1.

The Structure of the Atom Location of particles

- The Particle Model states that all matter is made up of atoms.
- Atoms have origin in stars.
- We have been able to modify theories and develop new ones.
Nanomaterials
- Positively charged protons and uncharged neutrons have the same mass,
both contribute the most to the atomic mass
- Negatively charged electrons move around the nucleus in specific energy
levels, mass is apx. 1800 times smaller

- Have diameters of 1-100 nm - nanometre as a useful unit.

- May have different properties than bulk materials.
- Large SA compared to V - surfaces are used to absorb and transport
molecules as well as being catalysts for chemical reactions
- Measurements should be converted as below: Representing elements
1 m = 102 cm = 103 mm = 106 μm = 109 nm
- Atomic number (symbol Z) is the number of protons in the atom
Historical development - Mass number (symbol A) is the number of protons and neutrons
- In a neutral atoms protons = electrons
1808 Dalton - elements have very small particles - - Mass number - Atomic number = number of neutrons
atoms - Representing elements and isotopes is as below:
1897 Thomson - positively charged spheres with
negatively charged particles - electrons
1911 Rutherford - protons in the centre, electrons
surrounding, mass concentrated in the nucleus
1913 Bohr - electrons orbit the nucleus in different Isotopes
energy levels, changing orbits - emit/gain
energy - Isotopes have same atomic number but different mass number
1926 Schrodinger -major electrons energy levels - - isotopes have same chemical properties but different physical properties
subshells, orbitals are grouped together in the (mass, radioactivity, density)
same subshell
1932 Chadwick - discovered the nucleus, explained
the existence of isotopes
Arrangement of electrons Bohr’s energy levels

- The nucleus is surrounded by shells of electrons/energy levels
- Each shell can hold a different maximum number of electrons
- The electrons are labelled K, L, M and N and numbered 1,2,3 and 4 (K
being the closest to the nucleus has the lowest energy level)
- Maximum electrons in shell n: 2n2
- Maximum orbitals in shell n: n2 (2 electrons per orbital)
- Electrons are confined into clearly defined shells , each with a distinct
energy level
- Lowest energy is closest to the nucleus
- The ground state describes the lowest possible energy that an atom can
have
- The excited state is when one or more electrons are present in a higher
energy subshell when one that is lower isn’t filled
- Electrons must absorb​ a specific amount of energy to move to a higher
energy orbit
- Electrons emit​ a specific amount of energy when it returns to a lower
energy​ orbit

Atomic subshells

s 2 The order of filling the shells is:

p 6 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10 4p6
d 10
f 14

Note that the 4s subshell is filled before the 3d subshell which of a higher energy
than the 4s subshell. Electron configuration

Chromium and Copper don’t follow the usual pattern and are written as:
Chromium (Z = 24) 1s22s22p63s23p63d54s1
Copper (Z = 29) 1s22s22p63s23p63d104s1
Chromium has a half-filled d subshell. Copper has a filled d subshell. These
unusual electron configurations make the elements more stable
- Indicates the arrangement of electrons in energy levels
- The number of subshells within a shell is the same as the shell number​,
and the lowest energy subshell is always an s-subshell
- 1s < 2s < 2p < 3s < 3p < 4s < 3d < 4p < 5s < 4d < 5p...
Identifying period and group using the Electron Configuration
- The group and period in which an element is found is easily read from
the electron configuration
- Groups are found by adding the power of the subshell, periods are found
by the highest shell being filled
- Elements on the left and in the centre- metals, elements 1, 5-9, 14-17,
33-35, 52-53, 85, group 18 - non-metals
- The number of valence electrons in an atom of an element can be
determined by the group in which it’s located

Historical development
Defining valence electrons, shell, subshell, orbit, orbital

- Valence electrons - electrons that are present in the outermost shell, these 1817 Dobereiner - Law of Triads - atomic weight of
are the only electrons generally involved in bond formation the middle element is halfway between the other
- Shell - elements that have the same quantum mechanical number n two
- Subshell - within the shell, electrons that have the same shape 1863 Newland - Law of Octaves - 1st and 8th
- Orbit - circular path followed by electron around the nucleus element of each group have similar properties,
- Orbital - a region around the nucleus in which the probability of finding didn’t leave gaps
an electron is maximum 1869 Mendeleev - arranged elements in increasing
mass, rows - atomic mass, columns - properties,
2. The periodic table left gaps
1913 Moseley - arranged elements in order of
- The periodic table consists of 118 elements, arranged in order of increasing atomic number
increasing atomic number
- Elements in the same group have the same valence, therefore, similar The s, p, d and f blocks
properties
- Elements 1-92 are naturally occurring, the rest are men-made and are - Elements in the periodic table can be arranged into four main groups
radioactive according to their electron configurations
- Rows = Periods, Columns = Groups
 Patterns in the periodic table

Trend Down a group Across a period

Atomic size ⇧- increasing number of ⇩- atoms held more tightly

electron shells together, smaller size

Metallic chara. ⇧- electrons are less attracted ⇩- the attraction force

to the nucleus- shielded by increases with the increasing
the increasing number of number of protons
shells

Reactivity ⇧- Outer electrons are less ⇩- Reactivity is high at the

strongly attracted start of the period, less in the
s-block - groups 1&2, Helium - s1 or s2 middle and more reactive at
p-block - groups 13-18, except Helium, s2p1 - s2p6 the end
d-block - groups 3-12 - d1s2 - d10s2
f-block - lanthanides & actinides - 4f being filled in lanth. 5f being filled in acti. Electronegativity ⇩- increasing numbers of ⇧- the further away an element
inner shells shield outer shell is from fluorine, the less
electrons from the nucleus electronegative it is
Group 1 Alkali Metals Very reactive, stored oil
Group 2 Alkaline Earth Metals Reactive more slowly - from
Ionisation energy ⇩- increasing size, the ⇧- nuclear charge is
hydroxides, shiny, harder
outermost electrons are increasing, w/a the shielding
than g1
further from the nucleus effect is constant - greater
Group 17 Halogens Low melting and boiling
resulting a ‘weak’ held of the attraction to the nucleus for
points, very reactive
electrons, therefore they are the electrons
Group 18 Noble/Inert Gases Very stable, unreactive
easily removed

Oxidising ⇩- elements gain electrons ⇧- elements gain electrons

less readily more readily

Reducing ⇧- elements release their ⇩- atoms give up their outer

electrons more readily shell electrons less readily
 - Cation - has lost electrons, positively charged ion (+)
- Anion - has gained electrons, negatively charged ion (-)
- Metals lose electrons to form cations, non-metals gain electron to form
anions

Group 8 - Unique Noble Gases Lewis Dot Diagram

- Exist as free atoms - have a complete outer shell electrons so are stable - A notation showing the valence electrons surrounding the atomic symbol
- Low boiling points - Elements in the same group have the same electron dot structure
- Density changes moving down the group
- Increasing melting point of each has moving down a group
- Potential for ionization decreases
- Colourless, monatomic, nonreactive

3. Ionic bonding Writing ionic formulas

- Many crystals consists of ionic compounds , in which metals and - A binary ionic compounds contain only two elements
non-metals are joined by ionic bonding - Write the symbol for the cation first, followed by the anion’s symbol
- Atoms can become stable by gaining/losing or sharing electrons - Determine the lowest whole number ratio of ions that provides a net
- charge of zero
- The ‘cross over’ method is another way to determine formulas, using the
Formation of ions charge of ions

- Ions are charged atoms that have gained/lost electrons

- Electronegativity - electron attracting power, determined by the size of an
atom, charge on the nucleus, number of electrons in the atom
Naming ionic compounds
- Write the name of the cation (metal) first, then add the anion (nonmetal)
with a suffix ‘ide’ or ‘ite’ / ‘ate’
Na + and F - = NaF - sodium fluoride
Ca 2+ and CO3 2 - = CaCO3 - calcium carbonate
Ionic lattices
- Ionic compounds form crystals ⟶ composed of 3-dimensional arrays of
+ive metal ions and -ive non-metals ions
- Arrays ⟶ network lattices, held together by strong electrostatic attraction
- Ions are arranged in a repeating pattern throughout the crystal ⟶ pack
together to achieve the most stable arrangement ⟶ oppositely charged
ions as close together as possible ⟶ similarly charged ions as far aparts
as possible
- Relative sizes and numbers of the ions present determine the actual lattice
structure
Connecting properties of ionic compounds to structure
The electrostatic forces of attraction holding them together ares strong, thus:
- Crystalline solids - owing to the arrangements of ions in repeating
3-dimensional patterns
- High melting and boiling points - large amount of energy is needed to
separate the ions
- Don’t conduct electricity when solid - ions are not able to move
- Conduct electricity when molten/aqueous - ions dissociate from the
lattice and are able to slide past each other
- Hard - strong ionic bonds holding ions together
- Often dissolve in water to form ion - water molecules move between ions
and free them by disrupting the rigid crystal structure
- Brittle - distortion of the crystal causes ions of like charge to come close
together ⟶ repulsion between these ions cleaves/shatters the crystal
Ions of variable charge
- Some transition metals have quite complicated arrangements of electrons
and may be able to form more than one type of ion. Such ions have
different charges
- We use Roman numerals in brackets after the cation’s name to denote its
charge
Polyatomic ions
Bound group of atoms with an overall charge, may be +vely charged or -vely
charged ion
E.g: The carbonate ion is composed of 1 carbon atom and 3 oxygen atoms - the
whole group of 4 atoms carries a -2 charge
Hydrated ionic compounds
Contain water molecules bonded with the crystal
E.g: iron(II) sulfate octahydrate is written as FeSO4·8H2O - this means that eight
molecules of water bonded within the ionic crystal for every one formula unit of
FeSO4
Uses of ionic compounds
Many metals are obtained from ionic compounds that have been extracted from
different ores
- Salt (sodium chloride) is used to manufacture chlorine
- Sodium carbonate is used to manufacture glass
- Cake raising agent is made of sodium hydrogen carbonate
- Ammonium nitrate is used to manufacture fertilisers and explosives
- Nitrate, nitrite and sulfide ions are used to preserve foods
4. Metallic bonding
- Metal - a hard, shiny solid that can be shaped, is a relatively good
conductor of heat and electricity
- Metallic Bonding - fixed cations in a ‘sea’ of mobile, delocalised
electrons
- Low electronegativities ⟶ readily lose outershell electrons ⟶ cation is
formed, more stable form
- ‘Sea of electrons’ metallic lattice structures ⟶ delocalised electrons - not
associated w/ any single atom / a single covalent bond
Properties of metals:
1. Lustre - mobile electrons can reflect light, causing a metal to shine
2. C. of heat - electrons gain kinetic energy in hotter areas ⟶ other parts of
the metal (movement). Electrons bump into each other ⟶ heat
3. C. of electricity - electric field ⟶ one side is +ive, the other -ive.
Electrons move to +ive end ⟶ movement is electric current
4. Malleable - non-directional nature of metallic bonds, layers of atoms can
move past one another
5. Ductile - can move past one another
6. High-density - metallic lattices are close-packed
7. Melting points - increase in the number of outhershell electrons, greater
attractive force b/ the cations and the electrons
8. Hard - high resistance to denting and bending ⟶ metallic bonding is quite
strong
Alloys:
- Alloy - a metal made by melting two (or more) metallic elements and
cooling the mixture
- Substitutional alloy - atoms in the mixture are about the same size and
cam replace each other in the metallic crystals
- Interstitial alloy - atoms in the mixture differ greatly, smaller atoms fill in
the spaces b/ the larger atoms
Specific properties of the blocks in the Periodic Table:
- s-block metals are reactive and generally have low density
- d-block elements form coloured compounds and are good catalysts, more
are used in the formation of alloys, metallic bonding is stronger since
more electrons are present
Ball Bearing Model:
- Metallic atoms form small areas of perfect close packing called grains.
Grains may be irregularly packed
- Large grains ⟶ fewer dislocations ⟶ more malleable
- Small grains ⟶ more dislocations ⟶ don’t bend easily
Modifying metals: 5. Quantifying chemistry

- Work hardening ⟶ creation of more grains by bending

- Carbon-12 - used as a standard for comparing relative isotopic masses;
- Heating ⟶ creation of large grains
- Annealing - heated, cooled slowly ⟶ larger crystals, softer stable, abundant
- Quenching - heated, cooled quickly ⟶ smaller crystals - Mass spectrometer - deflects the path of the lightest element the most,
- Tempering - quenched then reheated, cooled slowly, highly charged the furthest. Shows info about the relative isotopic mass +
(reduced brittleness, retains hardness) % abundance of each isotope
- Relative isotopic mass (RIM) - mass of single isotope, determined by
Reactivity of metals: comparing the mass of ions to the isotope of the value of a standard
- Relative atomic mass - represents the average mass of an atom
- Oxygen - the most reactive elements are found on the left-side of the
periodic table, Na reacts directly w/ air, so stored in oil
(metal + oxygen = metal oxide)
- Water - G1 metals are called alkali metals since they react w/ water to
produce alkalis (soluble hydrogen compounds) and hydrogen gas - Relative molecular mass - sum of the relative atomic masses of
(G1 metal + water = G1 metal hydroxide + hydrogen) elements in the formula
- Acid - hydrogen is also produced when the more reactive metals react
with acids Counting atoms:
(metal + acid = ionic salt + hydrogen)
- Mole - represents a very large number of particles, 6.02 x 1023
Extraction of metals:
- To find the mass of 1 mole of an element, add ‘g’ to the of that
- The method of extraction depends on reactivity - is it easy to extract? element
- Ore - a naturally occurring solid material from which a metal or valuable - Molar mass (M) - grams per mole - g mol-1
mineral can be profitably extracted - Molecular compounds - the M is numerically equal to the
- Metals of medium reactivity are extracted w/ carbon in the blast furnace expressed in g mol-1
(e.g. Iron) - Ionic compounds - the is found by adding the of each
atom in the formula of the element
- can be used to find the number of moles of an element/compound
- can be used to calculate the number of moles
Converting mass units:

Percentage composition:

- The percentage that each element contributes to the total mass of a

compound

Empirical and molecular formulas:

- Empirical formula - the simplest whole number of atoms/ions that ate

present in the compound
1. Write down symbols of elements
2. Assume that the mass of the sample is 100g and all percentages become
grams
3. Convert masses to moles
4. Find the simplest whole numbers ratio of the atoms by dividing all
numbers of moles by the smallest number of moles
5. If required, multiply by a factor to convert all numbers to whole numbers
- Molecular formula - the actual number of atoms that are present in a
molecule of that substance (can be equal to the empirical formula)
May be determined from its empirical formula only if its molar mass is known