Professional Documents
Culture Documents
State of The Art On Displacement Piles in Clay
State of The Art On Displacement Piles in Clay
net/publication/226792314
The Shaft Capacity of Displacement Piles in Clay: A State of the Art Review
CITATIONS READS
21 1,135
2 authors:
Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects:
Axial monotonic and cyclic loading of open and closed-ended piles and footings View project
All content following this page was uploaded by Kenneth Gavin on 03 June 2014.
STATE-OF-THE-ART REVIEW
Abstract The rapid expansion of the offshore wind friction fatigue and interface friction to be included
sector, coupled with increasing demand for high rise explicitly in design methods. Whilst analytical
structures, has placed renewed demand on the driven methods have been developed to investigate pile
piling market. In light of this industry growth, this response, these techniques cannot yet fully describe
paper reviews the evolution of design approaches for the complete stress–strain history experienced by
calculating the shaft capacity of displacement piles driven piles. The use of analytical methods in
installed in cohesive soils. The transition from examining features of pile behaviour, such as the
traditional total stress design towards effective stress development of pore pressure during installation and
methods is described. Complex stress–strain changes the effects of pile end geometry on pile capacity, is
occur during pile installation, equalisation and load discussed.
testing and as a consequence, the selection of
parameters for use in conventional earth-pressure Keywords Foundation Piling Clay
type effective stress approaches is not straight- Shear strength Field testing
forward. These problems have led to the development
of empirical correlations between shaft resistance List of Symbols
and in situ tests, such as the cone penetration tests. A Pile cross sectional area.
However, many of these approaches are limited API American Petroleum Institute
because they were developed for specific geological CEM Cavity expansion method
conditions. Significant insight into pile behaviour has COV Coefficient of variation
been obtained from recent model pile tests, which CPT Cone penetration test
included reliable measurements of radial effective D Pile diameter
stresses. These tests have allowed factors such as E Youngs’ modulus of pile material
Ftip Correction factor for open-ended piles in the
NGI approach
G Shear modulus
ICP Imperial college pile
IFR Incremental filling ratio
P. Doherty (&) K. Gavin Ir Rigidity index
School of Architecture, Landscape and Civil Engineering,
K Pile compressibility
University College Dublin (UCD), Belfield,
Dublin, Ireland Kf Lateral stress coefficient at failure
e-mail: paul.doherty@ucd.ie K0 Lateral stress coefficient at rest
123
Geotech Geol Eng
123
Geotech Geol Eng
0.7
0.6 Kerisel(1965) stress mobilised at any depth (z) reduced as the pile
0.5 penetration depth, or slenderness ratio (L/D) increased.
0.4
Heerema (1980) introduced the term friction fatigue to
0.3 Tomlinson(1957) API(1975)
0.2
describe this facet of behaviour which is not directly
Woodward et al.(1961) incorporated in either Eq. 1 or 2.
0.1
0.0 Kraft et al. (1981) and Randolph (1983) suggested
0 50 100 150 200
that progressive failure, which occurs in strain
Undrained Strength, s u (kPa)
softening soil, was a possible mechanism controlling
Fig. 1 Early alpha correlations developed from load test friction fatigue. The onset of progressive failure from
databases the peak (speak) to the residual (sres) shaft resistance is
123
Geotech Geol Eng
Lambda Coefficient,
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
0 Displacement Profile
10
τ
20
Pile Length, L (m)
30
40
τ
50
60
70 w
80
Pile tip at 2.5m bgl (Qrigid). The reduction factor incorporates parameters
10 (L/D=15) which describe the degree of softening, n and the pile
compressibility, K:
2
15 Pile tip at 3.5m bgl 1
Rf ¼ 1 ð1 nÞ 1 pffiffiffiffi ð4Þ
(L/D=21) 2 K
20
n ¼ sres speak ð5Þ
Pile tip at 4.5m bgl
(L/D=27)
pDL2 ðspeak Þ=ðEAÞpile
K¼ ð6Þ
25 Dwres
where A is the pile cross sectional area, E is the pile
young modulus and Dwres is the post-peak displace-
30
ment required to mobilise the residual shaft resis-
Fig. 3 Friction fatigue in London Clay (after Cooke et al. tance. speak and sres are the peak and residual shear
1979) stress respectively.
A reassessment of Vijayveriga and Focht’s data-
shown in Fig. 4. On the basis that strain-softening base by Drewry et al. (1977) led to an updated bi-
effects would be greatest on long compressible linear version of the alpha method which was adopted
piles, Randolph (1983) proposed a reduction factor in the 1975 version of the API-RP2A design guide-
(Rf = Qactual/Qrigid) which compares the mobilized lines in which a reduced from unity for soft clay to a
123
Geotech Geol Eng
This approach known as API (1975) is shown in 1.0 Semple & Rigden
Adhesion Factor, α
Fig. 1 to be similar to the original a methods Upper Bound for L/D<50
0.8
proposed by Tomlinson (1957) and others. This
API(1987)
new design method resulted in significantly longer 0.6
123
Geotech Geol Eng
Adhesion Factor,
authors presented new design lines shown in Fig. 6, 0.6
PI=15% Closed ended
which were comparable to the API (1993) approach
PI=12%
when the Plasticity Index (PI) exceeded 20%. How- 0.4
ever, for lower PI clay, the proposed alpha values
were offset below the API design line. PI<10%
0.2 Open ended
Karlsrud et al. (2005) described the further devel-
opment of this design method known as NGI-99:
0.0
For su =r0v0 \0:25 : a ¼ 0:32ðPI 10Þ0:3 ð11Þ 0.1 1 10
Undrained Strength Ratio, s u
0:3 v0
123
Geotech Geol Eng
Tomlinson (1957) · ·
0.8
k approach, Vijayvergiya and Focht (1972) 4 ·
0.6 API 1(1976–1986) · ·
0.4 API 2(1976–1986) · ·
Semple and Rigden (1984) 4 4
0.2
Randolph and Murphy (1985) · 4
0.0
API (1987–present) · 4
0 40 80 120
Plug Length Ratio, PLR (%) Kolk and van der Velde (1996) 4 4
NGI-99, Karlsrud et al. (2005) · 4
Fig. 8 Relationship between adhesion factor, a, and the plug
length ratio (PLR) (modified from Miller and Luttenegger
1997)
ultimate load developed by the piles in the database
piles developing much higher sav values. In contrast compiled by Semple and Rigden (1984) and the large
to the findings of Karlsrud and Haugen (1981), the diameter piles tests (LDPT) with the range of
degree of plugging experienced (quantified through capacities required for offshore piles (Schneider
PLR) strongly influenced the mobilised shaft resis- et al. 2007). In addition, extrapolation of some total
tance, with a increasing linearly as PLR reduced. stress methods to consider soils which are signifi-
This effect was much more significant for jacked in cantly different from the deposits used to calibrate the
place piles. design approach, such as the soft clay in the Gulf of
Mexico, or silty deposits (e.g. Lierstranda) result in
2.1 Summary of total stress approaches poor predictions of pile capacity.
123
Geotech Geol Eng
(kPa)
interface friction angle, d, is linked to r0v0 through an 's 'u 'vo = 0.4
100
s u vo = 1.0
Series2
empirical parameter b:
v0
200 s u vo > 1.0
Series3
sf ¼ r0rf tan d ð15Þ
300
sf ¼ Kf r0v0 tan d ð16Þ
400
b ¼ Kf tan d ð17Þ
500
Assuming that the radial stress coefficient at failure
equals the at rest radial stress coefficient, i.e. that 600
Kf = K0, and that d ¼ /0cv (the constant volume
700
friction angle), the b value for normally consolidated
soils is given as: 800
=0.2
b ¼ bNC ¼ ð1 sin /0cv Þ tan d ð18Þ 900
Interestingly, Burlands’ original method was formu- Fig. 10 Variation in b parameter for different strength ratios
lated from load tests on bored piles but has since (after Burland 1993)
received widespread use for designing driven piles.
For example, Pelletier and Doyle (1982) showed the 2
123
Geotech Geol Eng
end resistance, pore pressure and sleeve friction However, as the OCR decreases with depth a parallel
results in the collection of significant data regarding decrease in shaft friction can occur. On this basis the
stratigraphic changes and (3) The data, unlike limiting shaft friction can only be ignored by
alternatives such as SPT blowcounts, is not operator adopting a CPT based correlation that explicitly
dependent. These advantages have made CPT based considers the impact of stress history and the
design approaches very attractive to industry (Poulos corresponding change in shaft friction with depth.
et al. 2001). Another source of potential uncertainty associated
CPT methods have been developed which link sf with this application of the European method is the
to the friction sleeve measurement (fs), the pore choice of a site specific cone factor.
pressure (u) or the cone tip resistance (qc). One of the Tumay and Fakhroo (1981) compiled data from
earliest CPT design methods was the Schmertmann tests performed on piles installed in Louisiana Clay
and Nottingham approach. This method, which which they used to propose a correlation between sf
related shaft resistance directly to CPT sleeve fric- and fs which maintained the same general form as the
tion, was based on the work of Nottingham (1975) Schmertman and Nottingham method (Eq. 21). The
and Schmertmann (1978): reduction factor afs was given as:
sf ¼ afs fs ð21Þ afs ¼ 0:5 þ 9:5e0:09fs ð22Þ
afs is a reduction factor which is dependent on pile The limiting shaft resistance used in this approach is
shape, pile material, cone type and embedment ratio 60 kPa which reflects the relatively low strength of
and ranges from 0.2 to 1.25. The maximum shaft the material used to develop the correlation. This led
resistance is limited to 120 kPa. to the method providing conservative predictions of
Based on piling experience in the North Sea, De the capacity of piles installed in over-consolidated
Ruiter and Beringen (1979) proposed a design clay at Tilbrook Grange (Clarke et al. 1993).
approach known as the European method, which The LCPC method was developed from a com-
followed the traditional total stress framework, relat- prehensive database of 197 full scale load tests,
ing the shaft shear stress to the undrained strength which were conducted at 48 sites (Bustamante and
through an adhesion factor, a (sf = a su). However, Gianeselli 1982). Whilst a range of pile types were
in this instance the undrained shear strength was considered in the database, the tests were predomi-
determined using a cone factor, Nkt such that su = qc/ nantly performed on bored and driven piles. The pile
Nkt. The cone factor ranged from 15 to 20 depending diameters ranged from 110 to 1,500 mm and the
on local experience. Despite moves in traditional total lengths varied from 6 to 45 m. The ground conditions
stress approaches towards relatively complex rela- varied widely across the dataset and included clays,
tionships between a and soil strength and/or OCR, silts, sands, gravels and weathered rock. The LCPC
DeRuiter and Beringen assumed unique values of method relates the unit shaft friction mobilised on the
a = 1 for normally and a = 0.5 for over-consoli- pile to the cone tip resistance (qc) through a
dated soils, respectively. The European method normalising reduction factor, termed aCPT:
mirrors the Schmertmann and Nottingham approach
qc
by imposing an upper limit of 120 kPa on the shaft sf ¼ ð23Þ
aCPT
shear stress. It has been suggested that limiting the
shaft shear stress reflects an overall reduction in the The magnitude of the reduction factor is dependent
mobilised stress along the shaft with increasing on the material and pile type and varies from 30 to
penetration and is therefore an implicit method of 120 for driven piles in soft to stiff clay, respectively.
imposing a length effect on the calculated shaft The method adopts limiting shaft friction values of
resistance. Interestingly, neither of these methods 15 kPa for soft clays and 35 kPa for stiff clays.
incorporated an explicit length correction. Poulos Although these limiting values have been shown to be
et al. (2001) noted that the reason for high OCR too conservative at some test sites, in a comparison
values is due to high lateral stresses in the soil at of the predictive reliability of a number of design
shallow depths, which can give rise to corresponding methods, Briaud and Tucker (1988) found that
high shaft shear stresses near the ground surface. the LCPC method outperformed the other design
123
Geotech Geol Eng
methods considered. The methods relatively good 4.1 Summary of CPT Based Approaches
performance is probably a result of including a wide
range of soil types in the derivation of the empirical A brief summary of the CPT methods which are used
constants. in design practice was presented. Since the CPT test is
More recently, Almeida et al. (1996) proposed a in essence a miniature pile, correlations between cone
CPT based design approach that relied on more resistance and shaft resistance show great promise.
accurate piezocone measurements, which allow cor- However, a number of caveats should be considered
rection of the cone tip resistance for pore pressures before the empirical design approaches reviewed
acting on the cone shoulder (qT). A direct relation- above are used in design practice:
ship between sf and the net cone resistance
1. Many of the methods were developed and cali-
(qcnet = qT - rv0) was developed from a database
brated over 20 years ago. Modern electric cones
of 43 load tests at eight clay sites. The soil conditions
provide significantly more reliable cone profiles.
at the test sites ranged from soft normally consoli-
2. The methods tend to be derived for specific
dated clay at Lierstranda to stiff heavily over-
regions and their application to more widespread
consolidated clay at Tilbrook. The empirical aCPT
geological profiles needs to be carefully consid-
parameter relating the net cone resistance to the shaft
ered. Extension of these methods to conditions
stress is calculated from the normalised cone resis-
that are significantly different to those on which
tance (Q ¼ qcnet =r0v0 ):
they were calibrated is questionable.
qcnet 3. Many deal with friction fatigue effects indirectly
sf ¼ ð24Þ
aCPT through the inclusion of limiting maximum shaft
qcnet friction values. This tends to result in over-
aCPT ¼ 11:8 þ 14 log 0 ð25Þ conservatism.
rv0
4. The European method uses the cone data to
While no length effect was considered directly in the determine an undrained strength profile and is
design formula, Almeida et al. (1996) noted that the essentially a total stress method with many of the
database contained limited information for piles with problems inherent in such approaches.
high slenderness ratios and suggested using the 5. Many of the pile tests used in the databases did
reduction factor proposed by Semple and Rigden not measure local friction and pore pressure
(1984) for piles with L/D greater than 60. values, the absence of which preclude thorough
Eslami and Fellenius (1997) proposed a CPT understanding of the effective stress conditions
method, which used both the pore pressure measured controlling pile behaviour.
at the cone shoulder (u2) and the total cone end
resistance (qT), to estimate shaft resistance from the
effective cone resistance, qE.
5 Enhanced Understanding of Pile Behaviour
sf ¼ Cs qE ð26Þ from Instrumented Pile Tests
qE ¼ qT u2 ð27Þ
Randolph (2003) noted that any scientific approach to
The empirical parameter Cs was shown to vary from determining the shaft resistance of a displacement
0.08 to 0.25 for soft to stiff clay. The method pile should consider the complex stress–strain history
proposed by Eslami and Fellenius (1997) was based experienced, which includes; the initial in situ
on 104 case histories across a broad variety of site condition, pile installation, equalisation and loading
conditions from very stiff clay/mudstone at a Japa- (see Fig. 12). Given the dearth of such information in
nese site (Matsumoto et al. 1995) to very soft the database of field tests used to develop total stress
Norwegian clays (Almeida et al. 1996). The broad design approaches, a number of leading geotechnical
geological and geographical spread of this database research institutes including NGI (Karlsrud and
probably contributes to the good predictive perfor- Haugen 1985), Massachusetts Institute of Technology
mance across a range of site conditions (Cai et al. (Morrison 1984), Oxford University (Coop 1987) and
2009). Imperial College London independently initiated
123
Geotech Geol Eng
vo vi vc vf
ho ri rc rf
programmes of field testing using instrumented space. In addition, load cells allowed the distribution
piles. The research conducted at Imperial College, of residual load on the pile to be determined. Many of
employed the heavily instrumented Imperial College the load tests used in the derivation of empirical
Pile (ICP) which was installed in a wide range of clay design approaches ignored the presence of residual
types (see Table 2). The ICP contained total stress, loads, with the consequence that the inferred shear
porewater pressure and shear stress transducers at a stress distributions were most likely incorrect. Felle-
number of locations on the pile shaft identified by nius et al. (2004) clearly demonstrated the effect of
their distance from the pile tip (h) normalised by the ignoring residual load effects when considering the
pile diameter (D). The particular advantage of the load distribution measured on a closed-ended pile
ICP was that by simultaneously measuring radial driven into soft compressible clay.
stress (rr), porewater pressure (u) and local shear Lehane and Jardine (1994b) reported data from the
stress (sf), the development of shaft resistance during ICP installation into lightly over-consolidated marine
installation, equalisation and loading could be con- clay at Bothkennar (see Fig. 13). They demonstrated
sidered in a fundamental manner using stress paths that during jacked installation of the ICP, the end
measured in radial effective stress—shear stress bearing resistance (qb) mobilised during each jacking
stroke was approximately equal to the CPT qc end
resistance at that depth. The shape of the radial total
Table 2 Test Sites used by Imperial College
stress (rri) profiles mirrored the qb profile suggesting
Site Description Reference that rri was controlled by the soil state. Friction fatigue
Canons Stiff Eocene London Clay Bond and Jardine was evident with rri reducing as h/D increased from 4
Park (1991) to 14. Although the ICP contained an additional radial
Cowden Stiff glacial till Lehane and Jardine stress sensor at h/D = 25, the readings at this sensor
(1994a) level during pile installation at Bothkennar were
Bothkennar Low OCR shallow Lehane and Jardine virtually indistinguishable from those at h/D = 14.
marine clay (1994b) The normalised radial total stresses developed at
Pentre Low OCR Glacio- Chow (1997) Bothkennar are compared to those mobilised in over-
Lacustrine silty clay
consolidated glacial till deposits at Cowden and
123
Geotech Geol Eng
qc 30
2
20 London Clay
qb 10
Depth(m)
3
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
4 Normalised Installation Total Stress, σri/qb
6 h/D=14
ri at h/D=4 stress set-up during installation occurred. This reduc-
tion was quantified using the relaxation coefficient
7
Kc/Hi:
0
Fig. 13 Installation total stress at Bothkennar (after Lehane Kc rrc uo
1992) ¼ ð29Þ
Hi rri u0
heavily over-consolidated London Clay in Fig. 14. The equalised radial effective stresses (r0rc ) mobilised
Whilst friction fatigue is evident at all sites (where rri/ on the ICP were seen to exhibit a similar dependence
qc values were seen to decrease as h/D increased), it is on OCR as seen for installation radial total stresses
clear that the effects are more pronounced for the (see Fig. 15), with the effective stress offset by an
heavily over-consolidated clays. By contrast, Chow amount which Lehane (1992) suggested was con-
(1997) found that the rri/qc profile developed during trolled by the clay sensitivity (St). The r0rc values
installation of the ICP into two sand deposits, a loose to could thus be described using a conventional earth
medium dense dune sand at Labenne, and dense sand at pressure approach with a correlation originally pro-
Dunkirk, was unique and did not depend on soil state. posed by Lehane (1992) being updated by Chow
Noting the lack of a unique direct correlation (1997):
between rri/qc and h/D for the three clay sites at r0rc ¼ Kc r0v0 ð30Þ
which the ICP was installed, Lehane (1992) observed
that the normalised radial total stress developed
during installation of the ICP (see Fig. 14) increased
in proportion to the over-consolidation ratio (OCR). 10 After Installation
Radial Stress Coefficients
( σri-u0)/ σ'v0 and σ'rc/ σ'v0
( σri -u 0 )/ σ'v0
He compiled a database of high quality instrumented
pile tests which included data from the ICP tests and
nine other sites (including tests performed by NGI,
1
MIT and Oxford). Based on this database Lehane After Consolidation
Increasing
σ'rc/ σ'v 0
proposed the following best fit expression to describe Sensitivity
A feature of all the ICP pile tests was that during pore Fig. 15 Radial stress relaxation as a function of soil sensitivity
pressure equalisation, relaxation of the radial total (after Randolph et al. 2003)
123
Geotech Geol Eng
Kc ¼ ½2:2 þ 0:016YSR 0:87 log10St YSR0:42 h=R0:2 and they noted an h/R effect which they attributed to
reconsolidation occurring during the 10 min time lag
ð31Þ
required for the trailing transducer to reach a given
The radial effective stress regime surrounding a depth. Randolph (2003) argued that pore pressure
displacement pile depends on the soil yield stress dissipation which occurred during installation of the
ratio, sensitivity and the geometric (h/R) term, which ICP was at least partly responsible for the reduction in
accounts for the effects of friction fatigue in reducing rri/qc with increasing h/D, noted in Fig. 14.
the radial effective stress. The yield stress ratio Measurements of the normalised excess porewater
(YSR), (which is the ratio of effective vertical yield pressure (Du/su) mobilised during the installation of
stress to the in situ vertical effective stress) was the LDPT piles into lightly over-consolidated silty
suggested as a more comprehensive measure of the clay at Pentre and in heavily over-consolidated clay
stress history by Jardine et al. (2005). All correlations at Tilbrook Grange are shown in Fig. 16a and b
produced by Chow (1997) replaced the OCR term respectively. Data from both sites include Du values
with YSR as shown in Eq. 31. measured by sensors on the pile shaft and by
Chow (1997) considered many possible mecha- piezometers embedded in the soil at radial distance
nisms which could contribute to friction fatigue (r) of 1 m and 2 m from the pile shaft. The
including (1) heave—with upward soil displacements measurements are plotted against normalised distance
resulting from pile installation causing a reduction in from the pile tip, with negative h/D values indicating
radial stress, (2) pile whip—in which lateral move- that the pile tip is above the piezometer level. The
ment of the pile head results in loss of contact following trends are noteworthy:
between the pile wall and the surrounding soil, (3)
1. At both sites the maximum Du/su was recorded as
stress concentration at the pile tip caused by the large
the pile tip passed at or close to the sensor
end bearing resistance generated during pile installa-
(within the region h/D = 0 to h/D = 3).
tion and (4) the effects of extreme cyclic loading.
2. The normalised increase in porewater pressure
Whilst mechanism (1) and (2) would affect the radial
Du/su was much greater (approximately double)
effective stress profile at relatively shallow pile
in the low YSR soil. This is compatible with high
penetrations, (3) and (4) are likely to be dominant
measurements of radial total stress mobilised
for typical pile geometries.
during pile installation at other low YSR soils
Coop and Wroth (1989) presented measurements of
such as Bothkennar and Belfast Sleech (Gavin
rr made during the installation of the Oxford University
et al. 2010), where despite radial effective stress
Instrumented Model Pile (IMP) in Over-Consolidated
(r0ri ) values approaching zero during installation,
Clay at Huntspill. The IMP had sensors at two locations
Fig. 16 Normalised Excess (a) Excess Pore Pressure Ratio, u/s u (b) Excess Pore Pressure Ratio, u/s u
Pore Pressures measured in -20 -20
the soil mass and on the pile
shaft at a Pentre and
Normalised Distance from Pile Base, h/D
10 10
Shaft
r=2m Measurments
20 20
Shaft
r=2m Measurments
30 30
123
Geotech Geol Eng
(σ'ri/q c)
reduction slowed considerably. This rapid reduc- 0.15
tion of Du/su as the highly stressed pile base
passes, suggests that the relatively high rates of
friction fatigue noted for rri values measured 0.1
during installation of the ICP, may have resulted
from unloading as the distance to the pile base
0.05
increased to 10 pile diameters.
4. For h/D values in excess of 10, the rate of
reduction of excess porewater pressures slowed 0
considerably, with the time for consolidation 0 5 10 15
being controlled by the pile diameter and No. of Load Cycles, N
permeability of the soil.
Fig. 17 Impact of shearing cycles on normalised effective
Bond (1989) compared the axial capacity of the stress
ICP when driven or jacked into the London Clay at
Canons Park. During driving, the pile was subjected In addition to the standard undrained load cycles Nund
to 4,500 rapid undrained load cycles (Nund). The experienced during ICP installation, she considered
standard installation procedure adopted for the ICP load cycles where partial dissipation of the excess
tests, wherein the pile was jacked in 200 mm jacking porewater pressure (termed Ndiss cycles) was allowed
strokes resulted in 20 installation load cycles at to occur in the highly laminated silty clay at Pentre.
Canons Park. Despite the extreme range of installa- Chow found that the r0rc values mobilised were
tion load cycles applied, the piles developed similar relatively unaffected by the number of undrained load
axial load capacities following equalisation. cycles. In contrast, the number of dissipation cycles
Lehane (1992) investigated the effect of the had a more significant effect, with r0rc reducing as
number of installation load cycles on the normalised Ndiss increased, as shown by Fig. 18.
radial effective stresses (r0ri =qc ) developed during Xu et al. (2006) reported radial total stress and
installation of the ICP, (see Fig. 17). At each test site, pore pressure measurements made during the fast
the 102 mm diameter closed ended pile was installed monotonic vibratory installation of 1.02 m diameter
using a 200 mm jacking stroke, which caused a steel tubes to depths of 12 and 13.5 m in soft clay.
minimum of two installation load cycles for the She noted a clear tendency for both rr and Du values
sensor nearest the pile tip (h/D = 4) and a maximum
of twelve load cycles at h/D = 25. The data suggests
that much higher normalised radial effective stresses
Fully Equalised Radial Stress
123
Geotech Geol Eng
to decrease as h/D increased. In this case friction 6 Analytical Methods for Assessing Pile
fatigue was evident in the absence of any shearing or Behaviour
dissipation load cycles which suggests that the
proximity of the pile base is an important feature of Analytical approaches which have been developed to
observed friction fatigue. predict pile behaviour include the Cavity Expansion
Gavin et al. (2010) presented the results of a series Method (CEM) and Strain Path Method (SPM). In the
of field experiments performed to study the effect of CEM method, pile installation is simulated by
installation method on the shaft resistance developed expanding a cylindrical cavity in a soil mass (with
by a pile installed in soft silty clay. A series of tests a volume equal to that of the pile). See Kirby and
were performed on piles which experienced different Esrig (1979) and Randolph et al. (1979). During
levels of cyclic loading during installation. The test undrained installation, the radial displacement dr, at a
results indicated that the radial total stress, pore water distance r from the centre of a closed-ended pile with
pressure and shear stress on the pile shaft during a radius R is given by:
installation, were strongly affected by the installation rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
r 2 r
procedure; all three were found to increase when dr
¼ 1þ ð32Þ
the jacking stoke length used during installation R R R
increased (or the number of cyclic load applications Because this one-dimensional approach ignores ver-
decreased). The dominant feature which caused large tical deformations, shearing around the pile tip, and
stress increases during installation were the relatively the influence of the ground surface, it does not
high pore pressures developed during the installation properly model the complex strain histories of
of the pile into soft clay. These excess porewater elements close to the shaft of displacement piles. It
pressures which set-up during installation, exhibited therefore provides poor estimates of shaft stress (Xu
friction fatigue which could be explained by partial et al. 2006). However, Lehane and Gill (2004) show
dissipation of excess porewater pressure which that it provides reasonable predictions of radial
occurred as points remote from the pile tip experi- displacement. The stresses developed during cavity
enced unloading as the distance from the pile tip expansion can be predicted using closed form solu-
increased. An interesting finding from these experi- tions (Butterfield and Bannerjee 1970; Randolph and
ments was that despite the significant effect of Wroth 1979) or through FEM solutions (Randolph
installation method on the installation resistance of et al. 1979; Whittle 1987). The excess pore pressure
the piles, the equalised radial effective stresses Du can be estimated from the shear modulus, G and
measured after the dissipation of excess porewater undrained strength (Gibson and Anderson 1961):
pressure were found to be insensitive to the instal-
Du G r
lation method and all piles mobilised similar shaft ¼ ln ð33Þ
su su R
resistance when load tested.
Doherty and Gavin (2010) reported tests where Although G is a strain dependent parameter, Ran-
open-ended and closed-ended piles were installed in dolph (2003) suggests that for lightly over-consoli-
soft clay. They found that the pile base resistance, dated clay, the maximum pore water pressure at the
radial total stress and pore pressure recorded at the pile-soil interface is in the range 4–6 su. This
pile shaft were significantly affected by the degree of expression has been shown to provide reasonable
plugging experienced during open-ended pile instal- predictions for Du values measured during instru-
lation. However, because increases in radial total mented pile tests in soft clay (McCabe 2002; Doherty
stress mirrored increases in porewater pressure, radial 2010).
effective stresses and therefore shaft resistance were The Strain Path Method (SPM) considers a two-
unaffected by the degree of plugging. The authors dimensional strain field caused by pile installation
noted that the relatively high pore pressures mobi- which is modelled as the flow of an ideal fluid around
lised during pile installation in the soft clay may have the tip (Baligh 1985, 1986). The resulting flow
constrained volume change in the interface shear streamlines are used to determine strain paths, with
zone during pile installation. stresses obtained by employing a suitable constitutive
123
Geotech Geol Eng
model. When compared with the CEM approach, the Strains for OE pile with radius, R
SPM method which is described in detail by Lehane Strains for CE pile with equivalent radius, Req
(1992) provides improved predictions of the soil
response in the region of the pile shaft. CL
Azzouz and Morrison (1988) compared measure- 5
123
Geotech Geol Eng
(a)Radial Movement, δr (mm) (b) Radial Movement, δr (mm) to explicitly consider the transition from fully coring
0 30 60 90 120 0 5 10 15 20 to fully plugged installation for open-ended piles.
0 0
Following consolidation, the equalized radial
2 2 effective stress can be estimated from the earth
pressure coefficient Kc:
4 4
r0rc r0o YSR kl Dui
Depth(m)
6 6 Kc ¼ 0 ¼ 0 þ ln 1 þ ð38Þ
rv0 rv0 l YSR r0v0
8 8
Randolph (2003) suggested values of 1 and 5
10 Measured 10 respectively for the empirical parameters k and l in
CEM
12 SSPM 12 order to match radial effective stresses profiles on the
ICP reported by Chow (1997). Chen and Randolph
14 14
(2007) showed that this approach provided a slight
Fig. 20 Radial movements adjacent to an OE Pile Installation over-prediction of the external radial stress changes
at a depth of 9 m and a 2 radii and b 7 radii from the pile during suction caisson installation in centrifuge
(adapted from Xu et al. 2006) model tests. However, it predicted reasonable esti-
mates of the external shaft friction following com-
the radial effective stress acting on the pile shaft both plete equalization, although under-predicting the
immediately after installation and following complete result for the sensitive clay (Chen and Randolph
consolidation. 2007). The method was applied to predict the radial
total stress, porewater pressure and radial effective
1 su 1 1 þ 2K0 0
rri ¼ u0 þ þ 1 rv0 stress mobilized during installation of the NGI
St tan dr St 3
þ su lnðqIr Þ ð37Þ closed-ended test pile at Haga (see Fig. 21), where
it is seen to provide reasonable estimates of values
where the first component on the right hand side measured near the pile tip at a depth of 5 m.
represents the initial pore pressure, u0, the second However, at points remote from the pile tip, the
reflects the external radial effective stress, r0ri , the stresses are overestimated.
third accounts for shear induced excess pore pressure
and the fourth is the expansion induced excess pore
pressure. q is the area ratio of the pile, which for a 7 Discussion
fully coring pile is approximately 4t/D, whilst for a
fully plugged or closed-ended pile is one. The rigidity McClelland et al. (1969) noted that the evolution of
index, Ir, is the ratio of the shear modulus to the shear pile design was based on ‘‘judgement, intuition and
strength (i.e. G/su). This method is therefore the first fragments of experience’’. Forty years on and this
Fig. 21 CEM Predictions Installation Total Excess Pore Pressures, Equalised Effective
for the NGI instrumented Stress, ri (kPa) i (kPa) Stress, ' rc (kPa)
pile tests at Haga
0 200 400 600 0 200 400 600 0 100 200
0
2 Ir =500
3 9
Depth (m)
5
Ir =50
6
7
8 CEM Prediction
9 Measured
123
Geotech Geol Eng
observation could still be said to hold true. Advances conservative in heavily over-consolidated deposits.
in analytical approaches such as CEM and SSPM These observations suggest that the evolution of the
methods and semi-empirical design methods corre- API approach to include the effects of stress history
lated to extensive experimental programmes such as and friction fatigue were unsuccessful .
the IC-05 design approach are welcome steps towards Clausen and Aas (2001) produced an independent
more rational design methods. Many of the advances review of the IC-05 and API methods, and found that
were obtained through the use of instrumented model whilst the IC method provided a marginally more
piles which measured the radial effective stresses accurate mean prediction of the shaft resistance than
during the complete stress history of the pile. the API, the COV was much higher than those
However, Randolph (2003) demonstrated the gap reported by Jardine et al. (2005), see Table 3. They
between analytical predictions and experimental found that the IC-05 method over-estimated the
observation and uncertainty remains in a number of resistance developed in low plasticity clays with low
key areas including; (1) the reliability of existing OCR values. When these soils were excluded from
predictive methods, (2) the effect of friction fatigue, the database, the variability of both the API and IC
(3) the relative resistance of open and closed ended methods decreased substantially and both methods
piles and (4) the effect of loading rate on the were conservative (with Qc/Qm \ 1). Ridgway and
measured shaft resistance. Jardine (2007) identified a range of ‘problem’ clays
The API total stress design method remains the whose capacity was over-predicted using the IC-05
industry standard although the Imperial College (IC- method. These were predominantly low plasticity
05) approach is gaining significant traction with clay, which were characterised by low cone resis-
Overy and Sayer (2007) demonstrating its predictive tance and skin friction values measured using the
reliability. Jardine et al. (2005) compiled a database CPTu. The resistance of piles at these ‘problem’ sites
of load tests on piles in clay and compared the was also poorly predicted using the API approach,
predictive capability of IC-05 and API-93. The with the NGI method offering the only reasonable
results (see Table 3) revealed that the IC method predictions by explicitly considering the plasticity
was significantly more reliable than API with a mean index.
value of the predicted to measured resistance (Qc/Qm) Jardine and Chow (1996) recommend that the key
1.03 for IC-05 compared to 0.85 for the API. In input parameters required for the successful applica-
addition, lower scatter was observed around the IC- tion of the IC design approach are (1) site specific
05 predictions, demonstrated by the lower COV measurements of the interface friction angle d, (2)
(coefficient of variation = standard deviation/mean) information on the soil sensitivity and (3) a reliable
in Table 3. Significantly, several sources of bias were profile of OCR. The importance of accurate mea-
noted for the API approach, with the ratio Qc/Qm surement of d was highlighted by Saldivar and
increasing with pile slenderness (L/D) resulting in Jardine (2005) who report predictions of the shaft
capacity estimates being conservative for short piles resistance of piles installed in Mexico City clay,
and being unconservative for long piles. In addition, a which has a plasticity index (PI) of 160%. Ring shear
bias with respect to OCR was observed with the API tests on the clay revealed an unusually high d value of
method generally over-predicting the resistance of 36. Using existing empirical correlations between d
normally consolidated deposits and being over- and PI (Jardine et al. 2005) would result in a d value
Reference Jardine et al. (2005) Jardine et al. (2005) Clausen and Aas (2001) Clausen and Aas (2001)
Qc/Qm Shaft Shaft Total Total Total Total
Mean, l 1.03 0.99 1.03 1.1 0.81 0.93
COV 0.2 0.33 0.69 0.49 0.34 0.3
a
Ignores 8 pile tests in ‘problem’ soils
123
Geotech Geol Eng
of 8–12 for this high plasticity clay. The difference was very similar to that predicted using the API-
between the interface friction value inferred from the method.
empirical correlation and the actual values would 4. The IC method produced good overall predic-
result in underestimates of the pile resistance and tions of the total shaft resistance at both sites.
excessively long pile lengths would be required However, at Pentre, the shear stress profile was
(approximately 4 times longer). over-predicted near the pile tip and under-
The difficulty of using average Qc/Qm statistics to estimated along the remainder of the shaft.
assess the reliability of pile design methods is
Much of the uncertainty associated with the
illustrated in Fig. 22a and b, where the shear stress
methods set out above results from poor treatment
profiles measured on the LDPT piles installed in
of the distribution of shear stress on the pile shaft.
Pentre and Tilbrook respectively are compared to
Whilst significant research effort has identified the
design profiles predicted using IC-05, API-93, NGI-
critical role of volume change in the interface shear
99 and the LCPC method.
zone during cyclic shearing as a key mechanism
The following can be observed:
controlling friction fatigue in sand, uncertainties
1. The API method overestimated the shear stress remain as to how to quantify these effects in clay,
profile over the entire pile length at Pentre and where pile size, soil permeability, installation method
thus overestimated the overall shaft capacity, and soil state are likely to contribute to friction
whereas at Tillbrook Grange it provided an fatigue. As a result, approaches to deal with this
excellent prediction of the overall resistance, aspect of behaviour vary from the use of conservative
despite significantly over-predicting the shaft upper bound shaft resistance values to the use of a
resistance developed on the upper portion of geometric reduction factor.
the pile shaft and under-predicted the resistance Another feature where design methods differ is in
developed near the pile tip. the treatment of possible differences between the
2. The LCPC method accounts for friction fatigue shaft resistance mobilised by open and closed-ended
by introducing a limiting value of shaft friction piles. The API method assumes that there is no
which can be developed in a given deposit. This difference in shaft resistance for piles driven in clay,
limiting resistance is seen to grossly under- whilst assuming in sand, open-ended piles develop
estimate the shaft resistance at both sites. only 80% of the shaft resistance of a closed-ended
3. Whilst the NGI-99 method provided a very good pile. The LCPC approach accounts for pile end
prediction of the distribution of shear stress at condition by using higher reduction factors for low-
Pentre, the profile predicted at Tilbrook Grange displacement piles. The NGI method assumes no
Fig. 22 Comparison of the Local Shaft Stress, τf (kPa) Local Shaft Stress, τf (kPa)
measured and predicted
0 30 60 90 120 0 200 400 600
shaft shear stresses for
LDPT Pile tests at a Pentre (a) 0 (b)
0
Depth (m)
15
30
20
40 IC-05
LCPC 25
NGI-99
50
30
LCPC
NGI-99 IC-05
60 35
123
Geotech Geol Eng
123
Geotech Geol Eng
Burland JP (1973) Shaft friction of piles in clay—a simple design of driven pipe piles in sands. J Geotech Geoenvi-
fundamental approach. Ground Eng 6:30–42 ron Eng 135:1–13
Burland JP (1993) Closing address. In: Proceedings of recent Gavin K, Lehane B (2003) The shaft capacity of pipe piles in
large-scale fully instrumented pile tests in clay. Institute sand. Can Geotech J 40:36–45
of Civil Engineers, London, pp 590–595 Gavin K, Gallagher D, Doherty P, McCabe B (2010) Field
Bustamante M, Gianeselli L (1982) Pile bearing capacity investigation assessing the effect of installation method on
prediction by means of static penetrometer CPT. In: the shaft resistance of piles in clay. Can Geotech J
Proceedings of the 2nd European symposium on pene- 47(7):730–741
tration testing, Amsterdam, pp 493–500 Gibson RE, Anderson WF (1961) In situ measurements of soil
Butterfield R, Bannerjee PK (1970) The effect of pore water properties with a pressuremeter. Civil Eng Public Works
pressure on the ultimate bearing capacity of driven piles. In: Rev 56
Proceedings of the 2nd Southeast Asian conference on soil Heerema JP (1980) Predicting pile driveability: heather as an
mech. & foundation engineering, Singapore, pp 385–394 illustration of the ‘‘friction fatigue’’ theory. Ground Eng
Cai G, Songyu L, Liyun T, Guangyin D (2009) Assessment of 13:13–37
direct CPT and CPTU methods in predicting the ultimate Hobbs R (1993) The impact of axial pile load tests at Pentre
bearing capacity of single piles. Eng Geol 104:211–222 and Tilbrook on the design and certification of offshore
Chen W, Randolph MF (2007) External radial stress changes piles in clay. Large-scale pile tests in clay. Thomas Tel-
and axial capacity for suction caissons in soft clay. Geo- ford, London, pp 491–509
technique 57:499–511 Jaime A, Romo MP, Resendiz D (1990) Behaviour of friction
Chin C-T (1986) Open-ended pile penetration in saturated piles in Mexico City clay. J Geotech Geoenviron Eng
clays. PhD Thesis, Massachusetts Institute of Technology 116:915–931
Chow FC (1997) Investigations into the behaviour of dis- Jardine RJ (1985) Investigation of pile soil behaviour with
placement piles for offshore foundations. PhD Thesis, special reference to the foundations of offshore structures.
Imperial College London PhD Thesis, Imperial College London
Clarke J, Long MM, Hamilton J (1993) The axial tension test Jardine RJ, Chow FC (1996) New design methods for offshore
of an instrumented pile in overconsolidated clay at Til- piles. MTD Publication. Marine Technology Department,
brook Grange, large-scale pile tests in clay. Thomas London
Telford, London, pp 362–380 Jardine R, Chow F, Overy R, Standing J (2005) ICP design
Clausen CJF, Aas PM (2001) Capacity of driven piles in clays methods for driven piles in sands and clays. Imperial
and sands on the basis of pile load tests. In: Proceedings of College London, London
the 11th international offshore and polar engineering Karlsrud K, Haugen T (1981) Cyclic loading of piles and pile
conference, ISOPE, Stavanger, Norway anchors, field model tests at Haga. Norwegian Geotech-
Cooke RW, Price G, Tarr K (1979) Jacked piles in London nical Institute Research Report
Clay: a study of load transfer and settlement under Karlsrud K, Haugen T (1985) Axial capacity of steel model
working conditions. Geotechnique 29:113–147 piles in overconsolidated clay. In: Proceedings of the 11th
Coop MR (1987) The axial capacity of driven piles in clay. international conference on soil mechanics and foundation
PhD Thesis, Oxford University, UK engineering, San Francisco, pp 1401–1406
Coop MR, Wroth CP (1989) Field studies of an instrumented Karlsrud K, Hansen SB, Dyvik R, Kalsnes B (1993) NGI’s pile
model pile in clay. Geotechnique 39:679–696 tests at Tilbrook and Pentre—review of testing procedures
De Ruiter J, Beringen FL (1979) Pile foundations for large and results. Large-scale pile tests in clay. Thomas Telford,
North Sea structures. Mar Geotechnol 3:267–314 London, pp 549–583
Doherty P (2010) Factors affecting the capacity of open and Karlsrud K, Clausen CJF, Aas PM (2005) Bearing capacity of
closed-ended piles in clay. PhD Thesis, University Col- driven piles in clay, the NGI approach. In: Proceedings
lege Dublin of frontiers in offshore geotechnics: ISFOG, Perth,
Doherty P, Gavin G (2010, March) The shaft capacity of open- pp 775–782
ended piles in clay (submitted to the ASCE J Geotech Katzenbach R, Arslan U, Moorman C (2000) Piled raft foun-
Geoenviron Eng) dation projects in Germany. Design applications of raft
Drewry JM, Weidler JB, Hoang ST (1977) Predicting axial pile foundations. Thomas Telford, London, pp 323–392
capacities for offshore platforms. Petrol Eng 41–44 Kirby RC, Esrig MI (1979) Further development of a general
Eslami A, Fellenius BH (1997) Pile capacity by direct CPT and effective stress method for the prediction of axial capacity
CPTu methods applied to 102 case histories. Can Geotech for driven piles in clay. In: Proceedings of the conference
J 34:886–904 on recent developments in the design and construction of
Fellenius BH, Harris D, Anderson DG (2004) Static loading piles, London, pp 335–344
test on a 45 m long pipe pile in Sandpoint, Idaho. Can Kolk HJ, van der Velde E (1996) A reliable method to deter-
Geotech J 41(4):613–628 mine the friction capacity of piles driven into clays. In:
Flaate K, Selnes P (1977) Side friction of piles in clay. In: Pro- Proceedings of the 28th annual offshore technology con-
ceedings of 9th international conference on soil mechanics ference, Houston, pp 337–346
and foundation engineering, Tokyo, pp 517–522 Kraft LM, Focht JA, Amerasinghe SF (1981) Friction capacity
Foye KC, Abou-jaoude G, Prezzi M, Salgado R (2009) of piles driven into clay. J Geotech Eng Div 107:
Resistance factors for use in load and resistance factor 1521–1541
123
Geotech Geol Eng
Ladd CC, Foott R, Ishihara K, Schlosser F, Poulos HG (1977) Powell J, Lunne T, Frank R (2001) Semi empirical design
Stress-deformation and strength characteristics, state-of procedures for axial pile capacity in clays. In: Proceedings
the-art report. In: Proceedings of the international con- of the 15th international conference on soil mechanics and
ference on soil mechanics and foundation engineering, foundation engineering, Istanbul
Tokyo Randolph MF (1983) Design considerations for offshore piles.
Lehane BM (1992) Experimental Investigations of pile In: Proceedings of the conference on geotechnical practice
behaviour using instrumented field piles. PhD Thesis, in offshore engineering, Austin, pp 422–439
Imperial College London Randolph MF (2003) Science and empiricism in pile founda-
Lehane BM, Gill DR (2004) Displacement fields induced by tion design. Geotechnique 53:847–875
penetrometer installation in an artificial soil. Int J Phys Randolph MF, Murphy BS (1985) Shaft capacity of driven
Model Geotech 1:25–36 piles in clay. In: Proceedings of the 17th annual offshore
Lehane BM, Jardine RJ (1994a) Displacement pile behaviour technology conference, Houston, pp 371–378
in glacial clay. Can Geotech J 31:79–90 Randolph MF, Wroth CP (1979) An analytical solution for the
Lehane BM, Jardine RJ (1994b) Displacement pile behaviour consolidation around a driven pile. Int J Numer Anal
in a soft marine clay. Can Geotech J 31:181–191 Methods Geomech 3:217–229
Matsumoto T, Michi Y, Hirano T (1995) Performance of axi- Randolph MF, Carter JP, Wroth CP (1979) Driven piles in
ally loaded steel pipe piles driven in soft rock. J Geotech clay—the effects of installation and subsequent consoli-
Geoenviron Eng 121(4):305–315 dation. Geotechnique 29:361–393
McCabe B (2002) Experimental Investigations of driven pile Ridgway AE, Jardine RJ (2007) A re-evaluation of driven pile
group behaviour in Belfast soft clay. PhD Thesis, Trinity capacities for sites involving low plasticity, low OCR clays.
College Dublin In: Proceedings of the 6th international offshore site
McClelland B (1974) Design of deep penetration piles for investigation and geotechnics conference: confronting new
ocean structures. J Geotech Eng Div 100:709–747 challenges and sharing knowledge, London, pp 347–356
McClelland B, Focht JA, Emrich WJ (1969) Problems in Sagaseta C, Whittle AJ (2001) Prediction of ground move-
design and installation of offshore piles. J Soil Mech ments due to pile driving in clay. J Geotech Geoenviron
Found Div 95:1491–1514 Eng 127:55–66
Meyerhof GG (1976) Bearing capacity and settlement of pile Saldivar EE, Jardine RJ (2005) Application of an effective
foundations. J Geotech Eng Div 102:195–228 stress design method to concrete piles driven in Mexico
Miller GA, Lutenegger AJ (1997) Influence of pile plugging on City clay. Can Geotech J 42:1495–1508
skin friction in overconsolidated clay. J Geotech Geoen- Schmertmann J (1978) Guidelines for cone penetration test:
viron Eng 123:525–533 performance and design. US Dept. of Transp., Offices of
Morrison MJ (1984) In situ measurements on a model pile in Research and Development, Washingotn
clay. PhD Thesis, Massachusetts Institute of Technology Schneider JA, White DJ, Lehane BM (2007) Shaft friction of
Murff D (1980) Pile capacity in a softening soil. Int J Numer piles driven in siliceous, calcareous and micaceous sands.
Anal Methods Geomech 4:185–189 In: Proceedings of the 6th international offshore site
Nottingham LC (1975) Use of quasi-static friction cone pen- investigation and geotechnics conference: confronting new
etrometer data to estimate capacity of displacement piles. challenges and sharing knowledge, London, pp 367–382
Department of Civil Engineering, University of Florida, Semple RM, Rigden WJ (1984) Shaft capacity of driven pipe
Gainesville piles in clay. In: Proceedings of the symposium on analysis
Overy R (2007) The use of ICP design methods for the foun- and design of deep foundations, San Francisco, pp 59–79
dations of nine platforms installed in the UK north sea. In: Tomlinson MJ (1957) The adhesion of piles driven in clay
Proceedings of the 6th international offshore site investi- soils. In: Proceedings of the 4th international conference
gation and geotechnics conference: confronting new on soil mechanics and foundation engineering, London
challenges and sharing knowledge, London, pp 359–366 Tumay MT, Fakhroo M (1981) Pile capacity in soft clays using
Overy R, Sayer P (2007) The use of ICP design methods as a electric CPT data. In: Proceedings of a conference on cone
predictor of conductor drill-drive installation. In: Pro- penetration testing and experience, St. Louis, pp 434–455
ceedings of the 6th international offshore site investiga- Vijayvergiya VN, Focht JA (1972) A new way to predict the
tion and geotechnics conference: confronting new capacity of piles in clay. In: Proceedings of the 4th annual
challenges and sharing knowledge, London, pp 333–346 offshore techonology conference, Houston, pp 269–284
Peck RB (1958) A study of the comparative behaviour of Whittle AJ (1987) A constitutive model for overconsolidated
friction piles. Highway Research Board, Special Report clays with application to the cyclic loading of friction
No. 36 piles. PhD Thesis, Massachusetts Institute of Technology,
Pelletier JH, Doyle EH (1982) Tension capacity in silty clays— Cambridge
Beta pile tests. In: Proceedings of the 2nd international Woodward RJ, Lundgren R, Boitano JD (1961) Pile loading
conference on numerical methods in offshore piling, tests in stiff clays. In: Proceedings of the 6th international
Austin, pp 1–19 conference on soil mechanics and foundation engineering,
Poulos HG, Carter JP, Small JC (2001) Foundations and Paris, pp 177–184
retaining structures—research and practice. Proceedings Xu XT, Liu HL, Lehane BM (2006) Pipe pile installation
of the 15th international conference on soil mechanics and effects in soft clay. Proc Inst Civil Eng Geotech Eng
foundation engineering, Istanbul, pp 2527–2606 159:285–296
123