Comparison of Pressure Vessel Design and Inspection Requirements As Defined by ASME Code and Germany - S TRD Code

ErPrel| sce Keywords: EPRITR-104410 RESEARCH INSTITUTE Fogsil plant availabilty Project 2819-28 Fossil plant system performance Final Report Maintenance practices ‘September 1994 Comparison of Pressure Vessel Design and Inspection Requirements as Defined by ASME Code and Germany’s TRD Code Prepared by Dr. Abraham Sigal Chicago, llinoisComparison of Pressure Vessel Design and Inspection Requirements as Defined by ASME Code and Germany’s TRD Code TR-104410 Research Project 2819-28 Final Report, September 1994 Prepared by DR. ABRAHAM SIGAL 151 N. Michigan Avenue, #902 Chicago, tlinois 60601 Prepared for Electric Power Research institute 3412 Hillview Avenue Palo Alto, California 94304 EPRI Project Manager W. Piulle Fossil Power PlantsDISCLAIMER OF WARRANTIES AND LIMITATION OF LIABILITIES “Ts REPORT WAS PREPARED BY THE OAGANLATIONS) NAMED BELOW AS AN ACCOUNT OF WORK SPONSORED OR (COSPONSORED BY THE ELECTR POWER RESEARCH WETTTUTE, NC. 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EXPRESS OR NELID,f) WTH RESPECT TO THE USE OF ANY FORMATION, APPARATUS, METHOD, PROCESS, OR SMLAR TTEM DISCLOSED IN TMS REPORT, INCLUDING [MERCHANTABLITY ANO FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE, OF THAT SUCH USE DOES NOT FRINGE OR OR INTERFERE WITH PRVATELY OWNED RIGHTS, NCLUDING AY PARTY'S KTELLECTUAL PROPERTY, OR (THAT THES REPORT IS SUITABLE To ANY PARTICULAR USER'S CRCLNSTANCE, OR {@, ASSUMES RESPONSIBLITY FOR A DAMAGES OF OTHER LABILTY WHATSOEVER (CLUDING ANY CONSEQUENTIAL [DAMAGES EVEN F EPRI OR ANY EPRI REPRESENTATIVE HAS BEEN ADVISED OF THE POSSEILITY OF SU DAUAGES) [RESULT FROM YOUR SELECTION Ot USE OF THIS REPORT OR ANY MFORATION, APPARATUS, METHOD, PROCESS, OF SSMLAR MEM OSCLOSC W THIS REPORT (RGANZATON) THAT PREPARED THS REPORT: Bet ABRARAM GAL” hicke9, LINO lecric Power Raearch hast and arrested sence marks of Eecic Power esearch htiut, ne. (Copyright © 1994 Electric Power Research Inte, Ie. Al hts reserved. Keywords: Fossil plant availabilty Fossil plant systom performance Maintonance practices ‘ORDERING FORMATION Requests for copies of this report should be directed to the EPRI Distribution Center, 207 }9gins Drive, P.O. Box 23205, Pleasant Hil, CA 94523, (510) 934-4212. Thero ccharge for reports requasted by EPRI memberThis report compares the United States ASME Code with the German TRD Code for pressure vessel engineering, fabrication, inspection, etc. The report compares calculations of minimum required wall thickness for pressure vessels such as boiler tubes, pipes, headers, and drums, and material allowable stress values. It reviews the major materials permitted by both Codes for use in pressure vessel engineering and manufacturing. The report's emphasis on the differences between two codes provides U.S. engineers and manufacturers with the information necessary to compete effectively in imernational equipment supply contracts that do not conform to the ASME Code. iiiACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ‘The author wishes to thank the following expens in the power plant industry for their support and for their valuable advice in reviewing this report: A special note of thanks and appreciation is extended to Dr. Barry Dooley of EPRI for his valuable comments and review of the effort Donald E, Wolniak Norman Weber Robert G. Presnak ‘Special thanks for providing invaluable information goes to: Franz Schleuter ‘Special appreciation for her caring, voluntary assistance in preparation of this report goes to: Jean Carol Sema Sargent & Lundy Sargent & Lundy Sargent & Lundy Standardkessel, Duisburg, Germany Sargent & LundyCONTENTS Page INTRODUCTION sees os ee ld COMPARISON OF STEAM BOILER DEFINITIONS 2 ‘ASME Code 24 TRD Code eee cee ence eee ee eens Del Section 2 Conclusions . . . . : ee COMPARISON OF BASIC FORMULAE FOR CYLINDRICAL COMPONENTS UNDER INTERNAL PRESSURE ........ ee eee Bl Basic Formulae... . . 31 ASME Code Section I. 31 ‘TRD Code 34 Comparison of Basic Formulae 38 Tubing , 38 Piping, Headers, Drums . : cece 39 Piping and Headers Without Openings... 1... 0... 39 Drums Without Openings 312 Limits for Using ASME Formulae for Tubing. Piping, Headers and Drums, and TRD Formula for Cylinders’ Without Openings ................ HB Comparison of the Ligament Efficiencies Without Reinforcement of Openings . . . . Longitudinal Ligament Efficiencies . Diagonal Ligament Efficiencies .... . . Comparison of Formulae for Dished Heads Without Efficiencies for Openings Allowances for Wall Thickness Tolerances Corrosion Allowances ......... COMPARISON OF MATERIAL ALLOWABLE STRESS VALUE DETERMINATIONS 41 ‘ASME Code . . 41 TRD Code . 43 Comparison of the Allowable Stress Value Determinations and their Effect on Sizing the Tubing, Piping, Headers, Drums, and Dished Heads ............ 4s MATERIAL COMPARISON . vii10 COMPARISON OF CERTIFICATIONS, QUALIFICATIONS AND HEAT TREATMENT oar) . Certification Qualifications . Heat Treatment Requirements COMPARISON OF INSPECTION METHODS Non-Destructive Examination (NDE) . Hydrostatic Test 5 Inspection . . COMPARISON OF STEAM BOILER COMMITTEES . COMPARISON SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS Comparison Summary . Conclusions REFERENCES CONVERSION FACTORS -About-theAutttor > viii 61 61 62 63 TH cal TH 73 81 10-1 210510 2 B 4 ILLUSTRATIONS Pressure Vessel Dimensions Ratio of Wall Thicknesses tyjne!tyy for Pipes and Headers w/o Openings as a Function of Pressure and Allowable Stress at y = 0.4 for ASME Code oe Ratio of Wall Thicknesses tyne/tyg for Pipes and Headers wio Openings as a Function of Pressure and Allowable Stress at y = 0.5 and y = 0.7 for ASME Code.......... beoocee Ratio of Wall Thicknesses tuane/ts for Drums Without Openings as a Function of Pressure and Allowable Stress ‘Max Pressure for Use of ASME Formulae PG-27.2.1 & PG-27.2.2 and TRD Formula 301, 5.4.6 ....... Pressure Vessel Opening Arrangements Without Reinforcement . . . Pressure Vessel Opening Arrangements With Reinforcement . . . . Opening Arrangement for Determining the Efficiency of Longitudinal Ligaments in Cylindrical Shells Opening Arrangement for Determining the oes of Diagonal Ligaments in Cylindrical Shells. - Ratio of Wall Thicknesses tyype/lg for Headers with Openings Based on Longitudinal Ligament Efficiencies .......... Ratio of Wall Thicknesses tyype/tg for Drums with Openings Based on Longitudinal Ligament Efficiencies ......... Diagram for Determining the Efficiency of Longitudinal and Diagonal Ligaments Between Openings in Cylindrical Shells per ASME Code Section 1, Fig. PG-52.1 02. .........-.00000. Diagram for Determining the Efficiency of Diagonal Ligaments Between Openings in Cylindrical Shells per TRD Code 301 Fig. 21 . Ratio of Diagonal Ligament Efficiencies Ey sing/Exsme diag for Openings as a Function of Angle Between Pitches (¥), Hole Diameter (d) and Diagonal Pitch (p’) . ix E 33 317 = 319 = 3-21 3-21 - 3-23 - 3-24 3.26 3-28 - 3:3015 18 19 20 21 2a 22 23 24a 24-b 24-€ 24-4 Ratio of Wall Thicknesses tane/ts for Headers with ‘Openings Based on Diagonal Ligament Efficiencies Ratio of Wall Thicknesses tyyne/tyy for Drums with Openings Based on Diagonal Ligament Efficiencies Ellipsoidal Dish Head Arrangement Hemispherical Dish Head Arrangement... .. . Ratio of Wall Thicknesses tyyne/tgg for Dished Heads both Ellipsoidal and Hemispherical w/o Efficiencies for Openings ....... oo. Theoretical Ratio of Wall Thicknesses tyetyy for ‘Tubing Made of Carbon and Low Alloy Steels Theoretical Ratio of Wall Thicknesses tyyng/tay for Piping Made of Carbon and Low Alloy Steels ........ Ratio of Wall Thicknesses tyyne/tyy for Headers Made of Carbon Steel with Openings Based on Longitudinal Ligament Efficiencies etree er eeemreyn Ratio of Wall Thicknesses tyyme/tyy for Headers Made of Low Alloy Steel with Openings Based on > Longitudinal Ligament Efficiencies .......... : Ratio of Wall Thicknesses tyne/tqs for Drums Sized by ID Made of Carbon Steel with Openings Based on Longitudinal Ligament Efficiencies ................ Ratio of Wall Thicknesses tyynq/t,y for Headers Made of Carbon Stee! at 700°F with Openings Based on onal Ligament Effici Bao Bees Ratio of Wall Thicknesses tyyne/tys for Headers Made of Carbon Steel at Room Temperature with Openings Based on Diagonal Ligament Efficiencies ............ Ratio of Wall Thicknesses tyne/tqs for Headers Made of Low Alloy Steel at 900°F with Openings Based on Diagonal Ligament Efficiencies aon Ratio of Wall Thicknesses tyyne/t,s for Headers Made of Low Alloy Ste a Room Temperature wi Openings Based on Diagonal Ligament Efficiencies 3:32 3:33 3.35 - 335 3:38 413 415 416 417 419 420 421 42225-0 25-b 26 Ratio of Wall Thicknesses tyane/tag for Drums Made of Carbon Steel at 700°F Sized by ID Based on Diagonal Ligament Efficiencies Ratio of Wall Thicknesses tyne /tqg for Drums Made of Carbon Steel at Room Temperature Sized by ID Based on Diagonal Ligament Efficiencies A Ratio of Wall Thicknesses tuyne/tyy for Dished Heads Both Ellipsoidal and Hemispherical Made of Carbon and Low Alloy Steels without Openings : Approximate Allowable Stress Determination at Room Temperature . Mechanical Properties at Elevated Temperatures ‘Comparison of Similar U.S. and German Materials . Comparison of Material Chemical Compositions and Mechanical Properties... ... Booee xi 4-24 425 4-26 47 4.9/4-10 poocn oes 515-2 pobbuud00n0 so S358C, in (mm) D, in (mm) D,, in (mm) P, Ib/in? (N/mm?) R, R,, in (mm) S, Ib/in® (N/mm?) Sy, Ib/in® (N/mm?) Sy, Ibvin? (N/mm?) Sp, Ib/in? (N/mm?) Sc, Ibvin? (N/mm?) 4, in (mm) e, in (mm) p, in (mm) P’, in (mm) 1, in(mm) ¥, degree + allowance - outside diameter + inside diameter - ligament efficiency - welding joint efficiency + pressure + inside radius ~ allowable stress - tensile strength ~ yield strength - rupture strength - creep strength - opening diameter - addition to wall thickness - longitudinal pitch - diagonal pitch + minimum wall thickness ~ temperature coefficient angle between longitudinal and diagonal pitches Symbols tong. i data or as calculated per ASME Code data or as calculated per TRD Code longitudinal diagonal ellipsoidal hemispherical at room temperature at temperatureSection 1 INTRODUCTION Both the American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code and the German Technical Rules for Steam Boilers (Technische Regeln fir Dampfkessel - TRD) Code, the leading Code in Europe, have borne the test of time and are recognized as the standard rules of safety for design, fabrication, construction and inspection of pressure vessels. Using these Codes, thousands of units have been successfully designed, built, and safely operated for decades in the U.S. and Europe. It is not the intention of this report to judge either Code, but to provide a comparative analysis and to emphasize end results. Although rarely realized by U.S. industry, application of the ASME and TRD Codes to determine minimum wall thickness can result in significantly different thickness requirements for vessels made of the same or similar material. This report demonstrates methods of determining minimum required thickness as mandated by both the ASME and TRD Codes and how these approaches affect a relative difference between wall thicknesses for the same material. In particular, the report shows how, assuming equal allowable stresses of material in accordance with both Codes, the difference progresses from a negligible one for tubes, pipes and headers, and drums without openings, to a ‘greater difference when opening ligament efficiencies used. Applying various methods of determining the allowable stress value for the same material as prescribed by these Codes results in an even greater difference. Comparisons include the range of similar materials used in the boiler and power plant industry and authorized by the respective Codes, including mechanical properties and chemical composition of the materials. The report examines boiler certification, qualification of welding procedures and welder's performance, and forming, bending, and heat treatment requirements. The report compares examination and inspection requirements, such as non-destructive examination, hydrostatic testing and rate of pressures required for hydrotest, and frequency of the periodic inspections. It also presents the structures and responsibilities of U.S. and German Steam Boiler Committees. 1Section 2 COMPARISON OF STEAM BOILER DEFINITIONS ‘The two Codes define Steam Boilers as follows: 24 22 ASME Code {1}: ‘Section 1, PG-2. "@ boilers in which steam or other vapor is generated at a pressure of more than 15 psig" (1.03 barg), “(b) high-temperature water boilers intended for operation at pressures exceeding 160 psig" (11.03 barg), “and/or temperatures exceeding 250°F" (121°C), vn details classes of vessels not considered to be wi jin the scope of this Division and not discussed in this paper. Please note U-1(d), which states that this Division is limited to vessels with design pressure not exceeding 3000 psig (about 207 barg). Vessel design shall incorporate appropriate additions for pressures greater than 3000 psi to meet Division rules and to allow the vessel to be stamped with the Code symbol ‘RD Code: Steam Boiler Regulations (DampfkV), part UDC 621.18 [2] divides steam boilers into four groups as follows: roup 1: ‘Steam boilers with a water volume not exceeding 0.353 ft° (10 liters). Group 2: ‘Steam boilers with a water volume of more than 0.353 f° (10 liters) if: (a) design pressure of steam boilers does not exceed 14.5 psi (1 bar) (b) allowable flow temperature of hot water generators does not exceed 248°F (120°C), 2423 ‘Group 3: Steam boilers with a water volume of more than .353 f° (10 liters) but not more than 1.76 ft? (50 liters) if (a) for steam generators the design pressure exceeds 14.5 psi (I bar) and the criterion of volume (V) multiplied by the pressure (P) is Px V < 512 psix f° (PV < 1000 bar x liter), (©) for hot water generators the allowable flow temperature exceeds 248°F (120°C) and PV < 512 psi x ft? (PV < 1000 bar x liter). Group 4: Steam boilers not covered under groups 1, 2, and 3. eee ‘The TRD Code covers three groups of small steam boilers with low volume and/or low volume and pressure, including small hot water generators. Only TRD Group 4 includes steam boilers and the hot water generators covered by the ASME Code. 22Section 3 COMPARISON OF BASIC FORMULAE FOR CYLINDRICAL COMPONENTS UNDER INTERNAL PRESSURE, 3.1 Basic Formulae: ‘The two Codes define basic formulae for determination of the minimum wall thickness of cylindrical components, see Fig. 1, as follows: 3 a) b) lode Section I: For tubing up to and including 5 inch (127 mm) outside diameter (PG-27.2.1): PD. +0.005D+e a where: t - wall thickness P - pressure D - outside diameter S - allowable stress €- addition, thickness factor for expanded tube ends, € = 0 for tube strength - welded to headers and drums (PG-27.4 Note 4). For tubing exceeding 5 inch (127 mm) outside diameter (PWT 10.2), piping, drums and headers (PG-27.2.2): PD. (BF PS ° 34where: y - temperature coefficient is equal to: 0.4 - for ferritic. austenitic, and high alloy steels up to 900°F (482°C). 0.5 - for ferritic steel at 950°F (510°C), then rising to 0.7 - for ferritic steel from 1000°F (538°C) to 1250°F (677°C) and above 0.4 - for austenitic and high alloy steels up to 1050°F (565°C), 0.5 - for austenitic steel at 1100°F (593°C), then rising to 0.7 - for austenitic steel from 1150°F (621°C) to 1250°F (677°C) and above 0.4 - for high alloy steels up to 1150°F (621°C) rising to 0.5 - for high alloy steels at 1200°F (649°C) rising to 0.7 - for high alloy steels at 1250°F (677°C) and above C- minimum allowance for pipes is equal to: 0.065 inch (1.65 mm) - for threaded steel; any steel pipe joint, including welding, for nominal size pi ig up to 3% inch nominal (Note: nonexistant 3% inch nominal size piping serves only as a threshold. The closest smaller nominal size is 3% inch , i.e., 4 inch actual (101.6 mm). - for 4 inch nominal, i.e., 414 inch actual (114.3 mm) and larger. E - efficiency - is equal to the smaller of the following: 1 - for seamless or welded cylinders without opening, or E - for ligaments between openings (to be presented later) 32‘According to ASME Code Section I, these formulae are applicable to cylinders when wall thickness does not exceed one-half the inside radius of the cylinder for temperatures up to that of saturated steam at critical pressure, i.e. 705.4°F (374.11°C), (PG-27.2.3): fameS0-5R, i.e ®) fameS0.25D, Ga) where:R - inside radius D, - inside diameter For comparison with TRD Code limitation based on outside diameter "D", this ASME limitation can be converted as follows: stp ® 6 Wall thickness greater than this limit shall be determined in accordance with ASME Section I Paragraph A-125, not included in this paper. 343.1.2 TRD Code 301 131: The TRD Code does not distinguish between tubing and piping. The formula is applicable to all cylindrical shells jout_ openings and allowances as follows (TRD 301. 5.1.1): DP. Be CP 6) where: E, - welding joint efficiency, which characterizes a joint strength in comparison with ‘main vessel material strength. When the joint passes all tests demonstrating an absence of defects in the joint then E, = 1 ‘The formula for cylindrical shells with openings, and without consideration of the nozzle reinforcement attachment, is presented as (TRD 301, 5.4.6): bp ——— © ee where: E is ligament efficiency, which characterizes the strength of the ligament between holes in the vessel wall in comparison with the strenth of the vessel undisturbed wall. When there are no holes than E = 1 Again, for comparison, this formula can be converted from an internal diameter to an outside iameter as follows: age WS Eva" P(E xa) ‘Here and further throughout this report, all TRD Code notations and symbols are replaced with those deeigneted by ASME Code notations and symbols feriar to U. S. engineers. 35‘The TRD Code stipulates that (TRD 301, 11): a) b) ‘The allowable minimum wall thickness shall be: 0.118 inch (3mm) = for ferritic steels 0.0787 inch (2mm) - for non-ferrous metals 0.0494 inch (1mm) - for stainless steels ‘This minimum wall thickness assures reliable joint welding without material burns. Maximum allowable wall thickness for boiler water tubes subjected to high heat flux, such as furnace water wall tubes exposed to flue gas temperatures above 1470°F (800°C), shall not be greater than 0.248 inch (6.3 mm). This limitation does not apply to superheater tubes (TRD 301, 12). Maximum wall thickness for furnace water wall tubes limits tube overheating and excessive thermal stress which is a direct function of heat flux and wall thickness. Superheater tubes are exposed to considerably lower heat flux. Application of the formula requires that the ratio of the vessel outside diameter to the inside diameter not exceed 1.7 (TRD 301, 1.1), i.e., whi DDs7 ® 36This limitation can also be converted to: 7 TyaSqz D o arr’ As an exception, the TRD Code allows the ratio (TRD 301, 1.1) to be increased to: DID,s2, i.e, (0) ing 25D an when the wall thickness ty < 3.15 in (80 mm) According with TRD 301, 1.2, the design rules are applicable to ductile materials with elongation = 14%. The design rules can also be applied to a less ductile material in cases with a higher safety factor and with wall thickness less than 1.97 inch (50 mm). 37‘w= | for seamless tubing. Using this coefficient, the TRD 301, 5.1.1. Formula (5), can be simplified to: 1 DP BS geP (2) ‘This simplified form is similar to the ASME PG-27.2.1, Formula (1), except for an addition of 0.005D in the ASME Formula. Thus, assuming the same conditions and especially the same allowable stress value, i.e. Syne = S,y = S (Which actually is mot the case, see Section 4 of this paper), the minimum tube wall thickness per ASME is always greater than that of the TRD by 0.005D. The greater the outside diameter, the proportionally greater the addition. ‘The ASME Code does not mandate the tube minimum wall thickness, as does the TRD Code, but leaves it to.an agreement between the customer and manufacturer of the pressure parts, or to the customer specification. Nor does the ASME Code mandate the maximum wall thickness - not even for boiler water wall tubes exposed to high heat flux, leaving it to designer discretion or customer specification. The TRD Code its it to 0.248 in (6.3 mm). In extreme cases with a big tube OD and/or extreme pressure the designer must select smaller tubing to comply with the limitation. 38(b) Piping, Headers, Drums 1. Piping and Headers Without Openings The ASME Set 1, PG-27.2.2, Formula (2), for piping and headers without openings, i.e. when E=1, made of pipes OD = 4 inch (101.6 rim) or greater, when C=0, and carbon steel up to 900°F (482°C), austenitic steel up to 1050°F (565°C) and high alloy steels up to 1150°F (621°F), when temperature coefficient y = 0.4, can be rewritten as: PD __ PD =< i fee 25 DyP Bagg OBP - ‘The TRD 301, 5.1.1, Formula (5), for the seamless pipes, when E,, = 1, without openings is: oe) OS y4*P ) ‘The denominator of the ASME Formula is slightly smaller due to the 2y = 0.8 factor, when compared with TRD Formula, thus making the minimum wall thickness required by ASME Code slightly greater than the TRD Code, depending on design pressure and material allowable stress. Assuming the allowable stress value is the same for both Codes, i.€. Syme = Sug = S, the ratio of wall thicknesses for same pressure can be expressed as: co) 39This ratio is shown in Fig. 2. The higher the pressure and/or the lower the allowable stress, the greater the required wall thickness. The ASME Code requires about 3% greater wall thickness than the TRD Code. ‘When the ASME Code temperature coefficient y = 0.5 for austenitic steel at 1100°F (593°C) and high alloy steel at 1290°F (649°C) and Same = Sy = S. the ratio of the wall thicknesses is: feone ,_25+P 25+P 4 ng 2S+2yP 25+P as) thus making minimum wall thickness the same as determined by either Code at any allowable stress and/or pressure (See Fig. 3 dotted line). ‘When the ASME Code temperature coefficient y = 0.7, as for austenitic steel from 1150°F (621°C) to up and above 1250°F (677°C) and high alloy steels at up and above 1250°F (677°C), and Same = Spa = S, the ratio of wall thicknesses becomes as: feme,_25+P_,_25+P 6) tnd 25*2yP 25+1.4P thus making the minimum wall thickness required by the ASME Code up to 20% less than for the TRD Code. This ratio is shown in Fig. 3. Please note that y = 0.7 is applied to materials at very high temperatures, dictating a selection of very law allowable stresses for comparison, as introduced in Fig. 3 3-10‘$10,000 peiil6® Niwa) THT $412,500 psil'88 Nmmay—+—_ 69), (13.8) (207 | ° 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 ‘3000 | ‘Pressure. psi (Nimm2} FIG. 2 Ratio of Wall Thicknesses t asme/t trd for Pipes and Headers w/o Openings as ‘a Function of Pressure and Allowable Stress. ‘Assumptions: a) S asme = S trd= S. b) E= 1, C= 0, y = 0.4 for ASME Code ©) Ew 1 for TRD Code i Trdependent of bain Pana S when y = 0.5 or ASME Code Bs! (3719 Nina) oss "am r2) 096 faa joan (6.2 Ar) B osz FIG. 3. Ratio of Wall Thicknesses t asme/t trd for Pipes and Headers w/o Openings as a Function of Pressure and Allowable Stress. ‘Assumptions: a) S asme = S trd = S b) E=1,C=0,y = 0.7 for ASME Code ©) Ew= 1 for TRD CodeDrums Without Openings Drums are typically measured according to their internal diameters. Therefore. the appropriate formulae for determining the minimum drum thickness uses drum internal Radius or ID, as follows (ASME Sect. I, PG-27.2.2): ~ PR _ae i, an tm Ee PD, ‘Fame AP o Boiler drums are always of large diameter, i.e., C=0. Their wall temperature is close to saturation temperature, and they are always made of ferritic steel; thus y=0.4. Assuming there are no openings, E=1 for both Codes. Then the ASME Formula (18) can be simplified as: 9) ‘The TRD Formula for the internal diameter (TRD 301, 5.1.1) is: eee ieee C5, -PIE, “ 312© Assuming the welding efficiency E, = 1, the TRD Formula is: PD, 1) 2S,4-P ‘Then the ratio of the drum wall thicknesses is: -P 25g @) Assuming further, that allowable stresses are the same for both Codes, i.e. Swane = Sa = S, (Which is actually not the case, see Section 4 of this paper) the wall thickness of the drum as determined by the ASME Code is about 3% greater, depending on the pressure and allowable stress, as shown in Fig. 4. Limits for using: ASME Fonmula PG-27.2.1 for Tubing and PG-27.2.2 for Piping, Headers and Drums ‘TRD Formula 301, 5.4.6 for the Cylinders Both Without Openings. Both the ASME and TRD Formulae are simplified and applicable to relatively thin cylinders. Again, the ASME Code limits its use up to saturated temperature at critical . up to 705.4°F (374.1°C) which dictates the use of factor y = pressure, pipes, headers and drums for the following analysis. 313i 19° TSE ie apopaiced 2 Nena) | TT] igal To ses [St tbo s|(1634 NT poe | {So ps{(120.7) Weezy POTTT tae [SF cho pe{197.9 Nwaay| +1 | a f | =“ a Hlth 101 tasmen trd 1.005, (2088) FIG. 4 Ratio of Wall Thicknesses t asme/t trd for Drums w/o Openings as ‘a Function of Pressure and Allowable Stress. ‘Assumptions: a) S asme=S trd=S b) E=1,C=0, y= 0.4 for ASME Code ©) Ew 1 for TRD Code‘The ASME Code tubing limitation can be presented using Formulae (1) and (4) as: ame +0.008D+es4D @3) where e = 0. This equation can be further rewritten to determine the maximum pressure, limiting the basic formula as: i (24) anne D-.16167, ‘Thus Pyame max for tubing basically depends on allowable stress value Sjjme and to some extent on the outside diameter D. The ASME Code limitation for the piping, headers and drums using Formulae (2) and (4), is: PD _.cs4p @ em D5 OyP <6 When C = 0 and y =0 4, itis presented as: i.e., maximum pressure Pyne max fOr piping, headers, and drums is a function of the allowable stress value only. 3.15The TRD Code limitation for a cylinder shell without openings can be presented, in general, using Formulae (12) and (9), as: ie. en Pigg §-518537S pg 8) and when the wall thickness does not exceed 3.15 in (80 mm), using Formulae (12) and (11), as: DP 2) tag apt. ie. @9) Pie’ Seg G0) Assuming again that Syn, = Spy = S, the maximum pressures for the use of the appropriate formulae is shown in Fig. 5. Thus, the limiting pressure of the TRD Code is from 23.5% to 50% greater than per ASME Code. This would require a designer using the ASME Code for Pressure parts, when the pressures are greater than the Pyynemax» t0 use the formula for the thick cylinder, in accordance with ASME Section I, A125 (in the Regions where TRD Code still permits using simplified Formula 301.5.4.6), which is more accurate than Formulae PG- 27.2.1 and PG-27.2.2. This would further increase the disparity between the ASME and TRD Codes in the wall thickness by up to 5%, depending on the pressure value. 3-1610000 ad (69.0) : - _ 9000 * j - 1 \ = | = 2 | (55.2) i 2 2 oe ce I 7000 : : al ae 2 oe 1 g | le ; | 7 | EB coo fj ee | © (41.4) | T= 1 ASHE Roig dependent on OO) 2 Let fy =| i | i | ' 4000 4 (27.6) f= ff 1 | Zz tn ani) 25m! 20m tsni (101.6 meny | (76:2:mm) (63.5.9) (50.8 memy (8.1 mn) (25-4 mm | | oo i ASME Ting Op 10000 199 12000 +3000 14900 15009 ‘ees 3) fic) 8) (3, 8 ‘Stress, ps (Nmm2) FIG. 5 Max. Pressure for use of ASME Formul: and TRD Formula 301, 5.4.6 ABBUMPELONS: &) Syn"Soyr D) NO OPENINGS, Eygg=Eqg=] Note: Max. Pressure for vessels with openings is significantly lower for both Codes than shown on the graph depending on the efficiency of the Ligaments between openings. Pg-27.2-1 & PG-27.2.2 3:17(@) Comparison of the Ligament Efficiencies Without Reinforcement of Openings Both Codes consider that the opening is not reinforced. see Fig. 6. when the attached nozzle wall thickness is designed to withstand only a design pressure without an additional specifically added material to the nozzle wall for the purpose of the reinforcement of the opening. Additional nozzle reinforcing wall thickness, see Fig.7, which compensates for the weakness of a ligament between the holes, increases ligament efficiency.If enough additional material is built up to fully compensate for the weakness then E= 1. Longitudinal Ligament Efficiencies For the series of openings with an equal longitudinal space (p) between the hole axes and located in parallel with a vessel central line, see Fig. 8, both Codes consider the longitudinal ligament efficiency as a ratio of a leftover cross section area, after removal of material with the hole diameter (4), to an original undrilled area, i.e., as (ASME Sect.I, PG-52.2.1, TRD 301, 5.4.6): 6) Eonting Fit Fong G2) For the following analysis of the effect of longitudinal efficiencies on the vessel wall thickness, let's again assume that: Syne = Syy = S. 318wo o d -opening diameter t -vessel wall thickness t,-fozzle wall nominal thickness sized for design pressure only o FIG. 6 Pressure Vessel Opening Arrangements Without Reinforcement (per ASME Code Section I, Fig. PW-16.1) 319o we wea fe 314 in, A min o ry o w d-opening diameter t,-Rozle wall nominal thickness ‘tvessel wall thickness tgthickness or height of reinforcing element FIG. 7 Pressure Vessel Opening Arrangements With Reinforcement (per ASME Code Section VIII, Fig. UG-40) 3:20p ee eee aa vy YY Longrtudinal Line —— (a) Tube spacing with pitch of holes equal in every row Fong = (P-4)/P Longrudina! Line —— (b) Tube spacing with pitch of holes unequal in every second row -5(P1+P2)s Etoag = Prean-4)/Pmean FIG. 8 Opening Arrangement for Determining the Efficiency of Longitudinal Ligaments in Cylindrical Shells soess Presa Longitudinal Line me FIG. 9 Opening Arrangement for Determining the Efficiency of Diagonal Ligaments in Cylindrical Shells Note:The pitch shall be measured on the fat pte before rolling or the median mrface ater roling. 321‘Then, as determined by both Codes.the ratio of wall thicknesses for the headers sized on the basis of OD with openings can be presented as: Fame _ 2SE png P(2 Eig) es Fant 2SE ggg? 2YP when C = 0 for the ASME Code. ‘These ratio is shown in Fig. 10 (when y = 0.4 for the ASME Code). Depending on both design pressure and longitudinal ligament efficiency, wall thickness in accordance with the ASME Code can be up to 23% greater than the thickness determined by the TRD Code because of the various locations of Ejaqg in the formulae. With the same assumptions, the ratio of wall thicknesses for the drums sized on the basis of ID with openings is: Tame (25-P)E ang os Int 2SE gg 2(1-y)P When fame _(25-PIE, “ggg 2SE gg 1 -2P 6 ‘The ratio of drum thicknesses is shown in Fig. 11. Again, depending on both design Pressure and longitudinal ligament efficiency, the wall thickness as determined using ASME Code can be as much as 37.5% greater, when compared with TRD Code because Of Ejgg position in the formulae. 3:22124 - L I long +04 | | 11 | | eons 40%, TI dof tle ve PLL Serene | amen trd i 4 | 1.08 1.06 1.04 1.92 FIG. 10 Ratio of Wall Thickness t asme/ t trd for Headers with Openings based on Longitudinal Ligament Efficiency Assumptions: a) S asme=Strd= S b) C= 0,y = 0.4 for ASME Code Notes: a) E asme Long = E trd Long, ALWAYS b) Headers are sized by OD = + = S=10,000 psi (689 Nima) = + S=12500 psi (86.2 Nima) = = 15,000 pi (103.4 Na) ———__ 817500 psi (1207 Nz) 3-23138 136 138 132 13 128 128 124 12 12 tasmen ted | = 16 | ase 1 108 1.08 ta 102 FIG. 11 00 +1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 (137) @o6r) i (nrmm2} Ratio of Wall Thicknesses t asmett trd for Drums with Openings based on Longitudinal Ligament Eficiency. Assumptions: a) S asme = Strd=S b) C=0,y = 0.4 for ASME Code Notes: a) E asme Long = E trd Long = E Long, ALWAYS. b) Drums are sized by ID — = == 5+12500 psi (86.18 N/mm2) +++ + + = S#15,000 psi (103.43 Nimm2) 'S = 17,500 psi (120.62 Némm2) = = = $+ 20.000 psi (137.87 Nimm2) 3:242. Diagonal Ligament Efficiency ‘The ASME Code Formula for determining a diagonal ligament efficiency, see Fig 9, is (Section VIN. Div. 1, Fig. UG-53.5): £_, - PPP H0.25-(1 Em NOTED TE 66) an 0.375+0.5(p ip)? where: p’ - diagonal pitch between holes, P - longitudinal pitch between holes. ‘The diagonal ligament efficiency shall never exceed 100%, i.€., Esme diag 1, SO that when calculated Exsne dag > 1, the final Exe ging = 1. The ASME Code also provides the graphic interpretations of this Formula in Section I, Fig. PG-52.1 and Fig. PG-52.6 and also in Section VIM, Div. 1, Fig. UG-53.5 and Fig. UG-53.6, see Fig. 12. In the most common design, the staggered hole is located in the middle between two longitudinally arranged holes, i.e., when a projection of a diagonal pitch (p') on a longitudinal pitch (p) is equal one half of a longitudinal pitch and: @7) 8) where: ¥ - degrees of angle between longitudinal and diagonal pitches. 3-25Mh =) i= WM Ly a7 LLL, ra UY) AS Eyam diag =0:38< Fan =0.645; Ene tot Evape diag 20-38 Point B: Ene gag =0.49> Bye = 0.43; Ene. fot Egg 70-85 3:26Keeping in mind the Formula (31) for a longitudinal ligament efficiency (Eyoq¢), which should be substituted with both a longitudinal pitch (p) and a hole diameter (d) in the Formula (36), the ASME Code Formula for determining a diagonal ligament efficiency can be presented as: 0.25 995 05d [5 75, 0.25 Cos Cos Cos? @9) 0.375 -0.125 Cos*y The TRD Code provides the formula for a diagonal ligament efficiency as (TRD 301, 5.4.6): ie Fate Goto (40) with its graphic interpretaiton (TRD 301, Fg. 21 ) See Fig.13. This formula can be rewritten as: : 4 7 an tae 1 3Costy 3.27Tongrtuainal direction 02] Ligament elticiency o.3| 22 on =: S: m i: o 0.4. Most significant are the angle between pitches, particularly in a frequent design area of angles, and the ratio of d/p'. In the selected highest ratio of d/p’= 0.6, vessel wall thickness determined by the ASME Code can be 30% greater than per the TRD Code. ‘As demonstrated by the upper curve in Fig. 15 the impact of allowable stress as low as S = 10,000 psi (68.9 N/mn*) (vs. S = 17,500 psi) is negligible when the peak ratio is about 134% (vs. 130%) both at the highest selected ratio of d/p’ = 0.6. Of course, when d/p’ > 0.6, i.e., the ligament between the holes is less than 40%, Aisparity is greater than shown in Fig. 15. Fig. 16 shows the drums sized by ID and based on the diagonal ligament efficiencies, when Syne = Sy = S, With the ratio Of tyme/tyg at the highest allowable stress of 'S = 20,000 psi (137.3 N/mm?) per the ASME Code. Although the trend is similar for drums and headers, the peak difference for drums can be as high as 42%. ‘The upper three curves show peaks at the lower allowable stress values of 17,500 psi (120.7 N/mm?), 15,000 psi (103.4 N/mm?) and 12,500 psi (86.2 N/mm?) and d/p’ = 0.6 with the appropriate peak differences rising to 45%, 50% and 58% accordingly. Thus, the wall thicknesses of both headers and drums based on the diagonal ligament efficiencies as determined by the ASME Code are significantly greater than for the TRD Code. This is due to different methods of determining Eyig and its location in the appropriate formulae, without a considaration of allowable stress value impact. 331t asmen trd | F000 pa 207 7M) P.='2000 pa (18.8 Ninr2] - : oipsitoinenmne)) | | | | ) Angle Between Longitudinal and Diagonal Pitches, Degrees FIG. 15 Ratio of Wall Thicknesses t asmert tr for Headers with Openings Based on Diagonal Ligament Eficiencies ‘Assumptions: a) S asme = S trd = S = 17,500 psi (120.66 Nmm2) b) C=0,y = 0.4 for ASME Code Note: Headers all sized by OD 3:32Lasmen trd 188 156 154 152 18 1.48 146 144 1.42 14 138 136 134 132 13 1.28 128 124 12 12 118 116 114 12 ut 1.08 1.06 104 1.02 ee oo ‘Angle Between Longitudinal and Diagonal Pitches, Degrees. FIG. 16 Ratio of Wall Thicknesses t asme/t trd for Drums with Openings Based on Diagonal Ligament Efficiencies Assumptions: a) S asme = S trd = S = 20,000 psi (137.3 Nimm2) b) C= 0, y= 0.4 for ASME Code er ———- ap =04 ——— ap =02 3:33(e) Comparison of Formulae for Dished Heads Without Efficiencies for Openings ‘The ASME Code Formula for ellipsoidal dish wall VII, UG-32): kness, see Fig 17, is (ASME Sect. PD, eae eee (43) te ae and for hemispherical dish, see Fig 18, is (ASME Sect. VIII, UG-32): t PR jie. onto OS aE ame O-2P 4) PD, 45) ‘emt 505 Fimes 02P) ‘The ratio of the thicknesses of the ellipsoidal to the hemispherical dishes per ASME Code is: 2S crmeE cane famtigs — SarmeE came 2 (46) which represents the ellipse bigger axis twice as great as the smaller axis. In other words, the ellipsoidal dish wall thickness should be calculated as a hemispherical dish with a double inside diameter of an attached cylindrical vessel. 334FIG. 17 _ Ellipsoidal Dish Head Arrangement Note: Ry/h=2 FIG. 18 Hemispherical Dish Head Arrangement Note: Ryh=1 3:35‘The TRD Code [4] provides a general formula applicable to any concave shape of the dish, including ellipsoidal and hemispherical. with pressure on the concave side, as ¢TRD 303, 5.1.1): = +. ~ (47) _ I: PIE, | ‘When considering an ellipsoidal head: R D, (48) For a hemispherical head: =0.5D, 9) Riameige Rammer Thus, the formula for a uniform relation of wall thicknesses as determined per the appropriate Code for both ellipsoidal and spherical dishes is: (50) oP | when assuming that Ejine = Eyy 3:36() Fig. 19 illustrates this ratio of wall thicknesses. ASME Code dish wall thickness can be up to 5% less than TRD Code thickness. depending on both design pressure and allowable stress value, when allowable stresses are the same for both Codes (see Section 4). An ASME Code Formula simplified for a relatively thin dish may explain the difference. A general analysis of dish thickness in relation to openings is not possible, because thickness is greatly influenced by a particular opening design and, all dish openings are reinforced Allowances for Wall Thickness Both the ASME and TRD Codes mandate tolerances and corrosion allowances. 1. Tolerances Per ASME Code Section 1, PG-27.4, Note 7, "If pipe is ordered by its nominal wall thickness, as is customary in trade practice, the manufacturing tolerance on wall thickness ‘must be taken into account. After the minimum pipe wall thickness (t) is determined by the formula, this minimum thickness shall be increased by an amount sufficient to provide the manufacturing tolerance allowed in the applicable pipe specification.” ‘The ASME Code, Section Il, SA-6/SA-6M, Table A.1 provides a very detailed “permissible variations in thickness for rectangular carbon, high strength low alloy and alloy steel plates,” 11.81 in (300mm) and under in thickness when ordered to thickness." ‘This is important, because boiler drums and other big diameter vessels are manufactured from flat rectangular plates. Table A.1 provides the permissible numerical variation of the plate thickness, both at a specified thickness and at a plate width. The drums and other 3:37g8 |e ~ ia 3 a . i . % 2 |i d88ce : |e 22255 2 & BSloy $ jek 88ge3 $2 lego, BS8se : [pgs 22222 ad |ikou 28883 83 gee eve 8 a A g388 ovo $205 5 a [feet its sit — ga | «eda - 3 § 5 § § 3 z i 3:38vessel cylindrical sections are typically made of 8 ft. (2438 mm) to 12 ft. (3657 mm) wide plates, with variations as follows: Variation for Plate Width Plate Thickness Percent _in__(mam) 8.0" 12.0" 787 20) 5 6 1,969 (50) 46 6 3.15 (80) 4.1 44 3.937 (100) 3.8 38 4.724 (120) and greater 3.0 3.0 ‘The TRD Code 300, 10.1.1 [5] specifies that "An addition C, shall be made to the calculated wall thickness*..."as an allowance for thickness under - tolerance which are allowable under the pertinent standards." ‘The standard DIN 17 175, Table 8 for seamless tubes provides "The permissible wall thickness deviations for orders based on the outside diameter” (d,) as follows (where t, is nominal wall thickness per DIN2448); $5.118in(130mn) 5.118in(130mm) .008, +e | +258 vise] tise 108 | +22.56 415% +1258 sox | tox | t9% | i256 “1238 125% 10% ‘At the same time the TRD 301, 10.1 stipulates that: "Deviating from clause 10.1.1 of ‘TRD 300, the allowance C, may be omitted in the case of heated cylindrical shells with 4d, < 1.75in (4.5mm) unless the axial load governs in the design of the cylindrical shells without a longitudinal weld, the consideration is necessary only of deviations which are allowable for length in excess of 2d, < 11.8in (300mm).” 3392. Corrosion Allowances ASME Code Section VII, Div. 1, UG-16(e) stipulates that “The dimensional symbols used in all design formulas throughout this division represent dimensions in the corroded condition.” This is followed by paragraph UG-25: (a) "The user ... shall specify corrosion allowances other than those required by the rules of this Division.” . (@) “Except as required in UCS-25" (for the vessels with a required minimum thickness of less than 1/4 in. (6,35 mm)) "no additional thickness need be provided when previous experience in like service has shown that corrosion does not occur or is of only a superficial narure.” ‘TRD Code 300 [5] designates corrosion and wear allowances as follows: 10.2.1. "For ferritic steels the wear allowance C, shall be 0.0394 in (Imm). It will not apply where the actual wall thickness > 1.18 in (30 mm). Furthermore, it will not apply where the walls are adequately protected." 10.2.2." Differing from paragraph 10.2.1 above, a higher allowance C, shall be agreed upon between the manufacturer and the user where more severe mechanical ‘wear or chemical attack must be anticipated. In such cases the magnitude of allowance C, shall be specified in the drawings.” 3-4010.2.3. "For austenitic steels and non-ferrous metals. the wear allowance C, shall be agreed upon between the manufacturer and the user. In these cases, the magnitude of allowance C; shall be specified in the drawing. Otherwise. C, = 0 shall be assumed to apply.” At the same time, TRD 300 stipulates that: 10.2. "Deviating from clause 10.2.1 of TRD 300 the allowance of C, = "0.0394 in” (1mm) shall not apply to seamless tubes, and to longitudinally or spirally welded tubes as well as for headers independent from the diameter.” 341Section 4 COMPARISON OF MATERIAL ALLOWABLE STRESS VALUE DETERMINATIONS 4.1 ASME Code: Section I, Paragraph A-150 and Table A-150 define the maximum allowable stress value of ‘wrought or cast product made of ferrous and non-ferrous material "at temperatures below the range where creep and stress rupture strength govern the selection of stresses" as the lowest of the following: “(1) 1/4 of the specified minimum tensile strength at room temperature,” i.e. as: on "(2) ‘1/4 of the tensile strength at temperatur: Same" 15;, 62) 4 “(3) 2/3 of the specified minimum yield strength at room temperature." i. 63) 41“(4) 2/3 of the specified minimum yield strength at temperature,” G4) sare Fam ‘When creep and stress rupture strength dominate, maximum allowable stress value is defined as the lowest of these: (S) 67% of “average stress to cause rupture at the end of 100,000 hours," i.e. as: (5) (6) 80% of "minimum stress to cause rupture at the end of 100,000 hours, BS passa (56) (7) 100% of “average stress to produce a creep rate of 0.01%/1000 hours,” i.e. to cause 1% creep at the end of 100,000 hours, i.e. as: For welded pipe or tube made of carbon steel, ferrous and non-ferrous materials, the maximum allowable stress value shall be 85% of each of the seven criteria above. In practice, the welded boiler tubing, piping and headers and the balance of power plant piping and manifolds for high pressure operation seldom used. Thus, for purposes of this report analysis is based on the seven criteria described above for wrought product. 4242 TRD Code ‘TRD 300 paragraphs 9.1 and 9.2 and Table 5 define the maximum allowable stress value for rolled and forged steels of ductile materials with elongation > 14% as the lowest of the following: (1) 12.4 of the minimum tensile strength at 68°F (20°C) (j.e. at room temperature), i.e. as: 1 ; (58) Set BGS (58) 2) 2/3 of the yield strength at temperature, Sa 9) 43(3) 100% of the minimum value for creep rupture strength at temperature for 200,000 hours (equal to 0.8 of the mean value for creep rupture strength at temperature for 200,000 hours), i.e, as Spa 1.OS,, (60) or Snq°0.85, * @1) ‘The TRD 300 paragraphs 9.1 and 9.2 and Table 6 define the maximum allowable stress value for cast steel as the lowest of these: (4) 13.2 of the minimum value for tensile strength at 68°F (20°C), i.e. as: Spas, @) (63)(6) 1/2 of the minimum value of yield strength at temperature, i.e. as: seb “ (7) 1/2 of the mean value of creep ruprure strength at temperature for 100,000 hours, i.e. as: @) Sot* 7 Scaom 4.3. Comparison of the Allowable Stress Value Determinations and their Effect on Sizing the Tubing, Piping, Headers, Drums, and Dished Heads Stress values comparison is made for the same material based on: ) the minimum tensile strength at room temperature, formulae (51) and (58): 1 ht rom See 1 24 St rom = 06 (6) Same = 0.6 Spy (a) 45bb) the yield strength at temperature, formulae (54) and (59): Same =10 @ Sm 2 5 3 Stee ey Same * Spa 7-2) ©) the minimum stress to cause rupture, formulae (56) and (60): Same. 9,3 Semin 100000 (8) Sot Sremin 200,000 ‘These minimum stresses are incomparable because the rupture time per ASME Code is 100,000 hours vs. TRD Code 200,000 hours. ‘The ASME Code's Section I, Table PG-23.1, and Section VIII, Div. 1, Table UCS-23 and Table UHA.-23, specify allowable stress values for various ferrous, high alloy and austenitic materials at different temperatures. ‘The TRD Code does not provide any allowable stress values at all. The designer must refer to the appropriate DIN Norms, which specify the yield stress at elevated temperatures for each material It is then the designer's responsibility to calculate the allowable stress value based on the TRD Code criteria. Its difficult to compare the Codes’ lowest stress values because of no fixed ratio of the yield strength to the tensile strength for the various materials. Analyzing the materials, it appears that at room temperature these ratios are as follows:for Carbon Steel for Low Alloy Steel S, for High Alloy Steel S, S, = (0.55 to 0.625) Sy, Assume S, = 0.6 S;: (0.4 t0 0.43) Sp, (0.50 0 0.53) Sy, Assume S, = 0.5 Sy: Assume S, = 0.4 Sr. ‘These ratios may vary at elevated temperatures. Using these assumed S,/Sy ratios, Table 1 shows Approximate Allowable Stress Determination at room temperature as required by both Codes. ‘Table 1. Approximate Allowable Stress Determination at Room Temperature Based on: ASME Code ‘TRD Code (1) Carbon Steel, S, = .6 Sy Tensile Strength /4 Sy = 0.25 Sp Sug = 12.4 Sy = 0.417 Sy Yield Strength = UBS, = 23x68, = 0.48; | Sq = 235, 2/3 x 0.68, Final allowable stress | Suge = 0.25 Sp, i.e. .4 Sp, Le. (lowest of the above) | based on 1/4 S, based on 2/3 S, Ratio Same = 0.625 Sieg Swat = 1-6 Sure 2) Low Alloy Steel, S, = .5 Sy ‘Tensile strength Syume = 1/4 Sp = 0.25 Sy Sy = 12.4 Sy = 0.417 Sy Yield Strength Stame = 2/3 S, = 2/3 x 0.5 Sp =0.338; 333 Sy Final allowable stress | Syune = 0.25 Spy i Sue = 0.333 Sy, ie. (lowest of the above) | based on 1/4 S based on 2/3 S, Ratio Same = 0.75 Sieg Swe = 1.33 Syme 3) High Alloy Steel, S, = .4 Sy Tensile Strength Same = 1/4 Sp = 0.25 Sy Sug = 102.4 Sy = 0.417 Sy Yield Strength Swame=2/3 Sy = 2/3 x 0.4 Sy =0.267Sy | Sy = 2/3 S, = 2/3x0.4 S; = 0.267 Sy Final allowable stress lowest of the above) Ratio Syume = 0.25 Spy i. based on 1/4 Sy Syme = 0.936 Sug a 47 Sys = 0.267 Sy, ie. based on 2/3 S, Sut = 1-07 Syne‘Thus, ASME Code allowable stress values are based on 25% of the tensile strength, while TRD Code allowable stress is based on 2/3 of the yield strength for the same material, excluding rupture strength Unfortunately it is not possible to compare the actual values for ASME Code allowable stresses based on the tensile strength with TRD Code allowable stresses based on the yield strength, at various temperatures, for ASME-designated materials. Neither the ASME Code nor the ASTM ‘Standards provide any yield strength values at elevated temperatures, except for a few materials in ASME Code Section I, Table PG-23.4, and the ASTM Standards A520-90 [9] ASME Code and the TRD Code wall thickness calculations can be analyzed only on a case by ccase basis for each particular material at particular temperature. Examples of selected materials widely used in the U.S. boiler and power plant industries, and their allowable stress values as Prescribed by ASME and TRD Codes, are shown in Table 2. ‘The comparison of pressure parts made of these materials, utilizing all_methods of determining allowable stress value and diagonal ligament efficiency, and various location of ligament efficiencies, both longitudinal and diagonal, is presented as follows: Fig. 20. For tubes made of carbon steel SA-210 Gr.C the ASME-determined wall thickness at 700°F (371°C) can be 93% higher at pressure of 250 psi (1.72 N/mm?) and down to 21% higher at pressure of 3000 psi (20.67 N/mm?), than that determined by the TRD Code. When allowable stress values are based on room temperature, theoretical wall thickness difference rises from 160% to 58% respectfully. 48oF 096 556 8 us sc (5-90) ov a een wish on ost zu ov =Ps avo 60 (con omy ua vs vm ost smwers | scevs od ow or o sso cov eu un oo oan mu su sa os ws or sowns | cievs eas fony mo om so8 we ow coo | ses » en en ow oh ex) ow ww | a4 out ret vet vse =Ps a ou vyoma | sisvs at a0 ou ons sowns | sorys ow o ou p09 aWSY #0 4.008 > ooo @ ow on a0 oq popunmuosssion | 992 re ver ree o ws sows | ots ag toa Od os) on we uo 10 (om «so huey | -danz wooy | dey woo 056 006 cow ou oo 005 cor | gyudon | XS | wtttg | womnonddy | nanny (cumin) 1sds4 ‘ormexodwwa 1 poweaora we sansadosa reoueusow °7 91aor pun Pl 88 1s Ag yo sounds aL (0 saion ow ae we wee se Paging can) cay en o's eur ou o Ms os) (cov (ov oo oa ua vet ost ost ost son seovs oo o uw ow cw (ow on) wo oan, est eve ox os os o sus ps Kony mo Oda aw an oo duozw | -auay woo | dues woo 006 008 coe 005 Goering | wits | ett a (p,1uo)) (,csui/) isdy ‘oanpesodmro,y, poreaayg we soruadosg jeorueysoW “7 919°,tasmen trd 00 3000 1500 2000 2500 3000 oP breasure, psi (ummay >” wen FIG. 20 ‘Theoretical Ratio of Wall Thicknesses t asme/t trd for Tubing ‘Assumptions: a) Carbon Steel SA-210 Gr. C b) Allowable Stresses Based on Room Temperature ) Sasme = 17,500 psi; $ trd = 26,700 psi a) Low Alloy Steel SA-213 Gr. T11 b) Allowable Stresses Based on Room Temperature ) S asme = 15,000 psi; S trd = 20,000 psi a) Carbon Stee! SA-210 Gr. C b) Allowable Stresses Based on 700 F c) S asme = 16,000 psi; S trd = 19,200 psi a) Low Alloy Steel SA-213 GrT11 b) Allowable Stresses Based on 900 F ¢) S asme = 13,600 psi; S trd = 14,000 psi 4Fig. 21 For tubes made of low alloy steel SA-213 Gr.T11 theoretical wall thickness within the same pressure range can be 8% to 60% higher at 90°F (482°C), and 37% to 114% higher at room temperature per ASME Code vs. TRD Code. ‘These differences can be lower when minimum wall thickness requirements are ‘met as described in the Section 3.1.2(a) and 3.1.3(a) of this report. For pipes made of carbon steel SA-106 Gr.C ASME-determined theoretical wall thickness is about 16% higher at 700°F (371°C) and 50% higher at room temperature than with the TRD Code. For pipes made of low alloy steel SA-335 Gr.P11 theoretical wall thicknesses are on average 3.5% higher at 900°F (482°C) and 31% higher at_room temperature, nearly independent of the design pressure for ASME Code vs. TRD Code. ‘These are actual wall thickness differences for large size pipes, particularly at high pressures, but can be compromised for small pipe diameters at low pressure. ‘The following comparison for headers and drums with openings incorporates differences in formulae, allowable stress values, and particularly methods of determining the diagonal ligament efficiencies as mandated by both ASME and TRD Codes. Fig. 22-a, For headers and drums with openings based on longitudinal ligament 22- and Fig. 23, efficiencies wall thickness differences depend on both the design pressure and the ligament efficiency. The higher the pressure and/or the lower the ligament efficiency, the greater the difference in thickness determined by the ‘ASME Code compared with the TRD Code. 412(asmen ted (6.59) G37) Pressure, psi (Nmm2) Fic. 21 Assumptions: 'a) Carbon Steel SA-106 Gr. C ‘Theoretical Ratio of Wall Thicknesses t asme/t trd for Piping b) Allowable Stresses Based on Room Temperature ©) S asme = 17,500 psi; S trd = 28,700 psi a) Low Alloy Steel SA-335 Gr. P11 ) Allowable Stresses Based on Room Temperature ©) S asme = 15,000 psi; S trd = 20,000 psi 2) Carbon Steel SA-106 Gr. C b) Allowable Stresses Based on 700 F ©) $ asme = 16,000 psi; S trd = 19,200 psi a) Low Alloy Steel SA-335 Gr. P11 b) Allowable Stresses Based on 900 F ©) S asme = 13,600 psi; S trd = 14,000 psi 413Fig. 22-8 Fig. 22- Fig. 23. Fig. 24a, 24-,0,4 Fig. 25-a,b For headers made of carbon steel SA-106 Gr.C the wall thickness per ASME Code is higher then per TRD Code by (for example): 27% at 3000 psi (20.67N/mm?) pressure, 70°F (371°C) and Eyjqp = 0.4, 59% at 3000 psi (20.67N/mm*) pressure. Room Temperature and Ey yy = 0.4. For headers made of low alloy steel SA-335 Gr.P11 the difference is higher by (for example): 21% at 3000 psi (20.67N/mm*) pressure, 900°F (482°C) and Ejay = 0.4, 49% at 3000 psi (20.67N/mm*) pressure, Room Temperature and Ey ogg = 0.4 For drums (and other vessels sized by ID) made of carbon steel SA-515 Gr.70 the wall thickness per ASME Code is higher than per TRD Code by (for example): 46% at 3000 psi (20.67N/mm?) pressure, 700°F (371°C) and Eup = 0.4, 94% at 3000 psi (20.67N/mm?) pressure, Room Temperature and Ejay = 0.4 For headers and drums with openings based on diagonal ligament efficiencies, as well as for longitudinal efficiencies, the wall thickness difference depends on both the design pressure and ligament efficiency. It is also a function of the angle between longitudinal and diagonal pitches due to the varios methods of determining diagonal ligament efficiency as required by both Codes. The greatest difference is at the most popular design angles of 40° and 55°, Of special interest is the difference in the ratio of the hole diameter to the diagonal pitch of d/p’ = 0.6, i.e., when the diagonal ligament between holes is 40% of diagonal pitch. It is the same as the longitudinal ligament for longitudinal efficiency Of Ejyqy = 0.4 previously described. 414478 7 ete Pa Elongr 10. 08) 06 04 102 = 185: 138 (asmen ted 125 12 us aaa +1500 2000 ure, psi (wmmaj'>76) (2087) FIG. 22-a Ratio of Wall Thicknesses t asmert trd for Headers with Openings Based on Longitudinal Ligament Eficiencies ‘Assumptions: a) Material, Carbon Steel SA-106 Gr. C b) y = 0.4 for ASME Code c) Allowable Stresses Based on 700 F d) S asme = 16,600 psi; S trd = 19,200 psi c) Allowable Stresses Based on Room Temperature 4) S asme = 17,500 psi; $ trd = 26,700 psi 4-15tasmen trd Bressure, psi (Nmm2)'*7®) FIG. 22-b Ratio of Wall Thicknesses t asmeit trd for Headers with Openings Based cn Longitudinal Ligament Efficiencies ‘Assumptions: a) Material, Low Alloy Steel SA-335 Gr 11 b) y = 0.4 for ASME Code ©) Allowable Stresses Based on 900 F 4) S asme = 13,600 psi; S trd = 14,000 psi ©) Allowable Stresses Based on Room Temperature 4) S asme = 15,000 psi; S trd = 20,000 psi195 19 185 18 175 t asmet trd 2500 FIG. 23 Ratio of Wall Thicknesses t asme/t trd for Drums Sized by ID with (Openings Based on Longitudinal Ligament Efficiencies ‘Assumptions: a) Material, Carbon Steel SA-515 Gr. 70 b) y = 0.4 fo ASME Code €) Allowable Stresses Based on 700 F 4) S asme = 16,00 psi; S trd = 19,200 psi €) Allowable Stresses Based on Room Temperature @) S asme = 17,500 psi; S trd = 26,700 psi 417(Example: d = 3in (76.2mm), p = Sin (127mm), p’ = Sin (127mm) then dip' = = = 0.6 and the diagonal ligament is p'-d = in (50.8mm) alo For the same matter d/p = 0.4 corresponds 10 Ejogg = 0.6, and dip’ = 0.2 corresponds 10 Ejogg = 0.8, etc. Wall thickness per ASME Code is greater than per TRD Code by as follows: Fig. 24a For headers made of carbon steel SA-106 Gr.C: 47.5% at 3000 psi (20.67N/mm*) pressure, 700°F (371°C), dip’ S2°angle; Fig. 24 For headers made of carbon steel SA-106 Gr.C as above: 87% at 3000 psi (20.67N/mm?) pressure, room temperature, d/p’ = 0.6 and 52° angle.; Fig. 24c For headers made of low alloy steel SA-335 Gr.P11: 35% at 3000 psi (20.67N/mm*) pressure, 900°F (482°C), d/p’ = angle; .6 and 52° Fig. 24d For headers made of low alloy steel SA-335 Gr.P11 as above: 66.5% at 3000 psi (20.67N/mm*) pressure, room temperature, d/p’ = 0.6 and 52° angle; 418134 132 tasmet tr 128 128 124 122 12 + LIN. 16 HTS 1 =J a + lee i 144 + | 1 o 10 2 3% 8 8 © m7 © ‘Angle Between Longitudinal and Diagonal Pitches, Degrees FIG. 24.8 Ratio of Wal Thicknesses t asmeMttrd for Headers wth Openings Based on Diagonal Upament Btciencies ‘Assumptions: a) Material Carbon Steel SA-108 Gr. C ») Design Temperature 700 F (371 C) =) S ame = 16,600 psi (1145 Nin); Str = 19.200 pai (132-4 Nima) ) y =0.4 for ASME Code dp =06 === =~ => dh 204 —— — — ap =02 41919 1 178 155 18 145, 14 10 Angle Between Longitudinal and Diagonal Pitches, Dei I i ii 238 ius LHe te ili i é dp’ = 02. dp’ =04— — dp 08 a ae 4-2014 psi 1000 i aa Lipsy 125 12 pn yausey 148 ry 105 10 Angle Between Longitudinal and Diagonal Pitches, Degrees. I 3 5 3 a | 4 At 2 68 3 = i He Bala 3 y ie Pips puesto Blass af wy a: FIG. 246 dp’ =02 dp =04 — — — dp =06 - =~ 4217 165. 16 155 1.38 13 125 12 70 10 Degrees ‘Angle Between Longitudinal and Diagonal Pitche: FIG. 24. Ratio of Wal Thicknesses t asmert trd for Headers wth Openings Based on Dagonal Ligament Eticiencies 20,000 psi 15,000 psi: Stra ») Alow able Stresses Based on Room Temperature 4) y=04 for ASME Code ©) Sasme ‘Assumptions: 2) Material Low Aloy Stee! SA-335 Gr. P11 dp =04 ay 422Fig. 25-4 Fig. 25- For drums made of carbon steel SA-515 Gr.70: 71.5% at 3000 psi (20.67N/mm?) pressure. 700°F (371°C), d/p' = 0.6 and 50° angle; For drums made of the same as above carbon steel SA-515 Gr.70: 128% at 3000 psi (20.67N/mm*) pressure, room temperature, d/p’ = 0.6 and 50° angle. ‘The following comparison for dished heads without openings incorporates the allowable stress values for both Codes for the same material. The dish head wall thickness as required by ASME Code is greater than per TRD Code by: 14% on the average for the head made of carbon steel SA-515 Gr.70 at 700°F @71°O), ‘52% on the average for the head made of carbon steel SA-515 Gr.70 at room temperature, 0% on the average for the head made of a material similar to low alloy steel ‘SA-335 Gr.P11 at 900°F (482°C), 32% on the average for the head made of material similar to low alloy steel SA-335 Gr.P11 at room temperature. Pressure impact on the dish wall thickness difference is negligible. 4.23! 2} | | 1 =H —— + a =e === li-3 =E== He = ip’ =02 Pal 12 ‘Angle Betw een Longitudinal and Diagonal Pitches, Degrees Bificencies FIG. 25-2 Ratio of Wall Ticinesses 1 asmelt tr for Drums Szed by ID Based on Diagonal Ligament ‘Assumptions: a) Materal Carbon Sie! SA-515 Gr. 70, 19200 psi ») Alow able Stresses Based on 700 F €) Sasme = 16,600 psi: Stra 8) y #04 for ASME Code dp #06 +--+ -- dp 204 42423 2a 16 80 Ly ‘Angle Between Longiudinal and Diagonal Pitches, Degrees FIG. 25-b Ratio of Wal Thicknesses t asmelt trd for Drums Sed by ID Based on Dagonal LUgament Efciencies ‘Stresses Based on Room Temperatize ) Sasme = 17,500 psi Ste = 26,700 psi ) y #04 for ASME Code ‘Assumptions: a) Material Carbon Stee! SA-515 Gr. 70 ) Atow dp’ =02———— dp -04— — 06-2... e dp 425FIG. 26 Ratio of Wall hicinesses t asmeft trd for Dished Heads Both Bipsoidal and ‘Hemspherical Without Operings ‘Assurptons: 2) Carbon Stee! SA-515 Gr. 70 ') Alow able Stresses Based Room Temperature ¢) Sasme = 15 500 pai: Strd = 26,700 psi 2) Low Alloy Stee! SA.335 P11 ) Alow able Stresses Based on Room Temperature ©) S asme = 15,000 psi, $trd = 20.000 psi 2) Carbon Stee! SA-515 Gr. 70 ) Allow able Stresses Based on 700 F ©) S.asme = 16,600 psi, Strd= 19,200 psi 2) Low Aloy Stee! S4-335 P11 ») Allowable Stresses Based on 700 F €) S.asme = 12,600 psi, Strd = 14,000 psi 426Section 5 MATERIAL COMPARISON ‘The following comparison of similar U.S. and German materials are courtesy of the Mannesmann Rohrenwerke (6], [7] and the ASTM Annual book [9]. Table 3. Comparison of Similar U.S. and German Materials USA. Germany ASTM DIN DIN Material Standard Grade Designation Standard No. Carbon Steels AS3 A St 37.0 1629 1.0254 ASB B St 44.0 1629 1.0256 Carbon Steels for High Temperature Service A-53, A-106 A St 35.8 17175 1.0305 [A279 aig A ‘A-106 B A210 Ad St 45.8 17175 1.0405 A369 FPB A-106, A-210 c 17 Mn4 i175 1.0481 A-161, A-209 Tl 16 Mo 5 vaTav- 1.5423 A335/A-369 PL/FPI WoI.201 Alloy Steels for High Temperature Service A213 TI2 A335 P12 13CrMo 44 17175 1.7335 A369 FPI2 SlTable 3 - Comparison of Similar Materials (Cont'd) ————— U.S.A. Germany ASTM DIN DIN Material Standard Grade Designation Standard No. Alloy Steels for High Temperature Service A-199, A-200 122 A-213 722 10CrMo 9 10 17175 1.7380 A-335/A-369 P22/FP22 A405 P24 14MoV63 17175 Las A-199, A-200 1S A213 15 12CrMo19 5 17176 1.7362 A-335/A-369. PS/FPS A-199, A-200 7 A213 7 X12CrMo7 - 1.7368 A-335/A-369 PU/FP7 A-199, A-200 pt A213 tp X12CrMo9 1 17176 1.7386 A-335/A-369 POFPO A213 TH X10CrMoVNb : 1.4903 A-335/A-369 PO1/FP91 91 Austenitic Steels for High Temperature Service A-213, A-376 | TP3O4N, TP304 | X3CrNiNI8 11 17459 1.4949 A271 TP304 X6CrNi18 11 Draft 1.4938 A-213, A-376 | TP316N, TP316 | X3CrNiMoN17 13 17459 1.4910 A271 TP316 X6CrNiMo!7 13, Draft 1.4919 Carbon Steel Plates for Boiler Drums A-SIS 55 P265GH EN10028-2* 1.0425 A-SIS 60 P295GH EN10028-2 1.0481 15 70 P35SGH EN10028-2 1.0473 NOTE: *EN - European Norms 52es e Gay woo w ined a ToROdNOD TRIN ow ow | Goo vue oo | ces oro | oro | os-ow | se-or | xemer | soon | wseas nia wo u aso | apo | coz | xem se | g10°90 vi | wusy 0 i aso | aro | eoraz’ 810-90" vay | wusv (eo co) of * : a or | seo} sto: | coez | umor | xem sz voy | vusy Sonus amid. 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[ELOY Jo uosyEdwO) “y 21481,As it shown in Table 4 of this report, the ASME Code carbon steels have slightly higher limits of carbon, phosphorus and sulfur than similar materials under DIN standards. Both ASME and DIN mns of Cr, Mo. Ni. and others for similar alloy and austenitic steels. allow the same contents and addit In the United States only materials listed in ASME Code Section J, Table PG-23.1 and Section VIII, Div. 1, Table UCS-23 for ferrous materials and Table UHA-23 for high alloy steels are permitted for use in pressure part manufacturing. The manufacturer must provide the material test reports for all pressure parts. In Germany, only materials approved by TUV (Verband der Technischen Uberwashungs - Vereine) - Organization of Technical Inspection Agencies - and listed in the appropriate DIN (Deutsches Institut fiir Normung) - German Institute of Standards - are permitted for the same purpose. (Currently, there is a trend in Germany to update the DIN standards to All - European standards, with a change of title to DIN EN and a new numerical system. See example in Table 3 for carbon steel plates for boiler drums), The manufacturer must provide the certificate of materials, including testing, inspection, ‘marking, witnessing, and certification by the TOV inspector. 5961 Section 6 COMPARISON OF CERTIFICATIONS, QUALIFICATIONS AND HEAT TREATMENT REQUIREMENTS: Certifications ‘The ASME Code, Section 1, PG-104 requires that "the Manufacturer of any complete boiler unit to be stamped with the Code symbol has the responsibility of assuring through proper Code certification that all work performed by him...complies with all requirements of the Code, including design, construction, materials and workmanship." To obtain the appropriate official stamp/stamps of the ASME, the manufacturer and assembler shall demonstrate his ability to perform the work and have a quality control system in accordance with the ASME Code. Authorization to use such stamps is valid for three (3) years with a following application for the certification renewal. “The society reserves the absolute right to cancel or refuse to renew such permission” (PG-105. 1). ‘The TRD Code UDC 621.18 § 14 [2] requires that "Upon an application of the manufacturer, the inspector... shall examine whether or not that a steam boiler plant or parts thereof are in compliance with requirements of these regulations.” “The competent authority (licensing authority) shall decide upon the type of approval of the steam boiler plant or part thereof..." “The licensing authority shall determine the symbols and the data to be used for the identification of the steam boiler plant or parts of." Per § 10 “For the erection and operation of steam boiler plant a license issued by the competent authority is required.” ‘The erector and/or operator shall submit an application with detailed description and data for the steam boiler plant and the intended mode of operation, Thus, the TRD Code, unlike the ASME Code, requires that a manufacturer and/or erector must apply and receive an appropriate permission from the authorities for each project. 6-16.2 6.2.1 (Qualifications Welding Qualifications a) ») Welding Procedure Qualifications The ASME Code, Section IX, QW-200 requires that “Each manufacturer and contractor shall prepare written Weld Procedure Specification” (WPS) to assure compliance with the Code requirements. Per paragraph QW-201, it is the ‘esponsibility of the manufacturer or contractor to “certify that he has qualified each WPS, performed the procedure qualification tests and documented it with the necessary Procedure Qualification Records (PQR).” Both WPS and PQR “shall be available, upon request. for review by the Authorized Inspector (A1).” ‘The TRD Code also requires the manufacturer and erector to prepare a written WPS, but unlike the ASME Code, it requires welding procedure tests to be witnessed and certified by a TUV inspector. Welder's Performance Qualifications ‘The ASME Code, Section IX requires that the manufacturer or contractor is responsible for performance qualification and certification of their welders and operators of manual and automatic welding machines through the series of practical welding tests and coupons examination. A record of the welder's qualification shall be accessible to the Authorized Inspector. ‘The TRD Code also requires welder and operator performance certification through practical tests and the coupon examination. Unlike the ASME Code, however, such ‘tests shall be witnessed and certified by the TUV inspector. Welder/operator ‘certification also includes a theoretical examination, which is not mandated by the ASME Code. 6263 ©) Forming and Bending Qualifications ‘The ASME Code does not require such qualifications. The TRD Code does require qualified procedures for cold and/or hot forming and bending. These qualifications shall be witnessed and certified by the TUV inspector. ‘Heat Treatment Requirements ‘The ASME Code, Section 1, paragraph PW-39.1, requires that all welded pressure parts of Power boilers shall have a postweld heat treatment. Table PW-39 prescribes, according to the material welding P-No and material group No (assigned to each material listed in Section VIII, Div. 1, Tables UCS-23 and UHA-23), the minimum holding temperature and the minimum. holding time, depending on the weld thickness... ‘The TRD Code also requires a postweld heat treatment of the boiler pressure parts. Each DIN No, which specifies a given material, prescribes the minimum holding time, depending ‘on the weld thickness. Unlike ASME Code, the TRD Code mandates both minimum and ‘maximum holding temperatures. 63MW 72 Section 7 COMPARISON OF INSPECTION METHODS Non-Destructive Examination (NDE) ‘The ASME Code, Section I, paragraph UW-11 requires radiography for the full length of all Pressure parts butt welds. Per UW-5S1, the manufacturer shall retain a complete set of radiographs and records until his data report has been signed by the inspector. It is the manufacturer's responsibility to certify personnel performing and evaluating this examination. Certification as recommended by the American Society for Nondestructive Testing (ASNT) shall be used as a guideline. ASME paragraph UW-5I also specifies detailed examination acceptance criteria, Per UW-11, Ultrasonic examination is not mandatory and may be used in lieu of "radiography for the final closure seam of pressure vessel if the construction of the vessel does not permit interpretable radiographs." ‘The TRD Code also requires all pressure vessel butt welds to be fully examined. Unlike the ASME Code, it requires both radiographic and ultrasonic examinations. TU inspector shall verify examination procedures and results. Personnel performing the examination shall be qualified and certified by the German NDE association (DGfeP), not by the manufacturer as per ASME Code. The appropriate DIN standard shall be used for the examination acceptance criteria. Hydrostatic Test ‘The ASME Code, Section 1, paragraph PG-99, requires hydrostatic tests of a completed boiler, using water at ambient temperature, but not less than 70°F (21°C), at the pressure of 1.5 times the maximum allowable working pressure. ‘The required test pressure shall never be exceeded by more than 6% ‘The TRD Code 503, paragraph 5, (8] rules that hydrostatic tests shall be performed using water of not higher than 122°F (50°C) at the following pressures: 71.3 times the design pressure for land and rivercraft boilers, 1.2 times the design pressure for the above boilers when made solely of seamless or welded drums, headers and tubes, 1.5 times the design pressure for marine boilers, 1.1 times the water inlet pressure corresponding to the design pressure for once- through boilers. ‘Thus, except for marine boilers, hydrostatic test pressure required by the ASME Code is ‘much higher than for the TRD Code. This could be explained by the need to limit the stress during hydrotest at the level below the material minimum yield strength to avoid residual deformation of pressure parts as a resuit of this test. Allowable stress value per the ASME Code is much lower than per TRD for the same material. Comparison of the material stress during the test with the appropriate yield strength is as follows: + Per the ASME Code Paame wrt = 1-5 Puprigns 18+» Spame teat = 1-5 Srame allowable For carbon steel S, = 0.6 Sy (See Table 1), Swame atowabie = 4Sq = 0.417 S, and Syane ton = 1.5 x 0.417 S, = 0.625 For low alloy steel S, = 0.5 S;, Same atowabie = % Sp = 0.5 S, and Syine tos = 1.5 x 0.5 Sy = 0.75 S,. For high alloy and austenitic steels S, = 0.4 Sy, Scame atowable = M4 Sp = 0.625 S, and Syne a = 1-5 x 0.625 S, = 0.94 S,. ‘The last case explains why the ASME Code requests that the test pressure never be exceeded by more than 6%. - Per the TRD Code the highest test pressure, except marine boilers is: Pret vet = 1-3 Passigns 0:5 Sut tnt = 1-3 Sy aiowabier Suet atowable = % Sy aNd Sieg eg = 1.3 x % S, = 0.867 S,. For marine boilers the test pressure is: Present = 1-5 Puesign alt Sieg eg = 1.5% % S, = 0S,, but 1273 in reality the allowable stress for marine boilers is typically lower than for land boilers: thus test stress will also be lower than yield strength. For the boilers made of seamless or welded drums, headers, and tubes: Pg = 1.2 Paesigns 1:6. Sy test = 1.2 Sy atows Suet stonabie = 2/3 Sy and Sy gg, = 1.2 X 213 S, Inspection ‘The ASME Code Section 1, paragraph PG-90 requires that each boiler and its pressure parts shall be inspected during construction and after completion to ensure compliance with Code requirements. The authorized inspector must be employed by a state or municipality of the U.S., or by an insurance company authorized to write boiler and pressure vessel insurance. Regarding frequency of boiler inspections, the ASME Section VI, paragraph C6.200 provides that "Most jurisdictions require that all power boilers should be given one or more internal and external inspections per year by an authorized inspector.” Also, “Similar inspections should be made by the person responsible for the boiler plant as a whole or by his duly authorized....plant inspector. Such inspection should be supplementary to those made by the authorized inspector and should not be considered as supplanting or superseding the mandatory inspections made by the authorized inspector.” ‘The purpose of these inspections is to ensure that the boiler and its parts meet jurisdictional requirements and are adequate for safe operation. The TRD Code UDC 621.18 [2] paragraph 15 requires that a steam boiler plant shall be put into operation only after being inspected by a TUV Inspector to verify that it has been erected in accordance with the license. Paragraph 16 requires periodic inspections of the boiler by a TUV inspector, and hydrostatic tests, to verify the compliance with the license. 73Intervals of periodic inspections are mandated by the TRD Code UDC-621.18 paragraph 17 as follows: exterior inspection - 1 year, interior inspection - 3 years, hydrostatic testing - 9 years. ‘Thus, inspection frequency of the boiler exterior is the same for both codes. However, the ASME Code is more stringent than the TRD Code for inspection frequency of the boiler interior. The ASME Code does not dictate the interval for the hydrostatic test. Typically hhydrotest is performed after a major boiler repair work, i.e.usually at less than 9 years interval. 14Section 8 COMPARISON OF STEAM BOILER COMMITTEES ‘The American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) is independent trom the government voluntary association with its chapters in every U.S. state and in Canada. The ASME (per Section I, Foreword) "set up the Boiler and Pressure Vessel Committee’ ith the sole purpose of formulating and establishing the standard rules of safety for the boiler and pressure vessel design, fabrication, construction and inspections and interpreting these rules when questions arise regarding their intent. ‘The Committee also takes into consideration the needs of manufacturers, users, and inspectors, and recognizes advancements in experience, design and materials. ‘The states and municipalities of the U.S. and provinces in Canada which adopt the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code as a whole or in part are “invited to appoint a representative to act on the Conference Committee to the Boiler and Pressure Vessel Committee.” ‘The TRD Code, UDC 621.18 [2] paragraph 30 dictates that the Federal Minister of Labor and Social Affairs appoints the members of the German Steam Boiler Committee (Deutscher Dampfkesselausschuf), to be composed of the expert members as representatives of the state governments (3), Federal Railways (1), technical inspecting agencies (4) with one (1) representative of the state-owned inspector, accident insurance agencies (1), material manufacturers (1), steam boiler plant manufacturers (3), steam boiler plant erectors (1), steam boiler plant users (1), marine steam boiler plant manufacturers (1), marine steam boiler plant users (1), scientific institutions (2), DIN- German Institute for Standardization (1), and trade unions (2). Other Federal Ministers and supreme state authorities for protective labor legislation have the right to delegate representatives to the committee's meetings. . The German Steam Boiler Committee advises the Federal Minister of Labour and Social Affairs on technical matters, proposes science and engineering regulations, and determines the regulations for steam boiler plant erection, operations, inspection, and the rules of engineering practice.91 Section 9 COMPARISON SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS Comparison Summary ‘This report compares requirements of the ASME Pressure Vessel Code with its German counterpart, the TRD Code, in determining pressure vessel wall thickness sizing, including opening ligament efficiencies and allowable stress value determination. It compares the range of materials authorized by both codes for use in boiler and power plant design and construction; certification, qualification of welding procedures and welder’s performance; and forming, bending, and heat treatment requirements. The report also discusses examination and inspection requirements, such as non-destructive examination, hydrostatic testing, and the frequency of periodic inspections. Governance of the U.S. and German Steam Boiler Committees is also included. ‘The report can be summarized as follows: © The TRD Code covers three groups of small boilers with low volume, or both low volume and low pressure. A fourth group includes boilers covered by the ASME Code. © Both Codes’ formulae for determination of tube wall thickness are essentially the same for the same conditions when allowable stress values of material are assumed equal, i.€., Syame = Syq = S- However,the ASME Code requires 0.5% of the outside tube diameter to be added to the theoretical wall thickness as determined per TRD Code, theme = ty + -005D. © For determination of minimum wall thickness for pipes and headers, made of pipes, without openings, sized by outside diameter and for drums without openings, sized by inside diameter, the ASME Code formula requires an inclusion of temperature ‘coefficient "y" which varies as 0.4, 0.5 and 0.7 depending on material and its temperature. o1Thus, assuming Sig. = Syq = S and when: ¥ = 0.4 ~ tage is slightly higher than t, by up to 2.5% depending on pressure and allowable stress value, ~ taame = teas independently on both pressure and allowable stress value, ~ tame iS lower than tyy by up to 20% depending on pressure and allowable stress value. It should be noted that this is applicable only to very high temperatures when allowable stress value is only 5% to 30% of the value of case when y = 0.4. Both Codes consider that a ligament efficiency for the openings in headers and drums requires increased vessel wall thickness to compensate for material weakness caused by the openings. The ligament efficiencies are applied differently according to the corresponding code formulae. Both Codes use the same formula to define longitudinal ligament efficiency as a function of a longitudinal pitch and hole diameter, i.¢., Exene og = Ewa tng = Eng: Applying longitudinal ligament efficiency to headers and drums with openings, and assuming that allowable stresses Sune = Sig = S. the wall thickness per ASME Code, ‘yamer 1S much higher than per TRD Code, ty, depending on Eya,, value, allowable stress and pressure. For example: ~ For headers when E,yqg = 0.4, S = 17,500psi (120.7 N/mm?) and P = 3000 psi (20.67 Nimm?), tyme i8 greater than tyg by 14.5% rising to 23% for the same conditions except that S = 10,000 psi (68.9 N/mm”). + For drums when Ejoog = 0.4, S = 20,000psi (137.9 N/mm?) and P = 3000psi (20.67 N/mm?) tyme is greater than t,,g by 19.5% rising to 37.5% for the same conditions except that S = 12,500psi (86.18 N/mm*). 92© For determination of a diagonal ligament efficiency the Codes employ significantly different formulae. Eysme gag iS mostly lower than Eyg gay depending on the angle (¥) between longitudinal and diagonal pitch, and the ratio of hole diameter to diagonal pitch (dip ), with peaks between 30° and 55° angles. For example, when d/p’ = 0.1 and peak angle ¥ = 30°, Esse dag is about 97% Of Ey gigg- This goes down t0 67.5% of Ey dig When dp = 0.8 and peak angle is 55°. This difference implies that wall thickness tq. Would be greater than ty. © Applying the diagonal ligament efficiency to headers and drums with openings and again assuming that Sane = Syqg = S, the wall thickness tyne is greater than tg depending on the angle W and the ratio dip’. For example: ~ For headers, when d/p = 0.6 (which is equivalent in a ligament dimension between holes to that ligament of a longitudinal efficiency Of Ejagg = 0.4 as in examples above), ¥ = 55° and S = 17,500psi (120.7 N/mm), the wall thickness tums is greater than ty by 23.5% to 30.5% in the pressure range from 0 to 3000psi (20.67 N/mum?). This difference depends litle on allowable stress value, as under the conditions above, except that S is reduced from 17,500psi (120.7 N/mm?) to 10,000psi (69.0 N/mm”) both at 3000psi (20.67 N/mm?) pressure causing the difference to rise from 30.5% to 34.5% ~ For drums, when d/p = 0.6, peak angle ¥ = 50° and $ = 20,000psi (138 N/mm?), the wall thickness tung is greater than tyy by 23.5% to 41.5% at 0 to 3000psi (20.67 N/mm?) pressure range. This difference depends more on the allowable stress value than in the case above for headers. At the same conditions including 3000psi (20.67 N/mm?) pressure, but when S is reduced from 20,000psi (138 N/mm?) to 12,500psi (86.2 N/mm?) the wall thickness difference rises from 41.5% to 58% 93The ASME Code defines material allowable stress value as 25% of its tensile strength, 5.0. 88 Same = Me Sp. ‘The TRD Code defines the same as % of material yield strength, i.e.. a8 Sy = % S,. Both code definitions are valid unless prevailed by a creep/rupture strength, particularly at high temperatures. Thus, for the same material at the same conditions the allowable stress as determined per ASME Code, Syne. is typically lower than per TRD Code, Swear implying that this would further increase the disparity between wall thicknesS thane and tra Examples incorporating all previously presented findings are as follows: ~ The tube theoretical wall thickness could vary in range of pressures from 250psi (1.7 N/mm?) to 3000psi (20.69 N/mm?) as: for carbon steel $-210, Gr.C thane = (1.9 10 1.2) ty at 700°F and Tusme = (2.6 t0 1.6) tug at room temperature, accordingly; for low alloy steel SA-213, Gr. TH tyge = (1.6 to 1.1) at 900°F and uame = (2.1 t0 1.4) tg at room temperature. ~ Pipe relative wall thickness can vary independently of pressure as: for carbon steel SA-106, Gr. C thane 50 tha at Toom temperature; 1.16 ty at 700°F and for low alloy steel AS-335, Gr. P11 tyme = 1.04 tg at 900°F and tome = 1.32 tyy at room temperature. 9-4.~ For headers. based on longitudinal ligament efficiency Ejaqy = 1.0 t0 0.4 with a Pressure range of 0 to 3000psi (20.67 N/mm*), and made of: carbon steel SA-106, GrC taame = (1.15 t0 1.26) ty at 700°F and asme = (1.5 10 1.6) tyg at r0om temperature; low alloy steel AS-335, GrP11 tyme = (1-03 t0 1.20) ty at 90°F and taame = (1.33 t0 1.45) tyg at fOom temperature, ~ For drums, based on the same range of longitudinal ligament efficiency in the same pressure range as above for headers, and made of carbon steel AS-515, Gt70 taame = (1.15 t0 1.46) tg at 70°F and uame = (1.53 10 1.94) ty at Toom temperature. ~ For headers, based on diagonal ligament efficiency at the ratio of hole diameter to diagonal pitch d/p = 0.6, with peak angle between diagonal and longitudinal pitches of 55° and pressure range from 0 to 3000psi (20.67 N/mm?), and made of: carbon steel SA-106, Gr.C theme = (1.43 to 1.48) tyy at 700°C and tuame = (1.84 to 1.88) tyy at room temperature; low alloy steel SA-335 Gr.PI1 thage = (1.27 to 1.35) at 900°F and 1.65 to 1.67) tyy at room temperature. tasme = ~ For drums, based on diagonal ligament efficiency at the same conditions as above for header but with a peak angle of 50°, made of carbon steel SA-515 Gt.70 tame = (1.43 t0 1.72) tg at 70°F and usme = (1.89 to 2.28) tg at room temperature. For dished heads of ellipsoidal and hemispherical shapes, without openings, when it is assumed that Same = Sua = S. thane = (1.0 to .95) tag, depending on pressure and allowable stress ranges. But, for the same dished heads when actual allowable stresses are incorporated per appropriate codes, the wall thickness disparity rises for heads made of: carbon steel SA-515 Gr.70 tyyme = 1-14 tyeg average at 700°F and thame = 1.51 tyg average at room temperature; 95low alloy steel similar to SA-335 Gr.PI1 tyme = 1.01 tyy at 900°F and aame = 1.31 tog at toom temperature. In all dished head cases pressure impact is negligible. Comparison of materials permitted for use in pressure part fabrication by the ASME ‘Code and Germany's TUV - Organization of Technical Inspection Agencies - reveals similar chemical composition and mechanical properties for carbon, alloy and austenitic steels, However, the ASME Code requires slightly higher limits of carbon, phosphorus and sulfur contents for carbon steels. Per the ASME Code the boiler manufacturer is responsible for proper code certification to assure that all work complies with the code requirements. Per TRD Code a competent licensing authority shall determine the type of approval of the steam boiler after an examination by an authorized inspector to verify compliance with requirements. Both Codes require that each manufacturer and erector shall prepare written weld Procedure specifications for welding qualification. The ASME Code mandates that the ‘manufacturer/erector is responsible for performance of the Procedure qualification tests and certification, while the TRD requires the TUV inspector to witness the tests and Provide the certification. ‘The ASME rules that it is the responsibility of the manufacturer/erector to certify the welders performance qualification. The TRD Code states that such certification shall be performed by the TUV inspector. While ASME Code requires no forming and bending qualification, the TRD Code requires qualification procedures, which must be witnessed and certified by the TUV inspector. Although both Codes require a post-weld heat treatment of the boiler pressure parts, the ASME Code specifies only the minimum holding time, while the TRD Code specifies both minimum and maximum time. 9-6© Both Codes require the full length of all pressure parts butt welds to be examined by Non-Destructive methods. However, the ASME Code requires only radiographical ‘examination, with ultrasonic examination used in lieu of radiography for the final closure seam when interpretable radiographs are not achievable. The TRD Code requires both radiographic and ultrasonic examinations, © Both Codes require the Hydrostatic Tests of the completed boiler. The ASME Code sets test pressure as 1.5 times the maximum allowable working (i.e., design) pressure. The ‘TRD code limits it to 1.3 times the design pressure for land boilers in general, reducing it to 1.2 times for the land boilers made solely of seamless or welded drums, headers, and tubes, and to 1.1 times the water inlet pressure for once-through boilers. © The ASME Code requires that each boiler be inspected during and after construction completion by an Authorized Inspector employed by a state or municipality of the U.S. or by an insurance company. The TRD Code requires the same inspections to be performed by the TUV inspector. Both Codes require a periodic inspection for boiler exterior to be performed once a year. For boiler interior the ASME Code requires inspection once a year, while the TRD Code requires it once in 3 years. The ASME Code does not mandate the frequency of hydrostatic testing, while the TRD code requires it once in 9 years. © In both the U.S. and Germany, Boiler and Pressure Vessel Committees formulate and establish the governing standard rules of safety. In the U.S. the ASME, as an independent voluntary association, sets the Committee. In Germany the Federal Minister of Labor and Social Affairs appoints the members of the Committee, composed of experts, representatives of government, other agencies, trade unions, etc. Other Federal ‘Ministers and supreme state authorities for protective labor have the right to delegate representatives to the Committee's meetings. 979.2 It is worth noting that the previously published paper on the subject (10} describes the difference between the ASME and TRD Codes in sizing the pressure vessel wall thickness based solely on the various approaches in determining the material allowable stress value. But it fails to recognize the significant difference in determining and applying the opening ligament efficiencies for headers and drums which contributes as much, or more, as the allowable stress value difference, increasing the disparity between ASME and TRD wall thickness sizing Conciusions ‘© This report compares the ASME Pressure Vessel Code with its German counterpart, the ‘TRD Code. As demonstrated, the differences between these two Codes are significant, ‘making them incompatible. © The ASME pressure Vessel Code is more conservative than the TRD Code, particularly in determining the material allowable stress value, opening ligament efficiencies, and their application, © In practice, boiler and power plant pressure parts designed using the ASME Code are ‘much heavier than those using the TRD Code under the same working conditions and using similar fabrication materials. Wall thickness per the ASME Code is greater than per the TRD Code by: = 10% to 20% for pipes, - 20% to 40% for headers, = 40% to 60% for drums. © The modern utility power plant boiler overall pressure parts weigh several thousand tons. Drum weight alone is 300 to 400 tons. Thus, the difference in weight can be from hundreds of tons to over a thousand tons. 9-8‘The ASME Code's more stringent approach in determining pressure parts wall thicknesses contributes to a significant cost increase due not only to extra material weight, but also to additional labor cost, particularly welding, the cost of which increases not proportionally to the wall thickness, but rises exponentially. Power plant piping external to the boiler proper can rapidly escalate cost difference. ‘The heavier pressure parts also require heavier structural steel, hangers, and foundation to support the boiler and external piping. ‘The thicker vessel wall, resulting in lower mechanical stress, leads to significantly higher thermal stresses. This can cause wall creep cracking, particularly at wall ligaments, concer in pressure vessel design and operation. For utility power plants the use of heavier pressure parts have disadvantage of slower start-up and shut-down periods. The overall utility boiler and piping cost difference can add up to several million dollars per unit. ‘The net effect of the more stringent and conservative ASME Code is to put U.S. boiler and pressure part manufacturers, and architectural and engineering companies responsible for the design of the balance of power plant equipment, at a distinct disadvantage when competing in the European and Asian markets where adherence to the ASME Code is not mandatory or specified. Other European countries such as France, Belgium [11], Russia [12], etc., have adopted pressure vessel codes very similar to Germany's TRD Code. U.S. engineers must familiarize themselves with Germany's TRD Code and its effects to successfully compete in the international market.Section 10 REFERENCES 1989 ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code (with all post 1989 addenda) by the American Society of Mechanical Engineers. ato fKV) any istrative Regulation, April 1980 Edition, by Vulkan - Verlag. Di Te ules for i indrical er internal pressure. April 1979 Edition, by Vulkan - Verlag. TRD ign,_Technii ier ical shell heads under internal and external pressure. April 1980 Edition, by Vulkan - Verlag. ical Rules for St i L jer stren; April 1975 Edition, by Vulkan - Verlag. ‘Mannesmann Seamless Boiler Tube and Pipe. 1992 Edition, by Mannesmann Rahrenwerke igh - Temy Steels, At ligh - els and Ni-Fe-Cr Alloys. Data sheets. 1989 Edition, by Mannesmann Rohrenwerke. TRD 503._In i les for Steam Boil I rior to putting into operation - Final shop inspection and hydrostatic testing. October 1978 Edition, by Vulkan - Verlag. 1992 Annual Book of lards. ASTM 10-110, 12, ‘Comparison between the American and German Code for Power Boilers, presented at the Joint ASME/IEEE Power Generation Conference. Boston, MA - October 21-25. 1990. By H. Michael. FMTUV, Regional Office of the Factory Mutual System, Essen . Germany. Private Communication with Mr. Alfred Dethier, Manager of Engineering of Cockerill Mechanical Industries (CMI), Belgium, at General Electric Meeting, May 18, 1993 ‘Steam Boiler and Piping Operation, Official Issue, Publishing House “Technica,” Kiev - 1969 (Expluatatsiya Parovih Kotlov i Paroprovodov, Izdanie ofitsial'noe. Lzdatel'stvo "Tehnika,” Kiev - 1969). 10-2‘CONVERSION FACTORS FORCE we | x bet JL pow 1 sas 0.4596 1 News = 0228 A 0.1020 1 Koga = 22046 2.807 1 AREA 5 Pi a= cn a= 1 io = 1 osu os2 6.452 4526-4 Tat = 7 i 9.9084 22.0 9.29062 teem = | 158063 1016S 1 106-2 106-6 1 agen 0.55 L076E 100 1 0B | es ee 10.764 Lore Lobes PRESSURE, STRESS f Bina kahngem Negeam Pascal Bar Libigin = il ora 6.29563 6.295643 96895 Ligigem = 23 1 0.09807 8076+ 4 9807 Nigam = 145.08 10.9 1 1.08+6 10.00 Peed = 1.450R-4 Les 108-6 t 10B-S 1 ber = 1450 1.02 1000 10645 1 VOLUME con U.S. Gallon on Liter ton = 1 7.4806 2483262 28317 1U.S. Gallon = 0.13368 1 3.78563 3.785 tom - 35.15 264.20 1 1000 hee = 3.53162 0.2602 1.00063 L 10-3Dr. Abraham Sigal is Senior Principal Engineer with Sargent and Lundy Engineers of Chicago, Mlinois. He has over 30 years experience in all aspects of engineering, design, research, development, consulting, manufacturing, and construction in the field of fossil fuel power plants, steam boilers, fluidized bed combustors, heat recovery steam generators, cogeneration and combined cycle projects for utility and industrial size power plants. Half of his experience has been with the Russian power industry and half with the U.S. power industry. He holds a PhD degree in Mechanical Engineering (boiler technology) from St. Petersburg Polytechnic Institute, Russia. 10-5Export Control Restrictions ‘Access to and use of EPRI Intelectual Property is granted with the specific understanding and requirement that responsibilty for ensuring full ‘compliance with all applicable U.S. and foreign export laws and regulations is being undertaken by you and your compary. This includes an obligation to ensure that any individual recelving access hereunder who is ‘not @ USS. citizen oF permanent U.S. resident is permitted access under applicable U.S. and foreign ‘export laws and regulations. In the event you are ‘uncertain whether you or your company may lawfully ‘obtain access to this EPAI Intellectual Property, you acknowledge that it is your obligation to consult with Yyour company's legal counsel to determine whether this access is lawful, Although EPAI may make available on a case-by-case basis an informal assessment of the applicable U.S. export classfcation for spectic EPRI Intellectual Property, you and your ‘company acknowledge that this assessment is solely for informational purposes and not for reliance purposes. You and your company acknowledge that it 's sti the obligation of you and your company to make yur own assessment of the applicable U.S. export Classification and ensure compliance accordingly. You ‘and your company understand and acknowledge your ‘obligations to make a prompt report to EPRI and the appropriate authorities regarding any access to or use ‘of EPRI Intellectual Property hereunder that may be in Violation of applicable U.S. or foreign export laws of regulations, (© 2007 Elect Power Research Ineiute (EPA, Ine. A rights record. Electic Power Alesearch Insitute, EPRI, and TOGETHER... SHAPING THE FUTURE OF ELECTRICITY a janice “marke of the Elocine Power Research The Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI) The Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI), with ‘major locations in Palo Alto, California, and Charlotte, North Carolina, was established in 1973 as an independent, nonprofit center for public interest energy ‘and environmental research. EPA brings together ‘members, participants, the institute's scientists and engineers, and other leading experts to work collaboratively on solutions to the challenges of electic power. These solutions span nearly every area of electricity generation, delivery, and use, including health, safety, and environment. EPRI's members represent over 90% of the electricity generated in the United States. International participation represents nearly 15% of EPRIs total research, development, and demonstration program. Together...Shaping the Future of Electricity ELECTRIC POWER RESEARCH INSTITUTE £20 Hino Avene, Pale At, Calton DDH 159+ BO Box 0812, Pa Ao, Calon 9490-0813 + USA BuOSH5 774680 85.2121» ekapBepricom = wm op.oom

Comparison of Pressure Vessel Design and Inspection Requirements As Defined by ASME Code and Germany - S TRD Code

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Comparison of Pressure Vessel Design and Inspection Requirements As Defined by ASME Code and Germany - S TRD Code

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