Lunar resources

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An artificially colored mosaic constructed from a series of 53 images taken through three spectral
filters by Galileo's imaging system as the spacecraft flew over the northern regions of the Moon on 7 December
1992. The colors indicate different materials.

The Moon bears substantial natural resources which could be exploited in the future.[1][2] Potential
lunar resources may encompass processable materials such as volatiles and minerals, along with
geologic structures such as lava tubes that together, might enable lunar habitation. The use of
resources on the Moon may provide a means of reducing the cost and risk of lunar exploration and
beyond.[3][4]
Insights about lunar resources gained from orbit and sample-return missions have greatly enhanced
the understanding of the potential for in situ resource utilization (ISRU) at the Moon, but that
knowledge is not yet sufficient to fully justify the commitment of large financial resources to
implement an ISRU-based campaign.[5] The determination of resource availability will drive the
selection of sites for human settlement.[6][7]

Contents

 1Overview
 2Resources
o 2.1Solar power
o 2.2Oxygen
o 2.3Water
o 2.4Hydrogen
o 2.5Metals
 2.5.1Iron
 2.5.2Titanium
 2.5.3Aluminium
 2.5.4Silicon
 2.5.5Calcium
 2.5.6Magnesium
 o 2.6Rare-earth elements
o 2.7Helium-3
o 2.8Carbon and nitrogen
o 2.9Regolith for construction
 3Mining
o 3.1Scouting
o 3.2Extraction methods
 4Legal status
 5See also
 6References

Overview[edit]
Lunar materials could facilitate continued exploration of the Moon itself, facilitate scientific and
economic activity in the vicinity of both Earth and Moon (so-called cislunar space), or they could be
imported to the Earth's surface where they would contribute directly to the global
economy.[1] Regolith (lunar soil) is the easiest product to obtain; it can provide radiation and
micrometeoroid protection as well as construction and paving material by melting.[8] Oxygen from
lunar regolith oxides can be a source for metabolic oxygen and rocket propellant oxidizer. Water ice
can provide water for radiation shielding, life-support, oxygen and rocket propellant
feedstock. Volatiles from permanently shadowed craters may provide methane (CH
4), ammonia (NH

3), carbon dioxide (CO

2 and carbon monoxide (CO). Metals and other elements for local industry may be obtained from
[9]

the various minerals found in regolith.

The Moon is known to be poor on carbon and nitrogen, and rich in metals and in atomic oxygen, but
their distribution and concentrations are still unknown. Further lunar exploration will reveal additional
concentrations of economically useful materials, and whether or not these will be economically
exploitable will depend on the value placed on them and on the energy and infrastructure available
to support their extraction.[10] For in situ resource utilization (ISRU) to be applied successfully on the
Moon, landing site selection is imperative, as well as identifying suitable surface operations and
technologies.
Scouting from lunar orbit by a few space agencies is ongoing, and landers and rovers are scouting
resources and concentrations in situ (see: List of missions to the Moon).

Resources[edit]
Lunar surface chemical composition[11]

Compound Formula Composition

Maria Highlands

silica SiO2 45.4% 45.5%

alumina Al2O3 14.9% 24.0%

lime CaO 11.8% 15.9%

iron(II) oxide FeO 14.1% 5.9%

 magnesia MgO 9.2% 7.5%

titanium dioxide TiO2 3.9% 0.6%

sodium oxide Na2O 0.6% 0.6%

99.9% 100.0%

Solar power, oxygen, and metals are abundant resources on the Moon.[12] Elements known to be
present on the lunar surface include, among others,
are hydrogen (H),[1][13] oxygen (O), silicon (Si), iron (Fe), magnesium (Mg), calcium (Ca), aluminium (
Al), manganese (Mn) and titanium (Ti). Among the more abundant are oxygen, iron and silicon. The
atomic oxygen content in the regolith is estimated at 45% by weight.[14][15]
Solar power[edit]
Daylight on the Moon lasts approximately two weeks, followed by approximately two weeks of night,
while both lunar poles are illuminated almost constantly.[16][17][18] The lunar south pole features a region
with crater rims exposed to near constant solar illumination, yet the interior of the craters are
permanently shaded from sunlight, and retain significant amounts of water ice in their interior.[19] By
locating a lunar resource processing facility near the lunar south pole, solar-generated electrical
power would allow for nearly constant operation close to water ice sources.[17][18]
The lunar soil itself could be processed by a medium-size (~200 kg) rover with the capabilities for
heating the regolith, evaporation of the appropriate semiconductor materials for the solar cell
structure directly on the regolith substrate, and deposition of metallic contacts and interconnects to
finish off a complete solar cell array directly on the ground.[20]
The Kilopower nuclear fission system is being developed for reliable electric power generation that
could enable long-duration crewed bases on the Moon, Mars and destinations beyond.[21][22] This
system is ideal for locations on the Moon and Mars where power generation from sunlight is
intermittent.[22][23]
Oxygen[edit]
The elemental oxygen content in the regolith is estimated at 45% by weight.[15][14] Oxygen is often
found in iron-rich lunar minerals and glasses as iron oxide. At least, twenty different possible
processes for extracting oxygen from lunar regolith have been described,[24][25] and all require high
energy input: between 2-4 megawatt-years of energy (i.e. 6-12×1013 J) to produce 1,000 tons of
oxygen.[1] While oxygen extraction from metal oxides also produces useful metals, using water as a
feedstock does not.[1]
Water[edit]
Main article: Lunar water
Images by the LCROSS orbiter flying of the lunar south pole show areas of permanent shadow.

The image shows the distribution of surface ice at the Moon's south pole (left) and north pole (right) as viewed
by NASA's Moon Mineralogy Mapper (M3) spectrometer onboard India's Chandrayaan-1 orbiter

Cumulative evidence from several orbiters strongly indicate that water ice is present on the surface
at the Moon poles, but mostly on the south pole region.[26][27] However, results from these datasets
are not always correlated.[28][29] It has been determined that the cumulative area of permanently
shadowed lunar surface is 13,361 km2 in the northern hemisphere and 17,698 km2 in the southern
hemisphere, giving a total area of 31,059 km2.[1] The extent to which any or all of these permanently
shadowed areas contain water ice and other volatiles is not currently known, so more data is needed
about lunar ice deposits, its distribution, concentration, quantity, disposition, depth, geotechnical
properties and any other characteristics necessary to design and develop extraction and processing
systems.[29][30] The intentional impact of the LCROSS orbiter into the Cabeus crater was monitored to
analyze the resulting debris plume, and it was concluded that the water ice must be in the form of
small (< ~10 cm), discrete pieces of ice distributed throughout the regolith, or as thin coating on ice
grains.[31] This, coupled with monostatic radar observations, suggest that the water ice present in the
permanently shadowed regions of lunar polar craters is unlikely to be present in the form of thick,
pure ice deposits.[31]
Water may have been delivered to the Moon over geological timescales by the regular bombardment
of water-bearing comets, asteroids and meteoroids [32] or continuously produced in situ by the
hydrogen ions (protons) of the solar wind impacting oxygen-bearing minerals.[1][33]
The lunar south pole features a region with crater rims exposed to near constant solar illumination,
where the craters' interior are permanently shaded from sunlight, allowing for natural trapping and
collection of water ice that could be mined in the future.
Water molecules (H
2O) can be broken down to its elements, namely hydrogen and oxygen, and form molecular

hydrogen (H
2) and molecular oxygen (O

2) to be used as rocket bi-propellant or produce compounds for metallurgic and chemical production

processes.[3] Just the production of propellant, was estimated by a joint panel of industry,
government and academic experts, identified a near-term annual demand of 450 metric tons of
lunar-derived propellant equating to 2,450 metric tons of processed lunar water, generating US$2.4
billion of revenue annually.[23]
Hydrogen[edit]
The solar wind implants protons on the regolith, forming a protonated atom, which is a chemical
compound of hydrogen (H). Although bound hydrogen is plentiful, questions remain about how much
of it diffuses into the subsurface, escapes into space or diffuses into cold traps.[34] Hydrogen would
be needed for propellant production, and it has a multitude of industrial uses. For example, hydrogen
can be used for the production of oxygen by hydrogen reduction of ilmenite.[35][36][37]
Metals[edit]
Iron[edit]
Common lunar minerals[38]

Lunar rock
Mineral Elements
appearance
 Calcium (Ca) White
Aluminium (Al) to transparent gray;
Plagioclase feldspar
Silicon (Si) usually as
Oxygen (O) elongated grains.

Maroon to black;
Iron (Fe),
the grains appear
Magnesium (Mg)
more elongated in
Pyroxene Calcium (Ca)
the maria and more
Silicon (Si)
square in the
Oxygen (O)
highlands.

Iron (Fe) Greenish color;

Magnesium (Mg) generally, it
Olivine
Silicon (Si) appears in a
Oxygen (O) rounded shape.

Iron (Fe),
Black, elongated
Ilmenite Titanium (Ti)
square crystals.
Oxygen (O)

Iron (Fe) is abundant in all mare basalts (~14-17 % per weight) but is mostly locked into silicate
minerals (i.e. pyroxene and olivine) and into the oxide mineral ilmenite in the lowlands.[1][39] Extraction
would be quite energy-demanding, but some prominent lunar magnetic anomalies are suspected as
being due to surviving Fe-rich meteoritic debris. Only further exploration in situ will determine
whether or not this interpretation is correct, and how exploitable such meteoritic debris may be.[1]
Free iron also exists in the regolith (0.5% by weight) naturally alloyed with nickel and cobalt and it
can easily be extracted by simple magnets after grinding.[39] This iron dust can be processed to make
parts using powder metallurgy techniques,[39] such as additive manufacturing, 3D printing, selective
laser sintering (SLS), selective laser melting (SLM), and electron beam melting (EBM).
Titanium[edit]
Titanium (Ti) can be alloyed with iron, aluminium, vanadium, and molybdenum, among other
elements, to produce strong, lightweight alloys for aerospace. It exists almost entirely in the
mineral ilmenite (FeTiO3) in the range of 5-8% by weight.[1] Ilmenite minerals also trap hydrogen
(protons) from the solar wind, so that processing of ilmenite will also produce hydrogen, a valuable
element on the Moon.[39] The vast flood basalts on the northwest nearside (Mare Tranquillitatis)
possess some of the highest titanium contents on the Moon,[29] harboring 10 times as much titanium
as rocks on Earth do.[40]
Aluminium[edit]
Aluminium (Al) is found with a concentration in the range of 10-18% by weight, present in a mineral
called anorthite (CaAl
2Si

2O

8), the calcium endmember of the plagioclase feldspar mineral series.[1] Aluminium is a
[39]

good electrical conductor, and atomized aluminum powder also makes a good solid rocket fuel when
burned with oxygen.[39] Extraction of aluminium would also require breaking down
Silicon[edit]
Photo of a piece of purified silicon

Silicon (Si) is an abundant metalloid in all lunar material, with a concentration of about 20% by
weight. It is of enormous importance to produce solar panel arrays for the conversion of sunlight into
electricity, as well as glass, fiber glass, and a variety of useful ceramics. Achieving a very high purity
for use as semi-conductor would be challenging, especially in the lunar environment.[1]
Calcium[edit]

Anorthite crystals in a basalt vug from Vesuvius, Italy (size: 6.9 × 4.1 × 3.8 cm)

Calcium (Ca) is the fourth most abundant element in the lunar highlands, present
in anorthite minerals (formula CaAl
2Si

2O

8). Calcium oxides and calcium silicates are not only useful for ceramics, but pure calcium metal
[39][41]

is flexible and an excellent electrical conductor in the absence of oxygen.[39] Anorthite is rare on the
Earth[42] but abundant on the Moon.[39]
Calcium can also be used to fabricate silicon-based solar cells, requiring lunar silicon, iron, titanium
oxide, calcium and aluminum.[43]
Magnesium[edit]
Magnesium (Mg) is present in magmas and in the lunar minerals pyroxene and olivine,[44] so it is
suspected that magnesium is more abundant in the lower lunar crust.[45] Magnesium has multiple
uses as alloys for aerospace, automotive and electronics.
Rare-earth elements[edit]
Rare-earth elements are used to manufacture everything from electric or hybrid vehicles, wind
turbines, electronic devices and clean energy technologies.[46][47] Despite their name, rare-earth
elements are – with the exception of promethium – relatively plentiful in Earth's crust. However,
because of their geochemical properties, rare-earth elements are typically dispersed and not often
found concentrated in rare-earth minerals; as a result, economically exploitable ore deposits are less
common.[48] Major reserves exist in China, California, India, Brazil, Australia, South Africa, and
Malaysia,[49] but China accounts for over 95% of the world's production of rare-earths.[50] (See: Rare
earth industry in China.)
Current studies show that there is not enough rare-earth elements on the Moon[51] yet, NASA views
the mining of rare-earth minerals as a viable lunar resource[52] because they exhibit a wide range of
industrially important optical, electrical, magnetic and catalytic properties.[1]
Helium-3[edit]
Main article: Helium-3 § Extraction from extraterrestrial sources
By one estimate, the solar wind has deposited more than 1 million tons of helium-3 (3He) to the
Moon's surface.[53] Materials on the Moon's surface contain helium-3 at concentrations estimated
between 1.4 and 15 parts per billion (ppb) in sunlit areas,[1][54][55] and may contain concentrations as
much as 50 ppb in permanently shadowed regions.[56] For comparison, helium-3 in the Earth's
atmosphere occurs at 7.2 parts per trillion (ppt).
A number of people since 1986,[57] have proposed to exploit the lunar regolith and use the helium-3
for nuclear fusion, [52] although nuclear fusion reactors do not exist.[58][59] Because of the low
concentrations of helium-3, any mining equipment would need to process extremely large amounts
of regolith. By one estimate, must process over 150 tons of regolith to obtain 1 gram (0.035 oz) of
helium 3.[60] China has begun the Chinese Lunar Exploration Program for exploring the Moon and is
investigating the prospect of lunar mining, specifically looking for the isotope helium-3 for use as an
energy source on Earth.[61] Not all authors think the extraterrestrial extraction of helium-3 is
feasible,[58] and even if it was possible to extract helium-3 from the Moon, no fusion reactor design
has produced more fusion power output than the electrical power input, defeating the
purpose.[58][59] Another downside is that it is a limited resource that can be exhausted once mined.[10]
Carbon and nitrogen[edit]
Carbon (C) would be required for the production of lunar steel, but it is present in lunar regolith in
trace amounts (82 ppm[62]), contributed by the solar wind and micrometeorite impacts.[63]
Nitrogen (N) was measured from soil samples brought back to Earth, and it exists as trace amounts
at less than 5 ppm.[64] It was found as isotopes 14N, 15N, and 16N.[64][65] Carbon and fixed nitrogen would
be required for farming activities within a sealed biosphere.
Regolith for construction[edit]

A rendering of the lunar base 3D printing project, commissioned by the European Space Agency
A 3D printed section of the lunar base made with the D-Shape technology, as commissioned by the European
Space Agency

Further information: Lunarcrete

Developing a lunar economy will require a significant amount of infrastructure on the lunar surface,
which will rely heavily on In situ resource utilization (ISRU) technologies to develop. One of the
primary requirements will be to provide construction materials to build habitats, storage bins, landing
pads, roads and other infrastructure.[66][67] Unprocessed lunar soil, also called regolith, may be turned
into useable structural components,[68][69] through techniques such as sintering, hot-
pressing, liquification, the cast basalt method,[18][70] and 3D printing.[66] Glass and glass fiber are
straightforward to process on the Moon, and it was found regolith material strengths can be
drastically improved by using glass fiber, such as 70% basalt glass fiber and
30% PETG mixture.[66] Successful tests have been performed on Earth using some lunar regolith
simulants,[71] including MLS-1 and MLS-2.[72]
The lunar soil, although it poses a problem for any mechanical moving parts, can be mixed
with carbon nanotubes and epoxies in the construction of telescope mirrors up to 50 meters in
diameter.[73][74][75] Several craters near the poles are permanently dark and cold, a favorable
environment for infrared telescopes.[76]
Some proposals suggest to build a lunar base on the surface using modules brought from Earth, and
covering them with lunar soil. The lunar soil is composed of a blend of silica and iron-containing
compounds that may be fused into a glass-like solid using microwave radiation.[77][78]
The European Space Agency working in 2013 with an independent architectural firm, tested a 3D-
printed structure that could be constructed of lunar regolith for use as a Moon base.[79][80][81] 3D-printed
lunar soil would provide both "radiation and temperature insulation. Inside, a lightweight pressurized
inflatable with the same dome shape would be the living environment for the first human Moon
settlers."[81]
In early 2014, NASA funded a small study at the University of Southern California to further develop
the Contour Crafting 3D printing technique. Potential applications of this technology include
constructing lunar structures of a material that could consist of up to 90-percent lunar material with
only ten percent of the material requiring transport from Earth.[82] NASA is also looking at a different
technique that would involve the sintering of lunar dust using low-power (1500 watt) microwave
radiation. The lunar material would be bound by heating to 1,200 to 1,500 °C (2,190 to 2,730 °F),
somewhat below the melting point, in order to fuse the nanoparticle dust into a solid block that
is ceramic-like, and would not require the transport of a binder material from Earth.[83]

Mining[edit]
There are several models and proposals on how to exploit lunar resources, yet few of them consider
sustainability.[84] Long-term planning is required to achieve sustainability and ensure that future
generations are not faced with a barren lunar wasteland by wanton practices.[84][85][86] Lunar
environmental sustainability must also adopt processes that do not use nor yield toxic material, and
must minimize waste through recycling loops.[84][67]
Scouting[edit]
Main articles: Exploration of the Moon and List of missions to the Moon
Numerous orbiters have mapped the lunar surface composition, including Clementine, Lunar
Reconnaissance Orbiter (LRO), Lunar Crater Observation and Sensing
Satellite (LCROSS), Artemis orbiter, SELENE, Lunar Prospector, Chandrayaan, and Chang'e, to
name a few, while the Soviet Luna programme and Apollo Program brought lunar samples back to
Earth for extensive analyses. As of 2019, a new "Moon race" is ongoing that features prospecting for
lunar resources to support crewed bases.
In the 21st century, China has taken the lead with the Chinese Lunar Exploration
Program,[87][88] which is executing an ambitious, step-wise approach to incremental technology
development and scouting for resources for a crewed base, projected for the
2030s.[89][90] India's Chandrayaan programme is focused in understanding the lunar water cycle first,
and on mapping mineral location and concentrations from orbit and in situ. Russia's Luna-
Glob programme is planning and developing a series of landers, rovers and orbiters for prospecting
and science exploration, and to eventually employ in situ resource utilization (IRSU) methods to
construct and operate their own crewed lunar base in the 2030s.[91][92]
The US has been studying the Moon for decades, but in 2019 it started to implement
the Commercial Lunar Payload Services to support the crewed Artemis program, both aimed at
scouting and exploiting lunar resources to facilitate a long-term crewed base on the Moon, and
depending on the lessons learned, then move on to a crewed mission to Mars.[93] NASA's
lunar Resource Prospector rover was planned to prospect for resources on a polar region of the
Moon, and it was to be launched in 2022.[94][95] The mission concept was still in its pre-formulation
stage, and a prototype rover was being tested when it was cancelled in April 2018.[96][94][95] Its science
instruments will be flown instead on several commercial lander missions contracted by NASA's
new Commercial Lunar Payload Services (CLSP) program, that aims to focus on testing various
lunar IRSU processes by landing several payloads on multiple commercial robotic landers and
rovers. The first payload contracts were awarded in February 21, 2019,[97][98] and will fly on separate
missions. The CLPS will inform and support NASA's Artemis program, leading to a crewed lunar
outpost for extended stays.[93]
A European non-profit organization has called for a global synergistic collaboration between all
space agencies and nations instead of a "Moon race"; this proposed collaborative concept is called
the Moon Village.[99] Moon Village seeks to create a vision where both international cooperation and
the commercialization of space can thrive.[100][101][102]
Some early private companies like Shackleton Energy Company,[103] Deep Space Industries, Golden
Spike, Planetary Resources, Astrobotic Technology, and Moon Express are planning private
commercial scouting and mining ventures on the Moon.[1][104]
Extraction methods[edit]
The extensive lunar maria are composed of basaltic lava flows. Their mineralogy is dominated by a
combination of five
minerals: anorthites (CaAl2Si2O8), orthopyroxenes ((Mg,Fe)SiO3), clinopyroxenes (Ca(Fe,Mg)Si2O6), o
livines ((Mg,Fe)2SiO4), and ilmenite (FeTiO3),[1][42] all abundant on the Moon.[105] It has been proposed
that smelters could process the basaltic lava to break it down into pure calcium, aluminium, oxygen,
iron, titanium, magnesium, and silica glass.[106] Raw lunar anorthite could also be used for making
fiberglass and other ceramic products.[106][39] Another proposal envisions the use of fluorine brought
from Earth as potassium fluoride to separate the raw materials from the lunar rocks.[107]
Legal status[edit]
Main article: Space law
Although Luna landers scattered pennants of the Soviet Union on the Moon, and United States
flags were symbolically planted at their landing sites by the Apollo astronauts, no nation claims
ownership of any part of the Moon's surface,[108] and mining rights are still unclear.[109][110] Russia,
China, and the United States are party to the 1967 Outer Space Treaty,[111] which defines the Moon
and all outer space as the "province of all mankind".[108] This treaty also restricts the use of the Moon
to peaceful purposes, explicitly banning military installations and weapons of mass destruction.[112]
The 1979 Moon Treaty Article II states that lunar resources are "not subject to national appropriation
by claim of sovereignty, by means of use or occupation, or by any other means."[113] This has been
variously interpreted as prohibiting sovereignty, ownership, and even resource extraction, on the
Moon.[113] As of November 2016, it has been signed and ratified by only 18 nations, none of which
engages in self-launched human space exploration or has plans to do so.[114] There are also
concerns with environmental damage and ethical consequences of mining the Moon.[52]