Effects of Recycled Asphalt Pavement
Amounts on Low-Temperature Cracking
Performance of Asphalt Mixtures Using
Acoustic Emissions
Behzad Behnia, Eshan V. Dave, Sarfraz Ahmed, William G. Buttlar,
and Henrique Reis
Significant increases in the cost of asphalt paving and increased aware-
ness of the need for sustainable infrastructure in recent years have in turn
increased the use of recycled asphalt pavement (RAP) in the manufacture
of hot-mix asphalt (HMA). The use of RAP reduces the overall cost of
HMA and provides significant environmental benefits. Experience has
shown, however, that the addition of RAP to HMA can have a negative
effect on the low-temperature fracture characteristics of the pavement.
The purpose of this study was to determine the effects of RAP amounts on
the low-temperature cracking performance of asphalt mixtures. Differ-
ent percentages of RAP material, ranging from 0% to 50%, were studied.
The embrittlement temperature of mixtures was determined with the use
of an acoustic emissions technique. The disk-shaped compact tension
[DC(T)] test was used to determine the fracture energy of asphalt mix-
tures. DC(T) fracture tests were conducted on two control mixtures with
no RAP and mixtures that contained 10%, 20%, 30%, 40%, and 50%
RAP. Both control and RAP mixtures were manufactured with PG 64-22
and PG 58-28 as the virgin binders, which brought the total number of
mixtures tested to 12. In addition to DC(T) fracture testing, indirect ten-
sile testing was conducted on HMA specimens that contained 20% and
40% RAP. Test results clearly indicated the effects of the presence of
RAP materials on the low-temperature performance of mixtures. This
study demonstrates the benefit of performing fracture tests before RAP
is added to the asphalt mixture, and it demonstrates the use of an acoustic
emissions-based testing procedure to screen mixtures susceptible to
cracking at low temperatures.
Reclaimed asphalt pavement (RAP) is the most frequently used by-
product in hot mix asphalt (HMA), and the most recycled material in
the United States. The recycling of pavement materials has proven to
be an economical and feasible process to rehabilitate old pavements.
B. Behnia, S. Ahmed, and W. G. Buttlar, Department of Civil and Environmental
Engineering, University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign, 205 North Mathews
Avenue, MC-250, Urbana, IL 61801. E. V. Dave, Department of Civil Engineering,
University of Minnesota, 1405 University Drive, Duluth, MN 55812. H. Reis,
Department of Industrial and Enterprise Systems Engineering, University of
Illinois at Urbana–Champaign, 104 South Mathews Avenue, Urbana, IL, 61801.
Corresponding author: B. Behnia, bbehnia2@illinois.edu.
Transportation Research Record: Journal of the Transportation Research Board,
No. 2208, Transportation Research Board of the National Academies, Washington,
D.C., 2011, pp. 64–71.
DOI: 10.3141/2208-09
64
The economic benefits from use of RAP materials can provide a great
boost to the highway industry by freeing funds for additional high-
way construction, rehabilitation, preservation, and maintenance. In
recent years, the incentive to recycle has grown stronger because of
concerns about the environment and sustainability. The general pub-
lic is becoming more aware of the need to conserve natural resources
through recycling. The use of RAP can result in sustainable develop-
ment and cost savings by reducing the amount of virgin materials
required in the production of the new asphalt mixture (1).
Benefits notwithstanding, excessive amounts of RAP in a mixture
can have detrimental effects on pavement performance. Xiao et al.
reported that inclusion of 15% RAP resulted in a significant increase
in stiffness of the mixture (2). In recent years, as asphalt prices have
continued to escalate, a great deal of interest has been focused on the
use of higher contents of RAP. Currently, RAP use varies consider-
ably across the United States, but the average RAP content in asphalt
mixtures is estimated to be around 15% (3).
The belief that pavements constructed with RAP materials are
more prone to cracking than virgin mixtures is generally attributed
to stiffening and embrittlement effects induced by attempting to
combine weathered, age-hardened materials with virgin materials.
A careful RAP mixture design achieves proper binder stiffness by
considering the aged binder stiffness, virgin binder stiffness, and the
proportions of these two binder components present in the final
blend. Extensive research has been directed toward characterization
of low-temperature properties of pavements that contain RAP (1).
The current study explores the effect of RAP amounts on the low-
temperature fracture properties of asphalt mixtures. Study of the low-
temperature fracture properties of HMA with RAP was conducted in
the context of five RAP levels and two virgin binder sources. RAP lev-
els of 10%, 20%, 30%, 40%, and 50% were studied with PG 64-22 and
PG 58-28 virgin binders. Disk-shaped compact tension [DC(T)] frac-
ture testing was conducted to determine the fracture energy of the mix-
tures. In addition to the DC(T) test, the Superpave® indirect tensile
(IDT) test, which is widely used in the prediction of low-temperature
performance of asphalt mixtures, was conducted on HMA specimens
that contained 20% and 40% RAP.
A new testing method that was developed on the basis of the
acoustic emissions (AE) phenomenon was employed to evaluate the
low-temperature behavior of mixtures. The AE phenomenon refers
to the generation of a transient, elastic mechanical wave caused by
the sudden release of local stresses (strain energy) in a solid medium.
When a material is mechanically or thermally stressed to the point
Behnia, Dave, Ahmed, Buttlar, and Reis
where inelastic deformation from microfracturing occurs, it emits
transient elastic mechanical waves. The energy of AE during crack
growth is drawn from the stress field around the crack, which relaxes
momentarily as the crack propagates. Emission of acoustic energy
results from a momentary instability and a sudden movement of the
crack tip to restore equilibrium. Emitted AE elastic waves propagate
outward from the source and can be detected by using sensitive piezo-
electric sensors mounted on the surface of the sample. The use of AE
to evaluate asphalt materials dates back several decades. Khosla and
Goetz used AE techniques to detect crack initiation and propagation
in indirect tensile specimens at low temperature (4). Hesp et al. used
AE measurements to detect crack initiation and propagation in
restrained specimens at low temperatures (−20°C to −32°C) (5). They
concluded that the mixes modified with styrene–butadiene–styrene
generated lower AE activity than unmodified mixes. Apeagyei et al.
(6) and Behnia et al. (7) used the embrittlement temperature (TEMB)
from AE measurements to evaluate the suitability of the AE technique
in low-temperature characterization of asphalt binders.
In the present study, the AE approach was used to determine the
TEMB of asphalt mixtures. In this testing method, thermal stresses are
induced in asphalt mixture specimens by subjecting them to cooling
at temperatures that range from ambient temperature to −50°C. As
the specimens cool down, fracture behavior of the material gradu-
ally transforms from ductile to brittle, which allows cracks to
propagate readily. Progressively higher thermal stress in the speci-
men results in thermal crack formation, which is accompanied by a
release of elastic energy in the form of transient elastic mechanical
waves. The so-called TEMB of the mixture is defined as the tempera-
ture at which most AE activity begins. It is hypothesized that this
temperature is a fundamental material property that indicates phase
transformation from a ductile and quasi-brittle fracture behavioral
regime to a highly brittle regime in which macro cracks can readily
propagate under thermal and traffic loads.
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
The main goal of this study was to investigate the effects of RAP
amounts on low-temperature performance of asphalt pavements. To
accomplish this goal, RAP material obtained in a previous study
(a)
FIGURE 1 RAP materials: (a) before binder extraction and (b) clean aggregate by-product from extraction.
65
from a portion of Interstate 72 in western Illinois was selected (1).
Incomplete records were available to assess the original design and
materials associated with this RAP material. Thus forensic testing
was conducted. Extraction and recovery of asphalt binder was per-
formed on RAP samples in accordance with the AASHTO T319 test
procedure to determine the RAP binder content and to evaluate the
rheological properties of the extracted RAP binder. Recovered
binders were tested to determine the complex modulus by using
the dynamic shear rheometer as recommended by the Superpave-
specified procedure (AASHTO T315-03) to test short-term-aged
(rolling thin fill oven-aged) asphalt binder. According to test results
at 64°C for the provided RAP samples, the complex modulus (G*),
phase angle (δ), and rutting parameter of the RAP binder [G*/sin (δ)]
were 94.03 kPa, 66.60°, and 102.49 kPa, respectively. From extrac-
tion testing results, RAP binder content was determined to be 3.91%.
RAP binder extraction produced a clean aggregate sample that was
used to determine the RAP aggregate gradation by using the AASHTO
T27-88 procedure. Figure 1(a) and (b) show RAP materials before
binder extraction and the clean aggregate by-product or residue from
the binder extraction, respectively. Sieve analysis was also conducted
to determine RAP aggregate gradations.
Asphalt mixtures with 19-mm nominal maximum aggregate size
mixtures with a target asphalt content of 5.9% and RAP amounts
that ranged from 0% to 50% by weight of total mixture, formed the
basis of the experimental design for this study. Mixing was per-
formed at 155°C by using a standard bucket mixing procedure.
Details on the amount of RAP and virgin constituents are presented
in Table 1. Various mixtures in this study were indicated by the
naming system that shows the virgin asphalt binder grade as well as
the amount of RAP (e.g., 64% to 20% represents asphalt mixture
manufactured with PG 64-22 virgin binder and consists of 20% RAP
by total weight of the mix).
To evaluate the low-temperature fracture characteristics of RAP
mixtures, DC(T) tests were performed in accordance with ASTM
D7313-07 for all mixtures at −12°C. The loading rate for the DC(T)
test was controlled through opening displacement at the crack
mouth. A constant crack mouth opening displacement (CMOD) rate
of 1 mm/min was used. A DC(T) specimen is schematically shown
in Figure 2a. Fracture energy of the specimens was determined by
(b)
66 Transportation Research Record 2208

TABLE 1 Mix Design for RAP Mixtures

Binder Mass of Constituents in Mixture (g) (total batch weight = 5,000 g)

Content of
Mix Type RAP (%) RAP Binder RAP Aggregate Virgin Binder Virgin Aggregate

64-0% and 58-0% 3.91 0.0 0.0 295.0 4,705.0

64-10% and 58-10% 3.91 19.6 480.5 275.5 4,224.6
64-20% and 58-20% 3.91 39.1 960.9 255.9 3,744.1
64-30% and 58-30% 3.91 58.7 1,441.4 236.4 3,263.7
64-40% and 58-40% 3.91 78.2 1,921.8 216.8 2,783.2
64-50% and 58-50% 3.91 97.8 2,402.3 197.3 2,302.8

NOTE: 64 = PG 64-22; 58 = PG 58-28.

calculating the normalized area under the load–CMOD curve.
Normalization was done to obtain the fracture energy required to
produce a unit fracture area.
Low-temperature performance of these mixtures was further inves-
tigated with IDT creep tests. Creep tests were performed on mixtures
that contained 20% and 40% RAP. Testing and data analysis were
conducted in accordance with the AASHTO T322 test procedure and
the use of three test replicates. Creep testing was conducted at 0°C,
−10°C, and −20°C. Creep compliance master curves were generated
through time–temperature superposition. The power-law model was
fitted to the master curves where D(t) equals D0 + D1tm.
The parameters D0, D1, and m were determined with a least-
square fitting procedure. The m value of the power law is associated
with the rate of creep deformation and stress relaxation in visco-
elastic materials. Figure 2b schematically illustrates the specimen
for the IDT test.
The AE testing was conducted on 50-mm-thick, semicircular,
150-mm-diameter, compacted specimens. Semicircular geometry
was selected to use the specimens that were manufactured for IDT
and DC(T) testing. Figure 2c shows the geometry and recommended
dimensions for the AE specimen. Prepared samples were posi-
tioned inside the cooling chamber on a metal plate. In this setup,
the metal plate acted as a heat sink, which was surrounded by dry
ice that acted as the coolant (Figure 2d). AE activity of asphalt
mixture samples was monitored while samples were subjected to
cooling from ambient temperature to −50°C. Different thermal
expansion coefficients between asphalt mastic and aggregates
inside the mixture produce progressively higher thermal stresses
within the mastic, which eventually results in thermal microcrack
formation. During microcracking of the material, transient elastic
stress waves (AE) are generated, which travel outward from the AE
source and can be detected with sensitive piezoelectric sensors
mounted on the surface of the sample. In the present study, wide-
band AE sensors (digital wave, Model B1025) with a nominal fre-
quency range of 50 kHz to 1.5 MHz were used and coupled to the
specimen surface by using high-vacuum grease. The signals from

(a)

(b)

50 mm AE Sensor
Dry Ice

AE Sample
150 mm
Metal Plate

(c)
(d)

FIGURE 2 AE test specimens: (a) DC(T) specimen, (b) IDT specimen, (c) geometry and
recommended dimensions, and (d) test setup.
Behnia, Dave, Ahmed, Buttlar, and Reis 67

Filter
AE Sensor Pre-Amplifier Amplifier
Signal
Conditioner
Crack
Parametric Event
Stressed Material Inputs Detector

Data Storage & Post-Processor Computer

FIGURE 3 Schematic representation of AE system setup.

the AE sensors were preamplified by 20 dB with broadband pre-
amplifiers. The signal was further amplified by 21 dB (for a total
of 41 dB) and filtered with a 20-kHz, high-pass, double-pole filter
with a fracture wave detector signal conditioning unit. A 16-bit ana-
logue-to-digital converter (ICS 645B-8) with a sampling frequency of
2 MHz was employed to digitize the AE signals. The digital data
were stored for later processing by using digital wave software
(WaveExplorer V7.2.6). A schematic representation of the AE sys-
tem setup is provided in Figure 3. The test temperature was monitored
and recorded with a K-type thermocouple, which was positioned on
top of the specimen (6).
AE measurements usually contain a significant amount of
unwanted noise, such as extraneous data, which include electronic
noise. To minimize noise after the energy of the AE events was com-
puted, AE event activities with energy lower than 100 V 2-µs were
filtered out. The performance of temperature conditioning of the
AE piezoelectric sensors before the AE test started also signifi-
cantly reduced noise (8). To study the AE response to micro-
fracture in asphalt concrete as a result of thermal loading, the AE
event counts and the corresponding AE energy were plotted against
temperature, as shown in Figure 4, which is typical of this study.
Figure 4 shows that at the beginning of each AE test there was a
region in which no AE was recorded. In what is termed the pre-
cracking region, thermally induced stresses gradually built up
inside the specimen until the onset of material fracture. As soon
as the thermally induced stresses exceeded the material strength,
microcracking occurred in the specimen. Such microcracking can
be detected by the corresponding AE activity (i.e., a cluster of
high-energy mechanical stress waves). As illustrated in Figure 4,
the temperature corresponding to the event with the first peak
energy level was the TEMB.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The fracture energies of mixtures that contained RAP, along with
control (virgin) mixtures, were determined with the DC(T) fracture
test. Results obtained for mixtures that contained PG 58-28 and PG
64-22 as the virgin binder are summarized in Figure 5a and b,
respectively. For mixtures that used PG 58-28 as the virgin binder,

Embrittlement Temperature

Pre-Cracking Region

FIGURE 4 Typical plot of AE event count and AE event energy versus temperature.
68
(a)
(b)
FIGURE 5 Fracture energy of RAP mixtures determined by DC(T) test: (a) PG 58-28
mixtures and (b) PG 64-22 mixtures.
the addition of RAP reduced the fracture energy of the material;
the fracture energy was drastically reduced when the RAP amount
exceeded 10%. From 10% to 20% RAP, a drop of 59% in fracture
energy was observed, for example. Among RAP amounts greater
than 20%, there was a minor reduction in the fracture energies. Note
that the change in average fracture energies for RAP amounts that
were greater than 20% was within the range of experimental error.
In the case of PG 64-22 mixtures, the fracture energy initially
increased with an increased amount of RAP. The increase was
noticed up to 30% RAP; thereafter, it decreased with an increased
amount of RAP. Braham et al. observed this type of trend in a
study of aging effects on fracture energy (9). The study showed
that the fracture energies of asphalt mixtures increased with an
increase in aging levels until they reached a peak and then dropped
with further aging. The study used different aging procedures.
When the AASHTO R30 procedure was used, the results for all
Transportation Research Record 2208
asphalt mixtures provided high fracture energies when compared
with unaged mixtures. In the present study, if RAP was consid-
ered to represent long-term aged material, the combination of RAP
and virgin material would yield improvement in fracture energies
up to a certain amount of RAP, after which the energy would drop
with an increasing amount of RAP. The fracture energy of virgin
mixture manufactured with PG 64-22 was comparable to the
energy for the combination of this mixture and 50% RAP, which
suggested that the baseline properties of the mixture were not much
different from those of the RAP. In the case of PG 58-28 binder, how-
ever, the control mixture with 0% RAP had high fracture energy. Thus
a large difference in fracture properties existed between the RAP and
virgin mixture. This difference in the baseline fracture energy
of the two control mixtures seemed to underlie the drastic differ-
ences in the trends of fracture energy versus RAP amount (Figure
5a and b).
Behnia, Dave, Ahmed, Buttlar, and Reis
Another important observation from the fracture energy results was
that the use of asphalt binders with lower PG grades to compensate for
the presence of RAP gave favorable results from the perspective of
fracture energy and therefore cracking resistance. For instance, the
mixture with 50% RAP and PG 58-28 virgin binder had a fracture
energy of 595 J/m2, which was in excess of the virgin PG 64-22 mix-
ture that had a fracture energy of 411 J/m2. This trend will vary from
mixture to mixture and from RAP source to RAP source, which
emphasizes the usefulness of the fracture energy test in the design and
control of mixtures with RAP.
The creep compliance results from IDT creep tests for 20%
and 40% RAP mixtures for both binder types are illustrated in
Figure 6. The corresponding fitted power-law curves are also pre-
sented in the figure, along with the exponential term from the
power-law model (m-value). For both binder types, as the amount
of RAP in the mixture increased from 20% to 40%, the m-value
decreased. A decrease in the m-value of the mixture indicates a
lower rate of stress relaxation in the mixture, as well as a higher
potential for thermal cracking in the pavement. This result indi-
cated that 20% RAP mixtures performed better than 40% RAP
mixtures in terms of handling and relaxing thermally induced
stresses in the pavement.
TEMB results of various mixtures are presented in Figure 7a and b.
The results are shown as an average of at least four test replicates
for each material. For a PG 64-22 mixture with 10% RAP, speci-
mens were not available for AE testing and thus results are not pre-
sented. The TEMB of control mixtures were found to be closer to their
virgin binder, low-temperature PG grades. The TEMB of mixtures that
contained RAP were significantly higher than the TEMB of the corre-
sponding control mixtures, however. This can be attributed to the
age-hardened binder from the RAP, which contributed to a brittle
behavior. The change in the TEMB was quite significant between mix-
tures with and without RAP. It was not as significant, however, for
mixtures with different amounts of RAP (10%–50%). The AE test-
Mixture m-value
PG 58-20% 0.506
PG 58-40% 0.422
PG 64-20% 0.426
PG 64-40% 0.301
FIGURE 6 Creep compliance of RAP mixtures determined with the IDT test.
69
ing procedure measures material properties at local scale. This can
be explained through an example: if a composite material system
that consists of two types of material is tested with the AE technique,
the TEMB will be the temperature at which the weaker of the two
materials starts to undergo damage and fracture. In the case of RAP
mixtures, it is hypothesized that there is only partial blending of
binder and mastic from RAP and virgin materials. During the course
of AE testing, as mixtures undergo cooling, the mastic portion rich
in aged material from RAP begins to accumulate damage earlier and
generates earlier AE activities. This would explain the lack of sig-
nificant distinction between the TEMB of mixtures with different
RAP amounts.
The overall trends of TEMB for control, as well as for RAP mix-
tures, were consistent with the results observed for fracture energy
and creep compliance. This finding permits more confidence in
the use of the TEMB quantity as a screening tool to quickly assess
cracking resistance.
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
This paper describes evaluation of cracking resistance of asphalt mix-
tures with varying amounts of RAP. A series of laboratory tests was
conducted of asphalt mixtures with six RAP amounts (0%–50%) and
two virgin binder types. A newly developed AE-based procedure was
used to identify the TEMB of the mixtures. Viscoelastic and fracture
evaluation were performed with the DC(T) and the IDT tests. Labo-
ratory results indicated that it is important to thoroughly characterize
the mixtures with RAP to determine their cracking resistance. In this
study, mixtures produced with PG 58-28 binder showed greater sen-
sitivity to the presence and amount of RAP as compared with mix-
tures with PG 64-22 binder and the same RAP source. The viscoelastic
properties of RAP mixtures showed consistent trends with fracture
energy results. The AE test results showed that the TEMB for mixtures
70 Transportation Research Record 2208

-35

AE-based Embrittlement Temperature (°°C)

-30 -28.6

-25

-19.84 -19.31 -19.87

-20
-17.34

-15

-10

-5

0
58-0% 58-10% 58-30% 58-40% 58-50%
(a)

(b)

FIGURE 7 T EMB of asphalt mixtures determined with the AE technique: (a) PG 58-28
mixtures and (b) PG 64-22 mixtures.

that contained RAP were much higher (warmer) than the mixtures
without RAP.
One major distinction between the AE technique and mechanical
bulk and fracture testing was the response scale within the material.
In the case of mechanical tests, the mechanical test results were a
measure of the response of the whole specimen (as a structure). Thus
it was difficult to extract local properties, whereas the AE procedure
yielded results that were at the local scale of the material response.
Both mechanical tests and AE techniques are recommended for com-
plete evaluation of cracking resistance of pavement mixtures. The
AE technique can provide information about the onset of damage and
damage accumulation (cracking and crack propagation) in the mate-
rial. Mechanical tests (bulk and fracture) can provide information
about the overall response to loading, as well as the propagation of
damage and cracking once it has begun.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This paper is based on work supported by the NCHRP Innovations
Deserving Exploratory Analysis (IDEA) program under Project 144,
An Acoustic Emission-Based Test to Determine Asphalt Binder
Behnia, Dave, Ahmed, Buttlar, and Reis
and Mixture Embrittlement Temperature. The authors thank both the
NCHRP-IDEA program manager, Inam Jawed, and the technical
review panel chair, Michael Sprinkle, of the Virginia Transporta-
tion Research Council, for their support.
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Any opinions, findings, and conclusions or recommendations expressed in this
publication are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of
the sponsoring agency.
The Characteristics of Nonasphalt Components of Asphalt Paving Mixtures
Committee peer-reviewed this paper.