas of interest are
Visibility criteria are specified for free of artifacts and that the images
magnetic particle tests, liquid penetrant can show the characteristics of
tests and some leak tests. Vision acuity is interest. As another example, wet
verified for some inspectors who use magnetic particle tests are not reliable
magnetic particle and ultrasonic testing. unless the bath has passed a
Light levels, indication sizes, viewing preliminary visual test so that the
angles, color sensitivity and many other inspector can see discontinuity
phenomena pertaining to human vision indications.
are strictly controlled to achieve reliable
accuracy in visual tests as well as other
nondestructive testing techniques.
Visual testing is linked to these other Visual Aspects of Leak
methods by shared hardware.
Testing
1. Borescopes, the basic tools of visual
testing, are often used to view Leak testing is done by detecting a tracer
obstructed magnetic particle or liquid medium, a gas or liquid, that has escaped
penetrant test indications. from confinement. The tracer can be an
2. Magnifiers are used to visually test added fluid or in some cases the fluid that
material surfaces, as well as to study the vessel is designed to hold. Testing is
the details in radiographs and to done visually, aurally or electronically.
measure indications in magnetic Occasionally, tracers are designed to
particle and liquid penetrant testing. interact with materials applied or
3. Still and video cameras are used in naturally present outside the vessel, to
cineradiography, in the photographic produce highly visible evidence of
recording of various test results, in leakage. The visual portion of a typical
machine vision, in remote television leak test is that which determines the
pickups and in virtually all the presence and location of leakage. The rate
automated nondestructive test of leakage and its effect on fluid flow may
methods. be determined by visual observation of
4. Image processing software enhances meters and gages.
the display and interpretation of, for Visual tests are conducted to locate
example, radiographic, ultrasonic or leakage from pressure retaining
microwave test results. components. In nuclear power plants,
visual tests are required for locating
Visual testing may be used with abnormal leakage from components with
another method, either before or after it. or without leakage collection systems. For
1. Visual testing may be used certain nuclear power components, visual
qualitatively to identify problem areas testing is performed using the reactor
that need follow-up with a coolant (water) as the tracer medium. The
quantitative method. A corroded spot visual testing of noninsulated pressure
identified visually may be flagged for retaining components is performed by
ultrasonic thickness testing, for inspecting external, exposed surfaces for
example. visible evidence of leakage.
Components whose external surfaces
are inaccessible for direct viewing are
examined by visually checking the
surrounding area, including drip pans or
surfaces beneath the components of
interest. Color detection and color
differentiation are essential in certain leak
testing procedures. For example,
Fracture
D
Creep strain
B
A
Exposure time
Legend
A. Isolated cavities.
B. Oriented cavities.
C. Microcracks.
D. Macrocracks.
The information contained in this text is and location of visual tests. Specific areas
simplified for general instruction. Local may contain discontinuities from forming
authorities for health and environment operations such as casting, rolling, forging
(including the Occupational Safety and or extruding. Weld tests may be full
Health Administration and Environmental length or random spots and typically
Protection Agency) should be consulted cover the weld metal, fusion line and
about the proper use and disposal of heat-affected zone. The service of a
chemical agents. For reasons of safety, all component may also indicate problem
chemicals must be handled with care, areas requiring inspection.
particularly the concentrated chemicals Location of the test site directly affects
that aid visual testing. surface preparation. The test site may be
In visual nondestructive testing, prepared and nondestructively inspected
chemical techniques are used to clean and in situ. Removal of a sample for laboratory
enhance test object surfaces. Cleaning examination is a destructive alternative
processes remove dirt, grease, oil, rust and test method that typically requires a
mill scale. Contrast is enhanced by repair weld.
chemical etching before visual testing.
Etching is described by standards13-15 and
is well documented in the literature.16,17
Macroetching is the use of chemical Surface Preparation
solutions to attack material surfaces to Preparation of the test object before
improve the visibility of discontinuities etching may require only cleaning or a
for visual inspection at normal and low process including cleaning, grinding and
power magnifications. Caution is required fine polishing (improper grinding is
in the use of these chemicals — the use of shown in Fig. 10). The extent of these
protective clothing and safety devices is operations depends on the etchant, the
imperative. Test object preparation and material and the type of discontinuity
the choice of etchant must be appropriate being sought.
for the inspection objectives. Once the
desired etch is achieved, the metal surface
must be flushed with water to avoid Solvent Cleaning
excessive etching. Solvent cleaning can be useful at two
stages in test object preparation. An initial
cleaning with a suitable solvent removes
dirt, grease and oil and may make rust
Test Object Selection and mill scale easier to remove.
Figure 9 shows typical test objects One of the most effective cleaning
removed from their service environment. solvents is a solution of detergent and
Governing codes, standards or water. However, if water is detrimental to
specifications may determine the number the test object, organic solvents such as
ethyl alcohol, acetone or naphthas have
been used. These materials generally have
low flash points and their use may be
FIGURE 9. Components removed from service for visual
testing.
FIGURE 10. Improper surface preparation. Grind marks mask
indications, and even severe etchant does not give good test
results.
Concentration
The strength of an acid, base or salt in
solution is expressed by its concentration
(b) or composition. Etchants are typically
mixtures of liquids or solids in liquids.
The concentration of liquid mixtures is
expressed as parts or percent by volume.
For solids in liquids, units of
concentration are parts or percent by
weight. Generally, etchants are mixed in
small quantities. Table 2 lists a variety of
etchants.
1. Generazio, E.R. and D.J. Roth. 10. Neubauer, B. and U. Wedel. “Restlife
Section 1, “Other Applications of Estimation of Creeping Components
Visual and Optical Tests”: Part 1, by Means of Replicas.” Advances in Life
“Interface of Visual Testing with Other Prediction. D.A. Woodford and J.R.
Nondestructive Testing Methods.” Whitehead, eds. New York, NY:
Nondestructive Testing Handbook, American Society of Mechanical
second edition: Vol. 8, Visual and Engineers (1983): p 307-314.
Optical Testing. Columbus, OH: 11. ASME FFS/API 579, Fitness-for-Service.
American Society for Nondestructive New York, NY: ASME International
Testing (1993): p 304-312. (2008). Dallas, TX: American
2. Generazio, E.R. “The Role of the Petroleum Institute (2000).
Reflection Coefficient in Precision 12. Parrish, D. Section 4, “Basic Aids and
Measurement of Ultrasonic Accessories for Visual Testing”: Part 7,
Attenuation.” Materials Evaluation. “Chemical Aids.” Nondestructive Testing
Vol. 43, No. 8. Columbus, OH: Handbook, second edition: Vol. 8,
American Society for Nondestructive Visual and Optical Testing. Columbus,
Testing (July 1985): p 995-1004. OH: American Society for
3. Truell, R., C. Elbaum and B.B. Chick. Nondestructive Testing (1993):
Ultrasonic Methods in Solid State Physics. p 118-124.
New York, NY: Academic Press (1969). 13. ASTM E 381, Standard Method of
4. Generazio, E.R. “Ultrasonic Macroetch Testing Steel Bars, Billets,
Attenuation Measurements Determine Blooms, and Forgings. West
Onset, Degree and Completion of Conshohocken, PA:
Recrystallization.” Materials Evaluation. ASTM International (2006).
Vol. 46, No. 9. Columbus, OH: 14. ASTM E 407, Standard Practice for
American Society for Nondestructive Microetching Metals and Alloys.
Testing (August 1988): p 1198-1203. West Conshohocken, PA:
5. Generazio, E.R. “Scaling Attenuation ASTM International (2007).
Data Characterizes Changes in 15. QW 470, “Etching — Processes and
Material Microstructure.” Materials Reagents.” ASME Boiler and Pressure
Evaluation. Vol. 44, No. 2. Columbus, Vessel Code: Section IX, Welding and
OH: American Society for Brazing Qualifications. New York, NY:
Nondestructive Testing American Society of Mechanical
(February 1986): p 198-202. Engineers (2008).
6. Meiley, S. Section 4, “Basic Aids and 16. CRC Handbook of Metal Etchants.
Accessories for Visual Testing”: Part 5, Baton Rouge, LA: CRC Press (1990).
“Replication.” Nondestructive Testing 17. Microengineering of Metals and Ceramics:
Handbook, second edition: Vol. 8, Part 2: Special Replication Techniques,
Visual and Optical Testing. Columbus, Automation, and Properties. Baton
OH: American Society for Rouge, LA: Wiley-VHC (2005).
Nondestructive Testing (1993): 18. Lewis, R.J. Sax’s Dangerous Properties of
p 108-113. Industrial Materials, tenth edition.
7. ASTM E 1351, Standard Practice for Three volumes. New York, NY:
Production and Evaluation of Field Wiley-Interscience (2000).
Metallographic Replicas. Philadelphia,
PA: ASTM International (2001).
8. ASM Handbook: Vol. 9, Metallography
and Microstructures. Materials Park, OH:
ASM International (1985, 2004).
9. Marder, A.R. “Replication Microscopy
Techniques for NDE.” Metals
Handbook, ninth edition: Vol. 17,
Nondestructive Evaluation and Quality
Control. Materials Park, OH:
ASM International (1985): p 52-56.
Introduction
Purpose
Standards writing bodies take great pains to ensure that
their standards are definitive in wording and technical
accuracy. People working to written contracts or
procedures should consult definitions referenced in
standards when appropriate. For example, persons who
work in accordance with standards published by ASTM
International are encouraged to refer to definitions in the
ASTM standards.1
The definitions in this Nondestructive Testing Handbook
volume should not be referenced for tests performed
according to standards or specifications or in fulfillment
of contracts. This glossary is provided for instructional
purposes. No other use is intended.
On References
Many definitions in this glossary are adapted from other
volumes of the Nondestructive Testing Handbook series,
especially from the second edition’s Visual and Optical
Testing (1993).2
Some terms apply generally to nondestructive testing
and are not specific to visual testing — terms on subjects
such as metallurgy, quality control and personnel
qualification. Many of these definitions come from the
second edition volume Nondestructive Testing Overview
(1996)3; some are rephrased in the third edition’s most
recent volume, Magnetic Testing (2008).4
Entries from other volumes in the Nondestructive
Testing Handbook series are reprinted but generally not
referenced below.
http://www.mohandes-iran.com
Definitions
W
wavelength: Distance between repeating
values of a wave. For example, the
distance from one peak to the next
peak on a sine wave.
wear: See erosion; rat’s tooth principle; wear,
adhesive; and wear, fretting.
wear oxidation: See wear, fretting.
A arc burns
on jet engine turbine blades, 274
focus adjustment, 136, 137, 141, 144
heat damage to, 276
abrasive wear, 203 on pipe threads, 228 historical background, 28, 29-32
acceptance criteria, 15 arc strikes, near welds, 196, 248 in liquid penetrant testing, 286, 289
ACCP (ASNT Central Certification Program), 18 arc welding, 236, 237-239 in magnetic particle testing, 286, 289
acoustic emission testing, 10 area lighting, 117 optical systems, 144-145
adhesive wear, 205 area measurement, 149, 150, 151, 152 rigid, 89, 138, 141-142
aircraft ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, 17 rubber eyeshields, 136
borescope applications, 31, 32, 139, 266-267, brazed joints in power plants, 248 sectioned, 146
276-277 historical background, 27 systems based on, 145
composite materials, 280-281 reactor pressure vessels, 250, 252 types of, 138, 145-147
diffracted light technique, 267, 281 vision acuity for testing welds, 241, 242 boundary detection, visual, 62-63
engine inspection, 85, 139, 274-277 weld joint porosity, 246 Bozzini, Philipp, 28
fatigue cracking of fuselage, 3 weld joint undercut, 247 brazed joints, 248
landing gear pitting corrosion, 271 ASME International, 17 brazing, 235-236
lap joints, enhanced visual ANSI/ASME B31.1, 246 brightness
inspection, 173-176 ASME B 31.8, 218 color value and, 96
magnifying lenses for inspection, 266 ASME FFS, 294 of digital image, 98
rudder flange cracks, 270-271 Association Connecting Electronics Industries, 17 as luminance, 35
slat drive bell crank, 268 astigmatism, 65 of photographic image, 87, 91-92
spoiler lubrication hole cracks, 268-269 ASTM International, 16, 17 bursts in metals, 186-187, 262
spoiler torsion bar corrosion pitting, 268 automated inspection. See also machine vision in bolting materials, 261
structural cracking and corrosion, 139, early patents, 28-29 butt joint, 234
266-273 lighting for, 118-119 discontinuities in, 243, 244, 247
surface crack detection algorithm, 174-175 automotive applications butterfly valves, 259
vision acuity for crack detection, 77-78 borescopes in, 139
wing cracks under panel, 269-270 corrosion of auto body, 201
wing spar cap cracks, 271-272 fatigue cracking, 206, 208 C
wing spar exfoliation corrosion, 85 ferritic stainless steels in, 209 calibration, of photometers, 54-56, 59
Alhazen, 25-26
calipers, 130-131
aluminum alloys
cambridge gage, 132, 133, 242
fretting wear producing black powder, 206 B camera based measurement, 148-154
stress corrosion cracking, 201, 202
ball valves, 259 camera borescope, 138, 148
threshold for elevated temperature
bifocals, 73 camera interface, for machine vision, 163
behavior, 207
binarization, 166-167 camera obscura, 25-26
aluminum panels, exfoliation corrosion, 281
binocular magnifiers, 121 CameraLink®, 163
American Concrete Institute, 17
bit map, 95-96 cameras. See also photography
American National Standards Institute
black light, 36 charge coupled device in, 102-103, 161, 162
(ANSI), 17, 18
blackbody, 48, 49, 54 colorimetric functions of, 129
ANSI/ASME B31.1, 246
blowholes complementary metal oxide semiconductor
ANSI/ASNT CP-105, 18
in cast ingots, 183 (CMOS), 161
ANSI/ASNT CP-189, 16, 241
in welds, 192 for general digital photography, 86, 87-88
Recommended Practice No. SNT-TC-1A,
blue hazard, 22-23 for machine vision, 158, 161-163
16, 18-19, 32-33
boiler tubes, borescope applications, 138 microscopes with, 125
American Petroleum Institute (API), 17
boilers. See also ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel in other nondestructive testing methods, 286
API RP 8B, 222
Code; pressure vessels pan, tilt and zoom, 153, 154
API RP 7G, 221
early history of inspection, 27 push cameras, 153-154
API SPEC 5B, 224, 225
failure caused by discontinuities, 3 for reactor vessel testing, 253-255
pipe and tube specifications, 17, 220, 221,
power boilers, weld acceptance criteria, 216 on robot or crawler, 138, 154
224, 225
bolts, 259-261 underwater, 91, 253-254
storage tank standards, 17, 218
borescopes, 8, 136-137, 141-147. See also video candela, 35-36, 52, 53-54
American Society for Nondestructive Testing
borescopes carbides, precipitated, 293, 294
(ASNT), 16, 18-19, 32-33, 241
in aircraft engine inspection, 139, 276-277 carburization, 209
ACCP (ASNT Central Certification
in aircraft structural inspection, 31, 32, 139, castings
Program), 18
266-267 discontinuities in, 182-184, 262
ANSI/ASNT CP-105, 18
angles of view, 141-142, 144, 145-146 surface roughness, 128
ANSI/ASNT CP-189, 16, 241
calibrated, 147 thermal cracking of molds, 209
American Welding Society (AWS), 17, 32, 33
clamps or tweezers for manipulation, 137 cathode ray tubes (CRTs), 106
AWS D1.1M, 246
components of, 137 cellulose acetate replication, 291-294, 295, 296
Structural Welding Code, 17, 191, 241, 245
in composite materials inspection, 280, 282 center line hot cracking, in welds, 193
angle of illumination, discontinuity detectability
eyeglasses and, 136 Central Certification Program, 18
and, 78
factors determining setup for, 136-137 ceramics
angle of viewing, in direct visual testing, 112-114
field of view, 89, 136, 137, 142, 143, injection molded turbine blades, 274-275
anisotropic surfaces, 128
145, 146 ultrasonic attenuation in, 290
Annual Book of ASTM Standards, 16
fixed focus, 141, 145 certification of personnel, 16, 18-19, 32-33
anomalous trichromatism, 69-70
flexible, 28, 30, 138, 142-144, 266-267 for visual testing of welds, 241
Arab optics, medieval, 24, 25-26
Index 323
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chaplets, unfused, on surface of casting, 262 correlated color temperature, 50, 54 diopter, 36, 64
charge coupled devices, 102-103, 161 corrosion, 200-201. See also exfoliation corrosion; direct visual testing, 112-133
color information with, 161, 162 stress corrosion cracking defined, vi, 13, 112
of video borescope, 148 aircraft lap joints, enhanced visual inspection, dimensional measurement, 130-133
charge injection devices, 161-162 173-176 illumination for, 116-120
chemical industry, 139, 212-214 aircraft spoiler torsion bar, 268 magnification for, 121-126
chills, unfused, on surface of casting, 262 crevice corrosion, 201, 261 mirrors in, 114-115
chromatic aberration, 46, 47, 122 fluid flow at high temperature and, 208 observer’s attitude, 112
chromatic contrast, 116 landing gear pitting corrosion, 271 surface characteristics, 127-129
chromatic correction, 121 replication for analysis of, 291 as technique, 112
chromaticity. See hue cosine cubed law, 43-44 viewing angle, 112-114
circle gage, 149, 150, 151, 152 cosine law, 43-44 discontinuities, 4-5, 6
cleaning costs defined, 180, 215
of fracture surface, for replication, 291 of manufacturing, 3, 4, 7 detected by simple visual test, 8
precleaning of discontinuities, 13 of mechanical failure, 4 revealed by etching, 298
to prepare for etching, 297-298 crack detection visual contrast and detection of, 116
cleanliness, visual testing of, 127 computer algorithm for, 174-175 discontinuities in composite
before joining or painting, 213 vision acuity and, 77-78 materials, 279, 280-281
CMOS (complementary metal oxide cracks, 4, 5, 8. See also fracture surface discontinuities in metals. See also steels
semiconductor) camera, 161 in ceramic turbine blades, 275-276 in aircraft engine components, 274
coaxial cable, 104 in composite materials, 278, 279, 280, 282 in aircraft structures, 266
cobalt base alloys, elevated temperature photography of, 84, 85 in bolts, studs, washers, and nuts, 260-261
behavior, 207 cracks in metals. See also fatigue cracks; fatigue in cast ingots, 182-184, 262
cocoa (ferrous debris), 206 cracks in aircraft; hydrogen cracking; stress in drawn products, 263
coddington magnifier, 122, 123 corrosion cracking; tears in metals elevated temperature discontinuities, 206-209
codecs, 103 of aircraft structures, 77-78, 266, 268-273 in extruded products, 263
coherent light, 119 cooling cracks, 185-186 factors affecting detectability, 180
coil breaks, in formed steel, 188, 190 creep cracking, 207 in forgings, 185, 186-187, 262
coil weld, in steel, 188 in forgings, 262 manufacturing stages affecting, 180-181
cold cracking, in welds, 193 revealed by etching, 298 primary processing discontinuities,
cold lap. See overlap of welds in rolled products, 262, 263 185-190, 260
cold shuts, in castings, 182, 262 from secondary processing, 197-199 in rolled metal, 185-190, 195, 198, 262-263
cold start, of weld, 194 in welds, 192-194, 195, 247 secondary processing
collimated light source, 118 Crampton, George, 30-32 discontinuities, 197-199, 260
color, 49-50 crater cracking, in welds, 194 service induced discontinuities, 200-209, 260
with charge coupled device, 161, 162 crawlers, 138, 154, 214 from straightening after heat treating, 197
in digital images, 96-97 creep, 206-207 of welds, 191-196, 215-216, 243-248
direct visual testing of, 128-129 high temperature, 293, 295 discriminant analysis, in image
color balance, 97 microscopy of replicated microstructure, 293 processing, 166-167
color blindness, 69 creep cracking, 207 distance measurement, 148, 149, 150-152
color discrimination, 62, 63, 69 creep growth of high alloy castings, distribution temperature, 54
abnormalities of, 69-70 photogrammetry of, 94 double-pass retroreflection surface inspection
clinical testing of, 74-77 crevice corrosion, 201 technique, 173
in leak testing, 286-287 crevice corrosion cracks, on bolts, 261 doublet magnifier, 122, 123
lighting for, 116-117 critical angle, 47 dyes
in liquid penetrant testing, 287 crypt, borescope inspection, 139, 140 in leak testing, 287
in magnetic particle testing, 288-289 cutting tools, self-sharpening, 205-206 in visual testing of composite materials, 280
color intensity, 128 dynamic response, 5, 6
color saturation, 96, 98, 116, 128 dynamic stress, 3
color temperature, 49-50, 53, 54, 59 D
color value, 96, 128 dark adapted vision, 51
colorimeter, 129 data storage, 104-105 E
comparison measurements, 150, 152. See also data transfer, 104-105 eddy current testing, 9
reference standards defect, defined, 180, 215 edge breaks, in formed steel, 189
complementary metal oxide semiconductor delaminations, in composite edge detection
(CMOS) camera, 161 materials, 279, 280, 281 image processing algorithms, 164-165, 174
composite materials, 278-282 delayed cracking, of welds, 193 as visual ability, 62-63
Compressed Gas Association, 17, 230 depth measurement, 149, 150, 152-153 edge joint, 234
computer display, 95-96, 97, 105, 106 depth of field edge-of-light surface inspection technique,
computerized design, inspection principles borescope, 137, 141, 145 173, 267
and, 133 camera, 88-89, 90, 92 Edison, Thomas, 28
condenser reflector, 118 machine vision system, 159 electric power industry. See also nuclear reactor
cones, retinal, 51, 62, 64-65, 69 magnifier, 121, 122 applications
abnormalities of, 69-70 diaphragm valves, 259 borescope applications, 138-139
consultants, 14 dichromatism, 69, 70 push cameras, 153
contact reticle, 123-124 diffracted light technique, 267 electrical discharge damage, on jet engine turbine
contrast for composite panel examination, 280-281 blades, 274-275
in digital image, 98 diffuse front illumination, 119 electromagnetic spectrum, 5, 6, 44
etching for enhancement of, 297, 298 diffuse light source, 118 electromagnetic test methods, 5, 6
photographic, 86, 91, 92 diffuse reflection, 45 electromagnetic theory of light, 42
in visual inspection, 116, 117 digital cameras, 87-88 electron microscope analysis, of fracture surface
contrast sensitivity, 68-69 digital image processing. See image processing replicas, 291-292
luminous, 62 digital images, 95-99 elevated temperature discontinuities, in metals,
convolution operator, 164-165 digital video, 100-101, 103-104, 105-106, 107 206-209
cooling cracks in metal, 185-186 dimensional anomalies, of welds, 215-216, embedded vision computer, 158
copper alloys, stress corrosion cracking, 201, 202 243-246 emissivity, 47-48
corner joint, 234 dimensional measurement, 130-133 engines
corrective lenses, 68 in petroleum industry, 213, 221-222 aircraft, 139, 274-277
borescope use and, 136 dimensional testing, 6 automotive, 139
crack detection and, 77, 78 dimensions, 5, 6 thermal fatigue, 208
presbyopia and, 73
Index 325
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indirect visual testing, 13, 136-154. See also light sources. See also luminance McMaster, Robert, vi
borescopes for automated inspection, 118-119 measurement
applications, 138-140 for liquid penetrant testing, 287-288 with calipers, 130-131
defined, vi, 136 for machine vision, 161 of color, 128-129
designs for maneuvering cameras, 153-154 measurable characteristics of, 53-54 dimensional, 130-133
illumination, 136, 137, 138 for photography, 86, 87, 91-92 with gages, 131-132
measurement, 148-153 safety with, 20-23 of gloss, 56, 129
in petroleum industry, 214 standard for color vision testing, 75 indirect, 148-153
test object factors in, 136-137 test material characteristics and, 118 by photometry, 51-57
types of instruments for, 137-138 for visual testing, 116, 117, 118, 119 of ultraviolet radiation, 36
infrared radiation hazards, 20-21, 22 lighting. See illumination units for, 34-36, 53-54
infrared testing, 11-12 liquation cracking, in welds, 193-194 measuring magnifier, 123-124
infrastructure applications, 139 liquid metal contact, 209 mechanical gages, 131
push cameras in, 153-154 liquid penetrant testing, 8 medical endoscopy, 28
ingots. See castings visual aspects of, 287-288 mercury, stress corrosion cracking from contact
in-house programs, 14 logMAR vision acuity chart, 71 with, 209
integrating sphere, 54-55 loupe, 122, 123 mesopic vision, 51
integrating sphere photometer, 56-57 lumens, 35, 42, 53, 54 metal joints. See brazed joints; soldered joints;
interference microscope, 125-126 luminance, 35, 36, 53, 54. See also light sources welds
interference sealing threads, 223 of pixel, 98 metallographic microscope, 125
International Commission on Illumination (CIE), luminance contrast, 116 metallurgical instabilities, 208
color system, 129 luminescent light, 119 metallurgical microscope, 125
International Electrotechnical Commission, 17 luminous bodies, 43 metals. See also discontinuities in metals
International Organization for Standardization luminous contrast sensitivity, 62 cooling methods for components, 209
(ISO), 17, 19 luminous efficacy, 51, 53 general oxidation of, at elevated temperature,
inverse square law, 43 luminous efficiency function, V (λ), 52, 54, 55 208-209
irradiance, ultraviolet, 36 luminous exitance, 53, 54 liquid, cracking of metals caused by, 209
Ishihara® color plates, 75 luminous exposure, 53, 54 replication testing of surfaces, 291-296
luminous flux, 35, 42, 53, 54 scaling of, at elevated temperature, 208, 209
integrating sphere photometer and, 56-57 thresholds for elevated temperature
J luminous flux calibration, 54-55 behavior, 207
jaeger near point chart, 73-74 luminous intensity, 53-54, 55 metal-to-metal seal, oil field, 223, 224
Japanese Institute of Standards, 17 lux, 35, 53, 54. See also illuminance metric units, 34
jet engines, 274-277. See also engines michelson contrast, 68
JPG files, 95, 96 microborescope, 266
M microdensitometry, in radiographic testing, 288
machine shops, borescope applications, 138 micrometers, 131
L machine vision, 158-176 microscopes, 124-126
basic system architecture, 158 for fracture surface analysis of replication,
laboratory microscope, 125
camera calibration, 162 291-292
lamellar tearing, of welds, 195
camera interface, 158, 163 photography with, of composite
laminations, in rolled metal, 185, 262-263
cameras, 158, 161-162 materials, 278
Lang, John, 32
defined, 158 microstructure, 6
lanthony desaturated D 15 test, 76-77
illumination for, 118-119, 159-161 metallurgical instabilities and, 208
lap joint, 234
image processing for, 158, 164-170 replication techniques, 291, 292-293,
laplacian operator, discrete, 165
for nondestructive testing, visible 295-296
laps in metals, 185, 186, 262
light, 173-176 microwelding, 205
in bolting materials, 261
optics, 159 mill scale, removal of, before etching, 297, 298
revealed by etching, 298
pattern recognition for, 170-173 miniature borescope, 142
laser light, 119
machining tears in metals, 198 mirrors
hazards of, 20, 23
macro lens, 87, 90 in direct visual testing, 114-115
LCDs (liquid crystal displays), 105
macro photography, 90 in visual testing of welds, 242
lead, stress corrosion cracking, 202
macroetching, 297, 298, 300, 301 miter joint welds, acceptance criteria, 217-218
leak testing, 11
macula, 64 MPEG (Moving Picture Experts Group), 103-104
visual aspects of, 286-287
magnesium alloys, stress corrosion cracking, 202 multiple-segment length measurement, 149, 150,
LEDs (light emitting diodes), 105, 161
magnetic particle testing, 8 151, 152
length. See distance measurement
visual aspects of, 97, 222, 288-289 munsell color system, 129
lens law, 46
magnification myopic eye, 65
lens of eye, 64
aging, 70 borescope, 145
for direct visual testing, 121-126
lenses. See also corrective lenses; magnifiers
for indirect visual testing, 136, 137 N
borescope, 145
optical principles, 46-47 photographic, 91 Natural Color System, 128
photographic, 87-91 single lens magnifier, 122 Navy, US, visual weld testing, 32, 33
lift check valves, 259 thin lens, 46 near vision acuity testing, 72-74
light magnifiers nearsightedness, 65, 68
generation of, 43 for aircraft applications of composite necking, in drilling pipe, 222
health hazards, 19-20, 21-23 materials, 278, 280 necking down, of bolts, 261
measurable characteristics of, 53 in aircraft maintenance, 266 neural network, in crack classification
overview, 42 descriptive factors, 121 algorithm, 174-175
speed, 44, 45, 48 illuminated, 124 Newton, Isaac, 42
theories of, 42-43 in magnetic particle or liquid penetrant nickel, stress corrosion cracking, 202
units for measurement of, 35-36 testing, 286 nickel base alloys, elevated temperature
wavelength range, 42, 43, 44 types, 121-124 behavior, 207
wavelength relationship to frequency and Manhattan Project, 31, 32 nickel chromium steel, stress corrosion
velocity, 44 Manufacturers Standardization Society, 17 cracking, 202
light adapted vision, 51 Mars® letter contrast sensitivity chart, 69 nickel copper alloys, stress corrosion cracking, 202
light intensity. See illuminance materials nitrides, precipitated, 293, 294
light meters. See photometers demand for higher quality, 4 Nitze, Max, 28
nondestructive characterization, 2, 6 noise in digital images
mathematical morphology, 167-169 exposure sensitivity and, 86
Maxwell, James Clerk, 42 noise reduction algorithms, 165-166
Index 327
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reticle. See also gnomon space shuttle, 77 structure, 5, 6. See also microstructure
borescope with, 147 spatial discrimination, 62, 66-68 sunlight, 119
contact, 123-124 special process, 16 supersession of technologies, 84
retina, 64-65 specifications, for visual testing, 15-16, 27 surface characteristics, 127-129
retinal damage, 20, 21-23 spectral distribution of lighting, 116-117 indirect visual testing and, 136-137
retinal illuminance, 36 spectral emissivity, 48-50 surface comparator, 123
retrospective borescope, 146 spectral luminous efficiency function, for photopic surface methods of nondestructive testing, 5
right angle borescope, 145-146 vision, 52 surface tears, in bolting materials, 261
rigid borescopes, 89, 138, 141-142. See also spectral power distribution, 53, 54, 57 surface texture, 127-128
borescopes color assessment and, 129 swing check valves, 259
robotic inspections, 138 spectrophotometers, 57
rods, retinal, 51, 62, 64-65 spectroradiometers, 57
rolled metal spectrum T
discontinuities evident after welding, 195 colors of, 50 tape measures, 130
discontinuities in, 185-190, 262-263 electromagnetic, vi, 5, 6, 44 task lighting, 117
scale rolled into surface, 198 of radiant energy, 48 tears in metals. See also cracks in metals; hot tears
room lighting, 117 specular reflectance measurement, 56, 129 in bolting materials, 261
roughness, surface, 127-128 specular reflection, 45 flash line tears in forgings, 186
rulers, 130 specular surface, 24 lamellar tearing of welds, 195
rust, removal of, before etching, 297, 298 spherical porosity, in welds, 191-192 machining tears, 198
spot projector, 118 in rolled products, 263
stainless steels, 209 techniques of nondestructive testing, 2-3
S standards for visual testing, 16, 17 direct viewing as, 112
safety frequent changes in, 84 tee joint, 234
in etching, 298-299, 300 petroleum industry, 230 telemetric instrument, 138
public demands for, 4 standard illuminant C, 75 telephoto lens, 90, 91
with ultraviolet sources, 21, 63 Statue of Liberty, 140, 201 template matching, with digital image, 170-171
in visual testing, 19-23 statues texture, surface, 127-128
safety factor, modern reductions in, 3-4 crevice corrosion, 201 thermal fatigue, 207-208
sampling, 2 indirect visual testing, 139, 140 thermal testing, 11-12
scanning electron microscopy, of replicated steam power plants, 138-139 threads. See pipe threads
microstructure, 291-292, 293 steam turbines, borescope applications, 30, 31 three-dimensional viewing. See stereo
Schindler, Rudolph, 28 steels thumb flash drives, 104
scotopic vision, 51 adhesive wear, 205 TIF files, 95, 96
seams carburization, 209 titanium, stress corrosion cracking, 202
in bolting materials, 261 limitations of inspection, 180 titanium alloys, elevated temperature
revealed by etching, 298 nonmetallic inclusions, 184 behavior, 207
in rolled metal, 185, 262, 263 plating cracks, 198-199 tolerance standards, 132-133
secondary colors, 50 rolling of sheet, discontinuities evident after, tool and die shops, borescope applications, 138
segregation 187-190 tool marks, in bolts, 261
in cast ingots, 182, 184 segregation of alloying elements, 184 translucent test objects, 118-119
revealed by etching, 298 stainless, 209 transmission factor, 35
self-sharpening tools, 205-206 stress corrosion cracking, 201, 202, 209 transmission pipe welds, acceptance criteria, 218
separations, 6 surface colors, 128 transmittance, 35
service companies, 14 surface inspection for discontinuities, 180 transparent materials, 118
shadow measurement technique, 150, 151-152 threshold for elevated temperature triangulation, 149
shadows behavior, 207 triplet magnifier, 122, 123
discontinuity detectability and, 78 weld discontinuities related to properties of, tripod, 86, 87
lighting and, 117, 119 193, 194 troland (Td), 36
shear breaks, in bolts, 261 Stefan-Boltzmann law, 49 tubes. See also pipes, petroleum industry
shielded metal arc welding, 237-238 stereo measurement, 150, 151 boiler tubes, borescope applications, 138
shop microscope, 124-125 stereo microscopes, 124 in chemical and petroleum industry, 212, 223
SI (International System of Units), 34-36 stereo photogrammetry, 93-94 Tuboscope®, 29
signature analysis, 5, 6 stereoscopic machine vision system, 173-176 turbine blades, jet engines, 274-276
silicone rubber replicas, 294-296 sticker breaks, in formed steel, 190
size reduction, stress increase due to, 3, 4 stop check valves, 258
skew measurement, 148, 150, 152 storage tanks, petroleum industry, 213 U
slag inclusions, in welds, 192, 195 weld acceptance criteria, 216, 218
ultrasonic testing, 10-11
slag removal strain, in formed steel, 187
borescope image for probe placement, 280
in weld inspection, 242 strain replication, 293-294
diffracted light technique compared to, 281
in welding, 240, 243 stress
visual aspects of, 289-290
slip marks, in drilling pipe, 213, 222 creep and, 207
ultraviolet borescope, 31, 147
slivers, in formed steel, 188 fatigue cracking caused by, 206, 207-208
ultraviolet photographs, 87
smart camera, 158 modern demands on machines and, 3-4
ultraviolet radiation
snellen chart, 67 testing of, 5, 6
eye’s response to, 51
snellen fraction, 66 stress corrosion cracking, 201-202
fluorescence and, 63
snellen letters, 66-68 aircraft spoiler torsion bar, 268
hazards of, 21, 63
snellen near point chart, 74 landing gear, 271
units of measurement, 36
Snell’s law, 25, 45 liquid metal contact leading to, 209
underbead cracking, of welds, 193
SNT-TC-1A. See Recommended Practice as metallurgical instability, 208
undercut, of welds, 195-196, 241, 247
No. SNT-TC-1A replication analysis of microstructure,
uniform corrosion, 201
soldered joints, 248 293, 294
units, 34-36
soldering, 235 stretcher strains, in formed steel, 187
US Navy, visual weld testing, 32, 33
solid state image amplifier, 101, 102 string shot, of drilling pipe, 222
USB (universal serial bus), 104, 163
solidification cracking, in welds, 193 stringer bead along weld, 239
South African Bureau of Standards, 17 stringers, in rolled metal, 185, 262, 263
Structural Welding Code, 17, 191, 241, 245
Index 329
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Figure Sources
Introduction to
Visual Testing
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PART 1. Nondestructive Testing
2 Visual Testing
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radiographic testing are two test methods satisfaction and maintain the
that use electromagnetic radiation, each manufacturer’s reputation, (5) to aid in
in a defined wavelength range. The word better product design, (6) to control
technique, in contrast, denotes a way of manufacturing processes, (7) to lower
adapting the method to the application. manufacturing costs, (8) to maintain
Through-transmission immersion testing uniform quality levels and (9) to ensure
is a technique of the ultrasonic method, operational readiness.
for example. These reasons for widespread and
profitable nondestructive testing are
sufficient in themselves but parallel
developments have contributed to the
Purposes of technology’s growth and acceptance.
Nondestructive Testing
Since the 1920s, the art of testing without Increased Demand on Machines
destroying the test object has developed In the interest of greater performance and
from a laboratory curiosity to an reduced cost for materials, the design
indispensable tool of fabrication, engineer is often under pressure to reduce
construction, manufacturing and weight. Weight can be saved sometimes
maintenance processes. No longer is by substituting aluminum alloys,
visual testing of materials, parts and magnesium alloys or composite materials
complete products the principal for steel or iron but such light parts may
nondestructive test for quality. not be the same size or design as those
Nondestructive tests in great variety are in they replace. The tendency is also to
worldwide use to detect variations in reduce the size. These pressures on the
structure, minute changes in surface designer have subjected parts of all sorts
finish, the presence of cracks or other to increased stress levels. Even such
physical discontinuities, to measure the commonplace objects as sewing
thickness of materials and coatings and to machines, sauce pans and luggage are also
determine other characteristics of lighter and more heavily loaded than ever
industrial products. Scientists and before. The stress to be supported is
engineers of many countries have known as dynamic stress or dynamic
contributed greatly to nondestructive test loading, as opposed to static stress. It
development and applications. often fluctuates and reverses at low or
How is nondestructive testing useful? high frequencies. Frequency of stress
Why do thousands of industrial concerns reversals increases with the speeds of
buy the test equipment, pay the modern machines, so components tend to
subsequent operating costs of the testing fatigue and fail more rapidly.
and even reshape manufacturing Another cause of increased stress on
processes to fit the needs and findings of modern products is a reduction in the
nondestructive testing? Modern safety factor. An engineer designs with
nondestructive tests are used by certain known loads in mind. On the
manufacturers (1) to ensure product supposition that materials and
integrity and in turn reliability, (2) to workmanship are never perfect, a safety
avoid failures, prevent accidents and save
human life (Figs. 1 and 2), (3) to make a
profit for the user, (4) to ensure customer
FIGURE 2. Boilers operate with high internal steam pressure.
Material discontinuities can lead to sudden, violent failure
with possible injury to people and damage to property.
FIGURE 1. Fatigue cracks caused damage to aircraft fuselage,
causing death of flight attendant and injury to passengers
(April 1988).
4 Visual Testing
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delaminations), (2) structure or Classification by Test Object
malstructure (such as crystalline structure,
Nondestructive test techniques may be
grain size, segregation and misalignment),
classified according to how they detect
(3) dimensions and metrology (such as
indications relative to the surface of a test
thickness, diameter, gap size and
object. Surface methods include liquid
discontinuity size), (4) physical and
penetrant testing, visual testing and moiré
mechanical properties (such as reflectivity,
testing. Surface/near-surface methods
conductivity, elastic modulus and sonic
include tap, holographic, shearographic,
velocity), (5) composition and chemical
magnetic particle and electromagnetic
analysis (such as alloy identification,
testing. When surface or near-surface
impurities and elemental distributions),
methods are applied during intermediate
(6) stress and dynamic response (such as
manufacturing, they provide preliminary
residual stress, crack growth, wear and
assurance that volumetric methods
vibration), (7) signature analysis (such as
performed on the completed object or
image content, frequency spectrum and
component will reveal few rejectable
field configuration) and (8) heat sources.
discontinuities. Volumetric methods
Material characteristics in Table 1 are
include radiography, ultrasonic testing
further defined in Table 2 with respect to
and acoustic emission testing.
specific objectives and specific attributes
Through-boundary techniques include
to be measured, detected and defined.
leak testing, some infrared thermographic
Methods that use electromagnetic
techniques, airborne ultrasonic testing
radiation (Table 3) can be divided
and certain techniques of acoustic
according to the segment of the spectrum
emission testing. Other less easily
each uses as interrogating energy: radar,
classified methods are material
thermography, visual testing and
identification, vibration analysis and
X-radiography (Fig. 3). Methods using
strain gaging.
vibration and ultrasound are in a different
No one nondestructive test method is
spectrum: the acoustic.
all revealing. In some cases, one method
The limitations of a method include
or technique may be adequate for testing
conditions (such as access, physical
a specific object or component. However,
contact and surface preparation) and
in most cases, it takes a series of test
requirements to adapt the probe to the
methods to do a complete nondestructive
test object. Other factors limit the
test of an object or component. For
detection or characterization of
example, if surface cracks must be
discontinuities or attributes and limit
detected and eliminated and if the object
interpretation of signals or images.
or component is made of ferromagnetic
Basic Categories
Mechanical and optical color; cracks; dimensions; film thickness; gaging; reflectivity; strain distribution and magnitude; surface
finish; surface flaws; through-cracks
Penetrating radiation cracks; density and chemistry variations; elemental distribution; foreign objects; inclusions; microporosity;
misalignment; missing parts; segregation; service degradation; shrinkage; thickness; voids
Electromagnetic and electronic alloy content; anisotropy; cavities; cold work; local strain, hardness; composition; contamination;
corrosion; cracks; crack depth; crystal structure; electrical conductivities; flakes; heat treatment;
hot tears; inclusions; ion concentrations; laps; lattice strain; layer thickness; moisture content;
polarization; seams; segregation; shrinkage; state of cure; tensile strength; thickness; disbonds; voids
Sonic and ultrasonic crack initiation and propagation; cracks, voids; damping factor; degree of cure; degree of impregnation;
degree of sintering; delaminations; density; dimensions; elastic moduli; grain size; inclusions;
mechanical degradation; misalignment; porosity; radiation degradation; structure of composites;
surface stress; tensile, shear and compressive strength; disbonds; wear
Infrared and thermal anisotropy; bonding; composition; emissivity; heat contours; plating thickness; porosity; reflectivity;
stress; thermal conductivity; thickness; voids; cracks; delaminations; heat treatment; state of cure;
moisture; corrosion
Chemical and analytical alloy identification; composition; cracks; elemental analysis and distribution; grain size; inclusions;
macrostructure; porosity; segregation; surface anomalies
Auxiliary Categories
Image generation dimensional variations; dynamic performance; anomaly characterization and definition; anomaly
distribution; anomaly propagation; magnetic field configurations
Signal image analysis data selection, processing and display; anomaly mapping, correlation and identification; image
enhancement; separation of multiple variables; signature analysis
6 Visual Testing
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methods. The following section briefly
Nondestructive Testing’s describes major methods and the
applications associated with them.
Value
In manufacturing, nondestructive testing Visual Testing
may be accepted reluctantly because its
contribution to profits may not be Visual testing is the subject of the present
obvious to management. Nondestructive volume and of a volume in the previous
testing is sometimes thought of only as a edition.4
cost item and can be curtailed by industry Principles. Visual testing (Fig. 4) is the
downsizing. When a company cuts costs, observation of a test object, either directly
two vulnerable areas are quality and with the eyes or indirectly using optical
safety. When bidding contract work, instruments, by an inspector to evaluate
companies add profit margin to all cost the presence of surface anomalies and the
items, including nondestructive testing, so object’s conformance to specification.
a profit should be made on the Visual testing should be the first
nondestructive testing. The attitude nondestructive test method applied to an
toward nondestructive testing is positive item. The test procedure is to clear
when management understands its value. obstructions from the surface, provide
Nondestructive testing should be used adequate illumination and observe. A
as a control mechanism to ensure that prerequisite necessary for competent
manufacturing processes are within design visual testing of an object is knowledge of
performance requirements. When used the manufacturing processes by which it
properly, nondestructive testing saves was made, of its service history and of its
money for the manufacturer. Rather than potential failure modes, as well as related
costing the manufacturer money, industry experience.
nondestructive testing should add profits Applications. Visual testing is widely used
to the manufacturing process. on a variety of objects to detect surface
discontinuities associated with various
structural failure mechanisms. Even when
other nondestructive tests are performed,
Nondestructive Test visual tests often provide a useful
Methods supplement. When the eddy current
To optimize nondestructive testing, it is testing of process tubing is performed, for
necessary first to understand the example, visual testing is often performed
principles and applications of all the to verify and more closely examine the
X–rays
Visible
light
10 –9 10 –8 10 –7 10 –6 10 –5 10 –4 10 –3 10 –2 10 –1 1 10 102 103
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Eddy Current Testing wavelength or particulate radiation
(X-rays, gamma rays and neutrons).
Principles. Based on electromagnetic Different portions of an object absorb
induction, eddy current testing is perhaps different amounts of penetrating radiation
the best known of the techniques in the because of differences in density and
electromagnetic test method. Eddy variations in thickness of the test object
current testing is used to identify or or differences in absorption characteristics
differentiate among a wide variety of caused by variation in composition. These
physical, structural and metallurgical variations in the attenuation of the
conditions in electrically conductive penetrating radiation can be monitored
ferromagnetic and nonferromagnetic by detecting the unattenuated radiation
metals and metal test objects. The method that passes through the object.
is based on indirect measurement and on This monitoring may be in different
correlation between the instrument forms. The traditional form is through
reading and the structural characteristics radiation sensitive film. Radioscopic
and serviceability of the test objects. sensors provide digital images. X-ray
With a basic system, the test object is computed tomography is a
placed within or next to an electric coil in three-dimensional, volumetric
which high frequency alternating current radiographic technique.
is flowing. This excitation current
Applications. The principal industrial uses
establishes an electromagnetic field
of radiographic testing involve testing of
around the coil. This primary field causes
castings and weldments, particularly
eddy currents to flow in the test object
because of electromagnetic induction
(Fig. 7). Inversely, the eddy currents
affected by characteristics (conductivity,
FIGURE 7. Electromagnetic testing:
permeability, thickness, discontinuities
(a) representative setup for eddy current
and geometry) of the test object create a
test; (b) inservice detection of
secondary magnetic field that opposes the
discontinuities.
primary field. This interaction affects the
coil impedance and can be displayed in (a) Primary
various ways. electromagnetic Direction of
Eddy currents flow in closed loops in field primary alternating
the test object. Their two most important Coil in current
eddy current
characteristics, amplitude and phase, are probe
influenced by the arrangement and
characteristics of the instrumentation and
test object. For example, during the test of Induced field
a tube, the eddy currents flow Induced field
symmetrically in the tube when
discontinuities are not present. However,
when a crack is present, then the eddy
current flow is impeded and changed in
direction, causing significant changes in Direction of
the associated electromagnetic field. eddy current Conducting
test object
Applications. An important industrial use Eddy current intensity
of eddy current testing is on heat decreases with
exchanger tubing. For example, eddy increasing depth
current testing is often specified for thin (b)
wall tubing in pressurized water reactors,
steam generators, turbine condensers and
air conditioning heat exchangers. Eddy
current testing is also used in aircraft
maintenance. The following are some of
the typical material characteristics that
may affect conductivity and be evaluated
by eddy current testing: cracks, inclusions,
dents and holes; grain size; heat
treatment; coating and material thickness;
composition, conductivity or
permeability; and alloy composition.
Radiographic Testing
Principles. Radiographic testing (Fig. 8) is
based on the test object’s attenuation of
penetrating radiation — either
electromagnetic radiation of very short
Test object
Void Sensor
Discontinuity
Image plane images
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Applications. Ultrasonic testing is widely pressurized components or into evacuated
used in metals, principally for thickness components. The principles of leak testing
measurement and discontinuity detection. involve the physics of liquids or gases
This method can be used to detect flowing through a barrier where a pressure
internal discontinuities in most differential or capillary action exists.
engineering metals and alloys. Bonds Leak testing encompasses procedures
produced by welding, brazing, soldering that fall into these basic functions: leak
and adhesives can also be ultrasonically location, leakage measurement and
tested. In-line techniques have been leakage monitoring. There are several
developed for monitoring and classifying subsidiary methods of leak testing,
materials as acceptable, salvageable or entailing tracer gas detection (Fig. 11),
scrap and for process control. Also tested pressure change measurement,
are piping and pressure vessels, nuclear observation of bubble formation, acoustic
systems, motor vehicles, machinery, emission leak testing and other principles.
railroad stock and bridges. Applications. Like other forms of
nondestructive testing, leak testing affects
Leak Testing the safety and performance of a product.
Reliable leak testing decreases costs by
Principles. Leak testing is concerned with reducing the number of reworked
the flow of liquids or gases from products, warranty repairs and liability
claims. The most common reasons for
performing a leak test are to prevent the
FIGURE 10. Classic setups for ultrasonic loss of costly materials or energy, to
testing: (a) longitudinal wave technique; prevent contamination of the
(b) transverse wave technique. environment, to ensure component or
system reliability and to prevent an
(a) explosion or fire.
(a)
(b) Envelope
Leak detector
Crack System
under test
(b)
Envelope
Entry surface
Crack System
under test
Leak detector
Source of tracer gas