-

. '
 General MiRe Design Conside,,,,..·
1
"''tlOn.

--- - - - ------ - --- ----...,--.-----. _......,

Crosscur: Horizontal or nearly h orí·zonta 1 underground ---- -------

opening driven to intersect an ore body. . . . . . d frorn the
Dip: Angle at which an ore deposít is incline
horizontal. ved A _,_
-~----.~- -;...-- -. •

drawpoint is located beneath the stoping area, and gravity •

transfers the ore to the loading place. . 1

•

t1nderground
Drift: Horizontal or nearly horizontal
•
open1ng. . ••

branch together to the same delivery point. Used for trans-

•

ferring ore. .
Footwa11: Wall or rock under the ore deposit.
Grizzly: Arrangement that prevents oversized ro~k from -. '
entering an ore transfer system. A grizzly usually consists of a -
steel grating for coarse screening or scalping. .
Hangíng Wall: Wall or rock above an ore deposit. .
Level: System of horizontal underground workings Classic room-and-pillar mining
FIGURE 1.2
connected to the shaft. A level forms the basis for excavation of
the ore above or below.
Manway: Underground opening that is intended for . h
this e apter,
. th e goal of . this chapter
. .
isth tod surnrnarize briefly che
personnel access and communication. characteristics of the major 1111n1ng me o s.
Ore: Mineral deposit that can be worked at a profit under
existing econornic conditions. 1.3.2 Room,,and-Piflar Mining
Ore Pass: Vertical or inclined underground opening Roorn-and-pillar mining is desígned for flar-bedded depcs.i.:s of
through which ore is transferred. limited rhickness, such as copper shale, coal, salt and p }, ash,
Prospect: Mineral deposit for which the economic value limestone and doiomite. This method is used ro r_:-cl·'·er
has not yet been proven. resources 'in open sropes. The method le aves pillars to supoo.t r e
Raise: Underground opening driven upward from one level hanging wall; to recover the maximurn amount of ore, mr.ers
to a higher level orto the surface; a raise may be either vertical or
aim to leave the smallest possíble pillars. The roof rnust re.nem
inclined tcompare winze).
intact, and rock bo ts are often installed to reinforce rock strata
Ramp: Inclined underground opening that connects levels
Rooms and pillars are normally arranged in regular parterns.
or production areas; ramps are inclined to allow the passage of
motorized vehicles. Ramps usually are driven downward. Pillars can be designed with circular or square cross secrions or
Shaft: Vertical or inclined underground opening through shaped as elongated walls separating the rooms. Mineras
which a mine is worked. contained in pillars are nonrecoverable and therefore are not
Slot: Vertical or inclined ore section excavated to open up included in the ore reserves of the mine. Differing geological
for further stoping. conditions give rise to variarions in roorn-and-pillar mining.
Stope: Underground excavation made by removing ore Three typícal variations are described in the following text.
from surrounding rock. ~lassic r:oom-and-pilla:r minin.g (Figure 1.2) applíes ro fl_at
Strike: Main horizontal course or direction of a mineral d~pos1t~ having moderate-to-thick beds and to inclined depos1ts
deposit. with thícksr beds. Mining the ore body creates large open stopes
Sublevel: System of horizontal underground workings; w~ere trackless machines can travel on the flat floor. Ore bodies
normally, sublevels are used only within stoping areas where they with large vertical heights are rnined in horizontal slices starring
are required for ore production. at the top and benching down in steps.
Wall Rock: Wall in which an ore deposit is enclosed. Pos~ roo7:1-and-pillar mining (Figure 1.3) applies to inclined
Waste: Barren rock or rock of too low a grade to be rnined or: bodie~ wíth dip angles from 20º to 55 º. These mines have
lar e vertical · . . ,
econornically,
Winze: Vertical or inclined underground opening driven T e fill kee s , ,
downward from one level to another level or from the surface to w 1 e e nexr ore slice is mined.
a level (compare raise).
trae ess m1n1ng to O b Odi bber·
1.3 MINING METHODS ·tire d ve hiicles A spe re1 ,, ies where dip is too steep for irfut d
· ,, .
· era ang 1 e onentatio11 of haulage dri s an
1.3.1 lntroduction
a ows trae ess eq · k' g
Once an ore body has been probed and outlined and suffícíent . · d
M1n1ng a vanees d uiprnem to be used in drilling and mue in ·
~nfo1·111ation has been collected to warrant further analysis, the
importanr process of selecting the most appropriate method or -11 . . 1c oom-and-Pillar Mining. In classic room-an ·
ª
p1 ar m1n1ng only · · · d
n1et?o?s of mining can begin. At this stage, the selection is t ' mmunun, of development work is require
p1·el~1~ary, serving only as the basis for a project layout and
feasibility s~udy: L~te1· it may be found_ necessa1·y to revise details, 0
but ~e basic principles for ore extracnon should remain a pan of Iimitless. It is irnpossíble to include even the major variations in
the final layout,
.. With respect to the basic princíples employed, relatively few
rmrung methods are used today, Because of the uniqueness of
~ac~ ore de~o~it, var~ations ?n each of these methods are nearly
 1
production and mí roadways can be comb1ned ,,v¡th
underground Mining Methods and A 11
1

1
1
. . to ,,o 1 ,, l ,,i1t r lr1lng .
1 Jl(J
1llttllll1! (r1 1 il f ll!l rr" 1111111 1\f'=) 1
•
1

¡1il] .1 ,11 cl 1·1111 :111, l !11 1 1,,¡1i11g W1tl

IT l 11111 Í'1.ltllllll slt e 'l,lllitl fr 11 r~"

1111,.,v:1,rtl. l1ill 11, 111· 1 •tt 111 itl, · 111 ,t( p t, ,

l'vlí,, , __.tl (i l11 , l(•t1 1' 1(1111· lt)'t lr 1L1i1 ,1 y l) 1t kf1ll
t'l t · tlt'x l ,·lit,. Í,<; 111 i111 <I 11 11111 11111 w ,rk1r 1 r ,rr
l1ill ,11s l'C)1lti11 til' 111111,Ll'}:11 1 ev 1,11 1 y r. of ,¡¡
llt1__• !)O:,;\tl1
1 iility OÍ fl\<1<li!y1.r16 tlt · 11¡, 1, {!) 1
-' • ! )OSt ¡ )111,, 11 I TI ·1 tl1o<I 1 1> v,11i ,1, t1,c, n' 111 11, 11:
bournla ri 's. 13<>t 11 l).1 ,t·k11lil 111 <1 . ,, r1 <I 1111 rr
l)llit~' of tl1t· ¡)ill,11. ¡1 r111 itti11~~ ,1 l 1 •11 ·r rat
• does c(, rssi(· 1·t)o111 -,111( l-¡>ill,11 r11 i111ng •
Post pillar r111n ing l'CJr11IJi111. 1it, • ,1
~- ...... ........._ \
mining-ahat is. allo,vi11g work on llr l, r oo h ñoo
--.......... ! -~ spaciou s s topes olfcred by 1001 11· 111< l·¡>tll 1r 1in 1 ,. L-'
ruultiple produc tion points r,1 <1r 111 11 ,)11 · ·ff1 1 n
~

............. _
'- .......... ~- cqu1-pmenr.
Step Room-and-Piller i1 ·, g. St P r om p
FIGURE 1.3 Post room-and-pillar mining mining is a variation i11 wluch rbc f uotwall (1 n ír,c I
body is adapted [or efficient use o[ 11,1( k lt ··., c..¡u i pm nt
•

- - -- applícations cannot be f u lly gcner» l 1zc·cl t e¡ room

ih iluckn s fr m"
- - - ------ -- - ----- - -·-- ..- - - - --... -- - - mining applies to tabular doposirs wi · ,
,. ....
\-Vl11 h op n
--- - -- -
-~ ------ --- ....
a po a coordin
s ,1(.'r (J d p to
¡-.,...---·· . .,,¡¡,,,. ... ... - - - ::. - :...- - - - ..
- and dips ranging frorn 15 º to 30 . travcl d by tr· kl
po te el ir e on o
~
.. --.. - - ·-- -- - pon LJJ i,tcd ore e
The method Ieatu res a layou l i11cp roorn-a · st d píi ar mi in
¡
.,-
•
' -- ,- - - - :- -
ways CrOSS the dip of thc ore body mon drtf l r ra ersing t h or
By orienting stopes at certuin anglcD ri ft oo are . rnain ar
-
assurne an angle that is cornfortably cted 11 L1<. . ks.
·- - eles. Transpon rou tes cross i 11 t he o p on s i drifrs b anching i o
-- roadway access to stopes and to trans srope; ad ancedtl fo
- Tbe main development oir st breakthroug in o
• rep to e: ca ra
-
......, ..-
- Slope ip and a<l cent ro
fl1 ne.o OU\ includes a nerwork of parallel transp nLil h sooi pa
1
-
-- 1 body in predetermined d ircctions. 1 h Iln rar longared
The ne op
1 ...
..
- -.......J 1 with grades that allow che use of sele do\ n · r11d · T p b.
Stopes are excavated Irorn transp quc11ce ul r tra io t
a predetermioed step-room é1,11g1e. Tb is
l
>
in a mode similar to drifting unril l
parallel transport drive: The next s ) tt ise l11m rui
_3 , urnoe,s :i&eate drift or side sJash one step downd bo y ar j ~ l
saQt,ence ol
élltfaC-JOl'l
drive. This procedure is repeared u r mr
kil i
almost too wide to rernain stable. 0 -
om i
20 1

. - - .
"f\i ob le mechanized e l11p1111 lu11,L isbu1d't:<-1I
p 111 Jlr11 <>í
FtG\JRE 1.4 Step-room mi111ng of inc ined o,ebody ~11igl1 ly
inc ·1,ed ore bod:i,es. In r11e rootnh ,1r1<.l-¡;1}J¡_¡1 l ,·out, ~
.1:r~1l
Deposits Vl'ith large venical heighLs are m.ined i~slices. n
prod,uctioo art'atS cé:l!n 1..>e csli:1,Dtl 11 d. o 11n1u ita1i 111s
Míning stans ar che rop belo \' cJ1e r1anging , ·ali. Ar th1s scage, ~ 1.:: str,tigh,lfülí\\' rd and siTil1¡,le. ·r h . .,l' Ía('fL>r'> ~1.:t tt t 1g •
rock bolts are installed for roof conuol, ·ith Lhe back ar a conve- lo,1 1. high utiiiLatio,n of both men a11d macl11 es 111 a11 1i
nient heighr. Sections bero,,v are reco\'ered in one or more sreps ·1 1 t , r~
b;, benching. Srandard crawler rigs are used for drílling 1,'e:Lical TeCOV\.'.t"j1 S '.1'Ste11n. L

ti
~

boles and fo,r con,,enrional bench blast1ng. HorizonLal dnll1.ng d ~

and '·flar'' benching are molfe pracrical alternaci\1es bec_a~se r:be 11 ri
~ame drill jum,bo can be used for boch copheading and dr1lJtng ílat
l>ench hoJds.
·r11e biasred ore is loaded ait rhe muckpi1e wir.h dliesel-dri,en lit
fro,nt-end loaders. DíffeJ·enc r,anspon syscems are used, depending 1¡]1 111& i 11 u
on siope heigl1c and Lranspon discance. Wnere tl1e operung LS high >n 0! r8 Lt
e1)ougl1, Lhe cornmon d1Ump u-u<.:k pro .rides econom1cal rransporr r1
from stopes ro collectioo poiots. In tJ1i!ll ore bodies, spectally buiJL
fov., m·lilc trucks are a,·ailable írom rnar1ufacrurer<;. Sto¡Je~ '.~Ill,
\ef) licue headtooflíl ca11 b· cleaned uy load-liauJ-dump (LlfD)
machi1 es, and m,uck can be t{ansÍE:>rreJ 011ro tru<.'lí.5 p~rked 1r1
specia1 loading ba)S for 1ra11s¡)or1 ov I loog,er d1s1,111c1.:s.
parallel to tbe stopes is left as a pillar. 'l 1 •
che same :'ª~' and min_ing con,cinlles • · t ¡.
nurnbers 1n Figure 1.4 1ndicaiLe tl1e se 1

1.3.3 Vein Mining

In vein mines (Figures 1.5, 1.6, and 1.7 , i deposits
are highly variabile. Ai1 c,re l c , large, massive fcJr
r11a( ion se vcrc1l s,¡u<:1 te t to a O.S-m-1,,víd,e goanz
vein (0111· 11¡n
Miners aim to recover tl1e n1ineraJ':-. \
rock i 1 the hangi11g wal! ¡111ci tl1, f i t
depos,irs, a mac!,ir1e ope1ates irh1n t prob1ems.
Wh~n rhe 111,ineraliL d ltl
maci11nes may b, roo id r i ll i i(l
vale iock c,i1lj' to lJ r1n1t Ll1 • 111 tl
dilut ·.s the (Jf . ·111 alt , 11·1rí • t
higti-grfi(le C)re. 11,J • \ 1, l, , 1 .
r11c¡ u 1;~ :.i r • i 11 . 1 t 1c i 111 J e,, 1 I I l t
\:ork1,r1g 'A1i1l1 l1rocl l 1 . , ll 1
!(.i(létj', el L'l t:lltJ 1 1 1
al1I , , l 1J\Vi11g 1n 11 r
lL l 111 1 11,111 11 ( illd
\ !{ 1 t 1
l 1 1 ll
 J

re
r

•
an · 1.18 removes f re -
•

u ar . Ore is ri e an aste , an mue is a e ~

remove rom t e stope. en t e sto e as een mine '

.. • • j ,t

vor s are . ac 1 e wit rau ic san ta11ngs or waste roe ..

• •
in ore
1 o
strata avrng goo · -to-mo erate sta i · an . com arative
te
ence, cut-an
-
• •

•
rs pre erre ar ore o res
• avmg
• an irre
• ar S · a e an sea -
tere minera ization . Cut-an - · ows se ectrve . . .
m1nm , se a-
t e ea • g o o v- a e
•
roe e m• m stopes.
. .
m1nm . C u es
Hí
· .

mam• eve,

rams
• or ater
,
 General Mine Oesign Considerat\on,

Dot01I o t
<:ool mtn,nq
1N1Lh
an.uT1 sh~.Jr~r
and '1-0ll-ad,1"1lClnq
hydr;,ui,c •,OPJ>ort
,,

Longw i111
•• / f¡,ct,

A mp Oha1n
convoyar T 1an~ <lr<ll

D r I• suppor!od
by yleidable
stell l orchOS

Hydmtilic
~ ndfill

FIGURE 1.19

. dfill i ften used with cut-and-fill rnining. Ths

FIGURE 1.17 Mlning wlth cut and flll

via a network o pipes. l id th e¡ - ~

. . . d drainage tubes are a1 out on e , uc1.
barricading entnes, an ·r full height As a harder fil] '.-:
The sand fills the stope to a 1most 1 5 . · , ,.,
re uired o11 the surface, cement is add_ed in the last pour. '~.ri.:::~

forms a good base for mobile machines while mmmg rhe n e ·

slice of ore. .
Cut-and-fill mining is a versatile method and preferrea by
mines that require the capability of mining selected ore pockets
and adaptability to variations in the rock mass.

=------~-~--~ º·ª m ,--------: 1.3.9 LongwallMining

FIGURE 1.18 Face drflllng In cut-and-ñll stope
• A spiral rarnp in rhe footwall with access drive to the
undercut,
• A raise connecting lo Jevels above for ventilation and
filling material.
Modern cut-and-fíll mines drill the stope face with a jumbo.
The facc appears to be a wall across rhe stope with an open slot at
the borrom abovc rh Iill. The face is drilled with breasting holes,
charged, and blasted. ·1·11e slot underneath provides space into
which the blasted rock can expand,
The drill pattern ca11 be modifíed before each round to
follow variations i11 01·e boundaries. Sections witl1 low-grade ore a1·
lcft in ¡)lace 01· sepa1·ated wl1ile n1ucking ou.t. Mi11i11g ca11 be divci·tccl
f ro111 tl1e plnnncd stope bot111daries to recover ¡Jocl<ets of
111i1101·a.ls in tltc ho t rocl<.
A sn1ootl1 frll st1rf,1ce a11d coi:1trolled f1·ag1nentatíon are ideal
fo,r Lf-[Ds. T1·a111111i11g clista11ces i11side tl1e slope to tl1e 01·c pass are
('onve11icnt fo.1· Ll-lD cycles. 01·e 1Jasses tnacle fron1 steel seg111ents
wc !(!ed to fo1·111 a la1·ge tt1be ca.n be positionecl insicle Lhe slope,
b)1-¡)assi11g laye,·s of sanclfill. 'The 01·e pass cc1n also consist of a
1·aisL' L'Xcavatecl í11 rock close to the stope-ra111p access.
Longwall mining applies to thin-bedded deposits of uniform
thickness and large horizontal extent. Typical deposits are repte-
sented by coal seams, potash layers, or conglomerare reefs mined
by the South African gold mining companies. Longwall mining
applies to both hard and soft rock as the working area along the
mining face can be artificially supported where the hanging wall
tends to collapse,
The longwall mining method extracts ore along a straighr
front having a large longitudinal extension. The stoping arca
close to the faoe is kept open to províde space for personnel ~nd
rnining equipment. The hanging wall may be allowed to subside
at sorne distance behind the working face.
Development of longwall mines involves the excavation of a
network of haulage drifts for access to production areas and
transport of ore to shaft stations. As the mineralized zone extends
over a large area, haulage drifts are accornpanied with parallel
excavations to ventilare mine workings. Haulage drifts ar_e
usually arranged in regular patterns and excavated in the deposir
itself. The distance between two adjacent haulage drifts deter-
mines the lengtl1 of the longwall face.
Longwal] mining (Figure 1.19) is a cornmon method for
extracting coal, trona, and potash frorn seams of various thi~k-
ness. It can be mechanized almost to perfection. The soft material
<loes n~t requi1·e d1·illing and blasting, but can be cut loose
mecl:a111cally. Special 111achines shaped as cutting pl.,ows or
rotati~g d1·un1~ with cutters run back and forth along rhe faces,
each time cutt1ng a fresh slice of the seam. The coal or mineral
falls onto a chain conveyor that carries the mineral to rhe l1aulage
 [) . <lil º'
co 1 'n1ng
w 'tt d urn sne rer
and s 1 -a civc nc: in g
hydra 1l,ic L uppoft

--
'

Cha in Transpo dritt

conveyor

Belt
conveyor

roe coa seam

cut-an
 •
ine est

..... _
---- -- - ---- -
, _,... 1
_,_ ,.. -. :::,,.
.. ,.
'

'

'
·.•

e .,

•
••
•

V '
I

•
1
I
' 1I
''
I
1
f
f •

1 (
i •

I' .
•

t •.

•·.

.' . ••
[1

FIGURE 1.2

a ter; t e •
lS C r1e
aracteristics o
• • •
e rna or m1n1n
• oom-an • •
1n1n
oom-an
•
1m1te •
lC
ar minin esi•

• • • 1mestone,
f P~n11 • ess, at-
?"n ..... - lS
coa sa t atas '
suc as f"
er s ' _..., TÓ

- -
 "' • 1 • .. • • • • • • •
CH

•
nn111 the Under ine on the Basis o • •
uung ethod

3 .1 1 . TA010UCTf101
l l 1• ¡J11 i,;11 · e l1,1f,'I :r
'>nr, nrrzited on cic:finíng rhose a reas tl at Conveyor beh haulage, bur the decline will be
11111 1 11 ::1cl(lr1· 'r! fr1,r ,1.111 ;111d ;,IJ typc-, o( noncnal un.derground negoriated by rubber-tired trackless equipment on a
regular basís then lS~ó is che maximum grade
1111111 • íl11. l1,1¡Jt r ·1111 a(J lrr· 111()',c arcas of planning and recomrnended
el 1gr1 ¡i¡il1r ·1IJI • rr1 ¡J1·r 1fir 1r1111ínr, m .t hods.
- Conveyor bel haulage only, rhen rhe maximun1 grade
3.. 2 ROOM-A O~Pt LAR STOP G could theorericallv be 0.26 ro 0.44 radians (15º to
\·\1)1 •11 or«, ·,,,rl,·1, r
111,; r1l1111l>cr
'i'f ()·( Lln1cl,c·1·groun,d mines in 25"), dependíng on che type of marerinl co -eyed.
111111 ,[fJI) .'· ~lc,,Jr,11111 ', •.;1]11 1 r()if)ríl, J)()l,JSh, a nd gypsum, as w ·JI as Howcver, ene muse remember cha e equiprnenr \ rill be driver:
1 11111' M1,. 1. ,1¡ f)'I V,1Jl¡·y-1y¡)(' l(;,1(! ~,ncl zinc mines thcrc an. th ·n aiongside r he bek ro clean up spíll rock. Ir is this acrivíry thar rnay
1 .l11>11lcl 11,,1 li,· •,111 ¡)rÍsÍ1·1;: 1ci t(',1lizt: 1l1,1t ;,ppioX'irn,,tcly 60' o/n 10 lírni: thc dr-cíine grade unless manual s.ho\eJi11g is píanned foi clcan
lJ p.
/IJ '11 r,l, ll r1rit1r(1t1I 11,i<I ·,rxr<>l111cl .111i11ing ir, rh Unirr:cl tüt{;~ is
1 ,111111 wirl1 .{111 · fr)11 1 f>·Í 1r,01r11-,,111(i·p·ill,1r 1r1ini11g. Ac orclin~ 10 ít 3.2.2 o, entatron of 'Rooms and Piltars
l'J'!/1 .u r cv 1 >ll1 tll · :11i:rc>11~tl S1011«: Associ,11ti011 for 111·1·
92 undcr-
1
Pilla11r Orrientation 1; 'Jth Consíderario
of ln Sitti
11•¡·11·t, , , · 1 1ffL1~11 y alonc t'l,crc wcrc ;.1¡J¡Jrox.in1at1·ly
•tlJ 111fl 1 11r1t '·, t1II o{ wi1·(.·]1 are r·oor11-í111cl-¡>1l[,1r, At 1l1t J)ft',t,;('nt .5 res . '~ rn al! rnining me·c ods, the ptanner of u room-and-

tr 111. r 111·1 ~· are i>(·t L'c.·11 30 and 40 r11011c room-and-pillar pill11r npcr· ríon mus be a, a.re o[ probt1ble ~n situ scress íA..1itl1in
1111(1 1 ~·1<,,11 r1cl 1 ,1~grl·gitl · mines bcing p1lan11ccl. rh r<J>ck prior <J, í 1ng. ¡f ·naeed there is a significanr amo.u11 of
'l 1,i. 1>ci11i1J11 c,,í ihe c.·J1.:1ptc1 will only i ouch CJ1n sorne of 111( rn,-i 1rr1 rm horizo.1 al tf{'.SS ÍI1 a particular dJreccioo, thca1 rhe
111c, 1· i·~11ilr,l·;1.1)t ,L.1plCls oí ihc dcsig n of a room and-pillar min · niín · ¡Jl~nner séiouJd t.ake his inro account b~· orie,11ting roorn
,1cJt;(lnce .ind rhe direcrion of rectangular pi!Jars to gi\'e the n1ost
11,11tl wi!l 1( Ít"t, ro ll111c>!)C c
tl,1t 11,111·
1 11J,1r· it ¡>1J1l (,1tio11s ase ludies latcr in 1 his book 10 I)<.: rcad Ior
1 0
1

tlpport in ¡na d1rec íon. f ñt: · ery' earl} phase of de\•eloprr,ent,

1
in thc various comrnodn ies.
rt.: ·nrcl1 sl,ould be doí1e o ae c1··11ine rhe magnitud ,1nd <lirec-
. .l Acco s to Room-ancl-Plf'lar Ml.nes Lior1 of inhercn{ stress Je,.ets. '::,en one does nor k.110\v rhe dircc-
rit)n of horizontal stre , a· !e~-c ·n t,1e middle an,cJ eastern areas
1111· tli,{. LI. s1c;11 in Cl1¿t.pte1· 2 (2.4.2.2) ad,eqltatcly co~'ers the of Lhc Unired Srares, pi.lars sho Jd be aJ1gned ar righr angles \VÍth
.,Lil)j1·L·1 oí, i1l'rc.· ,1ncJ 11.o·w
1
to access a new min . Bur ro rtpcat rO\VS .ir , ' 79, E co besI cope ,, · h narural horizontal stresses in
:-e111t 1JI I l1t IJ'l ic.· c:onccpt.s fo.·r a room-and-pillar mine- th~ t.:arrh's crusl. \ nile rh.·~ s neces ªD' and is considcred good
• 11- ¡1 ¡ pos.si·t)lL' to d,evclop the resot1rce fra.°: a l1ilJ sidc 1 operatíng practice, man,' er:1 shailo . room·and-pillar opera-
,t(I i1, t t1 i · 1vill obviottsly be the l,east exper1s1ve method of cio11s ma~, ha,,e ·e0· lirrJe horizontal stress and need not be
("ll l 1 ,,.
'
concemed V\'Írh rhe direcrion and orienratiot1 of recca11guJar or
barrier plllars. This is panicular!~- true if the min,c has been
a Ir,\ sJ1¡1 rt [ SL,IDiK, Ll1Cl1-
opened from a l1illside \\'Íth adi'l5, , •hete nature cou!d have
- ·1·11L. IJI o lucuon hafr should be sunk somcwhere clase relieved h101rizonral rresses eons ago.
ro t'l1it.• ce, Lcr of gravity of rh ore body 1.-!o ,,e,·er, in sharp contras,t ro mis coodition, sorne deep
- ·1·11,l dcp.h should be sunk to where rnost of the
l1·ílll room-ancl-p,illar mines ha,,e rremeodous probiems, not only with
o, L' , 1j 11 t)t' hauled clown grade to reach the shaft high h1orizon·ral so·ess lc,•els, bu ith rock tha r will absorba large
1

dump pocl ·ClS a111ount of enerro,' befo~e i1t fails \'iolently. In such opcrations. noc
only is pillar oríencarion important, bue the seqt1ence of
- ·1~l1' shaf: de·pt 11 should be sunk clccp cr1o~gh to .
e, trncrion and ho · ir cak,es place is .important.. Such an operadon
,t ·L·o111n1oct.1tc aclcr¡t.1atc durnp pockcrs, skip loading,
• is weJJ documen,ed as a case scudy b)' Korzeniowski and
,111cl the cr usher stauon Stankiewicz, ''11odifications of Roo,m-and-Pillar Mining Method
_ f·,or :-ic ·t l 1ét .te. r ,·tso· n•·,,, the shaft should. be inf a¡ posí tion for Polish Copper Ore Deposírs," (Section 2, Chapter 9). .

,vl1,e1·L tlJL' l1c,1Llf.ran1c wi!J be out of s1gl1L o t 1e Room-and-Pillar Orientation with Considerat1on of
,·,il ¡1t1blic.
g('rl Dip. While mosr room-and-pillar mm1ng is done. in. fairly tlat
strara che mechod does not necessarily ha e to be l1m1red to flat
• 11· :1 tl,eL"lin is dri\1cr1 tl1íll will l)e t1sc<l for- horiz,~ns. With dips up to about So/o to 864, there is lictle differ-
- 1'rncklcss ht1L.tlage, Ll1.en the L11aximt1m grade ence in the layout of a r,oom-and-ptllar stope, except rhat ~e
1·ecoint1Je11clcd i.s 8o/o roorns shou1d be ]aid o·ut in such a manner that Joads are betng

Ur1i\ t'r"Sit,
1 o'l. t,.,1is.souri. Roll,1, MO.
I LJ11i1L·1,ir)' of LJ1r;_tl1, Sc1lt Lztkc City, LIT.

29
 . . n of rec tatlgtilar

pilla rs , it would pt·o~abl~ rnake scnse to o11en .

the pillar in the díp d1re~t10_11. . ..... · _ _ f n i·nlle l slices 111

steps following a leve ] contour of the dipptti? de down to

. · , · w1]l C3SC3

(Anon. 1966). However, t tf ~ . i

. . in · this case, ie p 1
11111111g,
wh ch
t,-f&I lng
then allowed the hang ng wall to cave as 111 111 8
11 1 1e stiatt 0(
í S o~ ..
strike. exam e ,
0 t
. . l

manufacturers have proposed bacl< mounted cog-whee ven

- , l-.
jurnbos that could dr ll stope round under the e cond1tion~. ~i
However, 01·e would theni have to be removed
s s
by a scraper. A his
· tt
angle ore would not fl.ow by gravíty and it would be oo eep fo
, , t st r
any other type of loading equipment.
3.2.3 Room-ano-Pillar Mine Haulage Development
Normally the production shaft is developed somewhere near he
centroid , of the ore body. The objective of production ~
development is to minimize the cost of hauling ore to the shaft. If
this is a trackless haulage operation, other considerations will
help minimize haulage costs.
FIGURE 3.1. va,tous methods of mo~·ng o e frorn
• Grades should be as low as possible, and long hauls stope to holsttng facility
under 8°/o.
• The road should be as straight as possible. This means
keeping pillar locations from causing the road to deviate combinations of LHDs, front-end loaders, &"IG/rJ::- _::_ -- .-::
around newly formed pillars. Therefore, all rnain haulage used to haul ore to the ore pass. Ar the ~fJ LGIB r.,f - - :: .:.:: :-:,1- -
roads should be laid out prior to mining, and pillars automatic truck-loading feeders can transfer ore -._,. _ =-..: :..._ . : :.:: ·_
should be laid out from this plan. mounted trains. If the upper ore body is ·'2-::.::. "'.: .. ";"- ~-
• Haul roads should be maintained in excellent condition automatic ore chute canno be justífied, arre. :;:-_~ c.:-: - , . ·-: ~
with adequate amounts of crushed stone, graded, and be deposited on the ground, ftom v.here a.. '=-tT., o:» :_ -==~-.-
kept dry. Water not only causes potholes, but lubricares loader can load the ore ínto another rruck. F- ~:, re 3 ~ _
rock to cut the tires. all the possibilities for moving materia! from a :-ce,.~-;-:-~~
faceto the final ore pocket ar the shafr.
For laying out the mine development plan, keep the rules
of thumb given in Chapter 2 (2.3.1) by Spearing in mind. These Th~ mine p1anner needs ro be av.are =::-G.· ·- : .- = -:::-
include keeping intersections off the main drift six widths apart, expa~din~ room-and-p,illar mine, rhe onrii t! - -=-- _ _: --
comb1nat1on - . . • • --
avoiding acute-angle tumouts that create sharp bullnose pillars,
and keeping nearly parallel ramps and declines apart from the ry cond1t1on and disrance th . . - : ,. r _ _;_ - - ~-

cost method. Ali o . ' ere 15 o ·' º: - .) .! . - - - -:- z.:

main drift by at least three times the diagonal widths of the f the above c-e1n and · e-~ \J
·c .
ha , ' " " .... e~- "':Z. r. _
.
us1ng . . . ... · ~· - - -

main drift. . computer stmulatíons ~~r:,.- - -- --...=

For planning the trackless, rubber-tired haulage system, one u oc 1975 1982· G. 19-0 - --
must consider the various methods of moving rock from the One other con . ' , ignac "-:,~. - --- -
working face to the crushing and/or hoisting facility. There are -
many ways to do this. In fact, with today's modern hydraulic
excav~tors and powerful rubber-tíred machines, equipment is s

how to be sure that the opnmum method is always used.

When a rooi:n-and-pillar mine first sta:ts out, either from the

unless material is being hauled up a decline to the surf

I
probably be the best way to go. · er will
1:s the mine is gradually worked out f rom the
~

rruck is required for any given tonnage produced th d n one

1
Evenruallv, as the distance mercases even more rh P point.

should be used that will keep the loader busy. trucks

When more than one level is involved within a m· ·
and rhe rnain haulage is on the bouom leve] h tning z_on~
, t e11 var1ous
 •

'S l J1
') a s
l to
o
srrn
I Ji r rt
11 ~( >
li · h
r > I l Í~ ~

t>
w • e
J::
"' (.)
pl«, jl)

Ir-w
V<' 11
) l l s.
l 11 Í S
i Ior

tJ()ll
't . l f.
Ni ll

S,

ate
· · 1on of LHDs, - o t-end oa ers, an
l. ore o
ore pass

..... for movin o,,, ,,

':)~o -." I e__ -
 • t,

f 11.I l11 \\lil'i 11 11111(' 11l1f•t1 11tll lt,iltJ 1¡•,11 WII' 111.1• 1111111 Jjllt•
1 11 lllil.\l 111 111\ll',¡11111111~', 1111' ilfllll 111•1' j lC 1·¡1 11¡ [l1tl ,llffJ+lll·lfÍ )111
•.!1.111•. 111 1111• l il1l l,1·,1il lli·l1 111 rv11 111111, 11v,•1 1111,11 l,111 ( t(ll) r11IJ1 ,J

1•11 1111,•111,111111111•11 r,111111,11[ 111111· 1111111¡•!11 11ll 1111· 1111111, ,1l,,11r1 111
111 i11 ·, ¡ 1111 l 1 1 '1 l 11 \¡ 1111 ', I ¡, 1 I I -, '1 1 11 l I I \' I l l1' I 1 1 , 1f f• V •1 y I t • 1W I r rr ¡ f 11 , t f 1'1 1
¡1,111.11 1111111•. 11',lti\•, 111ll l1..111l,l¡\,1'
tOl)fJ
••• 1 ll • 1 lll ' l
\ l,1·11 1111' 11111·,1111,1.11,1
1 11 ;. 111 111·1111,··, 11 111'11111 ,111,l ¡1IJli111 111i11i111\
1,\:11'111,1,
1•1111,,11 ·1 11'1\' 111•,I c·,111 l1t· 111•1•1•li,11tl'1,ttl 111 'IJJtl!' clt•¡\l!'l',
~I •t l11111 .,111\111 111111i1111 e'', i'l1c• i1111·1,lllll)l, l 1ll11·1 lr11t(' ;111,I 111;11·1•1
'1 l,l(!ill:'. 1111 Cl[ll'l,IIIIJII l',l;,ll'I, 1'11,• 111)•,11 ,·,111,1.1 IIY 1 !llltl>lllí'III ((JI
111.,1,11•11111111111,11111¡1111,1111111·1 IIÍtll\', i·: ll'il (Jll.11,,,ly •,i,11111 • l<J li·:1111
,lll 11\1\111,11,, l\ll\1 1\( 111'l1c1 11.1•, 11,¡11 l,IIC'<I .111y l11•;1vy ITlfl.('l1l11{'I y i11
1'\111,,llt11'l)tll\ l\'\11 I,, 1111' 111/li(,11 \1, (JI !'VI (1 (>11 ,1 ÍillJI} 111', Jf1lj,¡•
\\ll(ll1lt• ,i.1l.l [l ll11~: 1(1 l11,11li111 1 1 1, ,111-tl 11,lllilll)\ l'tilliJ}lll('IIJ Íll íl 1<1(JIII•
,111,l ¡itll 11 11111'1.1111111.
\·Vl11l1· 111111,1 11>(1111 .1111111111:11 111¡1,i11¡.1, :, (11111.1 liy (f1·1lli11g ;111(1
3.2 Pitan vtcw ot ,oom-and-piltar etope o
l1l,1,\1111~:. 11,11111·111.11 lv 111 1 t,1· ·')'.}'.111¡\r111• ,111cl 111 ·1,1l-111i11i11g
d llltn~ a combtn ton ot drill pa ern round w h one tr
11·11, 11\1 ,,~,1·.:, ;I 111'1 \1 [,11 ~·.t' l)lli l llill t}! 1<111·111 ,11\(/ j)Íll,11 ltlÍJIÍII).!, Í<, íll'i<J
abb lng o a11 op n ocond free face
1

11,11\1' 11, l\l1'l'li 1111\ :11 l'X.(',\\1,111()11, M.11,y IJIJl)il, j)(}l,1·:11, iltl(I 'i(Jilfl(!
: 11( 1.111111·1, 1•\1',1\1,111• ,111 111>1 11í1·1);:; l)y 1111·1·l1;111iL:tl r·xc·;1v(1lir1r1. 'J.11<·
1,·:1(l '1' 11: llt1111'll·1I 111 1l1¡· ('i1:.¡· ..,1,1Ll11•1, i11 1l1i.1, ¡J11IJlic·r11ic,11, whicb i.1111, (t,11'
illtl~1' l\1!lt•; cil l(llllll ,lll<l 1)11/ill' ITIÍlt!'.1, l1SÍJ1~ Cl1iJli11g and hl.i: 1111~·. sliccs. Whicl1 opoon cho en i ,, of <.:CJUrs , r lar ·d
111 ic kn ess to be e xt raer cd.
l1'11l11111j'tl1•:: .111cl 111(>~1· ll•;i11}', 111,·c/1;1111c;1I cxcavarion
11•t·l111i,¡1t ,: Wi1l1 11111 l)t)W1·1 11! ll>cl,1y'•, 11),t"c·l1;J11íc,1l c·J<cav;_1IJ11g
Typically in rninirig bcdded aggregare depo 1r •

t hickn .ss of I he dcsired horizcn is kr101t111 and the dcc I

11t.1t·l1l111·~ .11t(I, 111!1 1111· i111111,.1v1·1111·111, lit·i11g 111;,1cle í11 lrJ<JI,;; SL1cl1 as
how thíck ;1 slíc« 10 take can be .n de 1r1 , d1 anee. 1- o r
lll. l .111,I ¡1i1·I, ,·1111¡·1: •• 1111· [J<>!.~,ili1l11y 1,( 111c·cl1.111ic,1I cxcavarion
metal ore deposits, particula ly is i, ÍíJP1 Val] ·y e
~l11111l. l l1t' ¡11 11•,, •.;1 st11,l1-1·1l .111cl tt>111;icl1·1,•cl lc>t ¡111y rock undcr 100
breccia-rype dcposus, the mine planner general y do ot
(11111.1 l l'.1,(}()\) 11:--:1) (,,1 l'111·11 11¡, tci l'.\(J Ml1;1120,000 psí l) íf ÍI is
bow thíck the total mining horizon is goíng TcJ b e p
l1i •.l1l.)1 lr.ut un ti ,111,I 1 •. .: low 111 sili.c_·,1 ,·c,11tt·111 Thc advaniages of
places whcre each diamond-drill ho!e has µ., d hrou h
1·,11 llllll'i t)1111,
t>f 1111•1 l1,111í1 ;11 1• ·c·,1v11l 1<>11, whcr , appllcublc, are Iorrnarion. A Iew feet away from rhat hole, cor d.tions m,}
,v~·II 1ltlt·111111•11l1•cl (l\11il1>clt l')t)'1). l•'1111l1c·rn1ri1·c·, for long wcll be dífferent.
ll·1,,,l·l111>1111•111~. 1·1111 [:te l' 11111111•1 are proving thcír
l>c>1 i11¡~ 111:1<·l1iil·('S For boih an aggregate prorluccr arid a r. eral ore pr
1\'l11tl1111111t, c·1·11.,i11 L"<i.11cli1i<i11:, (S11ytl<·1 199,4; /\l .xandcr 1999). the best approach is le, mine Lhc top sl1ct: thro1 gh the Oli
'l'l.l\ ,ltlv,1111,1:.:1·.,; I<> 111i·1·]1:-111íc·:1I cxcav.u ion (Ozde mcr 1990) first. 'rhe thickncss o( the si ice to be L<tken c!epend on a:
ec¡L1ipmcn1 is é1vaílab1c or what is going t(J be purcl1as . Ic •
.. l 1111)1 l>Vl'tl ¡>t·1 ~,<>1111t·I ,-;:1f'c· )1 dcpends on wJ121t l1eigl1,1 of grou1,1d can be mined and ro 1nrain d
sélfeJy and effic~ently'. Mini11g the top slice rir~t allo \ h .... te r

• l\~i11i111,1I )'.1 t>lirt(I el i·.1 L11 l>,1.11('l'

l)ack and rib-pi!Jar scaling a11d reinforcemcnt ,1re r lJUire<l to
.. l,l')'i1' ¡:1 (J[IIICI :·11¡>¡)()1 I IJ< 1t•ci·l'(I reach,ed easily and safely. ln the; aurhors' op·inion, llll:> ch· kn
sl1ou.Jd not exceed 8.S to 9.8 m (28 to 32 ft). I-Io e 1, ther •
• l:l)llÍllltl()ll,'., 11011( yc·/i(· 0/)l'I lll l(Jll'>
8ggregaLe producers Lhat 1.vill 1n1ne 12-m- (40·ft-) th e
• l•L'\f\l t',l l>1111ll vilJ1 :,t ici11· . .; ,111·<1 i1c1 ii1 l,f,,st tJ1icker slices in one pass using a high-rna s jt
extcncla!J}e-boc;m roof-scaling equip1nent.
• LJ11il<>1111 1r111c·I< si:;,c·
After the firsl pass i'> completed in él a1et,1l mine fo I
• l.t':S ·1·11~l1i11~~ ¡111tl ~·,1·i11cli11' ,c.:<¡t1Í1L·c.l ¡11 rl1L' r11íll
stopíng arca, 1he back and íloc,r shoul<l b€ Jª
prospected to ídentífy \-Vhat ore ren1ains in ch l) k
• l{l·(IL1L·1·cl vc·111il,111c)r1 f\'lll1ir1;11) ;111s
wiJJ 11eed to !Je r 1noved by other n1i11ing sl1ce . lf Ofi:.'
A111t>111,111011 c·,1¡>,1t)1Jr1y
I h,e i)ack nnd íloor, theo the r>re in the b,tl.'k sh uld b 1

\Nl1t'tl' i11<.·c·l1:111i<·,1/ t·xc·,,v;11

. • L /y
rc111 i:, 1 r i
¡·L.•' ••~íl.JJ(: ,
il ó1ci(ls up l·<J
After thi'> ore is ren1<)ved tind a(idíti<>n, l b, k·p sp<:> tin

l1i ,11,l'I iJll>Clll('(lllll lill<·'; ;111( 1 ll'( , .

1 U,<lS IJ 1¡,,<· .
<JJJt'r, 1111g
.
costs.
j · JI' ' <líld 11<J n10 t: or<; and t~ic back i agai11 mad · ·cure f , t

I y O 11
1 d 1·1· ' • ,,
. 11 , l •<; TJ 111 •, l J'C C J I J íl Á in tl1e íloot C€líl be taken.
M,11tv i <,<,111 ;111cl 1>1 ;11 11111 ( . . .

· · • · • · e r111111r1 )Y rL JJli:1 ,irl~ M<·th,<,ds of r11ining th 01·(' i11 th · b k

. , •. · , 1 111' ' ' ' . d .pcnd111g C>I1 che t!1ickne s c,t· _ihc or t n

''l>t1111 c·ltl'' 11:1lll"11i<i.

'1º1
it··,<·
1
Y/
Jt''l
.
'I
'
f(' WC
í ..
C.1(J(l
ll f<ilils110111
11, i -
19,f):1· cJriginal stope ~1eigl11. l tht• (>r1g1n l t i~l

1 •111·1,11111t· (l\L1
1¡
C>l'
k , IJ
i •
r , <J 11 '..! . '
' •
j I ii gt..: <J i ¡,; , 111 ..
( . < v<:rl·<)<Jk<•<I i'.~ 1hat <)!lly
• 1!1.an 7.6 (25 ít) ¡111cl t'l1c tl\1 ·k11t:
r11 t .h
n1<J• t; t h,,11 1 rn (7 f1 J, th ri 111
1 1 i.: t I
. • }l(J{('JJ 1 ' . í."tlfl l,c.: LIS (J [() clrill tllt' t 10\' V th bt (
. l . 1 ( '{. 1 1 1 ( . ( • ) 11 , l )( J, l l j li ctrilií11itht)JÍ:¿.<1111·1lhí1I, a1111n 1·h l
hl
1 l,J.t',l 1,tl 'I' lll l)ll Y (Jlll 1,

ll f· ,,.,.. .1 tlJt•y ,lf(' L·)(¡)(J·~t_(j t

', ' j 111} 1 (' [ Sfll(J(J!ll l>,1<.:k tllíl! í <¡Ullt: l ll\ 11

T (
l 'I ' · 'I(;·, 1 ' ' 1 º' lj 111 ti b 11 ,Jrill ti tr> br k to,
(l•(¡;l•lll' '\.'.>). 'l'l1i1, L[lllLlll,11'/t·•,
 31

l)t 11.1 ci)(l l1l llj1 'l,,l1li11i,r•, .1c1•111L1 . ' r ,•1 l(JJI IJÍ J(>(' l)r<Jk 11 ,111<.I
l)lll 1,111iz1·~. ¡11c1(i(l('l
• •
lll .
¡j¡.(• t(J,1 1> ¡J c·i lly 11 t • ti L.,· ful tJ1 t111g l pr ti do nor

l\ y lt (,IJ!lllll .11,I ítt, t n

v ·11i ,1111<>1 , , ~11l
till l t:h jUOlOO ,
ro
1r1g L1p rs t b
(, l
,1 I>,ld (J J ¡> 1t 1s t, lirill • \ h1 h mmanyroom
11d pill· r nL111 •
irinciple
ductíon Back
) miles
bout 15
.m-and-

Breast Stope

Bottom

FIGURE 3.2 Plan view of room-and-pillar stope showingadvanee by

drillinga combination of drill pattern rounds with one free face and
slabbing to an open second free face

thic ess to be extracted.

T ically in mining bedded aggregate deposits, the total
hickness of the desired horizon is known and the decision about
ow thick a slice to take can be made in advance . However, ni

ow thick the total mining horizon is going to be except in those

rmation. A few feet away from that hole , conditions may very
ell be different.

e best approach ÍS to rniru= tnP t"nn cl;r-.a t-l-.-.,....~.,..1'"' .-1..- ---- 1- · 1

 General Mine Deslgn Considerat·
ion~

lor raise can rhen be pur tbrough ftorn

1
1
í room far long~o h uld be presplit or smoothwall bl ~w.
Agai11, the p1ll,1rs s o ast1ng
e to rotect rhern.
Once
. e letely secure, t1le b. ottom <_>re can be remov a]
a tcorn

fron: th~ e. floor at rhe entrance to the stope to the de rt

desired to carry . af f l d. . ' L ed

. •'
b the heíght cons1dered s e or oa mg equ1pment. It is
. 1 , INGS common · 7 - to , 11- t onne (8- to 12-to:n)
S\VINGS SW mines of the Víburn11111 area_ us11:g
- eyond this he1ght, loader operator safety m
(,
loaders. H oweve r, b
' V,)
~'3 Cl /,1 / / ~ ay
~
1 /
~q,4b / /
-
7 / ~'li / •

V
SW NGS ~

- -
~

- en ~

-
1 SW
/ NGS become an jssue. f ·
I /
SWINGS
/ /
Drilling and blasting the bluf s 1~ u~ually done With
- - - / /
-
/
- . g small surface quarry drills íf the bluffs are a
. - ti) / / (:,
~()
~~
,.:,
z 1/ ~~ d ow,n h o 1es (l3
us ID
ft) thick. If the bluffs are
thi t
mner, breasting or
s J-4?,
- I
l east 4 rn
~

- ith f · b
-C:j
/_ U) 1'
- ~

. 1
• / / / /
horizontal boles may be drilled out wi ace JUm os.
1 / /
/ The above procedure can be r:peated over and over ~ntil the
SW NGS
,
l ~ // -
/ /
1
I
/

/
/ bottom to the ore is reached (Figure 3.3). However, in areas
- /
where this cype of míning is expected to take p~ace, the pillar
width must be large enough to accorrunodate co~s:derable height
for the initial pass if it should be needed. If additional ore is not
found, then the pillars can be slabbed down to a srnaller size.
100 However, one precaution is that píllars must be protected
with smoothwall blasting or presplitting around the píllars both
FE.ET when rernoving the back ore and taking up the bottom. Pillar
design wíll be bríefly discussed below, but the point here is that
f1G,tJRE 3.3 Mutta.pass stopi11g n,ethods of thlck ore bodles in room-
for any given pillar width assumed by the mine planner, the
,,na-,plfl r n1i1ntng
designed safe wídth-to-heighr ratio will be exceeded by multiple
passes unless there is a very large safery factor in the pillar design
or it is planned to cake down the back and take up the bottom. It
lf rr1' thti •k:ne. 'i!n c11e back is greater tl1an 2 m (7 ft), or
i-t:
can not be overernphasized that eve ing should be done to
rl ~ 1·ol), ,. h iL hit is nJ1·e, Óy' at the n1axirnun1 height that can be
protect the integrity of the pillars during the first pass of what
,,f. l)- 111.11i · cnied. ti~en che npproach to mining the back slice is may become multiple passes.
¡, f1t., ct1t o l in the back at the edge of the entrance to the
:cl1pc. 'fl1 'sl ( ~lio,tald be bet\,~een the pillar·s and should reach 3.2.6 Room Widths
,tl1' l1t.'itl1r ot- tl1 · 1i1 - xt s!ice or the top of the ore body. Care
_·l,o,trb(\ e tak n not to d mage whar will be tl1e rock tl1at forrns For ~rodt1ctivity reasons, room widths should be as wíde as
tl,' to ot' che 11c,v pilta1· . Sn1ooth,-vall blasting could be t1sed to pr~c_ucal and safe . The wider the roorns, the more efficient the
;1ti\ :\ 1t:1.:-e in tl1i' at-c~. r\ n1ine doze1· (t1sual a small one sucl1 as
;1 D-4 lll- D- ,hou1d begin pt1shi11g tl1e rock up and mak.i11g a att. mg equip~ent. However, room width for any given mine
ro d,,·a)· f r che jt:i.n1bo on the rock pile. A f1-011t-end loader can environmenr · ·

. ,·ail-11 le. ,om 1h re, the juiubo can drill b1·east (ho1·izontal)
ho l 'S in tht.' br-o, · an,d follo,w tbe ore zone througl1ot1t tl1e
~-rop~d ,irc.a. E,· n. if lt goes into salid t·ock beyo11d the original

-toped Ilre:1, a pcob1 rn ,-vill r1ot be created other than the loader
,,·ill no,,, 11:1,·e ro load ou't the 01·e as it is broken. AboL1t 75º/o of
t11e 01rc ,,·i l I l\a,re to 1-ern.nin in tl1e sto.pe rocl< pile t1ntil tl1e bacl<-
the room can ~ay e comes
e.
ª matter of eco no mies as to how wide
n'l.itling _io·b i.:' c-ompleted. Tbis can be a disadvantage if the n1ine There have been . . .
neelt~ rt," pro el ucrioa1 tn1r11edi.a tely. or it can be a big advantage
i,t- tht.' orr;> can b, 1noved , 'hen n1nny mine1·s leave on summe1· this problem t p ete disc.ussion of the rock mecbanics aspects of
. . , um to Se ,, . . ,, . r
•
\';.\C, (100 ..
\ hen tl1e top ot· t'lie or·e is finnlly reached, the back can be needed for the d .51 er ar this point is what inf orrnation -will be
ma.cl s· fe i·o l' rhe mi Ltet-s a1'.e scill up very el ose to the bacl<. 1'his
l}'P o·f n1in'ing 11 s b' n pru.cticed in botl1 d1e Ten11essee zinc and
tll~\1ibut-ntlf\1 le,11d-2i11c disrricrs. Ir is11't uncon1n1011 for several obtamed during geologic and structural informat1011 to
p ::0.: ot· rh. ore lo b tninell f1·on1 brol<en rock piles. !11 d1ese 1
c~!-'c , ir, 'll ~ nece~S<lt·:v to loi.l~ the ore f ron1 the botco111 edges . s spend 1 · l . . · ro
d eterm1ne the i f . itt e ame or money in trying
ot ,th roclz p,tl to r11ake 1·oo·n1. to1- new br·oken rock or a loader e l asstifircatíon of tnheor mi t1on . nee d e d to construct a roe k rna. ss
, ill ti ,·e ro go ttpl,O the ,-ock pile a,nd loacl ot1t tl1e excess 1·ocl,
(Figure 3."),
lf a ,,e1·:v rhick, conrin11ot1s 01·e zo,,e (s,1y, 15 to 20 m [SO to
l)S fr) or t1.1ot ) i.s íotind abo\1e tl1is t1rst slice after the first slice is
 L,\Kl-'n cl'\ro,t1il1 tl,e st.<)pe. chc11 an entír ly diffe1·e11t approach may ogs, stirface mappin a out underground structures froID co e
l) . L,1ik íl. 111 il~t·h a · ·~se, i.t l)e l)etter to drive a. d velo.pment ramp formation
. d
g, mapping f
underground
f
o sur ace outcrops o
f the st1Jl'I 3

to tht LO"fJ of the k.110\ 11 01·L ione ,md 1nine out the top slice fron1 cru e rock mass classific , .and ge op h ys1.cal infor111at1·on that

ation could be constructed.

---~--- -----.
 r
1 (
1•
ro
SLABBING-
SWINGS

WINGS
(/) V)
(.? C)
z z E
SWINGS
~

V)
O.
ca
SWINGS . SWJNGS SWINGS

o
SWINGS e

SW1NGS SWINGS SWINGS SWINGS

SWINGS

251

o 'ºº
•
FEET
1

FIGURE3 . 3 Multipass stopin methods of thick or . bod 1 es

and-pillar minin ·_ · or
e

I t e ore t ic or 11
• • •
e room ei t is a rea at t e maximum .ierg t t at can e n
• •
sa e y maintaine , t en t e a roac to rmrung t ac s ice is rot
t() f rct /"11t- ".:) C"lAt- in t-hP h~rk ::1t thP PrlP"P nf thP Pnt1 ~1""º f-" .-J....,_ m ..
 t is r E ' 11 lr - I re', r c'l' 1. 1
e . r r ,,l \ '·lc ¡ .i,11 lt'. 1 .,t' 'l l
c i , ,f 11 ,1., 11 , l~1 , 1· · l1i r 1 1 l1,1 1 111 •1 1 1,J ,• ,
i i l ',1 \ l ,1 lll 1 1 l,, 1 I \ 111• • ,,1,1 1 1· • 1rl 11• 1111· l«' J 111 1 111
· ·i l i l · · 1, ,\ ' 111! 1:,1l ,,; . tl , , · • , x 111 , 1 ,1
,, i s l 11· ,, s ,1 ,I ·1'l 1 ' 1 · 11 • 11
1 ,t 111,• ¡ , l ,• 1, 1 1
i • T . '1 r1 t .. 11 'r ' 1 l ' \' ¡111e•1 • •• 1¡J 1 1 1 ·1·1 · ,1 1· ,, 1, ,·1 1

, I i ,, t · 1 ' 1,1 1t' 1.1 ,1 11 . 1 ¡l 11 ¡ 11111 111• 11 1i 1, ·, l, 1 I,, l

1 e ·· r1 r. , l l I 1 ¡,l i 'lt1 llll 1 l'J 1l 1 ' , 1 ·1 )j, l J. 1 .• · 1 t ti
r r 'l' ,/ 11 1 1 C Jlt I~ fi1• I, JI 14 1 ¡
¡l, t l. 1i 1 ll , · ' I f, J I ,j
ill
ll ; , 111· t'11 1 • • · 1 11 ,11 ,,,1 1 , 1, ,
r i s r 11 cl1 ¡· l,1·Li1 r ¡1·1 . 111 l(f. l , I· , , 1) ,· . 111 1 •, 1
I · ll r l: li l l11, l. ',1 )I · 1•1• 1 ,I 1 . J ) • 1 11,· 1• 1 1.11
i 1f ll r \ . l 1 1 l l. '1\t' :1 1!111111 ' l' jl<'I • !'t' 11J I • 111 ·1¡1 ·, 1 f 11, , 11
fl il r t l;' -· i i l I) 1l ' : I i , l1 1l) 1 11 ' ( 1 ·1l 1,f ¡ ,11 1 1· /11 ,1
. r il r i 1 -1: 1 ,1 ( 11 l 1 t I . l I l 1t1 1 l 1 J 1:. 1 · l1 1 ·11. 1¡1!1"11 1 ·t
f r f : · 1 : 1. t' i l 'l 11C'l' l1 1 1 1· 1 1 1 , •, , . ·1
l t i ll s . ll · , ,·r)' t' 111 1 1 c' lll t•t ' Is 1 >11ll,•1 1 · ) ; l 1 : 1, , ~: 1 IC
. l r ' c '1'l L11·tlt•
L'<l 1i ~¡ 1 , . ,. lt1J'1 , 111 · 111 J, ,,,¡,., ¡ , 1

i c r a ' r ' r t I 11cl : 'l

l l ' l11 ,• j1:1t•lt 1•1) 1 e• 1•11 I 11, .c· ,t , 1 1 1 :• 1
tl l lll i le' 11111•11 l1 •r i ¡ , l J, P 1, 'l•1•1 11 ,
. r 1 l l 1 il I l
i l s f i 11cl
1 t1 •1 1 l t' ,. t1 ·l1 .1·; ·i 1 ,• .1 1• f 1J • l, ,1 . I,,,, ¡,
l I (' t'l' e'l 'l' (1 c• )t 11 I ,1 l J,1111· 1. , ,( 1 ~ 11 ¡1 ')
r ill · ,. I t , i1 1 .1
1 1 l)t'l'c :, «·1 \1 111 , , l .1 ,·1;.; • 1• 1 !) (){) l /11(
t t l r lL ll r
l I 1ll l l cl 'l 1•~, :1 ·11• ) ¡ 1IJ, •1 , , 111 l1 1• ' , 1•
If x , , 1· t . 1 11· .11·1·i 1· ill
I 11 ll tlll 'J . 'l l •1 f 11•, 1/II 'I 1' '1'' ll I .
i r l r í l 1 s 1· li1r
'l Í lt•t'c'll 1111c• I J 1 l', l I ':ll 1 · /1 l/ rr l 11
l t, j r i · l
! l • ·l1 1 l t' ¡Je·c·i 1' i)< ( 11 l' II !'f 1· c·,· 111•, 1' 1)¡. ll
f 1 .
'c l f1>1 l' lll1l't e· ·; ·¡ .
i 1· -1111 l- 1ll,11·
l . 1· l
'i' •1 ,li l' l'l, 11 · l'·, r,J ¡ 1 1 11 J,, f I 1 1
11 , l l 11 . l11 ,1<l ' ',, 1 · ,1 •
t é I : ti l I r.

, '. . ~ 11· 1. : l, 1l1i1l ' 'lt' 1i e'!l<'il ¡ 1 <' ,1]1 tc•

- - l á 1 t1 1 1·:1ll 1>1J <>l 1 . : 1•,1 i·, ft' <', <l.

'. l1ii·t l l l1 1 ., l,· 1,l 11 · 1 1 : . ¡1 : ,,

l 1 'l1 ,l1 ¡i , , L11 111 , l 1 •, 1¡1 1 l,: ·
+ i
1 11: ·,•¡ l ¡ , t'c 1 1l 1 · 1 l : 1l • ¡J/ ·1, l 1
,t t t i ! r -111 -
t' lll 1 l •cl I e•l I c•:
. . . . . ' l11 l1 ·. 1 1 l,
'l'l ' 'll l \ ('l <'fl i11 1 11111l Í \ I' 111 l l
. . _ I 1 ; ll ll l. t1 i t l .1 11L"l I 1)1 ¡1111 , , y,, 11 ·1 1
. . ) ,.
i t
.f cl1 1
ª: · t ·
.
I ·t
.
i
.
1 tl
.
i
lll l'l 1 i I ' 1.,1 1 1 t. 'l' ', 1', 11 ; ¡1 l1I

. t ,. . c i· l 1 . l' 1 11ii i c t1 'I \:11 .1 i •tl l 1 ) y, 111 f 11• . 111· 11lll

- . . ~ r 1 ;111 't1
it ' · ª , • ll ) l l, 1 1 j

- 1.1 r . •
1 1•1 ;\¡11i1 <),\1• i~ > 11l; '<' 1·1 • • li t 1 1 : ,

¡ ;1l' : 1
1 l • ll, I< (el >1> I ll' lJ I
. . . lt . 1 t
l b . 30 l l t' ,· l l 1 l< . cl t• ,tt'lt t'l' • ;1 1
¡l111•¡ 1• :1r
• ,• fr i i· ,< . L cl 1 r l l)
'l l i · 1 l 't 1'l'll. '1' c• 1> : c·: • 1 r 1·cl.
l•:t' l l\lll' lll' t Í ~t. , l l'<) tl IJ;l<' l il <'.('I' I ,
r , , 1 . : l 1 : ,• t', ) ; l tll : l<•cl t· 1i . 11
. _ , 1¡ l ' 1 ('1·¡1 ;\ •l ll11 ': ¡ : : cl l1l,1 11 ti 11;

. . .. . r ' , ,,, tl, L r,11 1c I ' ll1• 1•I . • 1 .. t•t . . . ·1· , .111, 1
• . ·· 1 • • • • . 11 • 1 ¡ 1· ' ·1•, . • .
t . .1 . t l l ) ; 1 < 1 t• • ,11 1 • , 1•11 , tl ¡, 1

· i 1 • ¡ · • . 1 l ' . 1 • 1 :1
· ,, 'l . . s , '· 1 • I · l
r
t ! 1 f 1 1l· rt1

<'t · < 1· · •1 • • ,1 • > ¡ 1 ¡1 t ,(1¡11, ¡> t

f . . 1 ,
. j'J . 1·, l: ,1 ',11 l ( ' ' ' 1 • ; • 't . 1
. :·e
l •' ' • ,· •
• f
• til . . ' 11 tl l Lcll 1' '1' :
'
'
'
' t ¡
1 j
1 i
, l •
. ,, ,1·
1• 1 1
, · ·1 . 1. 1.Ll 1 1 1 ' l'1)1 i ,,,,cJ, ' 'll l ¡>l ' \t' I t !l t l ,1 11 t•
. ~ · ..
· ,, ,,, ; , 1• 11 lit 1
- · • . · i· 'l 1 ·;1 ,
, · l l , •l1 1 1 1' l' . t't'• · ·i•
• 1 '~\ ' '1 1 t t l 1 '· • ·• I' t l 11· • ,. ,l.

. . . 'C il 1 rc ) . . ' I 'I 1 1 1 ,1 '( • t' ¡k l 1 ll ' . t . I

; • 1 1 t
 e l) necd LI is n1 'l iJei ~tL•llllL S til,1 11
9
Ch p er ') (2.1.4) 10 good
eas on ro t.' L , 1 ~ ,1 t \\11
during heI dd, . pl n, ·e o, , • mineI
•· fc.:1 ' [1)t
' • r,
t , ' ' :-111t ' , i 1, llil 11 i ' 11 llle\
1
• 11 r,l1, t
l l' 11l1l(lt l' 11
I
' 11111,' 1¡ 111
lt' e• 11v • ¡> tt
t ' 1111111l11lr1l{
' 1111111
prov ded. One of rhe rnos crir ca 111 11111
ob a· • better g oph:
11.. St)I & ,1 1i 1~ l1 s L) 11, 111, 11 11111 V 1111, 11 III llttl11;1,
a n6or1111tion 011 ,, 1rL 1,1 11 st 111· j1 11 • 111 i·w 1111 1111 i•) 1111 11 .1 'kl1,1111,111
~ i L /\~ 111,1 • 11 ,,1111,,, l IJ 1,
P anning: in rhi case. room lrh and pü itl1 h 11 t1 gl11s • tl111111,
111tl t '1 11 1 ' 111,
1111 ! • y.
v1 y1. l1IY,l1 1 1 1111'1 1111 ll 1 ti111t l 11 1J t1
·1 . f ¡) , e • l1c1 · ,
t1 l ' t , , ' ''
. 1111 111 l1 v l
wh ch 11 il· · gready
1 ~ífcCf )1in~ [11.. ·. 11g cos S11 t t1rt'.' L 11 le () 1111111 ·, . 11111 V1l 111111111 v,1!1 1,f 1,v
i r . (' , ' l t' 1 ·1 ., .
seen aod mapped nnc' jo nts and fr l11 1..$ 1L Cu .1 l' ,c.· ~111 11 111llllcJII elt1ll 11•: lJl 11 1111 11 1ll 11 111 ,v,r 11, 1,1,
'1l situ stress mea urcrn n be ikcn .mc 11~t t·1i 0 ~ 1111 t•: l1 ll l11. \1¡1' :,lll y 111 J1 1¡ 1, ,y ,11, w
can be co ected fo labora l)il llll11Jt 11 11 lf ')l(t lfl/(( ¡1l ill W! 11 IJ J,
lll 11 ~ 1! 1l11g 11 jlJ 11 1, l< IIJ<1V,1I <11 •111Jy W 1lr,J1 Y, ,.
3.2.7 P ar Width .l ll 11s 1111 l1 11 11 1111iv,11 1111 11¡ 11 11,,,. ~ 11 y·. ,, ,,¡
One cacno d cu pil), i lth ,vi our L 11~ i11 o 11 11 t ill 11x, 1l1r111 wl1 11 1, 11 111 ,11 111 111111 ,1 J,1 ,l 1Y,11 v,11
beight. The overa strength o a pi a is rc teLI to s 1c'l~ t l1l~l1l 1111111, 11 wl1 1I fll Y ,, l) l1 ,1 elc111 111 111, 1, 1,
is ama ter of the ratio 0 pi a Vi tl1 \~ pillar '1 11\t)t1111 1111 lc il J11 1111 11 1111111% 1]
o oad thar the p la can sa e C:'111 ~ s propon cna L lt W 11 Slll)l' sl11p 1i 1l J11t) 111 l• JJlllVlll) l¡111¡ l11 •, 1Jll ,, 11
ratio Thus ir is rha a p la w 1 n rario o( has 11111 ,1 g 11ll 111cls' 111.1 11 1111 1l1 11g 111l1 11 111 1JJ 11 11 1• w1,,~ ,,¡
safery acto thaa a pillar o -4 4 01 () \\ l ),!t :-,i 1llt111s 1l 11 11xl11)tll 111 11 •, ÍIJ ¡111 ¡1 111 1,,.

The actu load har p r n re t.: on 1 ()C lLllt 11 1l le 11 1()()111 1111 1lJl 1, 1, ,¡ ,,1 Wl1
measured The theorerica load se lcula ed 11\• rh o 1.. ) 11 11111111 11 1111 11:1 ,, wl1l11 111 11 11 ,IIJ ,,. 1(1r,,

load d srribured to he pilla s 111. o rn ) no be hc L1 \t u 111 lll lt :, v 1111111 11v1· x r1 <J 11111 I, ', 111 11 11

being carried There is a good chance 111 111 o lt. 1\ ) )t' lt ll W llltllll li 1, 1l lll).\ 111 tfJt 1Jl11 ¡,, (J 11 )/ \J
arching o,1er sorne of rhe nterior pt lar o Ll1t s opo .1 \1 1111 1, 11 .'i c t1 11 111 11 ·, ,, 1e Vi 111111111 111, ,I
lc,t) (lllV }\ ll (/ 1l1 l) l, <J c·w l) ,11111 ,, 11 (1
transferred o barríer p ars 01 waste are n s11cl1 e ses 11 y
lltlllll 1111, v y ~l} 11111 11 111e 11)11v ,1 1• 11 11
be tha the in erior pi lars can b rnade smalle :1~ yie li11~ pi n s.
)L' ll1< ll 11 l( 1l 111 11,, 11< lc 11 1l1l11 1, 111111 <111 111
he stopes are very -íde then a ro\l\ of largo ec Rn 1l l1 0
WI lllllt' ill' .l< 11111 1, 1• ci ! V r\ 111 Jll ,1 ,'.
p ars shou d be left a regu a nter, s. 11 nre of ve gc
l l111' l l,11itJII IJ W l,1 Y Jic 111•;11 11 11 v lt1,1 1lll 1,
ateral exten c:h will preven ca cad ng pill 11 (ai ure o( illt'
llll t .1r 11i1ll' llll ll 1l IW 11111 l) V ){ 11 11¡1 ,1
entire area (Zip and iark 1997).
•t l) iv (, ):,
The reader s referred to the case tudies 011 oon1 c 1) l1, t' t' V 11 1, 1l1l)c illl,11 c· 11v11I l)II II ,1 11
stoping to examine hov« differenr mines approach r 1is '1) o )lc111, ) 11 11 S tl )i g l11 (J l< llll 111 1• 11
to he design theory expr s ed 111 ection 10, nn p r cu m l)

the paper by Zipf in Chap:er 5 Section 10 011 cn :1~ 0 )111 • S 1l >\ 'i<ltll< l) lf Jlll.1 <llll JÍII)'. ll J1J):l1
íailure of large roorn and pil ar reas where prop prcc it1 0 1s g <2 1llc111 ll1t' t1 1• r·, 111,1 11 IJ lle
have not been taken. C. tlllt ~· y l'll\llV t'. w 11 1111 "1 v 1J11 1l1li· IIJ 11
c..:1 vi1l~\ t'll<> y 1ll 11· 1111 11 c·c ,, 11¡ c111 11.¡• 11 ~;
3.2.8 Veflt lat on
• 1, 11 )w :i c1 ic•:-. 11 11 i· ,·ly 11 111 1v 11,\ 1ll 1, IJ ·, 11
]r is no the inren to go in o tl1e de~ gn o a naneo~ ro~' 11 1c!
t) 1l l1 11
s tem in t s c aptc1 Tl1e :, e 110l) s
iL'Sl lllt 1()l ;i IV l' 11', 111. 11 1l) cJ 111,· c, .l'fll
that the mine P anner ~ 997· Rn111:111i 19)7 e tl Miss 111 1Ve' 1cl< .1 11,·i,11 11,·ly '.J.' 111 11111
mine venti1ation plann ng (Ha rrnl~11 et n \ ~til , 1 L'S ~11
H most o e ter, tLI 0 c ~ l) 111t'llSL y l)Vc' ll)l () y ltl W: 1(1(1111 111<l 1ll
Tiea 1999 º:" e,er has been \i\ri·ir c,i fo co:1 111 11cs l1t 1> i1 i\g lis Í< tl w s 111 11, ti 11( c¡ l111 1lly 111~: '1
f.or room-and pillar rn1n1ng v poin s t111i11t1c 0 n1 y 111t 1I
ma) be ad,risable to men?on e lW 11
Állcl [1 11 11 1t 111.< 111 el t' 1r111111
and aggregare room-and p1 a t111nes
)i[l S 111 illt' wy tl lite l< •,111 <Jf tl IJlí ll'~ ~
i 11or t111co 11n1011 o l1:1vc c111iy ~ <J •,•,>1·111
E er)'thing tl1 is arier
) a 1d o )111s pi.' o1
lt' Wt ii 111 S1l lt L)l 111 1l1 li flll I<) t•:1lt
clVt 11\t' lill 1, s 11 l1 W 11 •.1 ill 11s 111 tl11 11 >1· ·111<1v
Ll \l) S llll ll ll IIIÍS lll'i tll 111• kfill1•t 11 ,I Y
mee rrun11num , e oc t1 s li\t lltt
1ill 1is ,1 \l St1l llt•c 11 11ll l111l1 ,1~:111 1l l1ll.t1 rl,l
these conditions 1111 )t 11!1\t'tl 111 s11l1lt.•v1 11t 1tl1 1111' >lll tr 111 111
to bt11ld "nd c o (t) tltl st1l v 11t (l 11tt' 11 [<)l)<J) 11t• l(1t 1I 1, 1111 w1111l

can e e 1 11 , t•111 1r1y 111111 ~ s11l1¡,¡l1l11111 ,, t,

agams a stopp1ng Í:-tll~ o )lc t.t¡ 111 l1c)111 \II >f 1lt11 1l111v 111e 1l1c1cl1, l1 v l1t 1•11 11 lll r<>Vt 11
111 cifit 1l l1 :,1, l1 111t 1l11ltl 11111 " ll 111 1ly1.1 1I l1t 111 11
me rnatn enu a.don dn .. n e lle.. 1t't'( S u 1L c111c, 1~
ub'ng in sufficient qu nr111es tos
lllll ll ,11 1111 c. l1 111lc s 1>< 111 <1 V •w, 1, 11111111~ lll
acti e aces. t L< t11i11x 11lll l1 11 111c1v.1l 111 1t li< 'S 1111«>111
d n1 O[e
,,'-e .., -nt' 1l1L' 11 1 1 )l)l:i
Ven aoon ooc ª d Ag:1¡ ,c O ft) c. () :111 St11111 ti11t1 s wl11 'll l,11ti 1I 11111 11 1•111c,v;1l 11l,1· w
thao a sn1all , ent1l ) 00 00 ·,t 1111 s 1 1$ tl 111 11 111 (11 11 í> IJ
1Jtl ]ll llt lllllltl~\, lll W II <' 111' k llll, 11 ri<>ll
th d ._ is 11or111ous JI 11 \1 11111,, 11 lll() s111 1II 1111 11 tl1 y l>1·8J t' 11X
agams( es oo oi,c oll L 1t1coI11:1111 y ,..,~l 111 1,111r11ll
part.icu ar y en tl1 door:. n e c)t\ )t t11s i1 11 '. 1• 11t 111 11 111 11111 lth>11r r
,1. fi cnr1on 1n l·(l. "'.,e OPL'S c:,11 be , L 111 clf IWC) 1l1i11~s W \,IV<' l<l k ¡111 I' 111 IVI ,,(l th r
• ru. stra [c'DS L
i1 l1 Sl t\llJl< S ltlcl 11\ !'iS VL ill,11 lll ('ll)t ll
Wtll 111
<>1 1> \t kttll will
r
t, to
li1111 1)11t)1 ,,, 11ll 111 ,,1 111 ,. V· 11111; 1111t vc, v ,t wlrh
111 1ll lt il !11 llt t'lll 11 <' 11 t', lle 111 <> ''~v llll\ lllft>pltl
• ent ar1on ans c:10 L)e ne c. u e; tlt 11111l1t1,I t>I t1 1111111x ll' ,t .. lit lll
c al o do so llll 1¡1 t lll ll),l 11 ~
 General MJne De lgn Cot1 t·<tot.-tlon

34 PI nntn11
h' h-gradc rl,ctche1· Min(· liad b ·<·11 o¡Jl'r,ir¡1

1·1 e ñrsr soiorion involved placing fully grouted rebar bolts for ab_o~t 3 or 4 yr, iven day, but ot:lY 10 ·to 12 :,'vot1lcl ,ll'L.llitlly 11e
in o, r 300 pillars in rhe room-and-pillar mines of the Viburnum for m1n1ng on any g . mattcr of tace selccL1v1ty to 11i.1111iciiii .
Trend. This major project is well documented by Weal<ly (1982) wo1·ked. It beconies ba t be l\anclled !1y tl1c c.·cJ11c.·c1111·:11or it11cl ~1.'1'1
and overs me method employed, reinforcing pattern, cement that can es . . 1
gra d e o f ore . . objectives of 1l1c n11nc.
grout mixture, eonvergence instrument u~e, and_ resul_ts. In t~e 1
,oid Lead Beh areas, the pillars needmg remforc1ng were . ·1 rly spare e ·
S1m1 . . . . j¡] ri
a ' tion if rhc rema.in111g n1,1ter1c1ls , ,ow c,111 L,ll<.L' ll1t·
wrapped ,,vith used hoist cable, with a load of 5.4 tonnes (6 rons)
n
piaced on each wrap (Wycoff 1950). How:ever, this met~od of a dd e d e apac1ftty.
e ' .
ow. e dcveiopmen t n1 ust n lso !Je ,1Cl't IL·1 í11 t'tl
reinfoiícemeut was not as fast, econorrucal, or effecríve as Ir

1 on.g or . too o en, min can be reéic11. atcc ¡ ( · . kJ y to 1 · 11c l<l ·

ínstalling fully grouted rebar bolts in the pillars. . d old stopes v Jt11c ~1L Wt•r

The second solution was used in the Leadwood mmes of the ma1ntai1:e ' h t become rninablc bcc8 t1SC o'Í cc,)11orn ic cyclt•s
1
Old Lead Belt and involved placing huge arnounts of backfill to
gr ade minera s t ª r11e roon1-an d -pi · ll ar· 1111n· t:· 1· 1> 1!1.11 ofLcn·
t Of
. 1·11e floor or l ¡ 1c l),1c·1<
Another aspee s are Jeft m or Llic
mitisgate tbe potential for a massive catastrophic failure. These lower-gra d e resou rce ¡ ·¡ . ·
mines were only about 132 m (425 ft) deep. However, the back .· e rises new reserves are reé1c t y íl'V,1tl,1blc fot
stopes. Wh en P e ' · ·
was thin-bedded dolomíte interbedded with shale and glauconite . k . · T1htis tecru1ique is o.ften over -1 oo k c,e l t )Y 1· 1cl1v1· cltia.ls
and was badly fractured and leached. ''Roof bolts" were originally
not accusrome . 1 - · ¡ · , · r · ·
developed i11 these mines in the early 1930s as a meaos of tying . . ¡
lues are gradat1onal. T 1e1e rs L 1e opt ion <> 1111n11 1g
t he minera va . ¡ . ¡ · ·
the lsyers rogeiher ro actas a beam (Weigel 1943; Casteel 1973). etter areas of the minera rese1-ve aric 111..111· 1t a111111g ,1

The roof bolts were used with channel irons to forma crude truss. tl1roug h t h e b · b· : , · t tl · ·
rade of ore that satisñes tl1e econom_1c o JeCtivcs rl 1,11 1111'\c. ;\1
Eve11 though the rock in the pillars was equally as bad for support g 1 ti·rne when mining econorn1cs n1ay l1é1ve cl1a11~1:cl, t11c

as the back because it also contained bands of high-grade galena,
as a rneans of econornic survival pillar removal and slabbing took
place over a period of 25 yr. Occasionally, local cave-ins would
occur after an area had been "pillared." Since these cave-ins were
beneath nninhabited St. Joe-owned land, they were of no real
concern. However, when slabbed pillars between two of these
smaller cave-ins began to fail and a third and fourth cave-in
occurred in more critical areas, there was a considerable amount
of concern. The inirial extraction of sorne of these areas involved
multiple-pass rnining and room heights that were mostly 6.1 to
12.2 m (20 to 40 ft). Final mining of the area had resulted in ore
exuaction of approximately 95º/o. Around 1962, to stop the
caving in the third and fourth areas, over a million tons of
uncernented, cycloned, sand tailings were put into the mines,
filling the rooms nearly to the back. The results were very
successful in controlling the converging, failing ground.
In retrospect, the end result might be compared wíth the
overhand cut-and-fill practice of deliberately mining the pillars to
a ater , emnant ore reserves C8 L1 b e 11~1·11ec l
1 ower-gra d e ªreas left as r · . . .
However, in spite of the above,_ ~ven 1.n roon1-ar1cl p1llr1r
mines, drastic changes in the rate of m1n1ng (mornc11t111n) (¡¡111101
be assumed to be free. It often takes sevcral n10111l1s 11111tl1 íln
increased labor force to regain a p,rodttction lev,cl tl1nr st·emcd
easy to maintain before a mine pro_d uclion. ct1tback. lf ,pai·c
equipment is used to increase prod~ct1on, ma1n.ccnancc r!<1lJably
will convert to a ''breakdown'' overtime schedule compart•cl 10 1l1c
previous preve.ntive maintenan,ce schedule o,o shift, ill IC'·1:L Ltntil
permanent additional equipment can be obtained. Nevl'l: i1rlcss,
the necessary cha'nges can be ma:de.
As discussed under the section on ''Pillar Robbing," tl1L' 0tl1cr
technique is tha·t of slabbing or remov{ng high-gi-ade pillnrs.
Thus, even in the 1ater years of the mining operation, sorne or t!1e 'T"J1,1 · ,
''sweetener'' is left to b!end with the lo\vcr-gracle ore. Although crc:'11L'U ll
not_unique to room-and-pilJar mining, this 1lechtn iqt1e is ccrtai11ly I a le r fi 11 ( e
eas1er to accomplish in a room-and-pillar operario11 tl1a11 i11 othcr, L'Xt rnc·t,·,1

very small dimensions and immediately filling in around thern in more complex mini.ng systems. · typic,11 1,1)
•

\ rhat is kn.own as the ''post-pillar'' mining system. Such a systern IS <lSSll t1leC

is used by Falconbridge Nickel Mines (Cleland and Singh 1973)

3.3 SUBLEVELSTOPING
3.3.2 !x
and the Elliot Lake uranium mines (Hedley and Grant 1972) and 3.3.1 lntroduction
sornerimes by San Martín and Níaca in Mexico and San Vincente C<Jr1sic.le1

in Peru. The end result is that the two mining systems, with smal] As sstdeiscus.sed in t.he prev·ious sect1·.on, t he 1-oom-and-p1Jla, r n111. 11n. g sJ1ow11 ci 1,1

pillars encapsulated in sand tailings, look similar. Y .f ~ 151 .applted to s11bhorizo11tal ore bodics of relaLively clr,1wn vc:1
f ni 01 ~ t 11clmess. A portion of the ore body is rernoved i11 thc sttb,levt•I s
3.2.10 Room-and-Pillar Mining as lt º'.º: 0 roon1sb, and pillars are left to s·upport the overlying srraLa.
M in1ng n1ay e do11e i h k b . d
1:iotrom o
Relates to Changing Market Conditions Vl1rt0LJS tll'
P
illars or l
011 1·ooms
n ª
c ec e1· oard pattern of roo111s a11
. tllill (l l 1·01
An added advantage of room-and-pillar stoping in metal mining
(or with any commodity that is gradational in value) is related to slot. Tl1l' I_:
ore. The depositsgtni~ele_;ººf and tloor are con1pete11t, as ts rl1e lü tl1t' lIULI'.
changing market conditions. The flexible rnining conditions of the dip of the tr . range fi·om thin to mocle1·ately tl1icl<. As ·111d 11ll[l11)<.:
roorn-and-pillar stoping can usually be adjusred to the elastic sothata tnctrleases a n.d/· or t h e th1· cl<11ess o f ¡ ·e
nature of markets if mine planners are always aware of current body increases t 1.e oi fl.111 t' t1,l,Cll
1ods_

market trends. The extreme flexibility of the room-and-pillar Consider ~ rno~~~e must be ~mployecl. . Slastfi
n1t'tl10li ("(1T
mining meth.od allows the mine operation to react to market 1
needs faster than other mining systems.
In this case ¡0.,d: at dipptng. Now increase the dip ro 90º · ,ll ,tll·( lt)¡) (

Another of the advantages is that new faces are continuously only four pillars wide (Figure 3.3), at any one time that One
can
stope may have as many as 12 to 15 faces open for drilling and imagi
ne if
being opened if the ore body is continuous. Even if the stope is the
blasting. stope
were
10
pillars
wide how many faces horizontal di;ecti~ ing don the pillars wo11lcl cotn.e fro111 tlie 1rt• cl1 iJl 'el
be collected at b nt, an tl1e blasted ore wottld fall downvvnrcl tci ti r ÍVl'll :lI t)ll
e o ton1 Althou h h . . · thC fo.r n1 ¡¡ slc)t.
same as for tlt.e r oom- · d . g l e gene1·al gc o1nctry is. ·
i\S Sl' t'l ¡lJ I
rl1e system is subleve1ª~0-~1lla1· inethod, the gencric i1<1111c g_1vt'11
retreat, and vein m· . p1ng. Blastl1ole stopino vertical c1111cr tlcsii11 .111ll l

· 1n1ng also t U l . º' · rhc l!olt• tl1

would be exposed to drilling and blasring. For metal mines, this s hr <1age stoping · a une e1· thts ge11 1l l1cad1 g.
tn nteth d . e1·é 11 76 1,1 165 ni
offers a lot of flexibiliry to mine the grade of ore most clesirable genera 1 , the n1etliod is O IS. . a S pec1·¡a 1eorn1 of s11blevcl stopt'i1g. [Jl. cl1,tn1,t>1t•r 11<1

for any eurrent price of the metal being mined. For short periods tha11 the angle of . applted to o1·e bodies hé'lviT1g clips grl'nL~I cf'l•Si~!1 l'l)ll.S
of time in each stope, it is usually possible to work 011ly the SOº), so tl1at n1at~~r~se of brokc11 materi,11 (;1·eal~t 1hn11 ,1lioUI clil tti<)Jl, 111
higher- or lower-grade faces, depending upan the market. Thís gravity. For inassi a dtran~port tto collectio11 ¡;ioi11ts oct'lI1·s !JY ¡l1)ssil)lt· l;or
Uslially has a drastic effect on the grade witl1in a few days. For Crea( d VC ep0Sil ª J •]rL'
e , and tl1e overall ct· .'l:J, stopes witl\ ve1·tict1l \,v11J s '

IJ) 01 th,e deposit is i1111ni1tc1·i¡1J.

 ',, '11 'tlt(I {', 1¡11J>'l
' , 11í •>11· ~i,f1c
· ..1
'
1 • ' '
'
' 1 \

'\
1 1
\ ' 1
t \ 1 ,\ 1 ' l ~· .. .
1
1
l 1 1

1 l1\; t \t11 i1' l111111111\; ,1 ,1r1v li, l~1llf ~(I vvill

\\ \\ l
1
'111.
\ 1\ 1
1\ 'l• '

' \,
\\ 1.I\

11
· ,l1 t 1 , i .·, 1 '.\ · t1·¡.1 ·
iu t,\J)~i 11 ti, basic ci icJn
\
'. l t
I t l l 1c
i l lip
1, • 11 ttt'l'. l1 >,ttl, c;tJ1·1diLit)11 ,;.

. ' '
,cl'
il J t (\ l t 1 é r l<.
the e mass. V
' 't 1

l \r ',' it
> ' i! tl1 1!
ll
\~ !< {' l, ,'llir1gs
. cculd
· ,1 1 be created
·' < 'trl1 ,, 'a,e
, , 11 u 1y insrances
' l\\
1

' 1 1 r\' 1
·

l l ( ' . -t ll e)·,..,' lt \A/ 1k and hence borh

t [ t l - ' l
l

'
.
.. l
'l[ W
. t ' imit x. Cl\ ore ornoval and
\' ri lim -d
' ' , l
tl\
l
"l
' , l '{'fi -reur · ,'t1··1 e ion d signs rhat can
ll 1 l11ch fir under rhe general
i· ·
• )Jf , 1

u \ tttl 1 i1 it,'. t ·t,' él v 1:y ersatile method and

l ', t t i ' x t · l i l of a 11 o 1· " bod y s 11 a pe . W i t h
ll .
(
l , l' r "1 t1 )Y {l vi·1 lrifting ¿111ci ch drifts
'' '. 1 (
'tll l. t t' sult 111it1i11") cosrs are high
'

• l l
u t ) l ·. O, tl orhor hand, recovery is
' l

,ti hu it is a11 appropriare

)(1 hit · _ l rad v 'l ore ·. O ti 1•
,,
\
l. ll,l u.
' ', l - l .
•

. '
.. ' \ ·ti tl1 s 1111 rype as descr bed
.
•
,. ' '• .
'
~ \,.
, 'l lt 1 > , t l {f · í
Li )t il! uun i. ce s." will be vía a ramp
' · t ·l
~
l tll, ut u )bil [ui¡ 111c11t will be used,
1• l t' · [ ,
:, ltttt in u ·t\ 111i d cur and Iill rnining are on
1. ll t) t1i~ti.
.. , l · · -
~ · l . ~ t'
 8

FIII Gap Sice5

.. .
ce· •1 ••
Face2 S lice
. . ' !•• "•~ \ •.;.
.

~-
........... -- -..... ¡¡¡,, ....... ...,. -
·~et•--
... . '~ ' . . . . Slrce 3
• • ·
• • .. " ~
f

•
'
-- .. "" . ........ _._, .• ..... .... , .....
~

~
•,;

'\,.

· ." .~ · F ill .· . · .... Stice 2

' .. .
.. '• ~

.. .. .~. ' .,. • . ... , . .

k -- ~- -
• •
.

S
~
'

lice 1
... . . •
•
SilVCrown Pillar
•
,, • • - ---
,. - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -, •

• •
••
•
~I • - --
I Slice 12 1 ... • •

t-· -~ - ·-·- - . . -- -- ----- ---- --------, • ., ' >'" .

1 1 • •

:.
t· - . - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- _J1 .
•

,, .
'
Future Stope '•

FIGURE 3.11 Diagrammatic representation of cut-and-fill mining FlGURE' 3.13 mp

B. Ret,....!irw,M
g IJp~,s~ íl. (T

e»
p fot 111- the tr •
t• • (
•

"'~
i, l ~ r : ~ ..
l ..~... "---·' \.:..
~
• •
•
'
•
upv 'ard ·li ·e b :\' :\.' t ~ •' ".
•

A. Driftlng-Stá~ 1
extracn•on bl '
••

•
"'.._1 ' ,, ' '

.
prod ucti on re] ure rur r ' • • •

' • •

• • C\ 'O ta .h .. t .. (' "'t e r. ' \

• •

th u Je:! l • ,, . ' !
• e- r-~ t ' l l• '
' ' • . . '
'
'

' .

·
~.-~-,-,-......,.._
... ·.·_,...,._. ·
• '7"'~
..-..-- . . -~-
· • ' ' ' . -
• . ,,... • . .
.' . ~ . .. . . . . ' ·'',• . . ' '' .
.
,·-:. ··.···. 'Filt:.:.-· .. . . ' .• . . .F '
• -· .• • . -- - .
. • •
. -

FIGURE 3.12 Drifting on advance and retreating wl h uppets

• ' .
' '
• •
't l'
To begin rhe discussion, it will be assumed thar che ore blo · •
• t t l '
to be extracted is vertical and has a widrh thar can be remo -ed r l. '

• . '
du, ing norma] drifting. V\Then ore body strengrh is fairly good, .. ..

o erhand ctn-and-fill rnining is normaily applied (figure 3.11 . n ¡ •

• •

This 111 ans starting at the bottorn of che block aod working l t
'

: .
1
up ard. Id ally, access to each level will be via ero scurs
1
. Typical dr~fl 1,ou?ds consistin~ of drilling, blastln , 1 aJing, scaling,
originating ar the mid-lerigth posítion of rhe block In ¡h~ \\ .1y and insral! ng rock reinforcemenr ui c u ed. TI is progression . o~
rwo headings can be ooerated at any one rime . operauons can lead _ Lo delays _ IJn le :; e 11 eru 11)1
 l
• no
t'il
1 ,t • \
h
• 1 1
o erh n 1'
plaened Drilling of the second heading 1::. ca,111 d out ,t,ill.' 1¡1 on J>l t l
orher op ratioru are being done ar h -ading l. Wll n lt1~ liLe t •1 rorn
1
been complete-el, ñlling is don . 'l he fil! i · placed, l , \'Í11, ,t 11 ¡1¡
gap ro the overlyirig ore (J<'igure '.3.12.> ). O,, tl1l' 1 L' l ~liL'1c', cht (
,,
 Fill
lice 5
ce 1 Face2 lice 4
·------- --
. . . . .• .. •. • "• •. . •
• ••• .. . • .. ••••• , t._ . ..... . ·~ • ••

,
..,--n-
•
. .. . . •-•· . ..-:.'"\-,.-.-..,. ' ~

'

. .. . ' . ._ . ' .. ..• ·-' fice 3

... . . .. .
.

.
. .
' • • •.
...
• •
•

. . ..
11 t • _.. • , • • • • • 4

' •
' . -\ .
sW E 1' • - • .. ,- ~ .... ~

- '
. ,. ft.. ·- . .... -~ - . . -
·· • Fill ...• .· .. :· ·, . . ' . '
11 .:. ......•·
~

• • • • •
--- .. - - .... • -• .. - ..... ~

. ... ·.. ,
.. Á

• .. . . ' '
~

• Fi
. lice 2 ~

, .
- - - - - • . -- -
\
. .
. . ..- - ... . -. ,... -
• .
, " . .. . . .. • . .
lice 1
:ic
• •• • ••
il rown Pillar •• ••""" ·• • •
• .. '
... - .... # • • •
- - -,
' • .
1 Slice 12 1 •• ,
•

~-
.... -- ...... .-- ... ., ._. ..... -- -- - - •
~

1 -\• .• """'
- - . - ---· ... _ .... ........ _ - - .J •• . • .
. .
- - - ~

1 • . •
• , .

FIGURE 3.11 Diagrammatic representatlon of cut-a d-filt m·n1ng FIGURE3.13 Ram

a. Retreating \Vith Uppers-Stage. 2

gap forrn the fre:

A. Drifting Stage 1
extra non blocl s <
two st1 h stacked 1· peer to the und
~ DriU ijol~s

the pillar
' .
. ' .. \ .. . .. •. ... ~.- • . L:. ~
• 1 •

•
.. .
• -
' •
·- •
. .
•

11 .. . - .• - - _, ..
•

..
... . • • •
...... - 1 ~ .. -

•
• •
..... .:r~ ....... ,FI --·.--····- 111
,,
1

FIGURE3.12 Drifting on adva.nce and retreating with uppers

nf.' 'L 1 _
 Pla

• •• • •• ,
.,, ••
... •• -··--.·
' . .
•
' - . • . .
......
••• • . . , ... .-, ---
' • - - - - - . -·
. ' . ,,, • • •
-
•• • --- . -
. • • ' . • . . ... . .. -
'• .. ' --.. .. •
•- . • . . .. •
•
•. . ,._ .• • .
• ., '.. •
•... . ....
.,::,

FIGURE 3,13 Rampaccess for cut-and-fill mining

J
then
Figur
d e
 . . . driftir
of slic
rows «
r~ h,.,. -- -
t:l~1.. ..! •
The 01
 - é on tbe Bas s. Of MinlogM~od

S1ice 12

üce 9

•
• • .. • •
..
~

••
• ••
•

' • ••
--Dril edO t -- ~;......;;. ....... • •
•
• • •
• ••
•
•

• •
. . . .. • • •
•
-

• ' •
• •
•
- . • . • ~

•
•

•
• • •
,
• • •
••
S ice 1 ,. ~. -
•
•
,•
t
J ,.
•

F GURE 3.1.4 Inittal geomet,ry for riJ1 or Avoca m n ng FlGURf 3...1;5

I i i

J f [he srrengths of the v;all rock and the o re are qurre good , I: ;;,~ s '•.: - ,;, ·r1 o; · ::. , - ,,.. ,,_ ,...-,· -..,, =-- ---:.~ ~ d~ a-d
.,;__ ~ - /~J~_;> ~

L~cn spans of more then rv,o lifts can be crea ted. For eY.a.·-.1.ple cuc-a,é-fill ,e -~ .,a:j be _ d :"~-~~ 3 .J. . ce ·
, ,
taken, and e- , é.ri., ".cS • • r · '.!ES z : _ "' ,. ·· r, ·epar.e a Ia, e r
F 1~u~c 3 .14 shows the case in wh ich s1ices 1 and 4 are exrracted o:, ·
ar nll oeco ': e · t- • oof Je': i1 :. xa- -:: ·:. z '= s <:: t- _
dr1fr1ng . Rows of venicaJ blastholes are then drílled from the floor
h

'
of slicc 4 to tbe roof o ,f sl ice 1. A vertical slo is creared , and me pasr, a ~·1?oe; oot ~:.r -- -~r) f:: "Sra < tec ~J -:: -,:

is :n.o ,é cm:i_ .,..&4 e: -- ,. pe • e..

.

Todav ~ ,,_ e=.,......~· - -::J .... .1~ u r: r-' .. ,. ..., rt:f

rows o hoJes are b}asted one or more at a time ro-, rard tht s.o • ~ '- ""' - ,._ _. "-- L ,..-.. l"J '-

e;.':OtJ[: reinfo cernera. _ - . • - -. é: rer:+a·.1-" - --- , ¡....oy._nF-• · t,. ¡r,{., !}".,_..."• -- ,J· r ;
,

í · ~. · e
V

rhe o e is extracted by an LHD operaríng in siice l. At r.he same

recrea extrac ion is under,•ray fill is being placed from di¿,
' a} be r': 0¿'7:fl O .. _ _ - ' e- ed ,,fil:
~ - <:é:IT: · ~ '•ª.'..., ~ ,' ~
'ime tl1at
r slice 1.S. , en :xuacr~ -· , ~r ~·'= ~.,~_rr, ~ ed <.JO -.or:- ae same
tthe opposite endt of the t stope (Figure 3.15)., A gap is maínra.ined ' . .• . .
be1Wecn the ex racr on and fü ng f.ron:ts to rnímmire diluóon
access 1~. e! · some -.es
~ st: overhand cuz-
i. .
a '· ¡;g
When compte edt s1íce 7 is emo,1ed by driftíng Figure 3. 6J.. up ~rd m le •el ;: _e. emp oyi .g de:tla d. -cur-aad- . -
i li :o g do .r!:!. • _- s o ':J es u _ n mber u( or: .g faces
Sl ces 5 r1cl 6c are, no "IT removedr using ce 7 as ( dril!ing le,:e]
l me operanc
·· í::-
a
..
ar, ene _ e fro a given
l
e .•
-
and ce 4 as the ex raction level. The method is cal ed ilJ m rung r . · , · . -· ·
i a si ,·de o e bodies can a so bí:: ed ng !!n erhand
or he , _ r
s]í Avoca method.t l r · ar,d · F gure 3 9 Toe p;ocess ~ isarne as described .
lf the extraction block is qu e 11 de heJl he cur and-lill r ·
t
method can. s íl be used bur now se
ea uer, ~ ( i ne co. d ).ioints are al.o ed ís berween the indhid
it era drifts are( dri,:en - side bj·
, ' , r dr oor pcu~ Gener rniners roa oíd position ,,g drifts
side F"gure 3. t J 7) T s ,s s mí1ar o room-and l pillar ~b pillar '. o
t ·
of che ~der ;i.ng ~~r directly der mose above b_ g the ·
. : _· · i
n1ining ( whe e 1the. rooms · i arei A:ited t firsl, and rhe - the (pillars are) dnhs sidei a or do rm-g a an an e o che drih.s a
_ .
e In the
·I

extracred , r a er case a has et ea e par em resuhs,

One echnique is to shape m primary exuacúon drífu so In e rhick,
· ~
e ined ore app opríate for
.
°"
tha they. have down~vard slanr og de figure 3.17~ BJ The ,
· t e
dtíhs ate then fiLled \Vl th uncemenred 5.ll or fiils conta n g oniy
rut-~d fiTI min ,g ertical pi ars are sorne
·
es ilefi to
t il si s ( ,_ . ad_d1oonal support berween rhe hangíng wall and me
a s.mal amounr of cement irh care the secondan drifu sho. ,cn - i , ·
' t · Figure 3.2.0) If possib e. rhese p. lars are locared in the ín
in Figure l 3.17B can be extracred
. · wi"th ~ttle dilMtion.
· ~ese· aste or o -grade ereas. On tbe lawest !dice a roem aed
.
variations are called drift-al[ild-fü rruning or 111cliried . ··:al! rruning. mine is created The rooms are men fil~. A stice is thm
A more, typ cal layou ís sho,.m \raken
. - -
l in Figure ~- l~C and D. ~ere con. nuing the errica p ·ard extension of che p1IJa1s.
. fil ed and me proress ~ repeared 1he 11,,ning
straigh wallsi are t1sed t and •1er o~er dnh ts r~~1ov~ ID a Thls le e is t:hen
primary míning phase Cemented fill LS used o ~ 01rl dil,unon
eg drifu ; Q9e optJon 15 o make r:he s,-stem, is cal· ed post-p Uar núning l because the p,Q,qs as
t h , venicaJ posts surrounded b}· fil (see 3 9). Some
.
el unng removal o e 1n:ter ym
. d rhe "'e""oodarr drifts .,·,1.de to mmuntze .
d e,,. íoc de the method under room and 1niníng and
))riman;
· r,ttS narro\"
f an
· I · "' " , t
the aeed for cemented r . fill · · . . . . . .1.
· · - · ·
•
.
 General Mine De lgn Con ideratfon,
40
p
-
A.

B. ,II
• •
'
• •
• •• • '
•• • • •
•
Orift 3 Drift 2
·orHt 1
•
• •
• • •

•
• • -Fill "'
•
•
• • •
Fi I •• • ' .
I • • • • • • •

Slice 7
Fencis,g Fenclng
c.
o Drilled Q.ut •'
•
'
• •
.. .#
e
(/') # ••

Orlft 2. :
: Orlfl 1 .
orlft 3
•.' Fifl.:" . Fill
• •. .,
.• .
• •I

SI ice 4

• • • • • + , • •• •
•• • • • • • #
I

• • , '\ , • • • . •• • I
• • .. ••
•
••
• • • • • • • • \ ••
D.
. • •
• •

•
• • •
••
•
•
• ' • \ • • • • • • • • • •
. "'
• • •
, •
• I ,, Fill • •
•• •
•
••
• • • • • ~

• ,_
·•~ • •
• • •
• • • Orlft 3
• .' •

•
.. , • • 1
•
•
•
• • •
•
•
•
•
.,, , ,_.,
• • •• •
' • ... • •• • •• •• ' • • • • • •

FIGURE 3.16 lnltlal geometry for next extraction phase FIGURE 3.1.7 Dlfferent geometr es for d1ift-.and<-Qi11 mitillri(!
Fl1

under cui-and-fill. Because of the presence of the surrounding

1
fll'l, even very tal] and slender pillars can be quite strong. Ordinary ,·111
3.5 SUBLEVEL CAVING · • · SI ice
.. . ,
11 "'": • • ·~ .. :
'
·• • • • , ••
··•~r ·- .
•• • "' •
.... ..
··
. .
· "". . ,. •.. , • '
..
"' , ...
Cemen.ted FIII
3.S.1 lntroduction
·. '. ' ,Stice - 2 .·. · -. ·. · ·. ~ 11
•
,~ '\ ..... _
• • • ,. • .. ...... _#

- •.
The origin of sublevel cavíng has been attributed ro a scalíng-up • • • • - .
of the now Iargely extinct rop-slicing method. In this latter

: ' . Slice 3 · · · · • •• •
method, a horizontal slice of ore was extracted from the top of an -
•
vi
•
-
•
... ' •
'
ore body of relarively large extent, A tímber mat was consrructed
on the floor of the opening, and tbe timbcrs supportíng rhe roof Sllce 4 Face 1
were eiiher blasted or orherwíse removed, allowing thc overlying
waste to fall clown onto the timber mat. The miners woutd then
mine beneath this timber mat and extraer a. second slice. Thc
•
•
supporting tirnbers would be removed, the overlying waste woulcl
cave, and the process would be repeated. FIO
The first modificarion of this system was to skip one drift ing
slice. lnstead of extracting each slice by dnfting, a Iaycr of ore
was left in the form of a roof between the horizontal slices. In
rerrearing frorn the periphery of the ore body on the drifting slice,
the ore in the slice above would be allowed to cave. lt was then orei
StJ!)J
extracted frorn rhe drifts. In this way, rniners would extract two
tl1is
slices from one developrnent level. This rerreating process would
sucl
continúe back to the rnain access, and a new developrnenr slice
stop
would be taken, leaving the slice to be caved in-berween.
SL1bl
Since sublevels and ore caving were involved, ir was logicaJ
98
to name the technique sublevel cavíng. A natural extensíon of this
dow
technique was to increase the number of slices removed by caving 011 a
for every slice removed by drifting. Since a series of indívidllal SJ)al·
 ROURE 3.18
¡
rnining "blocks" were used to extract these large ore bodies, the Undefhand cut.and-flJI bl.ist
method received the name block caving. mtnlng Sttbl(
 •
i e on the Bas'
. •s of Mining Method

of 2 to 3 rn ( 6.5 ro 10 ft). Bc ,t
the_ fans ar~ blastecl one by ginning
o ryptc: ll f th
ne ¡\glt ist th: n
Fl f ore t. m ov rl
. ¡··
l
Cutlevel '1 waste mskí og up tl,e h: ngin,g ll ' t.
wu and or e, ll
the ore ~orn the blasted slice c ; ta
ontinu twnt,l t· li ur
prescnbed level. The ne '( s lice is th -n l te<l
~l contmued. Depending on ore ( r, t ' ·1
' Cut Leve! 2 bod ~ m
be applied using rransverse or r
lo,1g.ict~ll 1¡ en t.
t
Today, rhe _subte -el cn t 1
viog e: ique
strong ore rnaterials tn which \
the h,i 't 1
6. The key layout and de ign c .1 l ¡ {
or 'r )
recovery wirh an accept
abt amor u
uncertainties of fragmensadon l 1.: t
un ore i\ abllitv
caving (díscussed in the follo 1 , r r \
1 ,,·ing ecri ) n
Fi each ton of ore is drilled a t ,
.' 1
I 1
1 nd bla sre t1 n1
merhod has been used rno t ,1
for mining rna
can be easily and inexpc l
ive y scparured
Fi1 I 1 However, i.t has been and c an b appli l e
other ore rypes.

3.5.2 Subleve( CaYing Layo

u
c. s As iodicated, ore is reco 'e red
both t h rou t d r ir i ....
stoping. Beca use the cosr per ton for úlri~t1 1g i · se
for stoping, it is desírable to : t
ma imizc st (•1,'
t
; J
~D · '1 lilg Direc'lion ~
driftin.g. This has rneant thar rhrough th') ·~11:, rr1' '1 ·, r
sublevels has steadíly · ere cd unril t xlav ttlc)
; t j f ~ (98 ft). Whcreas appro ··m t l )' _5 ·
()Í rh toe
1 ,,
~

••
-- - removed by drifung in the e arly 1gns.
·
--..:....._-.;.. -'---~-cf--t----- gest-sca le
> • Cut Leve! 1 an ron up
~

•
'•,,. d roppcd co abou t 6% i n he lare loprnents l1:
-' -
...J ~
'.)

, <) . :J

1
;::i • The subsev l inrervals h. \'E: ch .., l 1
• ,,.,• (30 to 98 fr). The key to t1 is l~
'• ,, drill longer, srraighrer, - nd lar, r-di 1 't r hole .
••
Subte el ca 'ing is an 1 ·rh:1. n -t 1 , ir
blasrholes drilled U[) rard. T . ore n10 ~ J , , t) t
IG RE 3.1.9 AJtemate out arrangemerrts and drilling drift und 'f ihe et ton 01 r 1 it .
Ther,e are a numb-er of · ·rors h cl t m' e •

The subleve] drif1s r;cpica )' h.1 di 1 .i 1 \.\

6 by 5 m, or 7 by 5 m 16 ; 13. 20 by l
accomrnoda e LrlDs. In c. e e· pl u· · e il\u.r,
p1rinciples. ir is assumed rhar t h' dtift i.i. , i: 7 · , n •

fr). The larges[ pos.sib\c bl schol(' dian1 t1c \.t't n

of drilling co.p;)Cit) Jnd e.·pio \ ·e ch.irgi ) i· 11 )r t''"
•
- •
. • • • • roda,y, this is l 15 rnm ( :,.5 ~n) bas I lar 'el . t\l ~

•
. •
•
. .
•
'•
•
•
•
•
charge and reta in e.·plo í ·e in rhc hol . 1·t,e · · l!t _ ·
•
·~ •
"

•
•
• •
• •
• . . ..
•
.
•
• drilled usit1g either in-cl,e-hote (l1'H) or to r
• • • •
•
• • • •
Th targe dté.ln1,e·r rs and large dnft iz. r n,ir t
. ee - .
•

;,

drill steel 01f re!, ci ·el)· long len~h lther . · ·

nun1ber of joints and mx imiz.ing join tift.11 : : •
• • • • required long. craight hol s e· n be pro<l · J. ·r l t
.,,.. F
•
, . .
designs incorporatie holes, ith 1e11 ..ah p t 50 )
• •

• •

. - . .•
·
- . ,11
. The distance ben,,een slice burli n B d
• • •
•
hole diameter (D) and the e.q>losi ·e ti·~- F )1 init'
•
using ANFO as the e. plo ·ive, ch r lati n ·hip i~·
• •

G 9E 3 .2t> Post-pillar mintt'lg'

more energeric ex.plosi es (bulk tren. th b..1 ·i · . h
is B == 250. Assuming that D eqt1al l lS n1111
emulston explosive is used, B •ould equal 1 l t
Typically, rhe roe spacíng- (S) to-bur l n r.: i ~- ·
the rnaxirn,111~ S \Vould equal 4m (1 tt)ch··in ~ · .
relatively unifo.1111 disuibution ot· e. pl~-¡ t
hales making up che ring \ Oltld h.a difk ne
Both toe and collar priming inici·1tion t hn1 u
The sub,level drift interval is d ·1d • l
drill s.rraight holes. In this . ampl it ·11 •
subleve! interval based upon drillin ac · u
(Figure 3.21). Once che subl l inten.-al
necessary ro posirlon rhe subl el drift_. In t ·
drifts are placed so thac the ngl dr n trom. th
the extraction drift to che botrom e nt r f dn
 .

Cost Estimating for Underground Mines 67

pen Stopes
TABLE 4.11 Cost models: room and plJlar mlnlng (
contlnued)
Dally ore productlon(tonnes) Unlts 1,200
Haulag& Orfft
8,000 14,000
Ventllation Ralses
' Face Area square meters 3.9
16.3 27.2
-- -- -=--
-------
Dally Advance meters 0.3 .
~ --; -~-.;
- . .z-
.:::,::-_
Preproduction Advance meters 250
1 53 2.19
550 750
-,
'-Heulage.-..::- -~ Cost dol l'ars/ meter $464 $1,299 $1,328
Drlft
Hourly Labor Requlrements
Stope Miners 16 56 96
FIGURE 4.6 Stope develo.pment: room and pillar mlning
Development Mlners 12 24 24
Equipment Operators 2 6 14
TABLE 4.11 Cost models: room and pillar mining
Hoist Operators 8 8 12
T hese represent mines on flatlying bedded deposits 2 5 5 . o • or 10 2 2
... · k 1 · h . , · , me t ers Support Miners 2
models 4 6
t.
5 7
.,,.1c . resoec ive ,y, wit extensrve a real dimensions. Access is by two shafts, 281, 581,
or 781 meters deep, and a secondary access/vent raise. Ore is collected at the tace Diamond Drillers 2 12 25
us1ng fr0nt-end-loaders and loaded into articulated rear dump tru k f t
14 19
h "' st · f . - c s or ransport to a Electricians
s u ran. iooing11 o 1 lows a conventional room and pillar pattern with drllll g ¡· h d 5 14
· h · t I d. ·¡¡ · b , 1 m accomp is e
us1ng · onzon a n JUm os. See Figure 4.6. Mechanics 18 25
Oally ore productlon (tonnes) Units 1,200 Maintenance Workers 5 19
8,000 14,000 14
Production Helpers
6 192 282
Hours per Shift 8 10 8 Underground Laborers
5
Shifts per Day 2 2 3 Surface Laborers 1 1
801
Days per Year 320 350 350 Total Hourly Personnel 4 4
Deposit Salaried Personnel Requirements
10 21
Total Minable Resource tonnes 5,080,300 43,208,000 86,419,000 Managers
5 7
degrees 5 5 5 Superintendents 2
Dip 8
6
Average Strike Length meters 1,000 2,000 2,400 Fo remen 4 16 27

meters 700 1,500 1,500 Engineers 2 10 14

Average Vein Width
meters 2.5 5.0 10 Geologists 2 5 7
Average Vert.ical
Shift Bosses 6 8 11
Sto pes
10 14
59 59 60 Technicians 4
Stope Length meters
14 19
43.5 44.4 45.3 Accountants 2 18 25
Stope Wtdth meters
5.0 10.0 Purchasing 3 107 158
Stope Height meters 2.5
4
Face Width meters 4.3 4.4 4.5 Personnel
10.0 Secreta ríes 5 5,975 10,208
meters 2.5 5.0
Face Height
3.9 Clerks 6 1.582
meters 2.3 3.0 1,591
Advance per Round
41
meters 6.9 6.9 7.0 Total Salaried Personnel 57 1,497 1.510
Pillar Length
5.1 5.2 5.3 Supply Requirements (daily) 6,643 7 773
Pillar Width meters
10.0 Explosives kilograms 959 58.02
65 43 59
2.5 5.0
Pillar Heíght meters 3.15 4.19
Caps each 62
389
Development Openings 35.0 30.1
2 ea. 2 ea. Boosters each 3 .6
2 ea.
Si;iafts 0.6 35.0 , 30.l
33.4 39.1 Fuse meters 1,529
Face Area square meters 19.6
8.0.6 35
. 0 3Q.1
581 781 Dril! Bits ea ch
Preproduction Advance meters 281
0.0.6 35 0 30.1
$12,411 $11,440 Drills Steel each
$7,834
Cost dollars/meter
10 1 309 455
Fresh Water Pipe meters
Drifts 1
17.8 19.9 Compressed Air Pipe meters
Face Area square meters 12.5
1 47 2 734
. 4,037
20.0 17.2 Electric Cable meters
Daily Advance meters 6.1
1 29 2,230
. 3,275
1,748 1,501 Ventilation Tubing meters
Preproduction Advance rneters 490
$746 $819 Rock Bolts each
Cost dollars/meter $666
Bulldings
Crosscuts 1,0 ,
17.8 19.9 Office square meters
Face Area square meters 12.5

12.9 Change House square meters 9

4.5 15.0
Daily Advance meters 269 657 748
1,311 1,125 Warehouse square meters
Preproduction Advance meters
360 1,614
1,409
Shop square meters 536 E a

$637 $715 $780 • L E

Cost dollars/meter
(continued)
(contlnued)
 ( tft /
,
~ -- I • •

_...!'.-¡ _.
r
1

j t(
r
- ,
. -

FliGURE 4 6

m
(,
rh., t; ro<1d ül" r,.;íJ rrJ·',¡f.,f11 t(1ir11,', <Jfl fl;,tfylr,1~ r,, <!<J,, ,J <1 oo ,¡t·., L. r , ;,f , < r 1 íJ rr í!f !í',
1 1

tt1t<~k, r0~p<1,_;t_iv,.,ly, wltr1 (;J1r:r1·'1IV<; ;~r ;,JI rJlrr1,,t1',l-<1 ,·. A<,1,,,',·, 1·, t,y tw > ', ,;Jft', /~1 ,8 1 1 1

or /81 rr (;1(.,('j (JI <~íJ, Í~·(f(j rJ ',< f~{J(l<J,Jry ;J ,(J(J' ,' ,/v, ~r1! íí,l',I . ()'(f; 1 , <, ¡, 1, t ·tJ ,Jl tt11, f('. c e Di
1J .ín ~ Iront r;r1,d l<JíJ<Jl:r" "'.Jri<J t<;;1.<J1 ,J lf11<J ,4rtl,,,1,l;Jt< ,J r,1,Ar <J11rr1f) lr1J ,k', f< r tr, r1 por t to a
',(¡; ft,. ~)l()·í>Ár11: f Jll()W'', 'j <:()·f1V( r1fJ<Jr1;,I r<)()f(I ,Jr, j r,1ll1, r riiJ1tt,:rr1, w1tt1 ctrillir ~ t. ,(.,(>rr11J:>III t ., J
1

u ír ~ r1oriLc>r1t . .J1I <Jr1II j1.Jrr,t,<> ,. '., ,rj 11s~1Jr<, lt .f>.

--------------
Da y ore produc too ( tonn ) Un ·
H lpc1r
Pr <><J uc t ior I
1o 8 und .rgro n
~i(J Jrr, fJt1r >l'11íf1
'".>t1ift~, íJ,.,( íJ,1y
Í J,-ty $ f)I ;f {(;J-J, r

r <Jt}.11 M l,r 1ítt1i J f ((;''. a..1rc;1 J

ne
t ;1i r >
1,()()() z.ooo 2 ,4()() n
AvJrí ~<; ~triv..; t ,ir111,tt1
{()() :1.' b()() 1,500
A 14 .. r,;f~,; Vt:lt1 Wt J~t1
/., J 1()
 General Mine slg" Co sldera
Co
68
TABLE 4.U cost !1'odel&: room 11nd pttler mlr,lng ( con [nu d)
•
TABlE 4.U Cost models: room and pillar mtnlng ( contlnued)
= 1,200 8.000
:e - 1 12

C. L CE
1,200 8.00-0
tJntts
§i

OallY ore proctuctlon(tonnes} !.

'

Ope,atlng Costs ~ dollars/tonl'

1 5 - 3.49 17 - 4.13 20- 5..72 56
centimeter
Stope Jumbos
18 - 1.5 E;Qu1pment ooe .;i11011

cubic meter 5- 1.1 16 - 1.1

stooe Front-End Loader
4- 35 6- 35 Supplies.
tonne 1- 15
siope Rear-Dump Truck
3 - 3.49 6 - 3.81 5 - 4.14 Hov . Laoor
Hor11ontal Development centimeter 2 .
Adrninistrat,oo . "'..,
Jun1bos

cubic meter 2 - 1.1 4- 1.1 3 - 1.5 Sut1oríes

Devefopn1ent Front-End

Loader Total Operat!ng Costs S2S.06

ton ne 2- 15 4. - 35 3- 35
~. ,-
Developn1ent Rear-Dun1p Unit Operat,ing Oost Olst.ributOiO (dolla1S1'tonne o«e}
1
Truck - ~-, •
3

meter 1- 2.4 1 - 3.7 1- 3 .7 Stopes

Ra1se Borers 3.05 1. .:6 ' =-9
centimeter 2 - 152 2 - 203 2- 305 Dmts
Produotion Hoists 0.9'.:
RocK Bolters centimeter 1 - 3.81 1 - 3.81 1-3.81 Crosscuts

Vent Raises
- . :-:,:-
Dram Pumps horsepower 8- 25 14- 164 18- 288
1 .., ')
4 - 0.5 Main Haulage ---
Fresh water Pumps horsepower 4 - 0.5 4 _ 0.5

ANFD Loader kilogram per 2 - 272 5 - 272 6- 272 Sersices

minute Ventilation 0.1? o .l. . -

Service Vehicles/Scalers horseoower 7- 82 20 - .210 28- 210
Exploratio11 0.28 o _!_::
Vent1lation Fans cenumeter 1- 122 1- 244 1- 274 t-.1aintenance 2.5--i Q.99
A R
Exploration Drills cenumeter 1 - 4.45 1-4.45 1- 4.45
Adminis~ration 4.39 l ...s-\ 1 :,;i
Equrprnent Costs (dollars/unitl Miscella11eou,s
.., -,
.1 .., "'

• -·- ,

BIE •
.:,
V
' .;¡ -
-

Stope Jumbos $703.700 $703,700 $726.500

Stope Front-End Loader 101,700 101,700 118,100
Total Operatlng Costs $25.06 $.13.S-l -~
Capital Costs Equipment
Stope Rear-Dump Truck 210.700 433.700 433.700 -
••
Purchase Pr:eproouction 12.700.000 ~..,- ....
"'..:, r ·--
Eouiorneot Costs (do)lars/un,t) - conuoueo
Undem. .r, ounc· t c....\~ ration
Horizontat Development Jumbos $397,400 $703.700 $703.700

Shatt #1 2.199.000
Development Front-End Loader 101, 700 101.700 118.1<00
Snaft i,,2
Development Rear-Dump Truck 2 20.1.000 -r 11.
210,700 433.700 433,700
Dnfts c,osscuis
Raise Borers 2.429 700 5.192 700 5,192.700 326.500
VenVJlation Ra1ses
Hois\s 532.os.¡ 963.214 1.286 841 229 100
&.r!ace Fae1t1ttes
Roof Bohers 480.200 480.200 657 150 r.is.soo
'.\ori<ing Cao,ra
Dra,n Pumps 9,600 33 640 49.390 z.sss
Fresh Water Pumps Engineenng & -.ia nagerne{I\
5.810 5,810 5.810 i.so.i.ooo
ANFO Loaóer Cont,11gellC'J
29.750 29.750 29, 750
Service Veh,cles/Scalers lotal Capttat Costs
79,990 214,100 181.605 :? .024.0C ;i
Venulat1on F.!ns
107,120 219,890 250,890 S26.
9,500$8()
bplorat,on o,,115 37,670
lotat Capital
So . . .
e ost per .Oaily Tonne O
37,670 37.670

u,t,e. S ero,.a... e ost Est,. rnatt re S22, ~s

( coo lt r ueo
• • • • •••
•
11,-,

ION

00111-an
oc

Mi11ing M,('L1,oc1ology and l)escríp,tio,n: The lm el 83

\rVílli,1n1 f~. l3<'gg aru) Nikotoi !\. Pohrivchak.

TER 1 ·l'l11eV!b,u1111u111 Trcnd Un erground An Overview 89

.J,011 Carmack, {3,ob Dunn, iVJíchae/ Flach, and Greg Surron

Pi l l¡1 r Exrracrion and Rock Mechanics ar rhe Doe Run Co

\1\1.l,. lane, 7'.R. vanske, f~.1VI. Clark, ano D.P. Roberts

CHAPTl!R 9 Modifications of the Roorn-and-Pillar Iínirig _ íerhod for Polis C-0p

waldemo: Korzcniowskí and Andrzej Stankie,.,ricz

CHAPTER :10 Underhand Roorn-and-Pillar Mining as App ied ar me Au o e.

Charcas U11iL, Grupo México 111
Mc1rco A. Perez C. and Abel. González V

CHAPTER i1 U 11cJc1 gi·ou nd Mining of Frozen Placers 119

/\!/ i el: ac I G. Ne lso n

81
 • • • • • • • .. . . . . • •
CHAPTER 6

• •
uung ethodolo •
tne
William R. Begg* and Nikolaa· A · P o h rívchak
. '

6.1 INTRODUCTION
The Imrne l Mine is an undergrou d . . -- - -,
'
'

(Figure 6.1 ). Irnmel is owned and o rm es east of Knoxvills

ASARCO ZINC PROPERl'tES

, ,
Asarco Inc. in 1971. e mine was purchased by y.
i s .
Current productíon cons st of 2 000 '
_ . . . . · 0
d zmc or the yea1· 2000. Annual
pro ucnon is antícípated as approxirnately 680 000 U S ti E
1
U S , 7Q.?5W
t thr h íft d yr. mme oper- J,
'- y
a ~s s 1 s ~y
. ~e
a 7 days a weel< , with one non roduction r---- ., --,!
hift utilized as a maintenance shift. p T9''1iE3SEE -
¡

The lr.nmel Mine ma ntains ali safety standards and was '
----.----
•
-: . .
s -
-~ ~
1
1
honored with the Sentinels of Safety award for being the safest TENNESSEE RI\IER I
~-.J__ ___:, __
i
underg1 ound n!etal/nonmetal i mine in the United States in 1992. 1 •

O 5 0
~afet_Y :is a pnm~y con~eri:i for all Asarco employees and is 1
egarded as the highest pnonty at ali operations. 1 1
1
= 1
r FIGURE 6.1 Locatíon of the mmel Mine and other ASARCO
6.2
= GEOLOGY rtl
prope res o east Tennessee
ne
I
The Immel Mine is situa ed in the western portion of a 30-nu1e- l , .
f
long zone of Mississippi Valley-type sphalerite mineralization
within the Mascot-Jefferson t City zinc distríct of east Tennessee. (Bickel. and Dolinar 1975). Studies were carried out in 1976 to
Zinc ore is hosted by interbedded brecciated dolostone and dolo- de~e11111ne cornpress ve strengths of roof rock and ore rock
mire of the Upper Kinspor and Lower Mascot formatíons which (Bickel 19!6). Those_ results indicate the strength of roof rock ar
are Early Ordovic an in age. Ore ,bodies are typically low to high- i
18 400 psi at a srec1fic gravity of 2. 75, and the strength of ore
domed structures in which t the dissolution of limestone , has rock at 28 800 psi at a specific gravity of 2. 90.
í
resulted in m neralized -
breccias frorn 15 to 120 ft thick and 50 to , The trend of the fracture partern in the pillars of older sropes
600 ft wide. Bedding is controlled by a northeast-plunging anti has led to, sorne ground control problems Typically, however,
clinal structurei most of the zinc mineralization lies within the these fractures appear after the larger stopes have been mined and
northern limb. Because of the plunge of the structure dips as- .
are only of concern in those áreas where roadways may be built.
;
steep as 45 º E have been noted within the mining area.
As a result of dip ground control is a majar ssue , and ali
6.4 MINE LAYOUT
headings rnust be bolted. Another issue resulting from the steep Active and cornpieted mining at rhe Immel Mine extends later-
dips is that ore dilution, must be controlled at the flanks
í , the ore
of ally approximately 9,600 ft with a maximum width of 3,200 ft
bodies as they reach he upper or lower extent of the beds. (Figure 6.2). Mining depths range from 100 ft above to 900 ft
Sphaleriteis virtually the only zinc mineral present and is below sea level (1,000 to 1 800 ft below the surface). Ore is
t crushed and hoisted at the main shaft, which also ser es a a
gene1·ally associated with secondary fracture filling in the dol?- ,
rnite. Pyrite is found in varying arnounrs throughout the deposit, servíce hoist and man cage. T'wo air shafts ventilare the mine
one in the center of the mine and one ar the northeast end of
Silica is also present in the forro of bedded or nodular cher:t _or
the mine. The central alr shaft also serves as an emergency.
jasperoid. Galena has been noted in sorne areas bur quannties
escape shaft, but has no 01·e hoisting capabilities.
acre too lirnited to be of economic in1portance. The mine consists of three levels de ignated by track
,
6 3 GEOTECHNICAL INFORMATION haulage, The -484 level is the most active and contribute 95% of
. all productíon from the mine. The -242 le el is curren ly nac
Because the Imrnel Mine is situated within rhe Valley and-Ridge t elí yield
ri
- because of the lack of reserves on this level. The -7 le
Province A1legl1.enia11 activity has superi~posed ~ general nort~- about 5°/o of al! producrion and conrains a mi ed amount of
,
eas fracture trend paralleling the rrend of t~cton c events. At rhis li t
r reserves for furure mining.
bearing a cornpressíve stress of 3 000 psi has t been observed
, ,

!nim M e, Asa;rco, !ne.. TN

l ii1 . 83
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FIGURE6.2 Q b raku d I yo\lt ot tl\ú num 1 Ml11 • ASARC.O, lit ,
11,1\,1 1''\l',l1't l \,l (11( 1 1 jf' ' 11
' "', 1' l 11•111 1 Sl(ll) ', ¡11111 llt.'11('11 l'VL' ~ .~illl,1) (' ure

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FIQURE 6.3 Typlcal ml11l11g rttethods oml11Qy d nt tilo lrñmol Mino
,l 1<.l )
 ••• 1 ••• 1 t ttl
----1 -11
l th l111 t,\l 11 111 11111 11 1·
Dcvelopmcnt is -,1s,1 IL'\1t'I IJt'l',lllSL' 111l)S( c)I 11 11 11
11 11)\.
011ioi11g 011 1 he l.imitcd
thc l<IJOWll reserves 111' L'il)l)lll(1111 [!-,
11} 111
ure on rhis ícvcl.
planncd 011 -7 lcvcl as additionul 1·t•servcs ;11'\' t xploirod. llt1c·,111sc
l t ¡
of the dip o( LllL' ore IJotlit.:s (11 t l.11? 11rc.•,1. tlt ·vclc>¡)111l'Ltl 11111st 111'
l1 ' l
m;1i11Lai111.-d r101 ortly to ílCCl'SS tll''W 01·c L1ocli ,s, l1ltl ;1ls1) le\ ('!,lii1
FICCL'SS lo ;1<l<li1 io11,1l 11lit1i11g ¡);\ssc.'S i1111x.ls1 [¡1~: Slo¡,t'S.
ft 11111
6.S MINING METHODOLOGY .1l1t' 1
l \e i·
01·t' rtl 1111· l11i111t•I Mirlt' i.s 11x1r;1c·1t•tl usittg 1)1t· 1:111tltit11 1·011111 ,111ct
11 JI\
¡JJl!,11· (~!(lJ)t'·,111cl fJiJl;i1·) 111t·ll10J (l1i~·.11111 (>.'.1). 111 1l1i.s 1111,tl\cicl

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tllt l)1lclt. ! lit· 11111l1cicl 1s mtlll1f1t•cl lt> ,lt't'(JJltiiir>cl;i1t• Ji . , 1, · 1
4 ~ .. , . ¡>'ll· . ' ' . . . . ,- . . l ,,s 1 l!l ll)

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1 . . , . ,,,, ,,

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•
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1:lltl1,1¡Jlt•·1>,1~·~. 1;1'.1clo.1111·tio,111. ¡11,d 1)111111 111í11i,11}\ ,\1 1111, 111111ll'l lvliilt' 1( i.\<I
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tutu:
 floor. The 1

ore body
once 1
to extracte
·initiate b)
Once shot,
for subseq1
,
zontally
until the lé

continue u
Once
•
ore is mue
pass, roo:
benching
IMMEL MINE •
stopmg, o
N

are drillei
•
connnues
FIGURE 6.2 Geberakuzed layout of the lmmel Mine, ASARCO, lnc. This
lly extr:
• •
• 1 • - --r-- --,-- -·- _.J done o
grades ve.
- - ,_-.-- - -.L-r- - - - - -~ ~_1_--,----'-- --'----r- ¿ - - - - - - - -~- _ _. ---L._~~-~ -

Imme :
~ _ L_ - - - --.- . - - - -~,.= , . - - - - - - - - - - - - - ~_. ~~- _...i..._ .....----,.._
'
from the
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f
2,000 t d
.
.
. is classífh
-e-
1
·I ~,: • •• • •
•• • '
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eit er drí
--=- =- . . .
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shift
.
·=· === = ==:Q: = T e i

f--L-,----'-- _, ._ - - - - - --'--,r-1-- - - -

-·- - - -.- - - - -~-.....-

J,__

--,,---J~- - - - -
--,-

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'-- -- -- -- -- - lc j__l _¡__l ._ 1, L L_ -L.. . .

onornar •
FIGURE 6.3 Typlcal mlnlng methods employed at the lmmel Mine Secoma d
whiliP .-h"
 tning Mothodotogy iiRd Deecrlptlo11: The tmmel Mtne 86
---•-•·--~-e--•--------~---·~~~~~~......._.~--~------------- wr n 1 ar a r ,

2 E ! r SI
---

1 -----

• • transpon and lower in e ost. The ANrO is conveyed underground

f r~>-1~ t 11(• :.-11rf::1c·c <;1orag,_ Iacility in either a specially equipped Ford
Ir :1c1 or or a protccted w,tg<>n to t he underground magazine. Ali
st lck powder ( 11)¿ IJy Jr, in) is received in 55-ll> boxes and is stored
111 t 11<' surfacc magazine ,111cl hauk-d underground as needed .
• • • 6. 5.2 Loading, Haullng, and Holsttng
36"

~24~•
L,c)a~i ng is pcrforrned by el icsel-powered loaders equipped with
.--324[ ,.,_ --,.--32,. .-..2'1~ 9-yd3 buckcrs wnh a lO t payload capaciry. Broken rock from the
/ 1 stopc arcas is loadcd into 10-l<>n haul trucks or trarnmed to desíg-
36' // 1
1 nated ore passes connerted to one <.>f three raíl haulage levels,
/ ·-~--,"
1 /.\ 1 Loading cquiprnent includes Iour Wagr,cr S18·A Scooptrams, one
• 1''• • ,• ,,1 • • EJC 300, and one Toro 1250 D. f Iaulage trucks include rwo EJC
t I
i,,1
... -·-· /
/I
430s and two Tarnrock 430 Rarnp Rabbits, The latter rucks vsere
36"
1 / 1 purchascd to increase cycle times on haulage grades that range
/
•
1
• L ·--~ • •
from 15º/o to 20º/o. 1'rucking is essentíal to mjne operations in tha
maximum haulage distances are as much as 3,500 ft to the
central ore raise .
• • • • • • Ore is conveyed to the production shaft via raíl. Ct.1rrently,
one haulage level is used (the -484) with a haulage disrance (>[
approximately 5,800 ft. A maximum of six 12-t-capacíty cars are
pulled with one of three locomotives. These include twc,
Broo.kville 12-t diesel locomotives and one Plym-outh 12-t diesel
loco motive.
Ore is loacled directly into ore cars by a pneumatically oper-
ated chute system from the ore p,ass. The broken ore ís then trans-
ported to the production shaft, where it is dumped into one of two
ore passes Jeading to the main crusher. TI1e mine was ori.ginally
7"
designed with two ore passes on each leve) to accomrnodare the
separation of ore and waste, but since ali waste is now dumped in
mined-out stopes, either raise can be used to dump ore.
Once ore is received at the crusher sta,tion, it is fed to a 36-
by 48-in Traylor jaw crusher by a 48- by 12-ft, 3/4-in NICO apron
feeder, where it is sized for hoisting to the surface. Once crushed,
rock is fed to a hydraulically driven NICO Hydrastroke feeder to
the skip.
The skip system is fully automated and consists of an
Ingersoll-Rand, tower-m-ounted friction hoist with a 104-in
diameter drum. Ore is conveyed to the surfa.ce vía a 15-t coun-
FIGUR-E 6.4 Standardiz.ed drilf,,ng pattern showing a detail of burn terbalanced skip ata rate of approximately 1,400 ft/min. Typi-
boJe plaeement, 1mmeJ MJ.ne
cally, ore is hoisted on the second and third shift, and the day
shift is used for hauling supplies and general maintenance and
shaft inspection.
Ore is dumped into a bin, frorn which it is conveyed b)· a belt
breakage has been achíeved from the =. B:e operator drills a to the ore storage pile. Two feeders under the storage pile con 'e,
series of rows ro the left and right of the original area to tu~ off rock to a truck loading point, where it is then transponed to the
a111-d begin settíng pillars. These rows ar: typically ~he s~me height Young Mill for processing.
as the cut and are slightly fanned to gain the rnax1mL1111 b!eaka~e With tbe various steps involved in getting the ore from the '
1
from· the mínimum number of holes. Locally called_ slabbing, this stope to the mill, all pl1ases must be maintained so there \vill be 1
1
no break in the flow of production. The shaft is inspected weekl.•
of tons per bole. Therefore, cuts are kep~ to a mirum ~m an ' on Y and railways are inspected daily for any problems rhat could
cause a disruption in conveyance. Because of long hauls and the
1 age of the equipment, other haulage and conveyance sy. tem are
Tbe method for drilling brows in ove!hand. stopes . e~s
being considered.
. · d. '11 d O ut 1n rows of hales
. ·
already set up · Typically ' a brow
·
n · e· ·
.
to hole loca-
is 6.5.3 Grade Control and Dilution
. . . . ·11 B nches are drilled in mue Because of the low grade of the east Tennessee zinc deposits
non and direction adJacent to p1 ars. e
grade control is of great imporrance ro the viabilit)' ot· the ope_ra-
the same manner only in an ínverted se~uence. . h . 1 tion. Estimates are detived through the use ot a chart that ret r-
. . . , · , l - b
l6-1n emu s1on ences inches of sphalerite exposed in the t'ace ersus height of the
. , . . . , aster T e rernam er o face. Calculatio.ns are based 011 the 1·atio of the specific gra ity of
sphalerite (as well as zinc content) and the specific gra ·cy of the
. . ·1 ·1 (ANFO) except wet o es, w 11 .
surrou nding rock (limestone and dolosto11e). ith this info111,a·
mírate and fu.e Ol
. d, The s hot l-'S 1· n1iti1ated w· ith a 4-m111 tion and othe1- geologic inforn1ation obtained from sources such
cornptetely wíth stick pow _er. . ....e of two Getrnan A-64
.r f. , d 11' m1ne operates on . as prospect hales, decisions ,lre made a to cake a heading or not.
SaJ,ety cap. eirher 01·
-bl
1 Tl1e l1nmel Mi11e 1naintains a cutoff grade of 2.50% zinc, but in ali
use an 1e to be . ua e for production
1,oadín,g rigs, 1nain tai11ed ava
 mi11ing areas the grade ml1st be sufficient to, arrant _caking he~·
developme:n. t. . . d on-sne in 400-bag lots, although
ings of lower grade. Gracles are discussed by che mine geolog1St

fu1ure packagíng w1JJ 1nc!u e •

 ..... 32:.+ 24''
• 1 stope ar ,a · le
l
•
1 1 J
• 1
1
( • I
e 300, a
I l /
1 .. / 430~an
/
1 pu chased
•

/ l
frcm lS'tó
-------- • • maxirn m
ce: tral ore
• • • • •
one a _ . ._ aa0p - L .::

approxima l ·
p 111,ed i -
Brookvi e _
·OCOIDO . e.
Ore is lo
ated ch e T

ported o
ore pa ~ es le
1 de i . e
24 r •
separar10

er r
t

li . m :\t r run
terbalanced 1
64 nd r d d illi cally ore is 11
i
e plac me nt lm el · . i
hift is u d f
haft i11 p ti
Or i dur
1

• ..... . -
 Room-and-Pillar Mlning of ti.
'181'Q ~()
()~
86
Mlnlng
O re us dollare
TABLE 6.1 l al and predlcted dlroct mtntng costs pe, ton or crude
Hlstorc ' 1999 200Ó A:.::_:v'.l.,~ 6
199 8
~ 1996 1997 ~ ------'"·---~ - ------ - - - ~ ..~
199
A:c'.::'t.~lv:lt~y----------~~"'~--- :~'.: ----~~---~-
, O0,-
!6 e) ¡:,5 o.so O ~I 6.8 01
l O
Devetopment 0.48 l. 09 ·' ? . ?B ? 'A•,(·J 2 G4 ? 11 O 1 }l'! f f

2·'18 n111 11
Ore breaking ?..J7 2. l 7 I .SO 1.112 1.?3 1 ,t
Undargroundhaulagc 1.J.1 1.32
1·25
o.17 023 r
Witl1 tli
O,JG o. 18 J. t11

Crushlng 0 18 0.2A 063 Ü-.i's·'»,, Q . 17 fJ111

O . 2 oG O . 43 0,59 1 Ob 1 06
Holsliflg

1.18 1.15 l.07 1.08 0.00 O 00 1 ID

Surtace
0.02 0.01 O.O 1 . () o:
haulage
O 51 O 91 0.03
Ma1nlena11ce
Ground support
Shafl and statíon repalrs 0.01 0.01 0.01 . I . 0.07
Waste dlsposal
Underground pumping

Ma1n ventuatron 0.01 0.01 0.02 . . 3.60

3.51. 3o
General 2.45 2.84 2.93 2.92 · 4 r
67 10.57 11.14 10. 78 1(1.117
Total 8.97 10.69 10.

with a cannon automated hydraulíc bolter. V<·n1ilatíon 1,

and production fo-remen daily and are reponed b)' stope or devel-
opn1ent to derive a weighted av,erage grade. lmmel rnt1st main-
tain an average grade of 3. 72°/o zin-c to maintain cost efficiency.
The d·isseminat:ed narure of the ore results ín sorne dilution
in grade from the grade originally derived for a given rnining
area. Sorne of this dilution is accounted for in reserve calculations
by addíng a 20°/o overbreak fa.ctor to the total tonna,ge of an ore
block. Ot:her factors leading to dilution in.c)u.de lower grades at
the fringes of the ore bodies and lower grades of ore a,t the up-dip
or down-dip boundaries during the parcicu1ar phase of mining
being completed in a gí,ren stope.
One method ro control dilution is che use of selective mining
and pillar piacement. Once all avallable geologic info1·r11ation is
gathered for a given scope or ore body, pillars are placed in areas
of lower grade as often as possible to maximize the affected grade
for a given work area. As srated earlier, wasre maceri.al is durnped
ínto mined-out: stopes so nor to affect prod11ctio11 grade.
6.5.4 Stope Development and Preparation
As with any mining operaríon, proper stope development must
firsr start witb knowledge oí the ore body being mined. Wh.en an
area is drifted, infor rnarion from surface core hoies or under-
ground core holes rnusr be augmented. This rask is achieved with
percussíon longholing ar che face ro make an inicial determina-
tion of the lateral extenr of che ore. The Imrnei l rine operares one
Joy pneuma:tic longhole rig equípped wirh a Cannon VCR460
drill. Drilling is done ene shifr a day , /ith an anricipared advance
of 100 ft/d. The longhole ríg is used again afrer the initial phase
of mining to further delineare the vertical exrenr of mineraliza-
advanced as needed with 40- and 7S-11p a~xi.lic1ry fa11~ st1ppl¡:ing
30- and 36-in vent tubing to the work1ng arcas. \'V;:itLr and
compressed air lines are also advanc~d . wit.hin :1 re~sonable
distance to active headings. Altl1ot.1gh arr l1nes b21ve l11111lc:d use,
they are needed by air pumps and lo11gholing rigs.
6.6 PRODUCTION STATISTICS
The Irnmel Mine currently employs a unionized labor force of 100
and a salaried tearn of 12. Witb this staffi11g level, tl1e mine is
expected to produce 2,000 t of crude 01·e a <lay having an average
grade of 3.72º/o zinc. 111 1999, production totaled 487,800 t having an
average grade of 4.10º/o. Witb tl1e recent expansion to a seven·
<lay work schedule, tonnages are expected to approach 680,000 r
in the year 2000.
Production expectations depend greatly on equipment avail·
ability, and the Immel Mine has instituted various prevenri,·e
maintenance programs to n1alntain adequate and acceptable
equipmenr availability. For most of the active fleets, machines
sho~ld be available for, on the average, 75º/o of che rime, "''hile
us~ 1s expected for 800/o of the time. These figures are repor,ed
daily along with majar repairs. A maintenance schedule is
prepared for machinery and ope1·ations. All equipment hours are
tracked as .well, and major changes in compo.nents are planned
befare equ1pment fails.
6. 7 SAFE I Y AND HEALTH
At the lrnmel Mine, safety is first and foremost among ali ,1spects
of. the. operat1·on: Management and supervisory stall·· '1r~

tion. Once all ínformation is garhered, then and only then can an
adequate srope design be considered.
Stope preparation involves steps necessar)' ro ensure both
the safery of workers and the effectiveness of stope availability.
Ground control is a major íssue at the Immel M¡ne because of rhe
rnine's depth and the steep díp of rhe bedding. Before any
committed to P~OV1~1r:ig a safe and healthfL1l workplace. SlJCC_l'
depends on m.a1nta1n1ng a11 active program of safetv education
for all em~loyees at the mine. All new employee 1·~cei e :i -JO·
hour t~aintng_ course conducted by che safety depJrrn1ei-it. \n
:xu~en~tve review of heaith, safety and enviroN11e11t,1l respon i·
ui t:y 1s covered to
. . ens. ure employee' awareness. An nnnua l -,h- t>. t1r

production work can be started, adequare ground control and safety and f1rst: aud refresher course is man<l,1ce<l for .:iI! i111n111~
ventila tion m ust be achleved. personn~l. Foremen hotd rwo 1-llour safety me ti 11gs per 1111.' 1G:

rr
ground cannor be scaled manually wirh a ground bar, it Wt(h
d . the1r crews t 0 d'1scttss cu11·ent ,111d p01·ci11ertc saJe· r:, 1.
·0n'-·, rri:,
must be scaled rnechanrcally. This task is done wirh either a Dux
an, _1ssues. Preshif t Lrispect1ons o,f wot·kplaccs ,t11d '<.1 u ipnit•rtt i ,
3
DS-30 RB díeseJ-hydraulic scaler or a Getman S-300-24 diésel- came.d ot· 1:r ever· Y s h·'f1 t be1•ore :u1y work is lO ·0111n1 ...·n..:1.· ·
r111 · 1.

hydraulic scaler. For hig}1 backs, Irame! also operares ene of two requ1rement b 111 . . 1 · • L n,"'
boom lifLS Ior manual scahng. These irrclude a Germán snorkel arco coinpafl.)' poli e\'. Pe 1 10t 1c,1 . '

wiih a 9 5-f1 reach a,nd a Cline C-4 520 snorkel with an Tl-ft reacio. p·herso.11n.el on(l•.•..c•' 1· ns.pecc1o.ns l)ot.l, in th:, L1111.ll'1b10L111,
¡ •
ti' ,1,'
,
 Once all grou nd is lhoughr to be sound I rhe back is boued L .· e , rn111e ,1nd at s··'·"rf· • ce 1·,,t·1.l.1L1. . s. : l tire l111n1t' 1 : 11.1\,~. lt·t•• , ' ll
vvill1 et her 5-fL-long S ,eJ lex or 7-ft-long
1 Splu-Set rock botes. 'I he CJ{C~1rllS•trtOC(!S Will llllS~IÍt'. t'ljll[ptl) >1,r l>(.' ,ljl 1 \lc'cl ' 1 11

1.•.:c,• tci ~vork .t1l

S\ ellex boks are 'n~1.allt:<l with oot Q,f rwo Eimco-Secr.)ma a,uro- e11ip,oyl!t>S b . ailo. L111s;,l'tL
. ¡,l 1Lé"
mated h)•dra u!ic bc1Jl(iers, ,..,. hile t11e Spli t ·Set bo lts a, e i11~ral led
 87
,6.8
In addition to surface drilling, underground core d
. n~or grade i low ª'. rhe Jmmel t ine compared to orher rilling
wíll cornmence in the second quaner of 2000 for a 6-
-, ila . pera !º. s. operanng costs rnust be kept to a mínimum. period to delineare those intercepta of míneralizatíon ind
month
. ·1th direci m1nJng costs expeae<l to be Sl0.78 per ton of crude ícated
by· surface drilling. Addírional underground drilling is pl
ore .ri ihe yea 2000, and the a· erage grade expected to be anned
for the following 4 years at 6-month intervals. One p
'.72%, e~er;' effort mus· be made ro rnaínraín acceptabíe Iirnits ossible
improvement is the conversion of the Gann air shaft to a
o, 'fendin~. Table_ 6:1 sho·::s a breakdown of actual past and full-
producúon shaft vith hoisting capabilitíes. This upgrade w
pre-d1c1 ed dircct m I DJ n g coses per ron of cru de ore. Turough ould
substannally decrease haulage distances. The possibiliry
impr0·.>ement prograrns and close atrenrion paid to spendíng of a
shaft central to both the Imrnel Mine and Young Mine is a
dera.ls, rhe lrnmel . ine has pro .en itself to be a viable and nother
option to be considerad.
eco11omicai prr)peny in ali aspec-s of ·he operatíon. Because the future depends on expanding and d
efining
addítional growth áreas, the Imrnei Mine is cornmirted
6.9 FUTU E PLA S to a
program that subscribes to both looking forward and le
, 1th the lrnrncl M1nf:' l irnir ·d reserve base of 5 o 6 years (5.8 arning
frorn rhe pasr.
mill1or1 tr,ri l, adrJir1r1nal r,1 r íac · c.Jrilling will be instituted to
reac 1 an accepu l)l 'nd confidenr level of rcsr,urces to jusrify 6.10 REFERE CES
. . xp ndrt ur • in ,r· , .ar f:ut ure. Por cxa rnple , thc surface holin.g Bickel O.L., and D.R Dolinar. 1975. Repon on che Determination Siru
ofln
prograrn ·1111 (:'.! ílr(•;i,, l)C.IW en 111 · Irnrncl Mine and rhe Young Stress in the Irnrnel Mine, Krroxville, Tennessec. Reporr Asaren,
to
11r11; r anorhcr A.~- reo pr ,¡) ·rty) élr1d known rcsourc s norrh .asi [ne . , by U. S. Bureau of, lines. .
;.11 tl r • ii ch 11 11 1,d propcrry. l,c)11g-t ·rm el, veloprncnrs m,1y Bickel. D L, April 22, 1976. ln ernal memorandum. U. S. Bureau of 1
.1 r.C':.
¡1 e l11rl1· :-1 tí ·-í1·1 llJ tl1(: Young 1 1inc ;11,d xploiration oí thosc
r1:,, .rve clr:f1nc(l l,~1 111 · iich ·11 Bcnd prcpcrry.
 • • • • • • •
•
• .. .. 1 • •

c·HiAPTER 7

· · e Viburnum Trend Uruler ound An Overview

Jon Carmack, · Bob Dunn, Michael Flach, and Greg Sutton •

7 .1 INTROOUCTION
The \Tiblcllrnl.llrn Trend is a world-class lead, zinc, and copper 01·e ( ••111ef1,,11
body ocated in southeast Missouri, USA (Figure 7.1). The ore
rrend is approxímately 64 km ( 40 miles) long by an average of
15·2 m (500 ft) wide, Ore thickness runs frorn less than 3 m (10 ft)
11 11
1
'•
to o rer 30.S m (100 ft), with an average around 12 m ( 40 fr). •

Ai,erage_depth of the ore bod~ is 0.3 km (1000 ft). Originally, in-

.¡¡¡ l
place mmeral resources were in the neighborhood of 450 rnillion
Jlb11I ).
\
¡
ronnes (500 million tons). During the past 40 years, five di fferen t
rompaaíes nave operared 11 differenr mines within the trend.
Today, this number has dropped to eight mines and one Missouri 1

company: SEMO Míning and Milling Division of the Doe Run

Resources Corporarion. Presently (as of April 1, 2000), SEMO 1

empioys approximacely 890 people at eight different under- 1

g:rotmd mines, six mills, and various support offices. This chapter
dmscusses the current practices and sorne unique aspects of the •
\'ihl>i Ilitt,1t1 Trend underground mines.
1
-
7.2 FJRST
Oae feature of rhe Vib,11r1111111 Trend is its outstanding safery
record. The underground mines of the Viburnum Trend are
known as sorne of the safest mines in operarion throughout the f ht\111,1111

, orld. The Senrínels of Safety Award is presented to the operation

thar orks the most man-hours in ayear without a single lost-time
accídenr in its respective míníng classification. The Sentinels FIGURE 7 .i Vlburnom trond mino
A vard far underground metal mining has been presented to
various Vlbnm11.1111 Trend underground mines 20 times in. the last
28 years (Table 7.1). de11t 1·ate of 0.60 ('l'ílblc 7. l). 'l'l1e l'tl\J.>lt)Yl't s <)f' ti\, Sl·'.M() J\,l111i11
SEMO's safety philosophy is a belief that employee behavior a.11d Milli11g Dívi!,io11 ¡)1-i~le tlll'tl\Sl'lvt•s ()t\ t l\ 'St' 1tt"t't>11l¡)lisi1111t•11t:,;,
is just as vital to safety as workíng conditions. SEMO encourages l1elping SEMO 1·cn1,1i11 ,111 i11(lt1st1·y lt',l<lt•1· i11 s,,l·l·tv.
its employees to take a proactíve approach to their own safery
throogh preshift safery meetíngs, equipment preshift and work 7.3 GEOLOGY
area inspections, monthly safety díscussíons, and safety programs ·r11c Vil)t1r11L1111 ·11·e11(I is l)í\1t ()Í tl1t.• ~t<.'iltt·1· 1\1is < t111
S<)t1tltl·,1st
mch as the SL"10 roof and ground control policy . Lea.d clistrict tl1t1l i11clL1clt•s l11tli,111 c:1t•t.·lc., l,t',1tl l\tlt, 1Vt11 t .• , t >tt
. echanícai scalers eliminare the exposure of people during and ft'reclcricl<tow11. ·1·J1t'S(' <lt'l)<>sits. l1c1stt•t.l i11 lJ¡ 1 1 :.1111t,, 1 11
most scalíng operations. In addirion to mechanica.l scaling, J1a11_d ca1'bo11a1e, plLLS 111i11c>1· :1111<>111,ts 01· .·.111(lst >1tt. .111ll 1,l111 • 1 ,,
scaling is also performed. Hand scaling from aerial platforrns rs arou11cl tl1c SL. r11·;.111c·(li.s 11¡1lift w·l1t.•1·t ¡1 ('<>1·t· <>l.¡~,,
1 lltl: l ,. 111c:1 1
done , here mechanícal scalers can no longer reach the back, or rocks (g,·anitcs u11cl 1·l1y<>litt l)(>t'¡>l1y1y) <>I 1)1· 't':1111l 1i 111 ., , l l,
roof. Also, hand scalíng, soundíng of the back with a steel bar, biJJion yei11·s) is t :XJJ<)H< (1 (l•'iMt11·<: 7.2). 'l'I\ · il,l111,1111,' ()· 1)(1
and visual inspections are performed behind the mechanical j)Ortio11 extc11(IS (1·0111 l\¡)¡>,.<) ·i111¡1t ,ly >4 k11, (4(l 11,il •s) 11 rtll, f
scaler. These steps are ímportant to check for, an~ corree:, any the tow11 <>Í Vibi1111lL111 l<l jt1st S<)lttlt (>l. tl\t tt) 11 t>t' 1 11t>l l , lt i ,
ch.ange in ground conditions subseqnent to mechanical scaling of 11a,-row 111i11e1·;1Ji;1,c. <l 1.<111t• st1 il i11, 1>1 'li<>111i11,1 11tl
1 1\, , th
1 >l\th
the stope. witl1 a n1,1xi111t1111 1ni11t.•1·¡1li:t. tl wi ltl t t· ;11 t>llt (l()O 11, l .l (l tt)
Tuese programs, along with rewards for ourstandíng safery 1·1,c <>1'c c<)1\sists of g,1lt'11 ·1 (l>l>S), S\llt 11 , il , (Z11 '). 11\ l t ,1 t I
miles ones, conrribure to the safe working environment i11 SEMO ril(• (('.ttf1t•S2), 'l'l1c.•t't' ,lt't' 111i11c>1· '\t\lll\tt\ts t>t I> 11111 \1\ t , ti\
operations. Durmg 1999, SEMO experienced a rotal of 28 MSI íA tOJ1J)C1· St1J(.ic.lt.'S, élS Wt•ll 'LS sit•g 'tltt ' llll ti\ '( l> ll I\I k l
reponable accidents seven ,of wbích were J,ost-time acciclents,
} s11lfillt"'s. Nc11\U('<>1,0111il· st1lt'itl s it~t:IL, 1 • il I it 11 l 111
leavtng the divjs,íon with a }ost-tíme inciden.t rate (Jost t in1c ¡Jt~1· 'l'h{· 11\í11 'l',tls list •el ,ll\<>v, 1111kt 111> 1> • tlt ,i11i11 1
200,000 .man hol\!l.rs) of 0.80 andan average 5-ycar lost·tíme inci- :t.í11c:, c:o¡)JlC'r, silvt•1·, l't>l),tlt, ·11\,I 11i ·k •l. ·111, sal r t 1 11n

' The D0e Ran Company, Víburnum, MO.

89
 ----- ~

, . 9"Waahlng on
I ~ ·ne
C1raw#otd
>r(' J ore
J'l1C (>íC
.,,O, (•
•J"ri OÍ
I ron

1 ( 10 f1·) U111ltéd Stalo e

( Ll-0 ft). ~

Dent
.a JI y' i n -
I
1 11 i j jo 11
iffcr nt
: trend. " .•
1 1d one Mi.ssouri
oe Run
, SEMO •

under- -• •
chapter ,t

) of the •
'
-

Shannorn 1

IGURE 7 ..1. d mines

dent rate of 0.60 (Table 7.1). e ernployees of the SE 10 ining l

and Milling Division pride themselves on these accomplishment

helping SEMO remain an industry leader in safety ,

73
e Vibum urn Trend is part of the grearer southeast i so r i
· ad d istrict that incl ude ·s Indían Creek, Lead Belt, 1 ine La ~ e
nd Fredericktown. These deposits, hosted in Upper Cambrian
arbonate , plus rninor arnounts of sandstone n shale p
ound the S . Francois upliír here a core of igneous b sernent
cks granites and rhyolit porph }') of Precarnbri 11 a e 1.3
illion years) is e posed (Figure 7. 2). The iburnurn Trend
rtion ex ends from approximately 64 (40 rnile north o f
e ro n of Viburnurn rn ~11~r ~n11rh ("\ft'hP ('\ rn o -:QQ 1,olt1" lr- ic
- J ~
 Roo,.,...~and-Plllar Minlng of Hard r~i ºck

90

Vlburnum Tror\d Sent 1 ''º 1 s of Sofety Wl11ners

TABLi 7.:1 compn11y
- r.,1,,0 _ ------ -
_-~Y~en~r'. ----:--::;~~-~---COl!,lrl, l oad Co111pii1 1y 1
/bnt

'L97 J OZ,t1rl1 L id M\tic

{Slilieotw,1 to1 Ml11c) - swüVAfl--l· . ~-' -1---------t--~
Oz,irl< t.eod Co11lP,111Y
197? Ora, 11 L nd M1110 I .{. '1
(S\'llt1ctw,1'l , Mlr1c) ,r !'11,hf•llt....;
Ut,Por - .,,
St. Jae Mlnornts Corport1tlor1 &!-ct1°"
6
1973 i11dl,1r1 Croek N<l, 23 Miiic J:(Jll.
Co111inco A1norict1r1 1ncorpo1 ftte.d
L97!1 Magn1011t Mln '
conu rico A111erlca11 l 11corporatod ,._0-1 Con,ttt11J11t
1978 l\~ogn,ont Mi11e Minlrtg )ft>f17Qf\
st, Joe Mlr1~rals corooratlcn e:
o 1
1979 BrLtSll}I Crcek Ml11e
St. Joe Minarais Corporatlon ·-
1\1 e:
PortlnQ
MnrkOr 1

1980 Ftetcher I\~ 111e e! Lower 1

S.t. Joe Minertils Corporatiori uo. ]"" 6 7

.
-
1981 BrlJSl1y Creek Mino
e.. -i Z,t,r,I
/J -"-,
Comineo Amerlcan lncorporated
1982 Mag,11·ont Mine ..G..I >eo.< 1 -.--.- 6-7 "--------
., /
'T'
1

e: GI o. zon, -
1983 Bulck Ml11e
Ar11a Lead comoaov of Missourl
cu e:r : .!!!. ~~--f:-~-~1 ,
1

.o
·e a,o _L
1984 Retcl1er Mine St. Joe Mlnerals Corporation
7 I· - -
commco American lncorporated ~

'
1986 Magrnont Mine o tono 1

~'e-
/,
Reof Facle.$

Asarco lncorporated
1988 Sweetwater Unit ,..- - /;..
r / /

1989 Buick Mine The Doe Run Company t • :...._/:-:-1.

1990 Fletcher Mine and Mili The Doe Run Company 10 & 12
t. a-------~
Fore Reef Fecles
Zone•
AaJnboW
1993 Sweetwater U11it Asa reo I ncorporated Ma.rk•r
19 Zone
The Doe Run Company ¡ L,amolte
-Unconformfty
1994 Bulck Mine and Mili ' SS
o nglomerate.
1995 Retcher Mine and Mili The Doe Run Company - .
Precambrlan . .·. ·.
.. .. . . . . . .
. . . . . ·.
. .

. .•. •
• • •

1996 Casteel-Buick Mine and Mili The Doe Run Company

1998 Fletcher Mine and Mili The Doe Run Company

• Typical Stratigraphic Column
J11ne !9117

FIGURE 7.3 Stratigraphic column

l
Cid lt
..1 d Bo
(0 ,utct
( IM0Uv111)
T,....
mum
loectl"w"el
No 27 Jl•t\6 contained in zinc concentrates and is in solid solution in with the
\llbu ,

ti,lil ne L8Mct1ft/Fredet lck1own Dletrlcte

sphalerite. Gangue minerals are calcite, dolornite, quartz, and
{lnec:tive )
dickite. Ore bodies can be stacked and/or brecciated, blanket,
,t: Cl•t 1,11,,.
and algal reef.
~"ª~ 1 1111ne
The mineralization occurs as horizontal bands and díssemi-
'StBu MI~ ~

l
t
nations, ore matrix breccia disseminations in rock matríx
Vº "" '°" r breccia, veins and fillings in stockwork breccia and massive
sulfides. '
")C
1(" n e
' "
1t1ork M oct
h..- Mlnt
l
t
l \ rn,
In. the Vibumum Trend, ore is found in the Bonne Terre
An-,.~ ....; \ rhoe zones and th
. at por t. o f th e formation that hosts most O f
(IOkUYtl,
1011
-- .. ' •
: e or~-grade mineralization. The total thickness of the Bonrie
- - ierre 1 · .
'•
." . se 1me . · ,
- .•
.... , I \

''
• ""' •
e an ot . · · . ' ·

control th lg . ies on this unconform1ty. These plnchot1ts ma)

e ocat1 ·
(
._.:---.:::-=---. General Geological Features and Lead Dlstrlcts
of Southeast Mlssourl

Pr&Carnbrten Oufcrop oc acies a whí1r h t11sh

. 1' ht ~ J.
· ,•rtií'
cryst~lline dolostone ', e-t.o- 1.1g t bl -gray~ or !g
A.R;a of
•
2one of &hallow water trattellfon
C:S.ht.11
facies ln the, Bonnetotre Forn,atlon

1 ~ \ are cliscussed b Gitnestone a11d white rock to the Vibt1rnu111 Ti·en

o
·
--¿_} 'º Y
Essentially all erclema11n an d M yers ( 1972). , . .
·------- -- -- --
-- - -
.Jllfl,,t 1897
.. - , ,.
- --- -- .... , ...,¡,¡
- -·
 '
FIGURE7 .2 The Vlburnum Trend E d

(8,0 ft). Some rre us11ally ra11g s froi11 O 6 m (?. lt) co 24 m •

0 . . ore-grade · .. · : · . .. ,f rhe
v~:lying Davis Sh,\J, mine1 .1l1zat1on occu1·s 111 tl1e base ~ .

to date is 1argel:y u11 ~1.a es ~p a s111all percentage of the ore ar1

ecorlomic.
 1998

lodiaf\ creekiGoose Cr~ ,•nes

Potosi
ttnactive) x..
X •
I Old
Lead t ee
~Disrier
1.eadwood • ........ )
• Park Hil s
{' oac
(tnactíve;
Ylbtlr,11111111 No. 27 Mine
Tr~nd

~No, 2 ·
i
ottefFreoeric
. )
o n Oistr c
ln.ac

nt Mine

~BtJic Mine

, stfork Mine

')e Fle tcher Mine

•
Annapolls .
(1l acti 1,1 )
•

-,

' '

..,,- --
-
neral Geological Features and Lead D strt
Ge
of Southeast Misso,ur1
PreCambrian Outcrop '

Zone of shallow water transi ion

facies in the Bonne erre Forma on
1
o 10
Miles
J11ne 1997
lilodltlN ~ fil. F•ach, 2000

FIGURE 7 .2 The Viburnum Tren

 ,,,
- ·-
o
~

-
/ •
2
1
zone

-
-
.

L. ----
. / .
- --2 •

--. ·-·.z - - .
. L . -;
. .

Upper '
5
Zone

Parting
Marker
1
Lower
5
Zone

e 5-7 ¡

ftJ Zone 7·· - ..

·- -
...
.e ":-,,
L
E · _ ~;<:<,..... __,--
-
1 -
1--
-·

o" 1
Zone
J - --
--/ _ -

- 1
¡-- - 7~ .
:¿ ,--)')
r . ../ --- -
•
- ~ . Reet Fac,es
¡;".: - . ./
r / • /· -
...
f- - -:---/ _
1 . 1, /

-:-:--:,-:1=2-~ . . - .;, -
10
Zortes (.;..__ - -· ·-:-
Rainbow
Marf<er
19Zone
-----z-- - Forre Ree,f Facies

lamotte
SS i
r- -Unconform;ty

---- ---
nglome,ate I . , . .
> • ; I

l>recaRlbrian 1
.
•
. t
, '
. .. • 1

. .• . . . • •
.. . ,. . .. .
•
> I
• •
• 1 •
I
'

,. . ' "'-"'

7.3
c:ontaine J

snh!:lt ..... _._

• •
In Z ne ~n
 '111 l 11 I· 'I \ \ 1111 \ 111 •\'• ~',, 1 1 , • •\•. l ,l '1 1¡
l
t 1\

•
1
11 \ t 1\ 1 1\t t l \11 l 1 •·111 \ 1 1
,,111111' -, 1 \\ 1t li 11 ,, l'' (l(tt' 1'·11,1'11 ' II 11~·. 11(¡' 1111111,1 1,,. 1 111 1

1
1 l\11•111 1',l \ 1 '' 1
' lltllJ
111 ' ( 1 "'''''""

1 '. 1 1 ,¡ 11 1' 1 \ 1 1 \ • 11 1'111

111,['1'11\:
,11 (\,, ~ ~f\•\t\ 1,1' t ¡11 1 • \i t \Vlllt tl1t• 1111•1
' • \ \ ( 1, l'\l,1\1'' ,111' ' ' 1

111·
\','l,t 1.111, l~ ¡\ l l 111 11, 11' 11 1 ¡',' 1'' 1 l \ lt1111I t'1111,lltl11111 1111·
'1 • ' ' ' \ \ 1 \) \ \ 11 1 1 • 1 ,.
1 1 \ \ , ,t 111·1 111 ,·11 1 . 1
11 1' 1••lllnu
t'~ 1' '< l\;I ,\ t\•11) 'l\\.'i' ,\l, ll t 'l l t , 1'
tu 1 11' t 11111 ,11111 11111111•,, ¡illl•• , 1,r111111 , 1111111,,
••• ,· 1 ( 1
\\\1111111,•l111l1•1 1 11 1 1 ,111 .. 1 1111 111 t•• 111,111 •1r1 1,1.,1

1,11111'\, \ l ~ll\ tl '11. \\'ll1't 1 1111 ( ll!l :, lll,l'il, \'i', ••

1
\ 1 l.' 1•11111 111(' 1 11'11 y ,,, 1•111111 ,, 1¡¡1,1
..J
' ' 1 \ l'.l 1, ll'Nt' \11111'' 1 • 1( Pl.AN
~l'[',tl',\4' I :\l 1l}' 't~l\l•,I ''(.~ f, \\'l' ti \ • ·!\ ,, II • \1 ' ·• • 1! ti 1'11
' 1) 1 11 \' ' 1 •
1 111,1, ,1 ,,,,,,1 , ..,, 1111,u. , , 1,11,, • ,,,,
;•111 1 W 11 1111,r 111111, ,,,,., •1111 1 1
. l ll 111 ll1lllll1•1•11\lt•lll1•1 'I 1 .,,,11,,, •• , ..... ,.,,.. ~··· ..... , ... ,, •• ,
!1){\ll\t t\\'11' 't\l.:.¡,11•·11\tit\1'''1' 11 • i t 11,1 ,,1,
,11nr111lt•l ••1 ¡1lll.,, w11lt 1111 l•11utl1 \
, . ' •'' 1\) \ 1'111,
l•,\t1l1s ,, 1111, 1 t t 11·.1t ,li·s• ¡ t 11,1,111 ,111. ..... ,.. · tl111111, 11n1 ,,.111111. 1 !
. 1 , . , , \l 1 111·1111• 111 \11 1 I 'W 11
.u l lli
,
111 1 \,11' \'t[ l(l lllllll '1'11 111!
•
vvlu! <
i
\111\IS
•
·
•
1 ,
, 1 11l'
,
u-x ,, ,,,,,111,11<111 ' '''' 'l ._, .. 1111, 1111 ,, ,, ••• , •• ,••
nl1,11u ¡,lllnr• 1111 11 • 1 1111v ,1 11•1,,1,,,,.,,, ,,,
. . , 111,1111,l, l ,,, ,11... u,111111 ''" 1111 ( ti.,1 ,,111,11,,111• 1111,1)
. \ l I i l , l 11 l l t 1 \l l 11 1 1 ' ' 1 ' , '" 1,1,11 I 111111•• r q1•11f•1 11, ,, 1, 11 ,,,

1\\' '\ll l '¡l l\\ 1 lll\. S1'\'1'l tl ¡)t't'i l [ • ¡' ,, ' e n.ry l,IV<'
11111 1 l1al1,jl1t,

• ' ( \ ¡,; () 11 1 \ rv 1 \ 1' l l' 11 I ) . ' . • '

1\\, 1 111sc)t t' \•\' · s , , , t, c;¡,,,tt111,u11 , ••I• fl 1rlill l, 1111•111, 11111,
i,(111111 11111 .. , \/11 1111 w 11 ,11111 ll<IJI ,t • \ ,!
. ,, . , l )•·. ·\ 1. ' \ l () ,, () l l'~il )11·11 l 1·11:l1 W:l(t'I ,111111 ,11 1 ''" t11ro• ( ,Jt • 111 1,,111rul••••n11 ¡
t •• lll, .. 11>111,,, •• "'" ll~ 'ª' lh '' hl111
. flll l 1,. t • lt• l ~,,\l .1,.t1t1tl1'T' '111(1
\
,· I\ l \ ... , 1 ')

'
l' j t'; l t l\" .S '
1

~
1
,. .
11,.. 11111a1 t, 1u1,1.

• • ' \ () 1 )\ 1 )11 s ' . \ .

11 ' Hll1>tl 11111111, IJlltV ir ..... rql11l11, .. 1 r ldU,ol
. .• . · <>1111,1111111 1 11• S I 1,1,,111 1, l<J d o r, Vll•Q o 11•ollf r1tl 11,, lil'>Vlifl11fSi
L')l, ,lljll!ltl' ll.',llJ'll•tS :-.11';1\¡\ )'ll'll\l·11·1'l\1 ti• 1 • • • 1,.,oal 1111pu11 to th .. tar" t••ak. t 11t1.;m1>
, ' ' .l •l' ,lllll() 1 .'','
1101~1 ,:11 to d l111t> "' 111 Jo• blo<1k
DA
. . 1 ' l , l l 1 ) 1 1, 111 x 11 ; 11 ; , • /\ 1 111111 111 }' t 1111111 QI• 1
rx
•
t l't ll'l>·t.l :-1· ¡1(11·1
111\
,
ll( ti,' St, l•'1··11lt'()is
l •
·1,111·
,
11 • · 1 · ·1 · 1
L 11 w 1tt 1 ts t 11vv;111•1·c·cl
'
11 ,11·, ¡1s ot 1,1.t'\'1t1t1.s 1\1i11.i,,).;. 1.,11··, iullows• ()f. w·it• l -r occurrtx 1 ·111
·¡ • . ,
l t I' L',11' Y but ll'','l"l ,·1~,·l, 1,¡ , ,·1,,S, 'l t , l)t1i: {) Í ( j C'!)I' 'SS1·Clll FIGURE 7 .4 PIII
. S'{..:l~L ~ l.)! lllitlll,g,

\\1 ,, s ~r , !!)ltsl1·t''<.t
, t11 t he SI · Fraucois •·1t¡1ii~t·1· • l•'i•"t,', lll l ·,l,S íll'l' on·cuu-r 1

55' l'. ;1tltl_N so- 1:. :'lltl 'll'L' ()l'll'l1 \•V;l(l'l' l)1',ll'il\~.
(,l'Ol<)glt' '()t\·1.lt!tl)llS it\ lllL' Vil,ltt·1111111 'l'1·t'l1tl t't11111·il1t1Le i,1 7 5 MINING
111,in)' \•\1'1): t~) t·l1t' 1·L tlttc:t io11 t)I. c11vi1'<)t\1\\t'11t;1I i1t1p;1c·ts. '1'11<' METHOD
lt'l)I\~, f1,1f~l)1lll~ St1·:1t·1 ;\l'L C.'()ll1[)0Sl'tl t)r t';lt'l)C)l\flll' t'O(I< 111,ll Bl'c.1t1sc of tlll 1·l'l¡:11i,1cly [li1t-lyi11l~ t1,11111'<" oí tl,e c)i·t', l>iilt<.'r·,,.1y1Je
l1cl~ s i11·t'\' 11t rl1 f 1'111¡1tit)11 <.)l' ,tc.'i<.I. 'l'l1t' l1i~l1~r,11 w·1tt·1· assot·i-
n..tcc.l ,~·irl, tli_·' t':11·l)t)t1;\tt' ,·ot:lzs gt't.11..·r·,,tly clot'S '110L c:11·1·y sig11il:ic·<111t ' · '· · t ·1· ·, 111 sevc1·11l <llff<.1·e11t 11111,11·
:111:10,t1t\Ls ol 11t-'t1V)' 111t't 1ls i11 st)lttt i<.>t1. W:11e1· <.Jlt:1lity is goocl.
Ü\'Lt·nll. 1·l1t' ~,r1101111t o.f i1't)11 :;11lfi<.lt~s is lc>w. ·r11~1·c ,1,·c 11c1
tlJ11g1:11·oi1s ~;\Ses ·1t1d ¡¡¡ t l1: t~1t1lli11g. 1'ltc 1·cl;.11ivcty lc>w IOJJO-
gJ·,,1 !tic.· ,·Llief ~1t1cl i'lll c:t 11sivc 11clW()1·l<. of ~l(~Ccss rt) ..1cls 1·cdt1cc
1::t1.,1i1 Ot1111~11tt-ll i111.p,1<.:ts :111(! l<.ce¡J t llt' costs 01· sL11·1· ..1cc ¡J1·os¡)t'Cl
cl1·illi11g lo 1•

7.4 MINE DIMENSIONS

'l'l1e st.111<l,1t·cl rocl· qL1¡1lit)1 el 'sigr1at io11 Ltse(I is l>L'Lwcc11 90 :111(!
100. l"\oon1 i·cltl.1s ::irc J1cl(l ton r11t1xi1.1111111 of 1 l 111 (36 f1), !)Lit
nre ()rpir ..1lly 9.8 l11. (32 ft,); [i11nl 11 igJ1Ls i"ll.l' ¡J1·cfc1·1·ccl to l1e less
tl1n11 15 111 (50 ft). lloof' bolt·ing ty¡Jic·1lly l1.-1s l)c.~t'L1 clo1.1c i11 cvc,·y
i11ter·sectío11 and clscwl1c1·e 011 at1 as~11eccl<.'.tl lJnsis. l .c>11g~tc1·111
accesse ¡incl lil cly a1·e·1s [01· ¡Jill,11· ext1·;1t·tío11 .11c ,1lso l)oltcd Le>
ease ~:ti·actio11 l1;1vc IJis·to1·ic¡1lly ·111<l rcdL1cc dilt1ti<)11. Pill,11· sizcs
¡., 11 8.5 l.l)' 8.5 111 (28 by 28 íL) 011 20-111 (60-1.t) cc11tcrs. l)~111cl
pillat· sizes 0.r t1.6 by 23 111 (38 !)y 76 ít) l1t1vc l)ce11 ,1c~otJt·t,~I ro,·
,ivide1· ,11·c:1s \l\111c1·c pill,tr l'Xt1·¡1ctio11 ís ¡Jl,11111L'cl. l:tcl¿tt1ve 111llí11·s
st1·e11gtl1s tlr~ ,1ísl1.,1lly 111011iLorccl 11si11g ,1 r:11_i,1g. ~ystt'1~1 of l ~o 6,
wl1c1·e I sig11ifics 110 VLSttril strlSS ¿_111tl 6 s1g111í1cs ¡J1ll~1,· ín1l.L11·c (l~igttrt'
7.4). 'l'l1esc ,·:1ti11gs ,11·c 11sc(l i11 tl1c NrOt.I? ~1L1t11t·~1cé1I
111odcli11g p1·ogi·;1111.s CLtt·1° 111ly L'IlltJloycc.l for ¡,1·c,cl1(·r111g ptll,11·
stal1ili t )'·
 Stopo and Pttlor Mlnin<¡
Prlntory E trae ion
(Plan Vi W}
FIGURE 7 .5 Stope and pillar mlntng (pion vtew)

7 .5.1 Prlmary Extractlon Phase

Pr·i111111·y cxt1',t('tio11 is tl1t.' clevel(Jpn,l'tlt t,11 l fi1··t·pa ·s ph . lt i
gt'11eraJly c.lo11c i11 tl1c l101·izotl with th' l1ighcst 01· ~radc in th
01·l' l)c>cly as (lc1<.·1·111i11ecl <>tl tl1" b,tsis <>t. 1· •sult of dia1nond drill
l1oles f1·<1111 tl1(' sl1t·f,1c·c. 'l'ypically, tl 1 pl·,11 iew of a primar
1.'xt1·,1ctío11 stc)¡>t lc)c>l s lik, ,, V, with c.l •velopm tlt b ginning in the
1.11icl<llt• <>l. tl1 V 11ncl <.iir t't •el •itl1 r 11ortt1 or south. Pillar r
r1·c,1tocl l) l1i11cl ti\' V <>11 eitl1c1· sic.le (Figt11·e 7.5).
l)1·ill rc,ttn<.ls 111·" gc11e1·,llly 5.5 m (18 ft) high by 9.8 m (32
wic1t• l)y 4.:3 111 ( 14 f't) Jee1J a11d l>r ak appro im tely 560 tonn
e 0111.p¡:111 t·c s' L'rt' <> 1)t.' r·<.L t 111g 111 t 1c. 1 ,c. ,1 ., ,, •el
!" . l>ltt c.·111·1·c11tl (620 tc>ns) of r·ot·l. Si ty to sixty-fiv hol s 44 mm (13/4-in) t

• • . L s •ti· ¡J1·1111·11·y seco11cl(11 y. ,111( <li,1111l~tt•1· ,1re c.lrillec.l ¡>cr· rotrncl wirh a standard bum cut
O!) 1Y t 11J'l (' L' X l t'i (.'l l'Ü 11 JJ [ 1¿) Sfc'~ ¡\J C 1, e • • ' 7.6) llS •<l fo1· relicf.
lt l li ..1,·y.
I rs of
ld be Pillar Pfllar Condltton Appearance
rating
!.4m
rock 1 No lndlcatlon of stress-lnduced fracturlng.
lntact pjJlars.
frac-
s are
ld be
· and 2 Spalllng on pillar corners, mlnor spalllng J' a
• of plllar walls. Fractures orientad l
srve, sub-parallel In walls and are short
relativa to pillar height.
.s or
PLAN
.ften
rial. 3 lncreased corner spalling. Fractures on
pillar watls more numerous and
out continuous. Fractures orientad
sub-parallel to pillar walls and lengths
are less than pillar height.
.hes
and 4 Continuous, sub-parallel, open fractures . " ,, -
,
along plllars walls. Early development of
end diagonal fractures (start of hourglassing).
Fracture lengths are greater than half of
lave pillar height.
.
. ,...,.. .. •"-'' ...
.idi-
• 5
ion. Continuous, sub-parallel, open fractures
a long pillar walls. Well developed
., <6~·,, . ~t..,.

iter diagonal fractures (classic hourglassing.)

Fracture lengths are greater than half
rhe the pillar height. (~ .
•

an Failed pillar, may have minimal residual

6 ~, <
an- load carrying capacity and be providing
local support to the stope back. Extreme
on, hourglassed shape or major blocks OR
• fallen out.
mg ') .

red
•
n
. lll
d FIGURE 7.4 Pillar rating guide

Stope and Pillar Mining

Primary Extraction
(Plan View)
Legend 1 • '1
-· J ¡ ¡
-- --·-1-------
· - - ---~
• --
r 1
First Pass 1
1 1 __ 1 l - .

1 r- -
1
1

• •
• • Brow 1
--
~-~
=- 1
---+----- l '.f/. - - -
•

'' ~
1 ,' '\
Bluff
...
1•
.... I
~
•
Pillar Number ,
2437

•
/
111 Back and Bottom Elevatlon • /

.._ 1 ""'
Survey Statlon
•
. '
'
1

/' Pillar and Drlft Pallern

GURE 7 .5 Stope and pillar

•«, •
mining (plan view)
'-. ,,/ IÍ - F • • ••

"<
••
•,.• I1
 •

,_,1 •
•
j
•
.
.
· -

t
,
•
 Fract~re lengths are great

., .
l '

r
'
•

•
1 LfJ&lihr

Legend 1
1
I
1
I
1 l
1
l
-- ----- . -!----~- -- --· 1
l

' 1
Flrst Pass 1 1

/
1 1
I l 1
• ·- 1 ' t
1

< 1

.,
1
1
1
1
•
1

1 \ 1 ' !

• •
•
• Brow 1
- 1
•
• 1
•
• \
\
1
. \ ....., '
••
•

• Bluff '
' \ . '•'
1 ' \
1
' \ \
1

Pil ar Number •• '

2437
l /- -• •
·- 'I"

• . '
Back and Bottom Elevatíon -' ' .' '
'
.,,,., '
1

' 1

•
Survey Station ,, •
.... 1
1
•
'
'
t"• l
,,
•

_) l
1'
1 , ,
•
' , • /1
(
- /:
Pillar and Orift Pa tern 1
• .~,, ·, 's
t '/ \ ••
1•' .: •
.
~h "'\1
.• '

)•
lo., 1 ')
1

\_

I f ; ... .,, • •
·
'
, ,\
1 ¡
••
,
• h
1
l
,,. •
J'" .... •
• ' ' •

1 •
. . .,. . .
\
\ l '\ 1
1
•
1
•
'
.' ... • •

./ --=-=
.·.~
1
•

/ ,
j
-

..
ri
l~
extracuon
•
one m tr
• r " '"'f Ai~mon
 1 •
• 1
-- - 1 1
 nd-Pillar Mining of Hard Roc·t.
Room-a "

"
92

o 1
1
, • •
•
1

Pillar e,ctraction
FJGURE 7.S
Reliel Hole
3• d,a
o . . . ed as a back or ~ottom from the fl:st

2fl Ü
o
1 a• asses. -..v e . .
1
¡ 4.6 m . inedout u
1rrade, ír is genera11y rn . . ars (Figure 7. 7).- . . .
l
j a ong · rche to · . '
Drill rounds are ~a nd 1 to 6 m (3 to 20 ft) h1gh.aíld 4.3 rn

o verage 1 by 1.5 m (3 by f s are rypically drilled ov e1ther

FIGURE 7.6 Standard burn cut

breasting up or down wt k d rinz a back pass musr be held rn

inventory un
til the faces ave ª must be hand scale
d 1-..
L•eC(lUSe o
f
=- ~ ,_-~- - rarnp ahead, and bottom pass~ these disadvantages, rhis Iorm of

·r =-===-====:===:¡:::=
=;=: Stope Mining d extracnon lS e mo . . . 1} tl -
secon ~ . T d Biasring 15 essen na )' 1 sarne as

mine ore m che Vtbum~ ott ha t one big factor , · ater 111 usr be
,, f · ary extraction excep Q r bl
coornspíd.nerrned Pn. mary extrae riOn rends to drav t down the watehr · ctJa, ·e
immediateiy above and belo ..,, the main. pass. ANF·O, ~v t 1 is
- / .
Airflow
a roximarely one-sixth the cost of dynanure per pound, rs almosr

typically average 0.45 kg/ronne C?.90 lb/ron), and average p0ull ts

95o/o. ANFO can be used ar a higher percen tages, and ~S ~o or
7. -
higher ANFO usage is cornrnon, especially during overcut rrunmg '.
Norrnally, more than one secondary extraction merhod rs
FIGURE 7.7 Stope and pillar mining (side view) employed in the same srope area because of the varied nature ~f
ore geometry. For insrance, after me
primary exrraction phase is
complete in a given stope, a back pass may be taken on the primary
Blasting is primarily done with ANFO, stick dynamite, and extraction horizon while an undercut pass is being taken or
nonelectric Jong-period-delay blasting caps. Powder facro1·s are planned. Another possible combination is a bottorn pass being
around 0.65 kg/tonnes (1.3 lb/ton), and average pull is around raken on an underct1t level whüe a11 o ercut level is being planned
85º/o. Because of the wet nature of the rock, only about 500/o or taken. Seve1·aJ dífferem combinations are possible for any gi en
ANFO is used. Bulk emulsion is used in sorne extremely wet areas ore geometr),, and no ser c.ombmation works everywhere.
(Figure 7.6).
7 .5.3 Tertlary Extraction Phase
7 .5.2 Secondary Extraction Phase
Tertim-y excra_ction is the pillar recovery phase (Figure 7.8) · The
Followi11g completion of the primar-y extraction phase, the mine amount of pilla1· reco ibl e · t · h},1
roof and floor are drilled to delineate a11 ore to be extracted in the . ery posa e 101· a given srope is 11g ,
secondary extraction phase. These boles are 15.2 to 30.S m (SO
to 100 ft) long and completed on 18.3-m (60-ft) cente1-s. Sorne s ºP~- 1n.00aor/eoas of the h1ghest 01:·e grade it is possible to exrract
longhole, low-angle drilling is perfor·111ed in front of mining 011 )' 1c to bof ,t.he Pillars wici1 the aid
enceoanrom ;f backfill · While it is n.or
8)
occasion, but it is of limited value beca use of the flat-lying nature
o ese pi · ars
a1 e 64 isn1m
poss1ble
21 . d· . d.
. . ' J • · ? 1
of the deposit. Small-diameter, diamond-drill coring is p1·eferred P 1·11 ar recoi.1ery d •·¡¡ epen 1ng u'Ynan cr-eon1errv, (Figure 7. ·· )
O
but rotary percussion drilling is also used. ' H 1 . n patterns are 1 2 bv 1 8 m ( 4 by 6 rt ·
The secondary extraction phase involves mining the back. or

bottom or o~ercut or undercut portio? of the ore body (Figure 7. 7). 011g Fan p t . . · o!
flat and angle · a te:rns are usi ng a co.¡nb nat1 11
d 1 1 . ; dr1Iled 1 0
An overcut 1s a pass cut above the pnmary extraction horizon and
jt1mbo can rea h10 es, that Is, fiat l1oles are dril!ed as l1igh ~s rl1e
an undercut .is a pass cut below the prin1ary extraction ho/izo11. cover the 1·ema~1n1'.11agndtopalip hole, s abo:ve are. d1·iiled to 1·0,rro ,l [3a1 to
~ese elevat1on cha1:ge~ are. gained via ramp access non1,ally
dr1ven at ±lOo/o. V:nttlat1on raises are cut between Ievels appt·oxi-
tr1c
mate~y eve1-y 213 1.1near meters (700 ft). The decision abour which
practic~ to follow 1s based on to~al ore thiclmess or rhe amount of . B1asting is do . Ottt'?n o~ tl1e pillar. ._
separat1on of ore by nonore-beanng strata. Ore wirl1 tl1icknesses of mi:llisecond-de: Prtn1a_ril · \Vtth ANFO (80qo) .1nd nor erlec

Terti;:iry e rra t' /to~). Ave1·age b1·eak is arour1d 90°10,

· enip oy d · t
not for tl1e exu··1 e · in the Vibur11t1111 n-end ru1d were 1
· ' eXpe11se · (

· assoClated wirh the n1aincen.-1,nce 0·

 I j

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ar rmru• SI

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none ectnc e o tors are

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ecause t
lil

nc verJ
The Viburnum Trend Underground · A n Overview
.
93
remote-controlled load-11alil-dum . 11 r .
ac < or Jol tom ore •
1 ) t, 1 t • 1
gr e> 1t I rcl r 1 o l
7.6 MINING EQUIPMENT •
íl'll[l

r,1 f d (J
High degrees of L1ndergro,ut\,d minino m . .. . . . ,, t (l r \l r 1
been the tradernark of Vib , . g
t urnuin Ti 1 d rru
. c!,<11117-1-1 t 1,01 • l1,1v1'
.
lci1111
r,
l11ft.
ment u sed for both prirnary < nd sccond · ,,,.~s. . ,e el'. il l 11: g t' u ip
tially • the same • throtlgiiout thee, Vil )1\..1 r11ª"> e, ',Lracl1011 1s e s n- 7.7 P
. · L1 n 1 , , •
p,oduction 2000
rhe standard and, wíth only
. . .
.¡ : 16- ft) r 'C\.1-. J1·c
a coup. e e. cept 1011 ~, Ji e 1 80 •
0~
--~~--~
·¡ Joy -machines
vintage ¡ .: ,,V1tl1 JH-2 driít r· s. ll Junri
· bos hav be ·n e

1·e b ur t sever a times o er the ,; 'ears , bu L th ,ere · 1-e 1 Mine

º"
, .
'
r. •,O 2

1.600
Drílli · Slgll)So,er
n 1ng equtpment for pillar reco, erv v . f · . i.o. 35 3600
· · s ro
J
mine. G 11
11 · have rod chan·ge ane d .rorn mine
enera y, a
jum. b.os '' rs an run ei. th · -
· l · · e Jum os t at Bu ck • ne/ ) 500
d o not require e ectncrry or water are preferred f ill d .1 .
. ·11 or p! ar n lin u 8rust:, Creek 500
b ecause pi ar recovery usually covers exren · f e)
· k1 M f th · rve areas o stope
quic y. .any o ese stopes may also be lacki . h rili · 3600
having been mined for 30 or 40 years. ng suc u toes. ~ 500
Fle cher '· r.e/:.' !I
Char~ing equipment is essentíally the same at all mines.
S.·,-ee::,¡,.,a,er, 's.e
Center-art:J.culated boom trucks with man-lifts and 454-kcr

(20 ft) high, which is s~ffic1ent to rea ch most drill hoies.

Norrnet, Tam
. rock, anbd Pertíbone are sorne of the rnanufa e tur ers
o f this equiprnent, ut the Getman A64 is the most common 7.8
machine. 1 lose of the vorkforce in the -rrend is lo l . .., a
Mucking during prirnary and secondary extraction is done generation mjners. The mines are ch~ s1 e b
mainly with construction-type front-end loaders. Loader sizes employmenr and pro ide sorne of the í e ·p .
en
vary from 4.2 to 4.6 m3 (5.5 to 6 yd-') with the preferred model area. These facto s combine to make e a
being the Caterpillar 980 series. These loaders provide fase cated grou p of en1plo_ ees. ln recen, ) car
cycling times and good operaror comfon. Typically, these loaders the rema.in,i,íl.g resen es of r.he Trend min s 1

are replaced or rebuilt afrer 15,000 hours when their mainre- economic ,·ia,buil}' of che mines. \ i o t a
quali,ty fo,und in the Trend, mosr of Lhese in " mi
nance requirernents start to- íncrease unacceptably.
sunri ·ed the la[est lo\,' points of .he lead .- r el.
Mucking for tertiary extracrion is done , rith. remoce-
controlled LHDs. Sizes range from 5.4 ro 8.4 rn3 (7 to 11 yd3) and 7.9
most have ejector-style buckets to aid in rruck loading. The most
The Vibumum Trend mines ha e a long l1·sro~ o-
comrnonly used rnodel is the Wagner ST8,B. 1 Iaintenance on these and urnq,ue underground m.ining mee, od . O\ r
units is si · .cantly higher in chis environmenc th~ fo,r_ an I.HD geologíc coodirioos and differenc o ners: · p.4·
operating in a nonremore siruation. The pracuce in sorne to man}' ,.,aria cions in underground 10:pe n d p1
Vibt1111u111 Trend mines is to load directl')r into haulage tr:1cks, pülar reco..,'eI)' is srill effectíng changes o curre. ·
while other mines stockpile rock our in a safe are a f or_ co~ rencional and gi,i.ng birth co man)' ne\' and curtin.,-edg
loaders to load into haulage rrucks. Vvhich practice is ~hosen cechnologjes and mechods de eloped throu
depends on mine site managemenr preferences and eqrnprnenr ,·.rith the excellene safecy record and ttni
re
specifics. r . [TU] , rnake che Vtburnum Trend a orld-c ·
Haulage trucks in the Viburnum Trend vary rrorn mine to
mine. Sizes are generally in the 36- to 45-eonne (40- e~ SO-ton) 7.10
· . · · miles are

10,000 hours, at which po,1nít che;1 muse

.· H.15t íca y atertx ar
cost are majar factors in truck selecoon. on ' ~ t' d is typically at che end of the·r ~ease. . not uri·c:o rr1on (01
or1c
· .· e Trend beca use o
perso.n to scale rl1ree fres11lY bl . ·1 rl,e Gctn1@11 \' 1
. . . are st1 m se itJf1
, e m1
today Because of current econom1c cansera , s
haula.ge trucks. are now ]eased. Consequenrly, the most com~on
. · ted surface consrruc¡1on
. . ce or ,
Gerdemann, P.E, and t-J.E. _ ers. 19 2. lvlou n t, \ .l·i.
1 l -000 Ph ~
Facie Pac erns co Ort: Ge e 1 m t RL111 Cump 10
Distri t. Economi C ol. &J, • p
. 10.
La.ne, .L., T.R. ansk , and [). . o . l Paa.1 I rg,. 1.
1 79. 1
be
Rock. Iechnnics at tl1 Doe
Doe Run Co.
Llo~·d, ~ 1.G. la 2 . Ph in Cl I r
SE. to C nrral S n ¡.._ .:> O t ._
•

With a 9-m· (30-ft-) long boon, and (t

 •

o e l. - '
-ft •
·e n-
•
•
z s 1 · -Se o ,._ t
a, o e bo
e ced - · a s

r
•

f • •
1'

9
o 85

I l · , 00 3
5
. iI ..4.9
'643

· · Trend is local. Se eral are second-

. r· r n th
•

~,.e ~.

bine to make a · erv., talented and dedi-

I
, of. th
n recent years, lo metal prices and
e m e Trend mines have challenged the
ines. ithout a wor , orce of the
rnos of these mines might not hav

•
• 1
• •
., .
CHAPTER 8
W.L. Lane, * T.R. Yanske, L.M. Clark. * and O.P. Robertst
8.1 INTRODUCTION
8.1.1 Background
The Doe Run Cornpany's lead mines are located in southeast
Missouri US,A .. The company, owned by the privately held
REN~O· Gro,1.1~, ~s the largest integrated lead producer in North
Amer1c~, providing 85°/o_ of th~total primary lead production in
B:e United States. In M1s_sour1 the company owns and operares
eight underground lead-zinc-coppor mines, si, mills, two prirnary
srnelters, and a secondary smelter. In addition, Doe Run owns the
La Oroya smelter and Cobriza Mine in Peru, lead fabrícation busi-
nesses in th~ United States, and several greenfield properties i11
North América and South Africa. The eight Missouri mines are
the Fletcher, Brushy Creek, Casteel, No. 28, and No. 29, which
were previously owned by St. Joe Minerals Corp.; the Buick Mine,
which is a cornbination of the old Homestake-Arnax Mine and the
Corninco-Dresser Magmont Mine; and the Sweerwater and West
Fork mines, which were purchased from Asarco in 1998.
Mining operations in Missouri take place in a flat-lying,
tabular ore body 150 to 350 m below the surface. The ore body is
from 1 to 40 m thick and 10 to 600 m wide and has a trend length
of 65 km. The mine workings are located below an aquifer, from
which it is separated by 30 m of impermeable shale. The ore
trend traverses both the Mark Twain National Forest and
privately owned lands.
8.1.2 Primary Mining
The primary mining method is a highly me~h~nized roorn-and-
pillar method incorporating two-boom drill jurnbos, _7- to 9-
tonne-capacity loaders, and 27 - to 45-tonne-ca~a_c~ty ~aL1l
trucks. Thicker ore zones are mined first using an initial pillar
pass followed by a varied combinatio~ of back, . bott?1n,
undercut, and overcut passes. Ultimately, píllars range 111 height
from 4 to 37 m.
Until 1993, pillars were cut 9 by 9 m with ~O-n1 drift open-
ings berween pillars. Since 1993, Iarger panel píllars have been
utilized where stopes are wider than 50 rn. ~hese rneasure ~1.5
by 23 m with 10-m drift openings between pillars. Current r1ll~r
reserves are estimated to be 16,000,000 tonnes, rnuch of whích ts
high grade.
8.1.3 Secondary Mining
Secondary mining in rhe forrn of pillar extra~tion is an extrernely
important component of the total product1on at Doe Rtt~. 111
fiscal year 2000, pillars will be 16º/o of the ton~ag~ and 25 Vo of
the metal. The ability to successfullY'.' ext_ract pillars allows Doe
Run to nearly double its remaining mme lífe.
_..
The Doe Run Company, ViburnLtrn, MO. bi
b British Colum ta,
e ana d n,
Pill ..ir rcro ¡1l,t1l11i11,1 at t) x: Run i l ooi li1111
t l') ·el by 1t
Technical Service l) partrn ·111 \ 1()t·1<it1 \ irh r11i11 • ¡>t'1 <>111l -l, /'
recovery plans ¡· modvk d ttsi11,g C1()itlt'r· !\. ociare 'str • 111,
ysis computcr ¡)1·oi1·a111 Nl'Oi.I). Goklc: 's L' ¡J ·1 ti 't bns prov
invaluable to rhc SltCCL'S.S of ¡)ill t l'. 11·:1, 1 Ion ,lt I oe l t111.
Pillar reco rc1·)1 is l)t'itt~ 111. 1. ·i111i7. xl by t'l1t' u . el! t, f
which varíes 1·rL1111 2 to1111·c: of h 1ckt.i!I p .r lt>t111 til pill r t
mined to no backflll in 11¡1¡·1·<.) . 1 •.st I i<·tt·cl . r is. Jt pr 1 1.1:
importancc in desigr1i11g n ll,l~·k.fill ¡11·111 i.~ tó t'11.· 1 \• t 1 it 11
potenrial pillar rail iros ·11·L co11t;1i11 xl within 1 ht l)·, · t1llt·cl r
so tl at therc is 11,0 ¡)1·o¡J·1g,11iot1 into ¡ lj;~ · ·111 pillnr : 1· , ·• 11 ,1
tion, backfill lir11its tl e exr "'11t t>f 11:1 I· ¡·,,¡lt 11c:. 1 1 I is 1\ 1 1cli 1• bJasts
1 1
sut·facc SL1iJSl<..i1cn(·e, ;111<.l l)1·,c·1¡ \1it1' t1t', c1t1i! 1s l 1 tl
mine \Vorking .
In tl1c old r atL'as of t!il' c11i1 L,'. L'. 11·,1<..·t111~ tl1t' .,11 • l
9-m pilla,·s !1ns pt·() er1 t.o !) ' Lli1'fi L1l1. sir11.'L' 111c1:t t1I" 1!1
1 ,l a1·e
over lOO m \\'1Ll1 \ •itl1 20 n.1 l1igl1 t')tll!11·s (;111 • 1111 JI 1 ( in
Figt1re 8. l). VVl1 n it is cono111ic1l, l)~t ·I ¡·¡¡¡ is ¡1l, 1.l' 1 o ill,
for tl1e ext1·action of :idditio11ii1l 1)'ll·l1·s. 'l'l11~ !} <.' ·11tl \'lir11i11 i1 rl
potential for cnta tro1)1!1 ·c dor11i110-l~'1)C: ¡)ill·\t' 1·ailt11· ': • 1,<I I
sive co!1apses oi!· tl1c t->ack. vVit11 tlt<.' i11tt'OclL1cti<l11 of tht' l 1rr.
(11.5 by 23 m). s rong 1· i1¡111 ,¡ ¡Jillnr·s it1 ti'\· \ i,ll ·1· :11·1: ,is 1· t
01·e tre11d, t11ore et.ficier1t fil! :ch<.'ti.1 's ·1t1(l \1ir,!1c1· c:t1·;1L·ti 111 r,1ti
have been obtai11ed. Unfo1-rt1n.<11 ~ly, 111t()St LlÍ 1l1c ¡Jill:1r rl': r ~ 1
in the older 9- b)., 9-m ¡)ill·11· <1rcas.
8.2 BACKFILLOPERATIONS
8.2.1 Butck Mine Shaft Area Backflll Plont
The fi1·st hackfill pl·1nt nt th 1311ick Mi11t.' ·nt into l)p ·r ,ti<>n
1993. Tl1c plant is con1posec.l <.)f ·111 8-11.1:t D 11 't't· 111i ·t. 1· tt.'d l) t
conveyot· belts, onc of vv l1icl1 fcc el: re 111 'Ilt :\t (t tl • ,t. t, fr >nt t
63-to11ne l)i11s and tl1e otl1er· vl1i ·t1 fet'ds <.' ·!0111 <.I t·tilin~ · fr >111
· sto1·age hoppe1· (Figt1re 8.2). C 'lll ·11t ·1n l t'ly ,,, h ·,r el li re
to tl1c underg1·ot111d bi11s [1·0111 s111·f,1c, ·• .., .., :...O-l·111-i11· ti 1n1 tt
305-1n-dee1> casccl 110 le. Cy<.: lot\l'll t,1ili11~' l'l'al l 8. l)
dropped fro111 the s111·f·1c clo\v11 ·111otl\ 1· :...O-c,,1-i11- cii,1111 t 1· he
and depl)Sited i11 a s11n1¡1 ,11·eii, ti r tl1t \ ,tl r i <.l c·,,nt d. n
1
the cycloned tt1ilings ,lr ,tllow •d to clt·,·, tt1 : :-11· 1>i ·k t llp b
Caterpillat· 966 to·,d 1· a11<l ft•(i into th ' t:1íli11~' h pp 1·. 'l'h n1i
is capable of c)rcli11g ¡1 b·1tch ()Í slt11·r)' i11 7 111in. F r norm l b e
filling, tl1e slt11·1·)' !)atcl1111i: co11sist,' ()f. th' ~ ll > in 1,1 t rial .
1. 450 kg e t11 '11t
2. 540 kg fly 'lSh
3. l 140 L \IV':tte1·
4. 455() l g <.: t'l >tlt.' l n1ill t 1ilin, ·
I Golder Associates, Ltd., Burna Y,
96
"" . . . • • • ,,.,. . .. '

echan es at: he
tssourt 1991 to 20()0

W.l. Lane,>- T.R. Yanske.,. L.M. C\ark, j- ánd O.P. Robe,

8.1 1 TRODUCTfON
S.1.1 BackgrouAd
Thc [JCJ(! f~1Jíl (,r,rnpan¡'•, J.r;arl rT1Í(1t;f, ~(<; j,(1t_.,11f:-,rJ Ífl 't t·& •
;JJ~~' r,,tJrí, • fJ.Sí .. • Th<-; r..;r,r.ri )r;<1rJ'j> 0 /ne-d tl.;J th, ~ P ()•/<1 •':j · (¡-<_,'d

fi 1·.: ,C(• ) (¡,((JU P. l', 1 h ': ~ .rgt_:'yt j n1r;zra r.:d J,~(j r)(( ,j cer · • • t,
, ,()f
.d, r r¡ I _, --"- (,

/;,m1;rtC1, prr)fl 'rr1,i ·'~·.J·'ftJ '>f tb<.: :,t¡J pr irnar y ,,:~dorr;tJ ,.,..·,. '
h ' d 5,tates.
t. ~ U íllté
,, . r n . ¡¡ J· ,".,01.!ltl' )' - J .r1
t'r1'; r:::r,rr1f,1::J(Jj r_,,11r1<, 6.ft,0 f.1p•·r:::i (-'}

<:íght underground 1,..:~d-zfn<~-r.. :0pr,".:f rnír;';'>, ,,;z rn:iJ<,, r· ,•,., prfrr.h;J,

sm<;)l1!"l:rs, anda secondary ·,,rnclitt.:r. Jn addí ]'(_,[) ' fjf¡•· . , Jr)-1 r. ( ,,·' .--,. ),)¡ ).,_..

La ()rr,ya srnel1rcr and Cobriza :J11,n•.:írJ JJ<:rJ, l•.::ad f~CJr~Cf:l·:r,n ú1 sí-

li)(:'..SC', in the United States, and sevcrsl ,',.-,'íf.:F:-nfí(--!d rn ...,),Y-,_J,...,F-->, 1
·,.
J.,

i: orth J..,m<~ríca and Sourh Africa. ·rr1e eight : /í !.-$1')1;r: mines a r~ 0

r
•¡ •r;-r /11.,.....,
th(: Flctcher, Brushv.,1 Crt1.;1v..., C::i~tekl..,.. ) ; ~r) • 2~~ 'J and · ·,.) r;r..., . ,,.1,,,'.-- • 1 • L..;,,, ,, ,;.
-...-
!]'..,.
-r" e--
l.'l'\,.. , J ../..-·-":,->.
')<

r·!•
f;,..1 ¡ -"-·

-t'r1r- (.r'Cff' r,:;.•, { r_;._.C.. ,.,-,i.npC "-).' u a,.\...:.~.... . ec . ..-,p .. ~,1..1......"..."f

_•rs,.-..c .,,, - .....
vrere previo sly <;Wned b¡ St .. J0,; :Jfrnerii)& Corp.; -::he bl)'<~.v :J;nt, ;-e
'.J -r,-
,,,..,..
.1
- T~ r1,.,,L.--
.,.1 .........
~-, ~rrrc-·c.- ~r
• _,
:(J.. f......C.i. .... ..,_ (_jr:_ "'
,-._-
.. ~l"'-
J...il!I-L:?:.
..... f _.,..., -
•
S "~F ~('1;(;-
A'- ,...
0~-- . " "'"'"'
I\'.

v,hích ls a comblnation r>f rhe rJld -íornestal-e-Amaz .'lf'ne and the /-J...1. ...... - ..... a; J ,. -:l!> r,1.,.1.Ji in..._ 11.J'.J vC .... ..1. - - 4 - .., ~~- .- ~-.. . {J..,_.r .... Q,.,.;.

Cr;mínC•.J-Dre:.S"(:.f ; Atag.mon · {A''n':.; and the S?1eer-.·,r<itr::r and ',','e~ éTE: r;·.,e:r'1.G0 ;;i-·.:~-=- :L'.12r.,-r,;-r·i pill.ars f2n.exé. •• c>:2 ·, s-r.,· .
in Y gu:--:: &.l). • ,...f"~::-t - _ is ecor o-r: cal, b2.ckfJ1 · · .:;lacte .G a _.:,
Por.v mines, v/hich ·1.1ere. purcnased from A~s2rCT.J in 199B.
tr-r • f . r~~- ~ . 1 ill
• Th ' . . ?. ..., ... .:"").
_,,r ~- - E.X c(.U ...... o ae: -·º· d_ ¡p a!fS. ..~ c,OC!...:c! e. ill
+-, ¡.,_ ~ -- - ,¡:. ... (' - -t ¡;; ,,,r. r :-1 f - .....
.,..... -
l~.t: J '-J. -::::,
IJíniing operations in ;,1i_ssr.,1 rf taYe place in 2 flat-1) ing, L

pot:e:-.cia~ for ~:.-.: .. 2'ü~: :e .dom;n0-;::ye piuar fa· ~es a~d '.:'.. ter.-
tabular ore body 150 re 35(J m below the surfaee, The ore b<.)(JJ ís SÍ"-''= co:Uapses o: ,·¡¡e b.acy_ -~- r:-e t -;:ro::rc,_;o~ o: ,. e arge,.
frorn 1 to 4(J m thick and J o te 60(J m v-íde and has a trend 1enzm
(11..5 :J 1' 23 m), s-. "a6e, ?a,- el p .. a:rs i,---: L1.e · icer ar:::a_ r::J: t e
of 65 krn. rrhe mine v10rkings are locsred be (.) an aqnjfer, from ore rrer:<l, :~:ore effi.c'er,;: fill ·c·.emes a-,.1.d b.igner e::u2. .... :o ra::o:-
Y!hí<.:h i ÍS separated by 3(J ITt of 'rnperrneable 5:haJ.'E:. rne ore fl!ff'.'€ beer~ obrzírced. Unfor:m1 ..ar.ei,·; mos! o~ ·'-e yi!iar re_ef\ies a e
trend t ra verses both the ;v1a TY T·,,,~in . ;atíc,n.a1 fDr,:;st and
in roe o~<le: 9- :i ·
- 9-.1.i. .¡:,iliar are-as.
privately owned lands,
8.1..2 Pr@mary Míning S.2
Thi: prirnary míning method ís a high1y me~ha_nízed ror)m-and- 8.2.1 Suick ine Shaft rea Backfill Plant
piJJ~r tnt:th<>d rnc(JfP'>ra tfng t'1,'0-b00m d nll Jum bos, _7- to 9- Tne firsr bac - l p.a:r:t ar Lrte Buick . · e ent in:ro operacion m
tr_;filD"..:-ca.pacíty J<.,2ders, and 27· to 45-tonJDe-ai?ª:: ;' ~,a J 1993. íf;:e pla ~ cor,1posed of an 8-m3 Den ·er rnixer fed b, rno
t(UCYS.. rí1JJCY.f.:t (_;Y~ :zones are mJned nrst Jsíng an 1n1 1a, p! ar
cc,r:.,eyor be1LS: Dne of . hich feeds cement and fi:'.,' ash frorn t\ ;o
p~ ,<, f<>l1r;'/féd bj a !2TÍE;Ó c::rJmbrn¿:tÍ·G~ r;f bacY., . bott?~n, 63- .Jw11e bim and me other ,. ·ch feeds C-\'cloned railin s irom a
ur,d(:.rr..:,Jt, and ,ert.1Jt passéS- ti.mate:Jy, p1]lars range n hetgJit
~

O
Í..J s-oragt: opper (fígure 8.2J. Cemenr and fl}· ash are de · ered

f ((:)[!! 4 tr; ~~7 rn. , ro tr1e derground bins from surface ia a 20-cm-ín-diameter
r..:ntíl 1993, pf112ir<i viere cu 9 by 9 m ·,,,íth ~r~-m dnft opeo- 305-m-<leep cased hole. c. cloned tailing (Tab e 8.1) are
dropped from the surface do\ ·n a,nother 20-cm-in- diameter o e
·1· z,.:r1 thcr!: ~tr.Jpr.:s ar': '!t),'d er t h'.a n 50 >'' · 'fh,,.e mF-asLlre ni'.\ .::, and deposíred m a s11111p area, 'here the ·arer is decan ed. Once
1J t 1 , ~' •- .
';"/ ¿'~ rn ·,¡r· h 1 (J-r.n clrfft rJpr::nin-g.s ber; ,een pillars. CurrE:nt rhe C°J cloned tailings are allo ·ed ro dr_'. rhey are p· ed up b_ a
?ill~ mue •thct11S
CaU::rp:Uar 966 loader an.d fed mro me tailings hopper. The mixer
íf:',~íf(;', ar~: f:::.tí rn.ated tf) oe 1 r;j
1"((( (0(')+-r)r.ri~r
J J J, J · ... iu ... =, ·
rJ
· ls capable of cyding a batch of sl Ir~· in 7 min. For no1111al back·
fi ling, the s: ~1r1 )' batch mLx consistS of the follo, in macerials.
r, J~J zr,:idt;.
1- 450 'g cernent
8.1.3 $f;OOlllda.ry 1·ning 2. 540 kg fl_ ash
r • , , ( f ']]' J P}'.t(3ctÍOD 1'
Í5 an t/.!T(:flle
•
>te(Jlf dar¡ ffl{f]){li Jr1 :h<~ ,r)(ríl ,, p .<:l - •
1 e , •
J<>11
!
a Dct P un. n ·
3. 1140l arer
'] J b 1 {JJ/, f r· he (.) nn;:ir.1,e a n<l . , o
f j )..::':J 1 ,~~:.J ( ¿}()()() ní1,J_af<; ','() (:, ) 7,;
(
.) JI rc,
 ' Y •. , f 1 '/ ""/.
,. , r~(.1:p1 T la:r:s J 0 · s Doé
4. 4550 kg 0'· loned mill ca1lin s
,n<.:· al. Th': '<lOlllt/ J ·,ucct:J,, · , - ·,

~'I, J. r11:~rl¡ d'>'Jult tts. reií,€l;níng r!"!J ':. !, e .

.
95
 Roo. rn-an·d-Plllar Mtning of Hard
~~~
1:1

9$
s frorn the Bulck MIII
ctoned ta 111 " g ·· -
TABLE s.1 SJze of cY Pereentage raoge

ucD\.'-~¡ uuu Slzerange (mesh) O.O

1

o
ci >20
c:J :I 20-40
0.2
Pu 19.0
40-70
21.4
70-100
21.2
100--140
14.1
140-200
24.1
<:200
o
o
o o .
derground quarry. The loaded truck
\..,
' waste rock or from the un area near the backfill site where the
o rhen J. S tram~e d to a sumW
pagner sT-8B, Cater· piillsar 980( , or .iVJ11
oFILLo•
l o
o o o o
o o o J Q
. . om t e ,
D
o oe o D o
o o o inon - -
o 111 , eration .
o
-- -SCALE- (m-) 76 o D
o aco
Q o
ªºº FILL w ere 1r is oa e
(r\ t J o , . · . . . .
( ) the slinger mechanism at the base of th~rear of the truck, "':'h1ch
- throws the slurry-rock mixture ata velociry of 30 mis. The slinger
CJ I
rnechanisrn can be raised and lowered and swung frorn left to
right, enabling ít to place the toppíng-off fill so that it rnakes
FIGURE8.1 Cemented backfill layout at the Buick Mine almost 100°/o contacr with the back.
In an effort to lower backfill cost, uncernented, cycloned mil]
tailings are sornetirnes placed dov -n the centers of the drifrs as
•

Truck
pillars are backfilled wírh cemented backñll for a dístance of 3 m
Loading from the pillars. This leaves 4 rn of uncemented railings in the
Discharge
middle. Both materials are placed by loaders. This process
- ) continues until the fil1 reaches 3.5 m frorn the back, after which
Cycloned
Mixer regular topping-off takes place. The backfíll sequence is modified
Conveyor
Tailings W/Belt Scales when trapped pillars (pillars thar have backfill on ali four sídes)
Storage Concrete
Sump
are ínvolve_d_. Thís modification involves placing uncem,ented
Retaining
Wall cycloned_ tailings on on~ síde of the trapped pillars srarting from
the floor and progress1ng to the back as subsequent lifts are
placed. The uncemented cycloned tailings are later removed
Tailings ~hrol\gl1 an undercut access drift frorn which a raise ís driven up
Hopper Fly A sh mto the s d Thi 5 . ill
.. . Bin an
can be blasted .· creares a voíd into which the rrapped p1 ars
Cement »<:»:

Bln
8.2.2 Bulck Mine North Backfill Plan:t
A second b · .
FIGURE8.2 Undergroundbatch plant at the Buick Mine
ck
IS l p ant IS s .. . .
Por final topping off the backfill, the rnix is modified as ings had b only difference is that uncemented class1fied rai
follows: Com1·n een ~r.eviously placed in this area of the p]anr. by
co to stab1I1 · n
1. 540 kg cement

2. 630 kg fly ash slurry rnix, anee to the plant where they are used in
3. 1420 L water
4. 910 kg cycloned mill tailings
The Fletcher backfill . . 3
Once the normal backfill slurry is rnixed, it is dumped into a and 8.4) Th plant Is located on the surface (Figures 8·
1
45-tonne truck that has previously been loaded with 36 tonnes of . . · e P ant consist f . . · n1uer,
1ch is fed cem s o a Denver h1gh-1ntens1ty ,,.
-1-m run-of-mine rock that has come either from development
wh
respectively. Ce ent and fly ash stored in 64- and 45-tonne binS,
e et elevator, which then elevates the ce.íilenr
 \ •
-
1'
) ) sump
l. e:
FILL w er
.. \.. o
f . r: a

to s
~- t es
t rov
mee
rig t

Truck rom
Loading
Discharge
Pipe
)
Mixer
Cycl d Conveyor o •

T ilings WIBe,lt Se les are:

tor Concrete
ump Retaining
Wall

ace
t rot
into
Fly Ash
Bin can
Ce111ent ""-._./
Bin .2.~
Asee
FIGURE 8.2 Unde rground batch plant at the Buick Mine
1 to se
T is:

• •
' e rmx is mo as •
ows· orrn
'
· au E
1.. 540 cement
. s. urr-.,
2..
3. 1420 L water 8.2.
4.. 910 g cyc one

36 tonnes o
resps, con ve
 Ruf1' Cocnpany 97

FtOU IE 8.i AII f nce ~ the Bu lck Mine

4. ene· l.S rn 1, is
1 ,· ...

..i ,e ,p · ~ Orl h
"II top. nd ll t
llo
o on •

l r, 1•

r IJ rn p o.
) fJ J h
,. I m ,t ' h t

h
J
nl
•1 t pin n t
o e o •

ti. 1U I
l1ll¡J 11l11ll ·t i 11 lft lO l l en. D
\ 11\

l
1
(.\\ l llL l I l!lil l 11 11 1\'• ¡ll

lt l r 1 .J -! ·t )0 • e r: 1ili1 • I h 1. n
\ _ I] 11\ lLI coniple l< t Vll D ,11 11·(l1 . h ti or \ ll
,. 1, ,,- ¡ lookI tO
.1tJ1 Lli t,.i11,. u ... i.:1 111 a
ll, ic 1, d ._,J tf0\ 111 OS ri1 lo1 g t1c.:·1pt:r 11101 1c .n to ..:o e
\tll
1 , i1 r . ,1 • , - ~ 1 c , t 1 r 1 • . .
5 L Lll iJ J¡ me L
i11 ~\1)
l í i 111• ' u.11
· \· , 'l l
tLJ ..i 7-
o ,i
l<.etlJ-,1 11 s. 3
n 1 l .J•t el i1 1m11
l , ,ti Lle: f1IJ ,111.:'t und ILlin1f)'> ít 8 3.1 Erfi:onom cs
1
Ll
11· ·•
tlJI• ·P1Íl11.:' ,, ~ll!
l
rock , - 111) . i ecoaormc !u non of P !)'
b ck ll ro 1iµoi n t:cl~ r1 ic. S \Ct::. per rm
pillnr rscuon areu in or to pr pil p oo h
11 •I I ',l· xu \ 1]1(: lt l( k( back
l . •
t",ruftt, bl 11 nd1, ·ch ..::.1 1\1 í •a. bí The eva uation ,
: 1 1· 11 1 t l , 11 do m
1
l l t t
ril ¡· l l ' - [ollov 11gi 111 1\J\~
¡ , 1· · r 111 . t
:1. 1·1, mi111 if ro T hníca with onn
i, 1111 :1 l. •
8• ll dt.: nfo ma ion Ior p rs in ad igna d pll-
11
lar umo · ull arI 1. To• . e sure ha h grad are r aceu
.• t : alc u r,i po~i le r Doe Run has ai da l abase on pillar
co rsrruc d \\ .h lnforma onr abou t pre ous s aces -
r, ades.
s ck · , mme grades, and d
t amond-dri hole
t de t\.\ here 1 da a are tati king, a pt ar-washmg i f pro-
gra111
r prj de add rlona iníorrnation ' ) -wa
In pillar
ing, a high . pressuret arer spray coni ainíng sand and
l'flOUfil(ed on · as boom í lift rruck s used .to wash a strip •
•• down each- side of rhe píllar. A. visualr e rimare oí grade
is then made i
2. Technical Servíces inputs the tonnage and grade data
.
inro a spreadsheet to deter111ine profits and losses based
. .. ir e: su 1g órizor1L"ttl1 a:cross on curre metal príces and production coses. The pil-
'" [111 ¡f[ i,l lil~
g ¡"' b ackL•tse
th r. o lars are rhen sorted and ranked by valúe.
3
Li ,J l ¡
!
111 ie t, 1 l1 1' t
11 1 ,J\1
, LI ' l
·Li,1111~1
ll
it
'
c,i'- h r.1tkt r · ,. '1• ·
lI l I í1 1
l l l ' 1 1, 1 \ l .. '
1 . lt\' , · t l.
 CEMENT FLY ASH
BIN B,fN

MIXER

DlSCHARG TO
UNDERGROIJND

FIGURE 8.3 Surface batch plant at the Fletcher e

the Mí
. FIGURE8.4 Backfill batch plan
r
rhe r
l
 a nd-PIIJar Mining of Hard Roc1.
ffOOf11"' "
Piila
•
. }eaves an ope11111g every ot\1
·u,,r area. Thts 'an be blasted. Tl1e pillars aerr
98 e 1 ~· ·
rs e . . e anal
d ·J;t ¡neo wh1c . using rhe sa · been blasted and loaded Oltt feat
ria · t a time ill ..., have d ,
s l,•ot rwo da once six p d ª'"'t the e nd , and unccmente
1 · . cycloned
. nite
n1,eotione · is seale a fill rne void, rhus e 1m1nat1ng ai1y app
clie ope~ stop·e e pipe d i· n . to · l traction sequence thneni ], egins ciat

1;,. rni . l air blast.

J t
'----1

, 1 •
' aga1n.
]( 1 l .;"--i
.
-~
1
Jfi¡}
4 SAFETY . nce to rhe Doe Run C?1:1Pany. As
e i ( V
•
pil .
1 rs o ias gec
1
•

\ 1 FILL n a í
cota o · acc1 en · f f. , or
1
be no lost-t1me . process. I a sa e way can t be
pl. '.
•
:) there . [llar exrracoon
- beginn1ng the p it won't be done. . . . w
t
L _J To ensure that sa~ ry rated several procedures.
pe
o un has mcorpo
ho
o

• ill action ar e as
. is ls n its the potential for large b ack
t
in p ar ex _r
failures that can cause '
employees worlcing in the area. . . ~
. íf . ns of pillar stabílíty are made r, gularly
• Visual classt 1cat10 . . r d
. h o-ing conditions. In those arcas oun to
to monitor e ano· . . . _ di
1 1 . •

have sta bility Prob-1'ems ' the extract1on , process rs f rno.

o 75
1-

SCALE (m)
fied to ensure that the extract1on can be done sa ely,
t
• A set of rules ha:s been defined that lists the "do's and 1
•
FIGURE 8.6 Cemented backfill layout at the Fletcher Mine don'ts" of working in a pillar are a. •
• A safe means far retrieving dísaoied loaders in nonaccess
open stope areas has been developed, A second remote
3. A preliminary pillar mining plan is constructed, with the loader is available at each operatíon to assist wíth the res·
pillars of highest value selected first. Ba.ck spans result- cue of the other. A small remote-controlled tractor with a
ing from pillar extraction are limited to 46 m in the camera has is also available for making cable hook-ups so
short dimension. Backfil1 is often used to allow larger that nonremote-control1ed trucks and loaders can be
spans between pillars. used far loader retrieval. Creaáve rneans of making cable
4. A pillar stability evaluation is done that includes com- hook-ups using scaler rigs and other equipment have
puter modeling. To aid with this evaluation, the condi- been used at times. To date, no loaders have been lost.
tion of underground pillars is rated so thac the model
can be calibrated to actual conditions. Narrow pillar • In,te1111ine pillar audits are conducted on a rotating
areas a1·e generally not modeled. In high-g1·ade a1·eas, schedt1le at e~ch mine in which pillars are exrracted.
an additiona1 evaluation is done to determine the bene-
fit of placing fill to allow for additional pillar ext1·action. atrve c.sal~ried or hourly) to attend the audit. Normally,
5. A final, detailed plan is provided that describes wl1at pil-
lars are to be taken and what fil! is to be placed. P1 ar product1on fro h -
and solur¡ . m eac mine. Discussion of problems
8.3.2 Pillar Extraction Method
F~eestan.ding pillars are drilled with Tan1rock and Atlas Copeo
p1~ar d1·1Jls fr:om che floor level. Some shorter pillars are drilled
w1th _con~ent1onal two-boom Joy drill jumbos. Drill hales are 64 roun .
mm 111 d1ameter on 120- (horizontal) by 180 ( . . l)
ings N u
. orma Y, one or two pillars are
-cm vert1ca spac-
at
blasted a ti . • Ro l at t e aud1ted mine.
ANF? as tl1~ explosive. Single-level illars u m~ t1s1ng e e mechanics instru .
multilevel pillars up to 37 m high h P b P to 18 n1 h1gh and tor ground cond · . ments have been installed to mon1·
sta11ding pillars with cemented fill º;ve een sho~ to date. ~ree- conditions Th lti?ns for potential unstable and unsafe
from the top of the fil! as the fill is l onde or two s1des a1·e drilled t . · ese 1nstrume t . .
ers and multipoint . n .s are p1ano-w1re exte11sorne-
Trappe d 1.11 ars e · ·
p ace .
- .
 stressmeters hav el rnenj stra1n gauges, and biaxial
8.5 e a so bee11 used
previ.ous 1 y p 1 aced uncemented milclrteaailtein y the rem ?va 1 o f tl1e
loaded by remote-co11trolled loaders W gs. Blasted pillar rock is
8.5.1 Modeling
stone, ~nd MTI 700M load,ers are us~alfgner ~T8-A &_ Bs, Elpl1in-
Hetron1x, and Nautilt1s remate co t l y _equ1ppecl W1tl1 Cattron Nu1ne1·ical tnod 1·
A · - n ro un1ts , NFOLD com . e ing at the Doe R.
. t the Fletcher Mine, larger panel illa; .
(Figure 8.6). Cernented fill is placed . p 1 s a~e be1ng extracted Ye<i,rs anct lIJPUter prograrn 11as b un Company's mines using che

< tn a te1nat1ng drifts that run

1 1.n
ar Stability as m~ the model's t1se as a method
ning Progresses.
 -
•
ffil,
01

•
evi
FILL nat
ton
t 1e
e

exo

'

o 75
SCALE(m)

FIGURE 8.6 Cemented backfill layout at the Fletch r Min,e

3.
 ,.

04
' lI

' .,,••

u• l) J
;;;)
'
• •
) . • ..
11
•
•
· lr ...J
'
02
·e,-- 2

01
o 5 10

P.i 111ar Heig

'

'\[\ 11 [(11 l,
1• l1, ·.,··,l(J -- - .., __,,
·,\ tot ¡111111
•, .• vt '. t I t t ,'LLL r 1 '
. ,, 1\ . l l • 1\ l lt h l

l
[ll\.'\ ious p1ll.11
· 1 [l l l• l t: \.' l l 11 l I l e• l
·1·1,·· c,1lil1r~11:i<.11\

.:\. ·._ ,) \.1t el

' ;
nu \.) v,
· l''ll
1 11.· tl110L1~l,
• , ill.u 1,1ti11~
• l ·.1...
' 1iU ~ 1 Lli in so.ne l',\Sl'
, 1,'L\
'
\.. \.. l t : t
1.l ,
\' -cn l nu i o. t\•
flll plan
~

'-' , • ,_
. \\. L I. 1 1 ,,,, ot Sllt':, ,\!<.'

'-'--- ,' ,\ lll q

· '-· 1 L\. ' h" \\['\ 'l\'l) l~tt\t•L[
t ,\ u _',l\Lll Lt:11,~ tll'
l1e , I ' · l' t i 111,ltt.'l•I f01· t l\' Io tesr [hi · rhcorv.
•
an ísola red area in che B :
,L ·si ,.:11 ·,,¡ ,. ~lill·1r choscu vbere tour pillars (101, 102, 103, an l '€ re
and L11~ surrounding pillars \ ere extracted ígure . .
i:1ssislai1.ce ot· personnel from che U.S. Bureau of es •
merus were placed in the back, pillars, and ba
- ' ' tored as e, traccion proceeded. The instrumenrs inc
'
pres ure cells, ernhedment srrain gauges stre et
•
'- cxrerl.s,01neters. In addiríon. 1 FOLD rnode íng of che t
ca rried out by Goider Assocíates to sim are e
-~·- ... , , , P \_)~· . of r i~1t~1, lt re- seq nce .

. : _· • "'lj l. -ut t LU.lrs are The .purpose of the modeling was to as5ESS tbe
•• t ...
-. ' stren . . th re1ationship in as muen deraíi as possib e and
other pill r response properties consistenc wich the resal ·
monitoring program, Of pa'I ricular import:ance \ ras t he
of che rrapped pillars to increased loads as extracr·on
From January 1992 to December 1993, 24 pillars were
This inctuded the four trapped pillars. which were a,,mcd
These were accessed for drilling, blasnng, and e
--· an undercu development.
The results of tbe insrrumentation program were
• 1
'
g neral, rhe extensometers produced the best data
 99

•
ity stress o.4
a planar
n an infi-
:; greatest
ints asso-
belt. · 0.3 4
may be :)
•

pressed);
¡f bac .sn 6
nting the 3
and he
rf faílure 0.2 2
e,
[O follo, r

rirh little
ations of
~ a pillar
ne of the 0.1
o 5 10 15 20 25

Pillar Height m

F G RE 8. 7 Pillar heig,ht versus load and uniaxial compressrve

ick

sfacrorily
ween 10 _ · · · . ,
•

or pillars •
..-- 92 • •
•
93 •
•
-- 94 •

f---,....J
• •
95 ---...._ • •

•
•
'36
rticularly ... . . · •
•
·. . · . .
•
· ._. !LL
•
•

·. . · . · · . . . .
•

•
•

•
•

. ·. ·
•

•
•

·
•

-....
• • • •
•
• • •
• •

· ·. - .. . · · ....--- .
_....,·

• _.,... · .· . .
y fu er .. _01 102. ,103 .104 .... . • . 105 L06
..__,)
•
• •
•
• •
\ • •
•
• • •
• • - •
• • •
•
•
• • •
• •
• • • • •
• • • • •
• • •

\ • •
• . . ,,.:.· ~. . .
•
• • • • • • •
•

•
• •
•
l4
• • • •
• •
,.,,,.--.- . . -~ •

L13A ...._. · L LO • - 111 11"c'. ~- · 113 . . l'

)US pillar
through
e51ti mated 4 5
ranng '
!llibration
e cases
d 6. A 13 L
es.s are
•

iled
ing rhe
far the E 8.8
 To test thi theory, an i olated ar· a in th Buick ine wa
1 . ••• \..- .cc.: .......... ;11 ... C" r r,, 1()') 1n~ ~nri104) ·w traen d.

r
 O - ~ +J~ -H- -11- -1-1-t-l--t-1~ + *
Plil I Ml11J11¡¡¡
-1

-2
rull,1rh 111 NrOl.D
.......

e -3
-E: ,
Q) -4
(,)
eCl) -5 Change in strain
...
O>
CD -6 NFOLD
> NFOLD model response for trappen ptllars
e::o FIGURE 8.10
u -7

~8
_ . be po"si'ble due almost entirely to the im'¡)ro,ved post
Extelísotne ot h erwise ., . . -
-9
failure characteristics of the trapped p1ll~rs. .
-1 O A good example of the effect. of this change_ is rhe test area
300 it lf If the extraction sequence is modeled using the original
o 100 200 400 500 1 se ·
steeper postfailure elas·t1c · mo d u 1 us,
· a 11 t h e f· aJ,<>.
· 1 d pillars
· go
Time (days) directly frorn the prefailure part of th~ load deformation response
to their residual strength (conservat1vely assumed to be nene).
FIGURE 8.9 convergence, NFOLD model versus extensometer However when the flatter postfailure elastic modulus is used for
readíngs
the trapped pillars, none of the failed trapped pillars reached
residual strength, assumed, but not proven, to be 50°/o for
trapped pillars. In the test area, the result was that even once all
that were both consistent with each other and wirh elastic theory
(where applicable). the surrounding pillars were extracted, those trapped by fill were
The amount and quality of the data obtained from the exten- still carrying 65º/o to 80o/o of their maximum load immediately
someters allowed the vertical convergence in the NFOLD model prior to being extracted. This had a significant impact on the
to be calibrated to an unexpectedly high degree. This applied not number of pillars that could safely be extracted.
only to the results obtained from the truly vertical extensometers
ínstalled in the trapped pillars from rhe undercut development, 8.6 CURRENT ANO FUTURE PROJECTS
but also to the results obtained from reduction of data from hori- The Doe ~un Company continues to be very proactive in íts
zontal and inclined extensometers installed in the free-standing efforts to irnprove pillar extraction and backfillinzO techniques.
pillars. Current projects include

In the test area, the computer model sirnulated the • F:irther_ modeling using a variety of two- and three-
rneasured movements of the instrumented pillars very closely,
di~~ns1~nal programs to better understand multilevel
Figure 8.9 shows the convergence of trapped pillar 104. This
mini~g situarions. The NFOLD program has provento be
pillar's failure was precipitated in the model both by the rernoval
ª relia?le tool for predíccíng pillar conditions in single-
of surrounding pillars and by the failure of an adjacent trapped l.evel sítuation s. H owever, where there are mulrí·p l e mm
·-
pillar. Extensometer rneasurernents from pillar 104 and other
pillars confirmed both the faílure of the pillar and the preceding
1 rated as well. '
failnre of the adjacent trapped píllar.
Conclusions drawn frorn the instrumenrs in the test area
are- ion s ste . . . . _
• The pref ailure modulus of elasticity used for pillars
required no adjustment,
assoc1ated with these areas.
• Trapped pillars were found to have the same prefailure
mod ulus of elasticity as untrapped pillars. • The evaluatio · . . . .
• Peak strength valúes previously used for pillars above uic Mi · . . ·
a height of approximately 1.5 m were found to be
conservaLi ve. e uate a . . ' .
• Trapped pillars were nol fou11d to J1ave higl1er peal<. s.
strengt}1s than untrapped pillars. • Wo1·king wíth th · . c-u1ililS
• Tne postf aílure modulus of elasticíty Ltsed for untrappecl 1 ar strengths.
pillars requ.ircd 110 adjustment. • lm¡)le1nentation 0 f . · ofí-
• TrapJ)cd pillars were f ound to l1ave a significancly cli.ffer- This new . a new type of slínger Ior ropp1ng
ment of r:q~ipme·nt wilJ allow for more efficient place·
enl postfailurc modu]us of elasticíty than t1ntrapped • pping~off 1naterinl.
pillars. lnipleme11tation . . · jor
•
Figt1te 8.10 sl1ows l1ow the sl1~1pe of tl1e NFOLD load defor- ge ou ·
matio'n rc:spo·nse was cl1anged for Lhe trapped pillars. 1'hc signifi-
. 1entat1on of irii
c·a11ce of the red1.tced postfail L1rc rnod·ulus of clas·ticity for trap·ped sllls at the ed a remate charging arm for charg
pi J lar~ c~ann.oL be ovcrs.tated. Wl1ere cemented fill is t1sed to trap 1· ge of caved sto
pi llars, far greater extraction rates are achievcd tha11 woti.ld ·1 '_utu1·e research r . pes. f1Jl.
< nd dtfferent meth dp OJects include paste fil] undercut-a11d·
O
s of top.ping-off the fill. '
 -1

o -7

-8

-9

-1 O
o 200 300

•
1m

'<JW

•
re- 1 1
that , I' _ both COI1Si- tent
tra ·
•

•
s 1 e
•
prior
num

••

. r. -
 Pillar Extr:

8.7 co
Pillar extr
Company
e com

ment of ¡;
of this, n
extra·ctio:
for ways
ments w
processe
tion of t]
FIGURE 8.10 NFOLD model respon for , ·- - i 11 the Doe

- directl . ' _ - onse

to t eir res - · - none ·
owever, w e . · se

rs. n t . . on
n- · in 11 . - 1 · ·
el · Vot o_ • '. · e
ot
~rs
nt
)

iv
to
ng 1
e
 ec an es at the Doe
---- ¿¡ :_;_,_, !E -----·--: ----------------

----
8.8
•- :-e a_- ors e- •

.,,.s.a~ - - l.:;.
.,.: ·r • B u
¡:. '• ( - ..
Sevm u.r 1
•
rl • •
3 rea o: 1:ne_ nn H
" r
f
e
>
~f •
,1
un 8.
ove- n t r h
•
·e .
pr and 001 tinua- •
l
of
n
 • • • • ••••lt ......
CH

odi cation
i

01· Polish
•

9.1 1,NTRODUCTIO.
e pper mi ing i11.Sl Ieoen Io,ltotnir1s b ~,11. in rh hi "~ ·\
cenru )', ho vever ir ten ive e.::·1 r torv . e r irte n,t 1 . --.· L- r •

onlv aoout rhe middl ' [ . ' . ~ º-= ical ,,. rks b 2™" . . -· \...-
.· . e o tweno th n., ,turv.' · w
' ll TI G OOp{'el- 01-c- \
•
\
bea L ea,rn, 1,000 -m beiotv urface'- \,'1.'"' 'h o ,e'Jl. o•5 o on.t1.:nt t·
•
ropper (e Lt1 was contirmed. and l d t bevi ·, , f c , . \
O
rhe first undergrcund · . L t:Rtnnin:g e nstrn non •
mm -~. ena and l "' .' . o. ~;ioil n :>:,ir ) )
•
• ~ • r

ZlotOl)'.Ja. and Lu. icho <and nrad 11e3¡· ·B011.•e ,11t.'t\'\ ,e, c. (nl.'\\ zc, v • k i· D ,,,./'
00
·1 ,
t..
o
Toda) rhe . e\'\ Ba tn. 1. ··• L~gntcko-Glog,o~ 'ski Okrez 1 tieJz'o,,,, 1

zi' n· ·f p 1.a,n,d· . ~
(LGO 1). s .rua. red on. outh-.x te t ,r..eo i:- i ·,l11·e o . 1 , 1.-. ,1'

based. on. th. ree rmn. e . 111th vario 1· da,,Lte' o t. ·tarrt· tt<;; r he1·1·

con ol..l. nou: ZG Lub~ (sínce 1960), ZG Rudna ( ínce l9 o). ZG '\
Polk?\~ =: ie!o zov nce (since 199·6 . The la t mine re ulr d frorn ¡.,
the _¡01n111g o ~''º forrnerly ingle mine· : ZG Po kowic l incc '
: ~62) and ZG Síeroszox ice since 1 74'). Ali the n1.i11 s be\011~ ro ~1 r· 1
• .:::,
jom stock company KGHJv Polska rviiedi l cated in Lubin. This ,/
~

.... /
a company formed in _1991 afrer mrnercialization, frorn formerly 1

st~re-o:,,ined ~ntei-pri e GHrJ · 0n1binar Córnkzo-Hutniczy 7

1 iedzi after its deep re tru turization. upon background ot· the ( .......•
general polítjcal-economical transform tion in Poland starred in
rbe 1990s. ow, the Cornpany is the Iargesr in Europe and tifth
in the , -orld in the production of copper from irs Oi\ vn reserv •. It1
sil, er production, it is al o wor d leader, GH Poeska t\1lied1. S ·
exploits. produces and trade '\! irh nonferrou m tul . n1,1in1)·
copper and ilver. The basic products are refin d · opper (cnthod '), 9.2.1 Tectonics and Water
Thl' Pr<.''Sl\(iet ''' t ll .11:oclitl't.' ,s st:¡):11··1t1.. 1 1:,.l n, tl\l I 1· 'tt \1.. 'tt: n Bl ck
copper rod, round runners and refined ··1," r, , ith ~1 f:1 tlt ot· t,c 11lt.'lli 1111 Od1··1 Rt t'1·, lli 'lit , Q. l. 1,\ll ·

9.2 GEOLOGtC.Al co·N'OITJONS.

ll fl)t-r1.1·1ri tl' ,\Oll tector'li 1.l'sll)l'ntic 11., t 1·, Cl)t 111·11,, l 1.li1· ·rl · ¡;,
rl1~ 11n,l1\:l'St'Ol1111..l L.(':\. ·;1tio11,, Tl1, d 111i11, nt .'t1·i'k1..: et' tl, r·,ti"lt i:
The LGO I is situated in Tl1e Pr·e :i.1deten rvionocli1,e. l·oL111tirltto11 ~A.1- E ~l1,·1,t l)<'Ct11~· i1t t l1 l")1.. 1·111- P1 · '\t(i t ,, l l 1 k ( 1 t~ ·t. ,n: up ·
of th:e n1onocline is compo ed of Pr·otet'o.zoíc cr)'Stallitl t·o,ckaS ;::tt\ci o.t s11t\1m111i (tt1. echt lt)n) f~tltlt' ·tt't' l,:, , '<.l ,. )!t n icl, 3 t t l
sedimentar-)' rocks belo11ging to Carbo11ifetot1s S)' 'tcn1. Pet-n·1i:11.1 a:nd t~1t·o,,,. t,lp to ~00 t\1 ,\t\ l t':¡ :1l,,\t)t\ te)·\ 1· l\lt.\l1· t· kil)1n t•1:.
Trias ic sedime11ca1-)' 1ucl(S occu1· abo\•e cl1 fo1-n1·ltio11, ,111d nex't the t-\l1t tlt DO\' o t)!' t\lt: f'·l11tt$. tt 1. i, t1··tt't ,-iz '<.i itl1 th tl r · l ·s th 1
Tertiat')' and Quate1·nary. Tl1·e Pern1ian 1·0 lzs a1·c represented 1 t11, 3 5.t' t' o,t· t:·11.,1 lts t1,1 · ' tl11·t) , t1 t • , 11 l to 1 ) 111 l '\l, ki l ),
b',r sandstone · , '1tl1 cla)'e -lin1esronc:: bind1n~ Oll.' lacally ith Tl1t: .:_ 1·t 1t:1... t tl,,·o, ,' 1· ,\t l, 50-6l) 111. l ip ot' th , t. tltlt ¡ l· 11 : rnng
gyrpsu t11.aim)·d1·ite b,indi11g, co11.glo111ei·a,tes ~1n<l ,· ~1.ale Íft)nl 30'' ;\¡\ ! t)Q" (\(){111\\,\\lt it <.'litt·\tlO\\-S 71' {) 7, ', httt, i 'llifi I t

of total tl1i,clmess up ro a doze.r1 a11d so meten-, ·(Kl,1p.1,c111 ski a11<l \':lt·i·:i.ti()l\~ l'. t:\1 \ 'tl1'i11 tll' ''\\\\' 1 ti. 1 h
'· 11 \!'
Peryt 1996). The sandstor1es are ni.in 1·.1 lized \'\ itl1 l'L)i¡)p r 1
l1·11··lct'e1·i 'ti tl\ t i11 el ll1t11i~ '-ltu\ ,'t t\ ' i1 : f . ,'lltll,

sulfides. The Triassic is an n se111blage of fi11e· nt1cl 111 Ll,it1m- tl1iclc1\ SS L)l. 4 tt) b llll\1 ;\l\tl 1\\ )l'' l\t h l ll\.' ~\l ltl~ ti\
1

Cfj1stalline sandstones ith g1·ain al· dian\etef 0.1 to 0.5 1t1111. tr\ l•igttl\: 9.:l tllt' r 11t't ~, '\\t,1ti ·' li1· ti : \ f t',t•lt: ,\ dt
son1etin1es 1 mn1.; 111a1·ls; clayr-sl1.ale a11d clolotnit s. Tl,e Tt"1·ti¡1_1·, Fi,n1r1..• 9.4 ,'l\t) '· tl1 • <.'l't), ' , ·ti<ll\ )Í 'l ti¡: f th
is c1·e:ated ,vith sands at1d lin1e sa11c.i.sto,1es. qi1a1·tz 1\t1cl qtr,,1-t- ,Ltc 'D't'ti,\t·y ,11\t\ Qttt1ll'1·11.,,1·: t r111·,t' 11: lt\ \tl li:tin t1i:l1 t
grave!s, quai·tz sands, ela)1s, ar1d b1u, n coa l. Tllt:' Qt1nt1.. i·1l,l~·)' b ¡1ri11~ Ct)\111 l '.'t s (Kl' ·1.k! · 'ki ,\U t '·tli ·z 1 ) . 'fl fi
consists of sands, quar-tz g1·a,1e l nnd clil)'S t l\,lt ~tre sl10, 11 111 1<.
1t'l),\lllt\\ ~ltl 1· 1· : t 'ti.\ itl\ I' 1
l\'\\ :igt\Ítl' ll th \t
Figure 9.2.
 Urni·,1e1·siL)' of Minin~ nnd MetílllltT.g)1, C1-,'l~o, ', ,1.,ol.1i1d.
T KG H. \ Polsl<.a l\lliedz, S. . . Polkt) 1it-c, l'o·it1 L1<-t.

103
 Energetic
:104 Poisson's Rockburst
Young's
peformation ratio lndex.
modulus
ropertles
kP
Average renge ofroe
shear modutus v[·] Wett.·]
Ee[GPa]
TABLE 9,1 sending strength
- Te ns lle Ed[GPa] 0.22-0.25 2.46-7.56
compressfon strength z5_3-86.0
o~nslty per strength Rt[MPal
strength Rg{IVIPa] 21.5-83.8 0.22-0.24 2.41--6.16
unlt volume R,[MPa] 12.3-25.9 32.2-72.3

Rc[MPaJ 7.5-17.3 21.6-68.4 0.21-0.23 1.81-3.94

p[kg/dm3] 3. 7-9.1 14.7-21.8 18.5-42.1
Type of roe 1<
55.8-182.5 8.5-15.9 13.3-35.1 0.12-0.22 0.71-2.79
2.46-2.68 3.9-7,7 s.s-19.2 6.6-48.6
Dolorn nes 65.9-144.4 5.3-12,9 3.8--'42.9
2.47-2.67 3.2-7,8
Dolornltic 11,nestonos 35.1-115.2 3,0-21.2
2.48-2.64 1.s-12.1
st1alos
0.7-5.5
15.1-103.2
1.98-2. 73
Sandstones
-

2oom , , , , , , ,. , •
,_,
• , •

, ,• • , , ,
auaternar~ m ,

• '
, ' , , ,
, ,
o.o -

•
Tertiary •

.
Shell Limestone
•
'
•
·o-
400- ' . . •
'
•
. ..
•
<
• •
'' • • •
'
·1--."'.
<U

'
' •
•

• '
• ' ' '
•
' Spotted •
' ''
'
Sandstone '
•

800 • • ' •
'
• • •
,.
•
. '

O 2Jl<m
• .' ' ' • .'
'
'
' '
• '

' '

>' >' > •

-> .> '
>. ' • 1

1200 .
'
Zechstein • '..>
.> ,> ,.,.,..
'
>
' •
>" •

' • " FIGURE 9.3

•
Upper Red Sandstone '
e:
1600-
• • -<--,-1-::-:z ' ¡; • \=1:;;,,- . _,·.9~1--1··\:::;17, ...
E
. ' Q)
SW
Lower Red Sandstone -
•
' '¡¡'>•.
' ' ."---.5. '\· :;: ) ~ \ - :. - .- ~ 1

-650
2000 - . :~
· - -~-~
---'·-==----~- ' '
Biedrzydów Fau
lt

-700

-750
FIGURE 9.2 Sample of geologlcal profile

••• •
to 230-340 m from the surface; the second, a !riassic~P~m1ian
• • • ... • 1
complex with water in carbonate rocks, especially within the •••••••••

dislocation zones.
o 0,5 1 km

9.2.2 Copper Content and Main Minerals

The copper ore deposit consists of sedimentary roc~s with sulfide FIGURE 9.4 Faults in the cross section of the mining area
accumulation. The basic minerals that occur in LGOM are
chalcocíte, digenite, djurleite, anilite, covellite, bornite, and
chalcopíryr- (Piestrzynski 1996). The deposit is of irregular
T9·heir basic parameters (Kunysz et al. 1996) are shown in Table
shape, with slight dip up to about 6º. The maximLtm thickness of
the ore-bearing series is 26 m (Nieé and Piestrzyriski 1996) 1· Also h?wns ar e theír properties such as lamination,
assurning O.?o/o cut off grade of copper. Distribution of copper
fr3'.ct1ire
contents in vertical profile is variable. Higher copper contents are
cl1aracteristic for thin seams, usually in mineralized shales. In the om lace to . ' · is
Lubin mine the average contents of copper is less than 2.20/0 (in its a 1 for · . · is
e most 1mportant f th } itl tn a
sandsto11e). In mines, the values are higher, but rarely above
the other 3.So/o. In Poll,owice-Sieroszowice mine, the
 mean contents is even over 6°/o. The ríchesr ore are sl1ales with strong roof i.n so actor at can cause rock burst. Even Wl 11 ak
average contents
over 100/o. In li1nesto11esthe contenrs range f rom 1 to 30;0.
9.2.3 Basic Geotechnical Data
Sedimentary rocks, mainlv limesto11es, dolomites, sa11dstones
s.l1ales, and sometimes anhydrites, occur in profiles of excavations'.

t · s oa 1ng .. th
s rain of the specimen . ' LO . e loss of energy for pem1ane
ne
15
' espec1alty useful for rock burst hazard
1
 105
--

TABLE 9.2 Technlcal data of drlll Jumbos

Ti 7

•
ParameÍersjType' sWW-2H SWWN-4H SWWN·&Hª sWW-1/HT SWW·1Hk
Manufacturer Boart-Lena Boart-Lena Boart-Lena Zanam ZD Lubin
a
Wllków Wllków Wllków Polkowice
Mass, [kgJ 16,500 16.900 14,000 17,200 16,300
- Length, [mm) 12.500 12.000 12.000 15,050 11,600

Wldth, ¡ mm J .....~- --- 2,200 --~- 2,500 2,450

Helght, f mm 2.200 1,800 1,800 2.200 2,200

1
e
•'
•
•
e
Diameter ot ~~- --- 38--- 76 ;,_ 4!'>-64 38-76
1
borehole, [mm]
' _, 3,200 _..,.,.. 3,200
t.ength of 3,200
borehole, (mm]

Max. worktng ..., 6,500 ----- 5.200 6,500

d
area-width, [mm]

Max. worklng 5,500 4,500 4,500 5,900 4,500

area-height, [rnrn]

Acceptable
>------------ 15 ...._
FIGURE 9.5 Modef of aecess of the copper deposit in LGOM
dip, [ deg)

BDS B BDS B WT-1

Boom 40Mk2 or 40Mk2 or WTH-1000 ZRU 700 Iarnrock
estimation. _ -Other categorizations include well-known RQD rate WT-1 WT-1
fracrnre . systerns,_ . etc. Actually , .a new classific a 0·on 1· s un d er' HD 150 or HD 150 or TMK-1 or

HL 500
preF.non, par ricularly regardrng a more effective boltin Boring machine
HD 65
HL 538 or HL 538 or COP1238or
Tamrock
des¡g11·1ng procedure. g Boart
COP 1238 COP 1238 HD 150

9,.3 ACCESS WORKINGS

T~e de~osit is developed with vertical shafts and horizontal
. , Figure 9.5, ~Bun·a et _al. 1996). Depths of the shafts are
vaned from 632 rn in ZG Lubrn to 1120 m in ZG Rudna and are of TABLE9.3 Technical data of drilling-bolting jumbos ,

~ ro 7.5. rn in d.ia 1, neter. Peripheral shafts are 3 to 5 km away from ' SWWK-2Hz/w
Parameters/Type SWWK-4 SWWK-1Hk SWWK·2L
me rnam shafts. In the near future there are plans to sink the
Manufacturer Boart-Lena ZD Lubin ZD Lubin ZO Lutnn
deepesr shafr, for ventilation purpose, down to about 1250 m. Wilków
The toral nu mber of sha fts in the three mines is 26, including
Mass, [kg] 18,500 1.6,300 20,000 16.300
renrilation, productíon and for other purpose. It is interesting 12,400 11,600 10,050 11.600
Length.] mm]
rhac in the LGOM rhe overburden freezing method for shaft 2,500 2.540
Width, [mm] 2,200 2,540
• 1 • g ,~asapplied.
Height, [mm] 2,200 2,200 2,400 2.200
Access ro tbe deposit from the shafts and preparatory
Diameter of 38-45 28-45 45--64 28 45
, ·orkmgs are realized with drift networks located directly under
borehole, [mm]
che srrong doiomite roof and upon the sandstone, along the dip
Length of 2,200 2,600 or 1.5,000 1,600-2.600
direcrion or strike line. All the preparatory works that divide the borehole, [mm] 2,800
deposirs into Ievels are developed inside the mineralized zone.
Length of 180 1,600 or to 7,000 160-2.600
Transportation, ventilation and technologícal require that the
bolts, [mm] 1,800
gate roads to be driven in a multi-line system: generally double
Min. heíght of 2,500 2,800 3,800 2,800
aod triple, but also four and exceptionally five gate roads run in
excavation, [mm]
paraílel, The excavations in the multiline system are connected
Min. wídth of 3,500 3,700 3,700 3,700
'írh bre 1 · • oughs made in each 40 to 100 m. excavation, [mm]

9.4 MIEC,HAN1IZATl 0N IN THE MINING TECHNOLOGY

1
Acceptable -~--~~~~15 ----~~~~--
dip, [deg]

9.4.1 Orilling and Bofti1ng • • Boom BOS 840 WT-1 WT-1 WT1
copper rmnmg MK2 Boart
Dífferent d!rilling techniques are used in the
technolog;r for rhe different production stages of Type of bolt expansive bond-cable cable, Swelle. e pansi ,
bond
• Production biasting
• Pelease blasting

• Boltíng O anges from 28 111111 occas1ona Y 2 · mm, . h

f
Diesel-power,ed, ríred jumbos with hy~raulic drills are the l30 mm in case of cut boreholes for blasting purpose. Lengt
baste equ.i:pment for the functions above. Diamet~r of ?oreholes
r · · 11· 5 (K 0 rzen1owsk1 1998) to · · · - cable bolts.
Set of a baste- technical
. f .
data or some
m·o_ dels (Paw 1 et a .
. , dueto their great sensitivity for detonation an lack of possíbilin
í

for mecha~ical loading of the explosives into blast holes, they ar;
no longer in common use. A better solution a che ammoniun
nitrare explosives. They are weaker in eff et but less sensiti te
detonation and are now used in all but few percent of the tota
arnount. Loose poured and emul ion of ammonium nitrare an•
'.uel oil mixtures, known as ANFO, are commonly used. The mos
tmportan_t adva1~tages of these bulk explosives is the possibility
pneurnanc l~ad1ng and n1ore than triple increase in power a
comp?1·ed w1tl1 cartridges. Initiation of the blasting occurs it
9 4.2 Blasting Techniques _ ,
In _ . . d . arnites. the water-res1stant electr1c clelay detonators and in the blast boles longer th n 6
thre .past rhe mmes tr1ed to use yn
u rrarion Howeve1·, with detonating cord (pe11tryt, 11 g/m). The del y interval of th
tx?los1\es of high density and energy concen
106

07500
TABLE 9.4 Technlcal data of boltingjumbos
• '
Parameters/Type SW,K-38 KOT SWK-i/1 LIN 1 SWKl-1/1
sWl<-2Hr
Zanam ZD Lubin
Manufacturer Boart-Lena Zanarn
1
Wílków Potkowice Polko\vice
20.000 16.300
Mass, [kg) 18,000 19.000
10.050 11.200
l.ength, (mm] 12,500 11,050

2,500 2,500 2,540 i _ . S~ip -

Width, [mm] 2,260 1 1

Height, [m111J 2,200 2,4100 2,400 2.200

1 1
,/
1
·

Length of 1,800 1,800 to 15,000 1.600-2.600

bolts, [mm]

Diameter of 38 28-44 45-64 28-38

1 1 1
borehole [mm)

Length of 1,860 1,890 15,000 1.690-2,690 1

borehole, [mm]
Min. height of 2,500 3,800 3,600 2,600
excavation, [mm]
Min. width of 3,500 3,500 3,500 3,700
excavatio·n, [mm]
Acceptable 15 15 15 15
dip, [ deg]
. •
Type of bolt Expansive expansrve, cable expansive,
bond, cement bond, fríctíonal ~~~~~~~~-:---:---:--:-::--::~~~-~----
Boom WT-1 ZRU 707 FRC 1007 WT-1
FIGURE 9.6 Cross secnon of a shaft shield
Tamrock

Boring machine HD 65 Boart HL 300 HL 500 TMK-1, HD 65,

S Tamrock S Tarnrock HL300S 9.4.3 Haulage, Transportation, and Hoisting
Haulage and transportation equiprnent is typical for ruany mines
and is based on LHD machines, and belt conveyors. t\J1 example
0.5 s detonators ranges from O to 10 and sometimes 15 s for bigger set of technical data of the loaders used in the mines is shown in
cross sections, (Janowski et al. 1996). The electric detonators are Table 9.5. Equipment used in the shafts is varied and depends on
successively being replaced by nonelectric method, NONEL. The
the purpose of the shaft. The most modem shaft in Rudna Nfine is
blasting patterns are based on the following diarneter of the blast
holes: 41, 45, 64 n1111 and wedge or parallel hole cuts of two types: Koepe hoist equipped (Kawecki and Hildebrand 1996) with in
rwo, two-skip hoisting insrallations. Each of the skips is of 300 ki'i
• Central, large diameter (90-130 111111) empty hole with hoistin~ capacity and their transportation velocity: 20 m/s. ~l1e
parallel charged holes
dept? f~1· the loading leve] is 1,022 m. The original soJL1t1on
• Parallel, holes close to each other, alternately empty and applied in the construction is a double-side simultaneous loading
charged holes of the same diameter as the rest of the of ~e skip from a belt conveyor and bunker, while rhe skip is
drilling. bi·aki~g, bu~ s~ill lower. Each of the equiprnent is powered i,vith
The heading rounds achieved with such cuts are usually 4 to Iour-líne l1oist1ng machine and the transmission wheel of 5.5 ni
5 m, and in single cases 6 to 7 m deep that the blasted drilling
shíeld s . . . . ·
broke. Since 1997, the blasting vehicle jumbo SWS-5 from Nitro-
Nobel, for pneumatic jet or pressure charging was introduced. 0
~r sha~ designed for transport of men and accessories are
equ1pped wtth cages d s kips f . . . ·t ,
an o different hoisting capact ') ·

TABLE9.5 Technical data of bucket loaders and LHDs

LK2NC LK2c - .

Parameters/Type LK2NCD LK2CD LKl~CD

LKP-0401
Manufacturer FMB-Fadroma, Wroclaw
- LKP-803
TORO SOiD ST8S
-c-----z
Mass, [kgj 18,600 20,500 anam-Polkowice ----
13,000 Tamrock Antas
11,950
t.ength, [mm] 9,825 9,985 8,900 20,500 38.9 L3
8,972 35,650

Width, [mm] 2,870 2,820 2,340 10,350 10 . .'.?S7

2,380 10,680
Height, [mm] 2,050 2,625 2,050
2,450 or 2,200
2,830
3,040 -?· 9! l
Loading capacity, [kg] 7.000 8,000 4,000
4,000
2,635 or 2 ,300
2.710 ~,· 70l
Bucket capacity, [m3] 3,5 3,5 2,0 8,000 13, 600
2,0 14.000
~un velocity without 14,0 12,9 l3,3 3,5 ¡ _6
loading, [km/h] 38.0 7,0
12,9 13.3
Acceptable dip, l deg] 11 14 :15,1
12.9

15
Engine SW680/73 or SW680/73 or Deut2 F8L413FW 15 J2,0
Deutz F8l413FW Dsut:z F8l413FW SW400/L2 OT

6CT107 2/L¿ Dti1.1tz

-
Det roi t o1e!S
,~,
Detroit Olesel
Gear box Clark C5402 Clatk C5402 Clérk 13 BF6M1013
• ZM130N/L2 6067 WK60 seria 60i l
7HR28319
Ctark. Clurh 508
Clark 210 3960
 E J

1
f 11\ \lll 1 . t 1
I . · (' l\, 1, 11l l l l·1· S \t i ,l f't t ~
. .~ . · ·l. 1 'I ' l'I l 1 t· 1
l ' ·1· . I: si ] ~
<1 ;\ J" ' ~t 1, -: , ,
. t l ' . i l, 1 Í : 1 1 Yl,t' I
, ·l l ' 1 11· , 1
1 l 11 •
1 1 . l . , l ' ls ,,,¡1¡1 1 \, l't I \1 lt ,ll l l l 1 l \tt,i
, l1,1 r ,¡ 1·1. ; ,l ; . ' . · L 1 ·1 - i,,
1 t'1'1 l 1 !' 1. ¡ 11.
rrc 1 , r· , , 11, i ' 1·1• .1-.; . cl \'
1 i t .1.' , , 1 l} , .,, 111[ 'l'l ·t 111 t l 1 1 l 1 tl l tl\ • tl · I it
i t· 1 · cl l.l 1 t < l .i, " '/ 1 ) \ · I \ 'l 1 \•\' 11 !1 1 ,
\l l l1 1
· l i ll tt 1· L 1·; i . ¡1 l ¡ l , . ¡ i1 t1 l r I' () 1 lt , l · ¡1l i l. 111
l1 i 1· (1 l) r i i ,(.\: J , 1 1 i ' L.1 1 ·).
1 l f ; cl ' t'!' t , s 't ·1· 1 ' '. 1·1 1 l •
¡1 l 1 r . '1'\1 , 1 , ,,¡ 11·: 1 l. 1 I l 1, l .1 1 tll·t · '
r t i l 1 i . l ; 'l , l '/,()li 11 1() 1 · \ ' 1 l. ! 1.1 1
r i r ), , ' l tl ~\ /. l' 1 ~ l ' ( 1 !' J '.l'
it r f s í 1 :· L'l' · i l i l tl t l. 1 <l 1 1
t ¡ . r i i , t i ' 1 Stl c)f c·,1!) ' , ' 11 l) \ t
[ IJi ,· rs 111 1,1 1 í ' ' ' L' · • (' l 'l \ 't , i>l 11 ,l. ' , s
r . li i 1 ~ c ' ' (' ' 11 I t ·1 · t ¡ I r , 1 '
s r r t t l l st 11·L t 1 I' i ,1 • ('()• '·l_ ·l1 1 11:1 , ,r . ( ' ·
- l rs ¡)· , · i ('c)I !) ) I' ' . . .
1 \ ,t 11 ,, • .' l~L ,1 · 1 C t
st s t r t í
I ,1s l)l ) 1 l. 111 \ · 1 l ' l t! <' 1 1111
I r l r r r f t ;
l ¡)l • l 111 1 •· )t't l 1 • • · tl 1 I' , 1' ·
r •t r .c
L ; ,' 1 1 ,'.i (
s ~1 ' I t
i · · ·11 I l 111 l ' t l1t 1 · '
l .
l I' 1 l'.~ 1 , \ 1 t
l l r ,
1 l 1,1·1 i !' 1 111 ' 1· i ¡ 1'1)1· \,\' ' 11. ·¡·
t i l i '\' l l)l( ' r , ' 1 'l r ' 1 i 1

,·cl ss i l t rs í r i1: i t , t ~ iI 1 ' · ,I ' 1- ·

r , i , s )
t: ' ,,, i) <.I · s '{)1t (1· 1l
ó s l l i ! ;.1 r·_i
í t r l t ¿ ~1 ,·
s r r i tí s

ill t it 1 1· 1 1· · · 1 1 i
• Changes of angle betwee11 dírecrion oí roorns and lanes w,1s ,·L'!lOrlcLI, t l1is tl11·,i.:,11 \ .ts L'o11:i,(lt'ít'LI ;lS tl1·t 111it)S! :,;;~11ili\~.,11t
on.e i11 Polis!, co111lL'r 111i11t'S. 1'11' l1,1si,c tr'l';1:1111s Ít)t' i1lt'l'L',t:i11g 1· \t
• Alternating directions of cl1·iving stopes
oí Lile ll,lZ,lt·d .11·0 '1.S f'ollt)\<VC tl"l1.'l''l,t't' l ( ,1. \()(){1):
• Bacl<-d ,·iving
a Gt'l',11 C!L){)tl1 1t' 111itl\llb
• Extei,sion of the roof opening tip to 150 ·111 (clista11ce (i·o111
abandoned a rea line to tl1e face li11e). • l,~L·gc :11-l''t o,[ c:ploit,.\ti11,11
• Diíl'ic\1ll Lt't'to11ics
01: 1
recently tl1e deposit over 5 1n tl1icl< Ltsccl to be 1n111c Y w -~ • l li81' st1·t.'1,itl1 ¡),\t·n.11'\t'tc1·s 01· ,·ot·ks ;\!1(l tll: 'it· t1i 1, ,11 ilit 1

. t fatlLLl'e bCélllLlg fo1· ncc\1111\tléltio11 at\·ti rt.'ll,isi11~ t)f L 11 1·).);

' '
• L,11·gc e 1 '11sio11 ()f wo1·ks :t11cl l1tt~' 1,t111,l1 t t)f tJill·•1·:.
edges of pillars are sittiated perpend1cttl,tJ t P 1'l1c 111ost cl1,t1·acte1·istit' tiir\'\t'11siot1 of ¡J 'll,1t·s th·\( t1:i1·,ll. · n1·
clcn1olisl1ccl, wl1c11 rock bt11·sti1,g <.)CCt11·.-. is 20 te.) :...s 1n ,. i<.lth.
fron t line. . . . . . . cr la ci·s O f roof a1·c
r " •

What happens Wtth111 caved a1eas, tlic UPR Liat1 .Y 1 St11,1lle1· ,111cl g1·ealc..ct· ,li,111.'11sio11 ,,1·e ll'ss ;il1l • fc>r 1·t~(k bt1rst.'
. _ e reates 1 ea
. . 1 a sit o11 (l<tinysz ,\ntl "M1·ozL'I< 1<)92). 011c c·111 tlí-sti1,st1i. 11 t o t)l> ,_. of
rocl 1111 rst; •
,t1t n

result, secondary scaling and bolting are veit fl encing inc1·c,1sc of 1 .. c;,,a,11 type, wl1 '11 cc111 r ()t· 111 ' ,,11 ·,11<.i f,,ilt11 l
111 ove rla¡) rncl1 (1tl1c·1·
otl1er
. effects
. are dilution í11 the brol<e11 ore
. e Ly levcl Tl1c
e wor"Lit< saie ·
2. /t<)c)j·o,· tt:L'fot1i<· t.YJ)t' vvh •11 tt\t' t: 'l'\t ·11 cl ll.) ··1ti 1\
above. reas· o11s cat1sed the . d.1ffe·rent · JJ ' l"1e pco. nl¡) l e tely sto[Jpcd ovcrla¡> l'acl1 ot l1t'1·.
'T'ht' very l1igll L'lll't·gy c)f· 1.<>ck l>\t1:t: <.',\ll 1· ·1 ·l, \l\1 f 10'> J.
. . · . · e-SJZC ,:
·r·11 tts it is vc.\1·y i111r)(>1·t·1nt 1<1 ,\!)J)ly ·,,, t'f ti i)r 11tio1, n1 tl\od
completion and aba11do1une11t of the ~ 0 r11e residt1,1I pill,11·s fo,· s:1fe t11i11ing. 111 tt,' c.'l.l\)l1t'1· 1\1in ', h ,, ti\ lo111in ,nt minin
111etl1oc.l is 1·()001 ,lt\<.I pill,,1· witl\ its 11,at\ 11,0 iificatio11 , pill r-
be1ng under post failt1re stage of w ' . tcction of tl1c wc,11< yil.•ldi11g t<.)ch1till\l' is lLS cl. l11\n1t,di·,t 1 . '\ttcr t' ti n t. th fi t

P. h enome11011. Tl11. s tec h no 1·og-v assur. es . P1sº d· isti·ibt11101. 1, d Lle to li1tt' ot' ()illn1·s in cli1· •c·t vic111ity ot· tll 1·0 ·k 111 ·,, th pill
 of 7
Ji a
z

9.5 MINING METHOOS t) k11\

Joaclc•cl witl1 p1· sst1rc..' ),;t i1,,¡,111 ell, by ' ·p·tloit
i11<lt1c· l\ \I ,,nd b u
)1 ti()tl of
9.5 1ncrea.scd on ot Mln1r,
1 Evolu support of tl1eM Llp~er·e
thod tl1L·i1· .1p¡JrcJ¡1ri,\tt' s111,1ll di111 nsions, tr n ir fr m pr riti l
1989, tllis 111111t11g mc~l~od ll •;1 11 1l ~l l1 ;1 ll 1t 11tl it' IS li
¡Jostf,1ílt11·e st,1gc of wor·k. s a 1· sult, wh n th n1inin nt lin
Progressing
E rloi l tion of n postts
self"caved a1·ea. UpS111 toc. 5 m 1·1,i<ci,illy \ltl
t111clc1·l d1ff1c.:tilt
l'~' l111, \,111111
(:{ C'l wirh r1 st
· . 11,\Í {'l l) 11i l'li vv.u. rlu o.u tll l'
n. 111~ d,111l · h st·rcss
onl)' co!1:d1t1ons
n1i11i11g mof hod )L i11~ an
tecton1cs 11 8
(( 11:-. L ci :1 (1t1 14 l,.11 it \\1, S 11 1, 'ltl(t'\ '1(1111 11 1' 111~1 1111,11 ·~ ,11\\ ft)

íilli, g ccl1no ogy 1'11t 11 c)11>\ w,111 111( tllt)l ,,.,,, 11,111 tll'l' 'l tl 0 tll ll\1 IÍ <'<~l )1\11\~ m
cc 11izcc.l hydr. ulic st1¡ )0 111 11111c111tl tl .11, cl l1c lt 'c 11, ¡ 1 ·~
• S ,1 l\t1 l.11 }11 ,•11111
wc .1 J¡Jliccl Vc y S()c111 1ft1'r <'g,1t \L :¡111 111 1111~;11ist.11,tlll
c(ficic11c.·y hey dccidcd o 11s room 111 ill 11 111 111 viil, \t' 111 11 il >' t1' 11 111t 1·,i 1 l1l ti k ll tl ('l l<l
IJolt ng ccl111iqt c :in ll) hen y L'1¡ 1i¡ 1111.·111 11.11 'tlttl <;$LJl L' 11 S I\Vll ,l\ l'1 tlll l\11( ti !1 ltlli,· lt lli11, ,11\ ll) lt\
ni~ss pi ocluc on and e e out pu: co11<' Ill 11 c111 Wi1 111 1111 i'ill 1~t 11)()tl11l S cl 11 11~:1!1 tl 111, 1·: ,1i1.1t !\ 11,,111 1'
proc t ction cxpcr cncc, 00111 :111 i\l;i 111 11 11~~ tllt:lll() vitll tl / l111 1..•1!111( 11 l.l; 11111 t'vl1 1t
rool caving 1, VC becomc sa cr nnd more 111 11\0l \.' f rtivc it\\ S()111l' l ¡11· i1• 11 1' 1111 tl1t' 7.(; 111< 11\(l(l 111
e11ablcc full rncchnnizru ion 0 he int oduccd l <·; 111 11 s 1• 1t'1 e) 11 ,· l11111 f).;li 11.·, i11 .'t'\t'ltti .', ~v l,
rncthocls wc c more co111¡ e it vc duc o (1W procluct on l'O " s t~ 111l11't ,1li1 ('l t' 11 (() 11 1l1i(·k ('ll' ltl !)(' 11i1,' 11 llll 11
cornJJD C'd with backf lllng cchniquos Iuü ially, fe 1111 111l ll ll lllt' li\11.11 C•ll 1. lS 1t' 11 (' (1 \~ 111·11 1c}1\l l) lt) t11,
exp,lo a1io11 wirh oo caviug, rwo tngcs o Jíll 11 cut V L' vvl1ic l1 11'Sl1 t¡•c 11 111¡1 t' 't t',l:'i1' Ll t1lli1 ~ t111s (1 11 r.:sti11,, y
Jiclllly uscd f11 hc firs s agc rhc l.' ploii a ion ll L'i wns diviclcd l11iltlll lt tl 111\:, \\ 1'll' lllll1•11lt'lll1't llltl li111llt'\ llSt' !ll
rito ggc pilla 25 x 35 111. 011ly thc sccoud s ge L', cl1 o 1l1t Íllt IL ,IS c,1 jll(l<lll lltlll l"ll lt lt litll\ lSl 1(11 1~; \' {1.'I \V

¡Jílla s, !)~gi1111ing frorn rhc abandoncd no, wns cut nro 11 11,y l1·;1(11l ll (lff i11111 S ll1113 l il \ttt' :-. l1 tl tgl1 lt f11 :llt'll \111 ·.
n1allc pilla s. Frorn h~ po cntia roc bur tl ·;i 1c1i11t c) v cw, S11cl1 Scll\1111)1) 11\J)i. lt y i1 1i lt'tl l'()l\.'1l ll{'ti,ll1 l\ :.11

the 1wo stagc mcthoc worsc bccausc rhc ill 11 s 11 thc first 111t'\111t'S 111,11 \ltf)l S 11.'l't! ÍI\ tl\1.. lll.<;I
111 98• 111i11i11 lllt lllt\cJ ll[ll '.:, (11 <lt f) }Sll 111 11)
age how a dangerous cndcncy fo accumula ion o cncrgy,
S 111 l1 '('11 11111c cl11(· •c 11 111 t1 \\ '11\ll't tl) l. 11t1 !l
n ccent ycars, thc a gc a ca o the cxploi cd spacc 111cl
'X oi1;11io11 vVi .' l1c) !1 11111 1•1 11i,, ;11 1ls 1' 1< t' l~Ilt' 11
g cn e dcprh of the dcposii incrcascs rock 111 1ss prcssurcs wi: 11
111:1xi111 1r11 1llc,w,1!1lc lil\in ·11 llt ,,·.1s 7 111. ll1\ 1I ,111tl l11~!1, .1!1
ncgativc effcct, It has becn hown to be 11 L11·g 11l tíCC( o
sic t'S wcr1 111 lt'Cll'( 1v rl1 'l." n •T\1 t•:i11 )lts. \11 1lt1·1·11 11 i\t
improvc minlng work safety and roc burst prevcruion
111c1l1oc lt) tl1i,·k \1..'~S. -8 11\ llltllt1;t ·l. ,\S IL.'t' !t
Unti 1983, che room and pil ars rneihods wc c bascd 011 111
cx 1 oi o11 o l1t• ot1 ic)11 ¡) ll 11 l't !1,t) l( t' 111\ ¡,' 111i11:.t
asst1mptio11 tha a11 the p llars shou d be of the sanie dirucns ons \)1(
ílC'lti l't )Ulll IÍ011 o c;,()00 111 (l,l) lll1 , c1 ) ll
rcga le of changes thc geornechan ca parame e o thc ock
li111 11 cl11 ·o11ncc t'1\ 11 ·L·,¡11ir n, 11ts c, s111 I;\( <- 1> L\t t'll1111.
nass After 1983 in ZG Rudna M ne rhc enginecr dccidcd le íit llc c11t r11t Ll10Lls te ,tSt' Clll ti) c,I 1ti }\1S V\' 1't(l t)l1t <>111 1t
dimensi n of the pi l] ar to oca cond tions, so thcir Jc ng
bovc C' xr>c it' 11Ct'
capaciry wcre d fferentía ed in e ation o gcot~1ccl1 1111c,1l
propertie of the rock mass. Fu the modif ca on of thc room 9.5.2 Rock Burst Th
and p ar method were connec ed w h Sincc 972, wl1t>n 111(' ¡, 0L k. \)11.11 Sl t'\ 1·11 i1 P,1lktl t: Mi11
 •

1.08
o
1

• r-'

. s in the exploítat1on
•
1
. Jl desrroyed pillar . . of the rooms. • 1
1
1

'
ñeld rnust still sltpport I t ing energy is s1gn1fic3?ntation of d1e
[ .-----:, ¡m • r
-21 rn' oreo
\.
one can obtain go~ e illars within rhe front_ me he nurnber o ..
rectangle cross-sectron p d. l r to the fronr line, t the shorter •
•
sides of pillars are perpen a~~d a with situation when th of che •

1
¡:
• -
- ... ·-
--· o-
o
eX(Jlo1tat1on front me . wall sides of dnfts s~P e o

,..-
o !. .... ·r - ,---r
recesses are cut mto t e roe . based on advance in 1
o "1--.-i •
/ ~ l -..
•
1 l E l j
A. '•
rock mass stress release with explosi ki faces at the sarne tune, l· - 1 - --·
-""' o
1 _ _,..
•

-- -
•
- o - - -.1, ._ -.. ¡
o
o o
o • o o
lo
•

o o
usually no more than l_S stopes, T. e blastin allowed the most o o
· ht hours wairing nme followíng . g. d
a· o
' ~ 1 -J_._
- ~
J = J]
rº -l ,
- - 1 1 -
number of trernors to take place during thís peno . 1 [ 1
.1

AGUf
953 Mlnlng of Semi-Seam Depos1't s uP to 3 m Thick
backf
• · . . M. ost of che area A-A
Especially in the P~lkowice-S1er?szo~1ce . ine, m less than 3 m. O)' OOC<
occupíes thin, semi-seam deposits w.1th th1clrn~ss . . ethod
-- ·- - --
---+- -

Por exploitation of this kind of deposit the ~pec1al rmnmg m Th 1

8 deg
•

has been developed. The ore is extracted m a selectíve way. e oea-

thlctnes~ room , or m
idea of the method is shown in Figure 9.7. . mir>e<'oized the I
The míning field is typically encountered ~1th doub~e or zone
triple entries preparatory workings. Rooms, entnes, ~nd pillars conn•

are basically of 7 m width. Work in the faces consists of rwo FIGURE 9.7 Room and pifiar mining method for 3 m Expl.c
phases conceming tlúc~1ess of th~ l~yers: barren ~~ck _an~ the s.
mineralized ore. (In Uruted States, it is known as a reusing' rhe s:
>.-A
method of stoping.) First, the upper (adjacent to the roof) ore-
1
bearing layer is worked out and hauled out to special chutes ~nd
main transportation system. In the second phase of the working,
1 li--3
.,.....,
the barren rock adjacent to the floor is worked out and placed in "!

other rooms (not hauled and transported out) as entries of a dry 1

•• • • ¡

back fill. Each of the entries covers at least two rows of pillars plus 1
•
1 •
~

1
. J
one room. The back fill width is 14 m and maximum length of the 1
•
1
J
mining front is about 49 m. No more than three rows of pillars at •
1
ce ;:l • a•
' -
the same time period, not covered with the back fil1 are allowable ¡1 1 '
in the mining area. Duríng extraction in the last row of pillars, 1 '

working occurs only in the ore-bearing layer until the cross section 1
1 1

of pillar achieves approximately 21 m2 area. The completion of the 1 1 "",u 1

pillar rnining process work is based on roof sag resting upan the
1
1
o
1
dry back fil! entries prior to abandoning the area.
1
(. .. . •
0D
9.5.4 Room-and-Pillar Mining Method with Roof Sag
•

H
•
•
0000
and Controlled Yielding of Pillars for Semi-Seam Deposits o. . .LI

Up to 7 m Thick
'aº
. Ide~ of the Method. The method is especially usefu] in
barrier pillars of drifts, heavy faulted zones, and in direct vicinity FIGURE9.8 Room-ancJ..p . .· . .
of abandoned areas. Maximum allowable dip of the deposit is up controlled roof . .litar mining method for 7 m thrckness, witli
sag and Ytelding pillars
to. 8 deg, '.111ª thickness is 3 .5 to 7 m; however, local increase of
thickness is acceptab1e.
The exploitation area is e11countered with double gate d
a pr t d · F · ro a s layer is equal to the d. . ·,
s . es_en e _ in igure 9 .8. For thickness over 4.5 m, the gate road~ loaded With buck istance to the ore boundary. Broken oire 1-
1
et oade .
are dn~ed in the roof of the ore-bearing layer. The bound ch
utes ~nd belt rs on~o machines or '':. ch~ l~

ex_cavat1ons ~ust be connected with other active excavatio . ~ry conve h~uling
m111e. An opdmal length of the mining front line ranges fr ns l~ e mechan1zed and or Y~rs. "'York~ the m.ining fronr lm~ r rull~
600 ~- The ore is extracted with 7-m-wide and . om O to segmenrs of the fron~~zed ll1 senal-parallei c3·cles , i.thln r.hr
Roof is s11pported by pillars of 7 to 7_ rn-hígh rooms.
10 8 1. In one
· g t h e mining front line the pill m fxr
a d vancm toh 38 m · Wh'1J e segment of th . ·.
extracted e entry, a roof pan of Lhe ot e 1_

~te~wards, the smaller pillars (cubes) are su .. 5 to 4.5 m. 2. In t~e sec.ond se -. - ,

111 diarneter up to the contacr surface 12ccess1vely decreased ore is extracted &ment of the enrry, a floor p n ot (he:
id ¡ .11 are a to 20 m2
resi ua jn ars, The roof that has b , , so-called a. l~ the third Pan . .
immediately bolted. The next stage is the e;~ open~d musr be P1lla.rs are slahb' the technologicaI (the larger'i o rrier
the boundary of the mineralized zone Th r Worl<1ng, down to 9.s.s
for people and equipment with timb~r e extracted part is closed
the blast-l1oles in the upper layer is 2.5 ~osf oºr chocl<:'· Length of re1 t.
o . m, but tn the lower rn l enera1Idea f • s Up to 15 m Thick Upp,
et 1od is i.11111. ted o the M h . . , hau
'With 15 et º~· Range of applica~on · f r r~
m th1ckness and iocli a.c1on 11P
 Modifications of the Room-and-Pti•· .
,ar Mln,ng M
09
-~- ---
r1 ·o
•
-- -·- - ---,- - - -- -·- -
11
1
1
1
•

~\ 1
1
•
1 1
1 1•
1 1
•
1 1
1

1
1
' ¡\ 1 -\
ere¡~
~
1 •
(
1
1 ll [l
1
l
1
1
1
\. ~ \_l ~e+ I
n
1
1•
1

1 '
1
1
•
1•
.1
1 6
· ' ' J . , r
- _J
• 1\.)1 il .tl Lt111l1L'l
l, llt' l l)f' l'll,1 I< {'l . undc •r
•
l«¡<"<i- .

¡¡¡
....
-
""'
"'-'M<. ""'
ruines
1 '
lt \\ 1(),()()() meu
l ' 1 \ 1
• \t l'Ol li11~ l~l "-t){'1lJ' \l tr( tJ1t,. /\
r i •
\ . '111i t,t lI ' r lil l\ J
FIGURE 9.9 Room-and-pillar mining method fo 15 t"•1 l, f ,: ,[¡'1), 1' t ll,
Ll t ,
rost · t1
> ll[ l
. !)[1)ll\l
<' t' r l\ 1
backfill m 1 e"ness w th r l-+t)O S ... ll)~USt
l II) md 111 ,1st1 I nth
íznrion) '....8"" L S l51) us. 11)).
' l' r ti i
• Cl11) produc on
· 1
in l lll ltltl n ll)l <), u lo
t ¡ ·tt ¡ l· i
clectro vtic e i1 ¡)t
, l,
ll,)'.2,(1JO
1
kit 1· 11
1.
8 deg.. The field to be exploited . .
mus be encoum)'. b h r 111J

or tnp'.e sys:em gate roads dnven 1n1n1ediatel, t·upen

~. ere wi co11 e
the, op •
l t· -º )l),
1· ·t·' 1 ' l
, 1 of ,, 4l' Rn ;is fo
l lb ,
',lt fl cL',1:1 i11l
l 1 1· l •
: fe l. l
.
the mineralized zone. The boundary. exca rat 011 s n 1 \ liUctiOl l) tt1 -t 8 ()()0 1t) :il\l.' 07l),0l)l) 11
ith th usc 1t1 e
connecnon vV1 o er active e,-xca ations in the mi ]1e, pro( lt1ctiOt\ l'O, t t'0t • · Pll
' 't \\ ~ll \)t ' 1. 145 ll~ O t
. , · d d , ,r ., L
Expl oitanon is con ucte in one 01· rwo lavers wí th faces ,l. ¡. 11g 0
th e s'.1111e me or ~ ith separanon arger size barrie block where 9 7 FUTURE PLANS OF MO
,
the single 1 operations are performed, . . . OF . COPPER MlN NG
l alternate y. r ,
Order of the operations tha occur n two l ayers s shown Tl1t' rect:>nt rt'ch11o o~y I Lt d fo cxtt,ic i\11 h' t'L)i •r 1 i· \ n
below and in Figure 9.9 eft ecti c o le' s1)t' l 'cit· ~•: olt ~icn 1 l<liti(lr1:
t • c n 1'L-,lil r.' ·
t i l i ock h1 eacs it u: it: n1
l11t1
' ,• t' r el st 10,,t(.' • ) ' ,\ ( t
,, 1.:t t1n1..lct , t) 1tinL i . l1 · ¡) ·
1. Division of the : exp o ation area n the uppe ayer with and u odift '.t:1 -on , 1 v r \\L)ttl\.l
1: , · , i:likL' to · ' ' pl1 1 .' :c tl1. , , 1
6-7-m-wídth and 5l mit high roomsi and entry r l11 perpen
. x 1lnir,ed
t" 1 Lllt' c_i, 11 ni11R ·. v m ~ t),!s ,1 c·,)rdit1~ t11tlltl,1 i 'S L·r r •ri1 1
dicular direction each - - o her nto a ger bar er (i pilla - fo tl1 11 1\cLlit
1 t n 1t · a1, th -1-.
tll llcposi - l)\tt r111r1y ' i1 . 'r:, 11rt.'
it ',t1
\ I'. 1.
Dimensions of the pillars vary from 7 to 9 m by 16 to 11d ridtlnl olutior1 nppli1..'d ir1. :t)fl\11..' t)f tl1, 11i11
38 m depending on the tloca) geologica i l r condit ri ons The r· . dt -1sc ib i , d1 l1crc 1due
'
1 o<.i J ori;1l il lin1 t;lri
'
ls 1l: 1t1<l ~ , ,11· i 111 ,
longer s de of the rectang e p rpendicular to the fron pnpe O l11 ptl1 o e ric1,( i11 1ni11i11~ itl1i11 pn,t ion
line (exploitation ine) assuring arge nurnbe of roorns i irs t1nde,:s , L1rl1:1nize,i .1r0;1:. it1 L11Ll r~: llt11I l .\rt:
pill 1 ·s 1..I,1 , :t
and great, concentration o faces l wirm ng l simulta í , n11 ~ e:x: 1· r,tct 011 o , oiLl r t'h 1n i1 c- a ·'i tl1 lt , tL'I, , e 'Il l)L K1· 111:1.·
, t r
neously a ong the fron ine a11c. otl1c1 tcchriitlll ,1r to it11<.·lt11..i t, '. 111 J . '
h
2. Width ofi the excavation inl the is upper
. aye can each t )olting 1·. pr, c· icc ti s r·f · 11.i~hly l JC\t'lti\)c in tl,' · 111 n ': at ·
10 m due to dynarnic l activíry o rhe l rock massr n 1c need coL11,1 lc, ott' a l) n c ·hap t'r lt tl,i ¡11 1hl 11\. l f t
of the wall sides tha should f have pre-assurned í -
inclina
nsst1n1cl
cl r h i. ,t, [l1c t· ) sic id~;\: · ·i 1· 01¡ ,tl.) ill t 1n1 1.d ¡1i 1 11 1111· 'rl ·,: ~ -

l t l . 111ccl1 l ,niz 1cio1 · anJ rL)c.)f s ' stt¡lpo 1 t rt :, 111l ,lft'·1· •ll , n liri )(1
tíon after scaling. l t?nd~ a11J,\ t tl11: c i vv,1s ,·c y 110t llt.'l . ll) i11t \t1tlt.'I lt ln ,\ Li ltt.'n
3. Mining in the lower ayer proceed fo l s r'.1111 rhr'.ck~e 111odtcl n c r11 , !lts ' , ock. ¡· t 111.n:: t: ;in(! f t · L 1. icc, 'lt n1 11t L
f '. l
wit h many eaces by means o floor e acnon H ulage te l1110 o~ic l t 1I cl1 1in l ,l.sl1t1 ttlctl b' t111 · !tt r i1 ,\•r11\,11t1 ne-· Lt 11t t tL t
of the broken ore takes t place n each second oom in - m lxin1u111 , : .' lle 1, or 111 int.'1-:; anJ · ·:ce
t'c,11ttlll\i , ·,11\ · c.:tt · , 11 rt
inclines with 5 to 8 deg dip 0r v11 rs 0 in1p 1·0, c the t,, l1 ' 111rtLI 1111' nc,11 it . 111: ch ' l ¡
lthe barrier pillar s rshould it be mam s ' 1 11c
íll',l ·Llrl?'s ir\t'L111Jert,\t ' 1·t.'n ir, tllt' 111i1\ ··
4. At east two rows O d berween
tained with n the fron íne and 1e • L11 rhl:' LI , t,IL)¡ling tl1 01.. k r11..\:s 11 11it
. f rr ance . ..i t· ,l ,
•
1 1
the front line and the back líne whe e the stopmg is.
1 , 1 1 1
Cl1c111~t 111 ,vo1 k t) 111,iL tit111
o be greate1 han 54 rn
a b an d one d h ave i r < Üt' ,O t r,g i· ¡) llt'\\, Ct)nSt íl , '( ll)(l L)Í , t'>ll " - ·
tl e ast row o P
.
5. With the progres~ of ?e IDlillr::ed w h 7 m wid h cuts . 1 ·L'1·. ·1· 1 · , 1·
lars1 (in the back ne)f is .labbe d s
cessive y , un il he - ' , , .:
The residua i p llars aret l a e eI · . and· occa • ltllf) t'll1t.'I {¡\( iL)l1 l>f :¡)(' 't \l L'L 11."ll ll 'tit)
1;utc 20ist n2 · 1; · 1· . · ' 1· '
r rl1i11 l\tss rl1 111 .') .111tl :2 111) ,l 'pt
sionally even ess unde u a itl • 's · ,! :' , ,
• l\ \otll'l'Ll\Z li()(l 11tÍ\lll\' ll\ ll\l 1: il\ fl
fílled up o the roo w:
6. Finally he ,abandoned t area 5 · r .
f 1 il
01 L' \VilSlt.'S ,11\tl l)illl )1\
• ';'L'l ¡li
hydraulic fill 1 l ct ell t>1·tl t'l {S fo¡ ,\L l S ' [l) tl l • t \ •. t
•
. · · 1 L -
t barrierp1ll c~1n)
7. Tl1e m1nu1g o he 11ex <fj[J fie c s coin¡ c ~ y 1n1sl1t.>tl .
it t
li l t I 98 s
d t..11 4. 5 U o n g \11 11, 1! ll ()\)(( <J!'l 1'.<L;11. 11
Blast1ng worl<s are
l i n 1a e Wl sl r 0 11 tlie flooi o - ll l~llll,i l'lLS, 1-.k.i 1\, h,111 S l; t
ertically downwards into the lowe ~;~,vt~ l) C1 0 1(1 11~ 111ll Lttlll ti.: 1\1,lj ( l ltl
l 1 s rt f \lit·,/ .', l' l 1.. tt n
.
haulage are realized witl1 bLicke 00 . (
1 1 t l 1
, t
. . , . l e ,1r·1 1
. . ct1· , ·: .
ft t ll i Jl L l f .

. ' J
·
.
.
.
l L
· t,,
1-1.
r, 1
J
'' r l, I I. 1, , i ,
 i . I\
, , l, i ·
• ' < t" ll
i
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1 , ' ' .
, .l ., \ , \ . · , , 1
• . l\ ,¡ ,' Í f ( \ t \ 1 \ .
, ,\,, t. 'l !' t ' t r ,,
 r· • • • ---·-· -·-~---· - -- -- --
· · -· -· -- -~ · -.
•
· -· -· •
1
1 •
• l
•
1
• 1
1 •
•
•
l
1
•
•
l
1
• l•
l•
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• 1
l •

•
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. . . 21 m2 orea

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.: . ·...;

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. ... .,~ .',·. 1

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r
1
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-···-·-"'
-----·.,,, _ • 1 • • •• 1 '

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--· ••
•~•
' .--a....J-- • --

•
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'

. . - '
'

- - -
rnineratized
- . .

r- oom - orr
pillar

1
A-A
1

--- -- ---

thickness of

zone
FIGURE 9.7
 • •
• •
1·
10 •

1
• t

ing o ,'• •
"l •
1
·I
•

•
. l. • t
• •
•
1
E
..,.. •

,les
•
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'' o
o
• '- > l..,
•

.1
' o
ne, A ,_;;¡ •
o
Í)

1 o • ()

. nd 10 •
o o
lo • • o
ost '
¡ o· '
•
• 1 1
l

•
- •
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•

1 1
• .

dr Y bac k f1i1
·ea
m. .... ----
--·-----·--- ... . ., . .
• .·. . . <
6 • •

'
od É
1

thickness o j·
room
- -
p- a
• -
'
'h ("'). f_
ill r
111fneralized
or zone

Room and pillar minin method for 3 m th·

nd
1g' A-A
re-
nd
•
ng, 8-B
• l e-e
. in
ir}' •
•

•
lus • 1 ' .
1 1
he • • 1
1
, at •

1 -.·-·-·-·-·
ble •
•
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• 1 1
ron • •

l
•

1 i!. 7~11t,O l
the 1
•
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the 1
•
1
•

1
~· •
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• o
•
o
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•
niry
thod for 7 m ht .
s up
. e of
 1

• •
-ads , ) . ' l.
oads s anc
l s onto ·
n the se . or ·
50 tn 1 • • . • ~.,,thin r
 r· . ·-· ·-·---·-·-~---·-·- ·-·-·- ·-~---·--- --. -·-·
• 1
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--·
Legend :
- CJ"eo tmder oockfil119
m - bod<filed (l'e(I

FIGURE 9.9
backfilf

t t
! ~1 . e

. • • . • • . l (' h { el . . el C fl ~ •
t · · · · . r 1 ,~ l" I ~ ,· t f. S l l
P' E

Th r nt r
ff cti fo · 1 r
ck bur · th
and modific:
 • •
. . . • • • •

an oom-an .. .
zn1ng •

• 1e
urora , tne, •
•
mr, G exico

arco A. Perez G." a d

'

i0.1 1 iTRODUCTIO
Location a, d Aceess
crea . ·~ór:.g n·-0rcru ..
. .
051 fl 't • :YIMUjt! •
\
1
t -s located 4 km h n arest town ro ihe
ro e nor h ·•e

-
' d , e unir ro ederal Í'Jhway 57 and
. -. n eco a .' pa 'ed road rhar connecr.s the . •
4
9 e L Ch . urn: o 1
. . o arcos ra1]1,/\.'@11 st at io n is 14 k
• '
p o
smal] planes 5 km from the mine slte.

10.1 2 Hi tory /

C. arcas dares back to 1574 \ -he n Don Juan d

d d ·he to: ·.rn. Ir v, as gi en che name Real de la /
.
co /
• e cry firsr v. orkings .. ere begun in 1583 when /

· .ed frorn che o.cidíz d zo es of che Santa Isabel I

e· .. Tnese eins, pre\ iously discovered by nauves,
· .. · .. rs[ mine in the regían, me . ina Tiro Genera].
r; a rnbe r of differenr ov. ners rhrough che years, bur
..
e pro pe · es ::ere unified by che Frenchman 1 Iereo
0[. .ed rhese \ eins.
· :. er ore. ·.. ith grades o er 1500 gr/mr, carne e rclusi rely
o ridiz d zone Jr ;.1as rrea ed using me Patio process.
B O t · o ídes , . ere exhausted as che, orkings reached FIGURE1.0.1 tocation of Charcas Unlt
e zo: e. Operanons . -ere suspended because of rhe Iack of
ic • erhod O conceno a ing sul.fides. \, Tirh the advenr of
non eposns could be -orked aga·n.
. . . e rs th se mines vere conrrolled by Compa~a
TABLE10.1 Evolutlon ofproduction capaclty of the Charcc
. ro Ge- ieral, s ... In 1911. ASARCO_ and_ rhe Compañ1a
Pertod Enterprlse Capac
c. • aciona acauired L1e e. ·ploirao on nghts. ASARCO 1

1925-1969 ASARCO
• Et!

•
~ r.: ~ ion o·~ be: eficiacion pl nt ro process 725 mt/d In 1976-1982
1970-1984 Industrial Mexicana.
ASARCO S.A. S.A.de C.V.
Minera México, 1
, - e .• e . caniza . on of 111íning prompted ASARCO. ro
c- ,r. co
- . • e ....;·8.>..1 .; s . A , ith Slº/t1 of Ít5 shares being 1983-1985
1975 lndust, rial Minera
Industrial Minera México, S.A.de C.V.
México, S.A. 12
.• eJ0cana.
"- f-1 •• . íexica .. Íí . estors. The narne of the company was 1986-1988 Industrial Minera México, S.A. de C.V. 2

1989-1991 Industrial Minera México, S.A. de C.V. 3

. f>G capacirv has e ·ol ·ed in rhe sreps s o vn in
. ,
1992-2000 Industrial Minera México, S.A. de C. V. 4

C'harcas U · Today . .
y • . o . rs oals rhe explora.oon,
- r . • co ' e ' .
n d -zi.nc e oncenrr·ares.
• • • . . .

11 -a 11, -Pi • • •
ª' 1e
.z 1 a a •
exico

10.1.i
• •

CHARCAS
1

\ I," • •
'

,~-· r,...--1

y
~ .,
1-u1• POtOII

FIGURE 10.1 Locatlon of Charcas Unit

TABLE 10 • .1 Evolutlon of productlon capaclty of

Perlod Enterprlae •
1925-1969 ASARCO

1970-1984 ASARCOMe 1c ne, S

l

•
1.98A
• • c.
• a
-•--±
1 1 :
2 3
z:LE · JF
 riard 1:1
"ºe~
1,;12 Underhand
----

TABLE 10.
1
1
S.n 01-9(' .S.n
, - Aq·u,ti"
vw1n V.tri. '
'
'
•• •
,
• • •
• •
•
•
Rock type
•
-
Limestone
(hanging w,
-- Ore
FIGURE 10.2 Geologlc (section N 70º W) across Charcas dlstrlct
Steri\e skc
1
• FORMATION
(footwall)
1-o u ....

LOWER
•

from the Aurora, Rey, Reina, and San Bartola ore bodies, with i L
~
_- ., ~:1:1
,.. .--. :::-- .:S¿~-=--=--=--=..:' ,-----
•
TARAJSES FOR
::i.¡
ATIOtil
_ --- "f" ,
1
' ,¡;__.?Z
L"T -
j_lo
_.:.....,,--
~

daily prod uction rates of 652, 3,422, and 815 rnt, respectively. 1
l
'e; .--
,J. _: :e:r
, :: \ .
-- e--: '
:+ r- ¡_ 1- ..... ~ LA C.'lJA
'
1
1.0.2.s
1

Mining methods include underhand room-and-pillar at rhe N j c.-~,, 1~~'-~-'-0~?-T; 11

- .,-·_::. 1 ~
FORMAl'ION 1 In the
Aurora ore body and post-pillar cut-and-fill at the Rey, Reina, and e , Í~"":::'..::);: 1 : e {r:T - ,'----- --- - -- --1
I lítholog
San Bartola ore bodies. Installed milling capaciry is 1,200 rnt/d at 1 o 1 U HfGHER ~
:::::;::--:::::-_.,- - J: ...r :;_,:::.-,,
r . '-'
ZUt.OAGA FORIM'nou
., bodies

plant 1 and 3,300 mt/d at plant 2, for a total of 4,500 mt/d. Ore i 1
"' p~;s--.--.-,-- . ,:. =t.::=~- ~-A" ~-------- content
1 - >. -::e-- •
.,:z.~
;:.:::r - . .,. .-( --;::,t..,.,. ,. . .,, .....
is hoisted rhrough rhe San Bartola and Leones shafts, with
1 , ,., •• - J
LA
recrysu
(1) 1 : 1 - ;~,;-,,L;;:.,;:-~-: -
capacities of 1.,400 and 3,800 mt/d, respectively. 1 high. e
~
.JOYA rhe sed
10.2 GEOLOGY lw:::, /,:1./ t for the
., LOWER
'
fO~--TJO intrudi
10.2.1 Regional Geology simult;
:E ---
The present structural features show that there were three 1 - T
(,) HIGHER
tectonic stages. The first stage involved regional metamorphism ;; and di
of Triassic rocks, while the second involved the Laramide - ---
'FORM.AT\ON are int
MEDIUM
Orogeny. In the third stage, tension stresses during the Pliocene 0: ~

1
the m
gave rise to a system of northwest-southeast fractures and north- = .... -
-
exíst,
south-striking normal faults that affected the earlier structures. bodie:
Figure 10.2 shows the mineralized fringe of the Charcas district. FIGURE 10.3 Stratigraphic cofumn
Regionally, the rocks range in age from Lower Cretaceous to 10.2.

Recent. The oldest represent platform and basin sediments and In the
shallow basin sediments. Spills and structures in the rhyolite 3. One set of concentric faults and mineralized fractures, to tln
overlying the older formations are Tertiary. The younger rocks which are at the margins of the El Temeroso stock. lt is are+
are continental conglomerares discordant on the Cretaceous
in this system that the main mineralized replacement
rocks. Finally, c1astic sedíments of Quatemary age are distributed
ore bodies are found.
widely within the valley .. Figure 10.3 shows the stratigraphic
column. 10.2.3 Local Geology
10.2.2 Structural Geotogy The_ rocks in t~e area correspond to all three major types of rock:
The main structure observed in the area is the doubly dipping sed1IDe~tarf, igneous, and metamorphic. The Cuesta del Cura
San Rafael anticlinoriurn whose axis has an approximate north- Fot 11·1a~ion is the most recent one in the environs of the unit.
south orientation. In addition, there are several localized Croppi?g. out i11 the hills immediately to the south and north of
anticlines and synclines, either in Triassic rocks or on the flanks th~ u111t, it consists of clear gray limestone in thin, folded layers..
of the anticlinorium. ecoi
The intrusive body of greatest importance in the area is mm
•

caJled El Temeroso. This granodioritic stock was intruded duríng b etw. een. the last pe1· 1· 0d s o f the Lower Cretaceous and t~e out:
the middle Eocene and is classified as a quartz monzonite. In the son

sedimentary formations contiguous to this inrrusive, a f g . Y tilting basin environment as indicated by the presence epu
•

metamorphic aureole was formed. 'by 1

The system of fractures and faults was the result of, on one e in is forrnaríon.
hand, orogenic movements during the Laramide event, and on 10
the other, tensional stresses caused by the intrusion of the 10.2.4 Zoning
Se,
granodioritic stock. In both cases, mineralizing solutions filled 1. are
the structures. OYE
Three systems of mineralized structures have been defined. o served . CO!
1. The vein system formed by the Leones and Santa Isabel
veins (Santa Rosa, La Viejita, Santa Ines, Veta Nueva, gr,
San Rafael, Progreso) and the filled fractures in Las c alcopyi·1te increases (.R
Horizontal zoriing. Both sphalerire and galena
Bíbianas and El Potosí. This set displays a preferenrial d ecrease frorn th th hile sn
northwest-soutl1east strike with sorne east-west varia- chalco _ . . e nor eas.t to the souchwest, w · su
. pyrite increases considerably.
tions as occurs at Las Margaritas, El Potosí, and 2. Reg1onally h · at11i:e ar
 Room-and-Pillar Mining of u
. ,
branches of the San Rafael vein. m1nerals s . or1zontal zoning is seen · High-ternper fr,
2. A set of veins and faults oriented about northeast- et
southwest, as, for exarnple, the San Salvador and b,
San Sebastián veins.
t e edges of the San Rafael anticl1n°11ll
 ., . , . ' ... ••
•

Legend
··i ere

··· · Fault
,,r.,,, Vefns

•
· urora, e , e1na, an • •
an arto a ore o· res, 1
-
•
'
a1 ro uction rates o ' an t, resr ecnve
• • • ' •

1n1n· et o s me u e un er an roo -an at te

att e e
ma, an
• • •
an - arto o or nsta e m1 m ca aci ·t· at
e at ant , or a tata o
ant. an •
• ' '
s
IS oiste ou an arto o an eones s
• • •
acmes o. mt ·, res ectrve •
'
•
 • •
-an 1n1n

•• . . . .. ~ . . ... • • • . ....
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..... - .. •

)
.. , J .{ ~- . . -
'
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J

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' \ ¡ ~·· .... -- ..... :r--- \ CH

-·'
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l •
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' .... ............
. •
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.
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-- --·---·- . . ~. ---

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·-
- . ,

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FORMATI. '
¡ ... ----. . tÑD IOU. . . . . . .... ---- . . .
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•
\
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l ¡• !¡,.---------~------· - - ····· ·· ·· -·•· " "'' '"••

' l
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LA PEÑA
:¡
•

ll :¡
¡

·- · · · ·• "" ' - .
'1 •
'
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1• \'1 FORMA N
' 1
••
,. 1
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l •• c-: ----------------
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•
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TARAISE
t
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•
• 1
!
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•. •
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t,.. ·· . ·-- · ···· ... ·· ·· ·······-•"""' •

•
•
1 <•
l \ ••

l ¡
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1
l'• •
••
•
••
••
LA CAJA
l ••
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'• •
1
l•''
l •
1
1
1 '•
' 1• • .. . ..... ... .. . ..... --· -t
\
1 l •••

l
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!U
1
HER ¡'
ZULO j
_ ___ . .......... -
1
i
l l --------
· ----------- -- ··---- -------·· ...
1
' 1
'
•
LA '

¡
1
j
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JOYA
•
'
.,·
' •
' ;'
.
¿1
• •••

,·
rn •
;

'

- . ,. -- . ... . .
,.~ ' • •
•

ie
./
V V './
V V
- V f.¡
, ,. •
I
,..,
es. ;
•

a ;

t lumn
;to
tnd
,lite
uodeflhand Room-and-Piltar M~,ning as A.,.
1 at the Aurora Mine
""Pied 113

Res1Jlits of geomeca,..,an,. ca1 tes:ts Ramp

Reaults of unlaxlal (
compresslon tests
1 •
•
Estl mated oompressive Compresslve • CrownPlllal'
sbength, P-Oint loadlng test. Density, • •
strengttt, •
MPa .mt/m3 MPa • •
•

2.98 235 , , 1
•
1 '· l
( '
l '
' .: J. 1
.. :
Qfe 3.41 87
1
•
' . •
•
'' . 1· . •
st.w'e si.ram 181 2.54 • •¡ •
146
. '
• • 1 ,.
l· .
'.» l
'00 -a:~ • •

•
•
10.2.s Mineratizaiti0n C·ontrols 1 .
Jn rhe rruneralized areas, the soiutions ~I!'
uthological and phy - sical-chemical fa et orswer·e controlled by •
/ Productlon

Orllllrig

FIGURE 10.4 Three-dlmensional vlew of mine layout tor underhand

room-and-pillar method

rnrruded the limesrone e ed a.s ound Y r inc dikes that

··.· -· .1 z1ng so utions,

T-he masn n1unera ized srructures strike N ?Oº W (F.
---e --
· d b. -· ese structures
'
•-
~
-
~ ~
•
~

are
_i..
mtiercepte
. • •
~ anotber •sysrem strikinso N 20º E th a t contra ue d ''' ' Crohll Pd(et ¡
me mmer , - aon. 1'\_ nonceable stratigraphic control <loes not ''
e.~ because borh the sedi menrary sequence and the mineral ,. - -.l n
..(
~. ._1 LA lrd Bs;,c.h
s,,,c;t,
bodies cross the Cuesta del Cura and Z.uloaga forrnations. 4u,
•
, c,own PllMr
.. .,.- ' - -- ----- - - _ x;4 ?r, !.il

10.2.6 Mineraiogy
la the econo[11,1c deposits of rhe district, the minerals correspond
. • ' ,

ro rhe sulfide groop. Thus, me minerals that constitute the ores 1 '

are- E E

• Zinc ore-sphalerite (zinc sulfide) FIGURE 10.5 Cross section showing general layout for underhand
• Lead ore-galena (lead sul.fide) room-and-plllar method
• Copper ore ,cbal!copy.rrite (copper-iron sulfide)
• Si , ·er ore-mainlY argenti[e (silver sullide) and, ~
smaller proporrions díaphorite (considered as sílver The stopes require, therefore, a mínimum of support, and the
amount of time and effort spent in ground control are small.
sulfosalt)
• lron ore-p,n1:e (iron sulfide) and chaJcopyrite 10.4 UNDERHAND ROOM-ANO-PILLAR MINING
The underhand room-and-pillar mining method is applied in the
Jn addirion, oilier rr,íoerals exist that ar~ n?t considered of
· - , - . terest frorn a Aurora ore body. Rock mechanics analyses have been used to
define the operating parameters needed to achieve the goals of
. - . rn· malachlte SOCO . a, smi productivity and safery.
Ore body rhickness varíes from 15 to 60 rn, height ·aries
o rstanding are borrute, cove
• •
re, . .
~ ,1 , Slid e WO
· llastonite
· ,
from 15 to 80 m, and dip varíes from 20º to 35 º. Both the wall
5 rock and ore body itself are of good quality. The pillars are square
ep dote. grossuiant:e, calate, qua[ 1 z, an in cross section (6 by 6 m) with a maxirnum height of 30 m. lt is a
~ danburae and darolite. rule to reinforce tbe roof, pillars, and stope walls with rock bolts
from the beginning of the stope. Once a pillar reaches its
maximum height, a crown pillar 8 m thick is left to protect the
mining operations in the next stage. Figure . 10.4 ~o ~ an
isometric view of mining layout, and Figure 10.5 1s a sect1on v,e .
The method has both advantages and disadvantages.
Adva11tages
• Low cost
• I111mediateavailability of blasted ore
• High productivity
• Possible pillar recovery
 Rarnp •
_ . ,,,
..~- •
-~··.. ., ,.,
....

•
,,..;
•

,(¡' (
. ,
,

1 ,,
1•• ,
Ore Pa J ,,
.,, . ;
,
~ , ' . ....
- -- ,,,, ,;,, ,, , ...
,
·lve Acce '
• • •
. Crown P ltar
• /

h, • •
'
, 1
1
'
,
,,'
• •
• •1 .(

•
1
' •
1 •
• •

'

by •

ore Productfon
e lay DrJJling
of
FIGUR
E 10.4 Three-dlmenslonal view of mine layout for underhand
room-
and-ptllar method
s
t
··¡ , • • - /
'/
_, ..........
. r··'~
/ •
/ -~-~ • •••

1 •
•
/
-r 1
1
¡'
_l '
¡_
'1 ' t·ríaar
CrownL._ -P'-~--
•• ¡
1 1
r • l
,,,,_.,..,,,.._
¡ -- . (''""'·

,, ~¡
-¡
l "Dí •

1
1
1
1 ¡ -- ~, 1 :!!
- - '

r- ií ..
IZ
1
¡ -~ ¡~
¡
... 1
1
' '
'
j
1
J J L _J l .
'
J' Ba,r,. Anchor
' 1 ·- Crown
~ . - -
t
• j
) r··-· --
Pl far
---- /1

l '
1 !
..._ .., start ·s11r

1et Benctr
'/
1
/¡/
••
,
// 'Í •• • Znd Beneh
••

3rd 13enoh
4 h Beitch:
Ramp
Cro W"II Pillar
' r
~ ...,, ......e- - .,;._.. ..
Start Sill
, ,,,
,, .-(, ,
,. ,/

'
/
,•
/ ' /
/

FIGU /1, .,,..

•
,1/ /

room , /
/
/

' /

RE 10.5
he ou Cross section showtng general layout for unde ha
-and-plllar method

u
stopes require, therefore, a minirn um of support, and the
nt of time and effort spent in ground control are small.
UNDERHAND ROOM-AND-PIL R MINING
nderhand room-and-píllar mininz method is applied in the
 •

1.14
un
---- -- - Crown Pillar B.O m Thick
- - 6.0 m -

ll z ,z. //./.;,.
,
,&.' ,,(/.

,/ ' 1
'
/ •
",. ~

- -- m
- - - ~

•
,. '
,.
12.0
1
l 1 ..... r
//
'
• ' .t, ',
/ - ~ 1 ., .•

-- ' l 9. ,
•
' Ralse
1 ; ~ Mlned Bench ~ E
•

Mlnerellzed
/
,
' 1
1 . l .

., , -
1
.
/
--
//-,
~
()
'
le
Zone ' /
•
/ r s om / O d Access
~
New Bench

- -
- 1 •
/,
'/ / ,
- - New Access
1
1 , ./ // /
' ,

/ • /
. / /

.- - -- - - -
"'
1

,
~
I crosscuts
/ .
- Center Unes
1 - /
Ramp/Acces~ ' : Jolnts"- • /
•
/
/ /
¿_,= _J-~·
to 1st Bench
, -7'r_
-, ! <;,-- ,

1 f ' FIGURE 10. 7 Starting a new bench

~ '
\
-----'...:.~
SIII Access
-- --
-- -- - - - -

-----
'
3.5 m •
1
FIGURE 10.6 Plan view of typical stope showing crosscuts driven
~J --
perpendicular to joint orientation

FIGURE 10.8 Jumbo drilling the face on the síll leve!

Disadvantages
• Dilution up to 100/o The ramp will continue downward, and accesses will be driven
• Ore rec.overy lirnited to 80°/o every 6 m until the maximurn pillar height has been reach~d.
To define the rnining sequence of a stope, several factors, Generally, there are one sill 3.5 rn high and four 6-m-h1gh
such as ore grade, number of benches in the stope (or attack benches each (see Figure 10.5).
fronts), and ground stability, need to be considered.
10.4.2 Drilling
10.4.1 Development Toree different drilling operations are performed. The first .is
Once the geological boundaries and po~ential for the .ore body development drilling (ramps, crosscuts, and drífts) as shown in
have been defined, a new stope begins with the excavation of the Figure 10.8; the sec.ond is produc.tion drilling (benching); and the
sill. This consists of a main drift driven in the footwall of the ore third is for rock reinforcement. Ali three operations are
body. Its direction is parallel to the strike ?f ~e ore .body, .but its performed using electro-hydraulic jumbos. Toe rig can execute
length is variable depending on the longitudinal .d1mens1ons ~f both development and production drilling, depending on the
the ore body. Crosscuts are driven perpendicular to this needs of the area. The diarneter of the bit used is 44 mm, and the
longitudinal drift and extend to the hanging wall contact. The effective ro.und len~th is 4.27 rn for both drifting and production.
crosscuts have a section of 4 by 3.5 m and a center-to-center
Bolt hole diarneter is 3.8 mm, and hole length is 2.4 m.
separation of 18 m. . .
The orientation of the primary systems of jomts and 1º·4·3 Developmentor Drift Blasting
fractures is a very important consideration when preparing pillar
pattem design and pillar definition. These structures should be
perpendicular to the crosscut orientation (Figure 10.6). Next, the detonator) and detonating cord as the initiation line (Nonel LP as
the deton umn
walls of the crosscuts are slashed 4 m to give the specified room
dimensión. Upon reaching the mid-point of the crosscuts, a
and cut ho e
s ow typi al ·
" ª
4- by 3.5-m face pattern
cornmunícations drift is driven between and perpendicular to the ic drill ·
an angement.
crosscuts. Slashing is done as necessary to complete the shape of
pillars. Rock bolts are installed immediately after opening the
roof, walls, ánd pillars to prevent weakening of the ground after ltaneously
S with driving of these openings, a ramp is dríven with a
repeated blasts. It is very important to have this reinforcement i grade of -12°/o (Figure 10.7). From this rarnp, an
100º/o completed because with bench advance, the roof height m
will be out of the reach of both people and machines. u
Bi't d1i
a
m
et
er
·
.
- ._
.
.
2
70
1·
access is driven at the benching level. Located 6 m below the sill bottom ch etonators are Non el MS. Hydrogel is use ts are
(as measured from floor to floor), this yields the optimurn arge and as
operational bench height. Once the access cuts the n1ineralized versatility anda etm~n mechanized loader, which offei"S
contact and is under the sill floor, a 3-m in diarneter raise or slot As the Pi operat1ng speed. d 6 r!1
is driven to the sill. This is later slashed until the full bench
dimensione are obtaíned; benching then begins (Figure 10. 7).
g is l.S m. On the sides, spacing is re u
 •

O mn
'.fU
' ' /
,I
/
•

/ ~

/
/
r:
/
/
4 /
!\11 mm

( ,hur 1. <1 t 1<;lf).,

Ur,ch 1rrJ( ll r,ole,

f r drl

'
' ' '-
• ''
'
1
-,\1-
.

'
• '
' '
'
'
• ' 1 ¡-
• IL.
•
• •

rif l -. ' fi 1 :, •
• ~

' Ben ch

,
' Loadtn

t'itl i11 l)tl1i' · 111·t:¡\s, ll<>r most <)Í the blasts, dilution can be
cor troll ·'ll l1. 1· •l.,1ti11g the t\ traer -d volume to thc information
. ' . av 1il·,l1l • ft'l)\l.1 <.lin111on<l·d1·ill hol ·, sill developm nt, and
•
¡lt' -vious 11 t\ ·t1 -s, Dilurion h s \) \ n found ro range from 6º1ó to
ll)l~u <. 1· totnl t.' truene 11.

Mucktn&, H ullng and Tr nsportatlon

,1
r It I t l \:,.ti11g, 111' <)11 11 ar as ar check d, and any loose rock is
.· · 11 ll to ,t <>i 1 risk · to 1 opl and machín s. Mt1cking is done
1

, itl1 l), 17-111·1 l< -yd-') scoop trams (Figure 10.12).

1~01· l ·1t1li11~. ther 11· four low-proñl trucks, each with a
e 1¡1·,t·ity t)t 26 111t. 1't1 y ar lo ded by the scoop trams
11• l11· • t0.13) nnd haul th orean av rag distanc of 500 m to
1

:111 ore i ass (Figur 10.14). Th or falls down to a bin on the

 ,n-and-Plllar Mlning of Hatq ..._
ROO . "'tt~

s.O m
U&
- - 1.0 m •

•
•

/ /., /
<, •
~

{
,;,
•
/.
- Pillar • •
l
• •
• ' 1
•

- •
' •
•
7'/ / • • •

e
=¡
-
'
• •

- - • •

• •

• • •
• • •
>
~

• •• -
- Piltar
l.f/.
•
' -
~
• • •
¡
; '/> • •
•
• • •
• ,, 1

FtGURE 10.14 i,ucks dumping ore lnto oto pass •

•
Be1 el 16.0 m 1

•
•
•>
,

-40'' Ore S,ize FIGllilAElt.0.16 PI n nd loo udi 1

Bin patt m for ,oof . nd P 11 -
1

- - 1.0 m
1

Trol ley Granby Cars

38mm -
/ 200 cu. ft. cap. Orill Holes
2.4 m
/ / '/ t/ '
• j / 1 ,%: • '/ e
, ~

- -
' ·~ ~.., _
1
1 - -
1
1

FIGURE 10.15 Bln loadlng of tralns sn level 10

general haulage lcvel f rom which 6.6-m3-capacity Granby cars 3.5 ttl
are loaded (Figure 10.15). A rrolley locornotive rranspor_ts rh:e ore
to the general bins or the Leones shaft, from wber u will be
hoisted to the surf ace.

10.5 GROUND SUPPORT

The ground defined th rough rock
support paramerers are 1
mechanics studjes. Ali workings have to be bolted irnrnediatalv ,
,
after opening to avoid ground deforrnation and to preveru
unexpected rock falis.
- 4.0m -
Reínforcemenr of the srope roof is of paramounr irnportanc-
since the stopes reach considerable heights and a defecrivs or ftGURE 10.17 G . -
d .. tound reintorcement for .hor•zontal and ramP
rnisplaced bolt becornes dangerous ro both personnel and evelopnaent using th,eadéd ,e.._-
uar.
cquípment círcularing und er the roo[ up to rhe lasr day o f rhe
stope's life. On starring a srope, the sill roof, walls, and pillars are
bohed once thcir limíts are known. Later, as the benches advance Thís include t is
and rhe pillars are delimited vertically, belting continues on
pillars and walls (Figure 10.16). Figure 10.17 shows a typical drift
bolti11g panern.
Hok: díameter is 38 rnrn and hole le11gth is 2.4 m.
R iníorce nent steel 16 mm) in diarneter and 2.4 m long is used.
 co·1·1J1
dunng dtillin
s an d bolt _not ex.posed to unsupportod
\11g.
 ,t U7

,,

'

6.0 m
-
B ..Om -
•

FIGUH
,ea method used to calculate ore recovery

a cap oi; u 7."J mt. 111

día e , i eq 1 r,pcd wuh
u p nd d "' ·igl1
i PI
---
10, 7
ur . Th
•
a cun t at con mu
Scre ,od io rat gi ally
Rob,ar Bo~ good r e iron m 11t 111 th
111JT1 • pth i i · noe enough,
and i n • e ary
t ns on t surfac (3680 m1/
• •
en req ír menrs as pecified
min ap 1tyJ l

li1' texlco' 1·c:g l n •

08
Ore r1.:1.:( •r 11g. be n8 o 88 ', ince a portien of the
or b dy mu r b l · pi l s to pport he roof. Ore recovery
a.so d ·p -nd or; rhe ground condition , hích restrict pillar
ct hnen Í(>11s ,1 \\ 11 room d h. The effec ive control of
tri and bolring h lps to achieve high recoveries. The recent
IJ!;,1-(
roe · rn ch nics tudv rnade of the Aurora ore body índicates the
•
po: lbiíiry of om pillar eco ery. Thís will íncrease the overall
or recov -ry to 95 • ou; thís is recommended only after primary
• • rnining >f the Aurora ore body has been completed. Using the
tributa ry ar a rnethod to calcula e ore recovery (Figure 10.20),
one finds that \ írh current dimensions-
A 1 =Pillar area = 6 x 6 = 36 m2
A2 = Tríbutary area es 18 x 18 = 324 m2
. Iíned area = 324 - 36 = 288 m2
Extraction ratio = 288 ~ 324 = 0.8888
Hence the percentage of recovery == 0.8888 x 100 = 88.88%.
O. C U , T A D HO TI , 10.9 PRODUCTIONSTATISTICS
cl ··c.J 0010 á grizzly •1.Lh an
1l1 • l1·1f1 • 1t1111<1r1 1)1{· l u 1 1
The ore grades and products for the entire Charcas Unit are given
, t
· , ' (JíC
• b · n A "" d ra u 1 hC
m.pc
i..,,.
11 11 11
er
111"' .._ in Table 10.3. The includes the production from the Rey, Reina,
and San Bartola ore bodies as well as the Aurora. Operating costs
. tfJ -1 S-cm 10 .
for the Aurora Mine are summarízed in Table 10.4, and
1 hat , 1S<.' ia
productíviry is summarized in Table 10.5.
I v:·y /IJ 1!1,11 111 IL1r11 {it,<'l1,1(~I,(•¡ ¡¡¡!rJ ti~(. S f
 the Aurora Mine only for 1999
118 productlvlty for
TABLE j.O. S A\lerage

80
ttem r man-s/11ft
t,lasted pe
T ABLE 10.3 Tons of ore an shlft 0.9
Sllver, eperm -
of linear advanc
m/mt 4.Ó Meters er bfast 3.5
Tonnage
of 'rl'near
Productlon 0.21 0.32 advance P
1,338.444 50.9 6.47 Meters 250
ore (run-of-mine) 42.56 10.41 • d bench
"ons per btas ,e
2,271 4,275.4 9.72 1·' i · ty percent 75
Lead coricentrate 22.58
8.47 . ment avaílab1 , ,
9,859 2.120.9 57.52 Díesel equip t
copper concentrate 0.81 . n percen1 90
0.33 ··pment utiliza t, •
132.6 10
80,818 Diesel equ1
1
Zinc concentrate 150
ved by scoop tram per hour
1 Tons rno "' 120
TABLE 10.4 Operatlng costs for the Aurora M ine only for 1999, Tons moved by trucK per nour

d per hour Getman autoíoader 50

u.s. dollars per ton1 No of 2.4-m-long hofes e h ar g e ,

lndirect costs
Total · . mecnan,ized bolter 25
Mine Mili No. ofbolts ínstalled per nour,
ltem
•
3.67
1.2 0.3 2.17
Labor Materia
1.64 0.51 5.84
Is lndirect 3.69
0.67 1.58 1.21 3.46 · H l986. Consrrucrfon and Mining Methods. Undergro1Jrtd
costs

12.97
HamnM
n,inin· g Guide, Underground Mi·nín·g·, M
· · et ho d s, an d r'\pp 1 1cac1· ons.
Total 5.56 3.52 3.89

1 Rate: $1 = 9.5605 pesos. Stoekholm, Sweden.

Hustri1lid, W.A. 1982. Room-and-Pillar Open-Stope Methods, 111 Ur1der-
ground Mining Methods 1-landbook, Section 2. SME-AJl\,l}~.
Nava, R. 1997. Rock Mechanics for Stopes and Drifts at Cl1 arcas Unit:
10.10 REFERENCES Technical Report.
Blake, yv.,
S. McKinnon, W.A. Hustrulid, and J. Méndez. 1999. Geotech- Operation. Topographic and Ceological Regístries of Charcas Unit.
nical and Mining Study for Charcas Unit. Phase I: Mar. 1999· Phase Puhakka, T. 1997. UndergroundDrilling and Loading Handbook. Tanirock
1 II: Dec. 1999. ' Finland. '

\
1
1

! '
'1

1
 •

•
• • • • • • • • • • • • • •
CHAPTER 11

• •
uung o · Frozen Placet s

Michael G. Nelson*

11.1 INTRODUCTION 111(• l•'11l1l11111lt:1 11.x¡,l111¡1tl1111 ';1,,, 1,1,11111,,, 1,J JIIIÍII ¡(111. J11 1 J
!\l:111.l(it 1111(1 ,·l:1·wl11·1,·, ·,1111, ,1 •,l1,,1ff 1111,, ti,,· l,t11l, ,1 ¡,J,,, ,,,, 1,111
A pl•• ace1· is a deposit of ,sand, gravel , or sim1·¡ ,..,. 1. clct,·1·1.,¡ 1 1 lil 1 .l'I' ; il 1 1·11
<1
11,lcl<11 1cl,1 <:11•«•1< 11¡·,11 11;,J111111111•1 /\ l 11 ,~,· l1y,l1 111!1 1111 111,,r , 11,
wh1ch a ~aluable mineral has becn co11.cc,111-;11ccl. St1c·l1 ¡1
111 1111· :,11;111· w,,:, 11·,•11 11, w11•,l1 r.1 iv •I 1,, 1 ,111111,, 111,111 ,..,,, , , 11
u "' 1
hco11ceh f" ost alw, ays occ1.trs beca use rJ1c v·'I
nt'raht1011 al'm .-.¡ 1 (' llllí·l( ..1,1 , 1
ll,,,) Wíl,, 1111111¡111(1 11, ,,, •. •1111'1,,.,.,. ,,,, W,1 l1l11;,•, /\,1,1111 IJ l;,

as a 1g _spec1 1c g_ravity an? is tl1e1:efore sclectivcly clci)C>Hil(•(I tl1,i11:,,111,I y:1111•, ,il ,'.1,1v,•I wr 11· ¡,1,,11 . ,¡ ,111 111,. w ,y l111t ,11
by_ the actron of w1nd, flow1ng wate1·, ot· 1novi,1g gl;iciril ic·t·.
l11111rlli11y, ril li11¡¡,1· .1111L1illll', ,,1 Willl') ,11111 ]1111 ¡ 11 l ·1}~fl¡IJ11 I w
1 '
M· ¡1nerals drec} ov·ered . from
, place.r de. pos.its i1,clL1dc 11·, ~1 1' 1 V c., g) (1 1 ( 1 , llllli1·11l1111111·•;1 '1'111· 11·111111·1,1111,1· ,1l 1!11• f1, 11·11 ''. ,y •I w 1 1,111~ ¡
s1 ver, an P atlnum, oxides of t1n, t1tan1t1n1, zirco11iL1i11, l1:1f11iL11i1, <i1 '2'' 1,,,1,iw 1 11· 111·, ·1111; 111i1111, ,111 l 1• ,¡ ¡,,,,¡ ,,11 111 ,11 11,111 11
1,
and tungsten; and gemsto11es such a.s diamo11cls, r11IJi 'S, i;)i·,1c•1i, w;11,,,, 1 l,1•; ,;111 11, 11,.,w .111,J I,, 1•,11111•
1 111 , 1,11,1,· l l1L1, 1f1, , 11, 1
and otl1ers. , i 11 l 111 ( 1 l) 111 '( 1 ( ( ;¡ 1 j )l' J I JI)'' )
,J11 1•1 :;1.1lt11 ltJrJI
. Placer deposits have bee11 fottnd ir1 ·virtL1ally cvcry e,1rtlily Wl11•11 ¡ 11111 r11! 111 1J,~ 1,1,¡1 1 1111 1111 ]
settlng, fron1 tl1e vast beaches of mineral sa11cls i,1 l11(li"1 t111ll 1l1·v1·lri¡1 1111• ~,.1,l1I I,·¡ r,•.11·, 111 1J,1,1 ,;1,•-111 1 111, I· •1 1
cl(•1·icl1,,I lti 1

At1stralia to offshore deposits of cassiterite in L11,clo11csit1 Lo Í1'<)zc11 Y:il<11li;1. '1'111· ¡ l:1,c·,·1 1l1·1>t, .11. w1•11· 1·,¡1J ,IJ1·,[ t 11 .1 l11fí:·1 .1 11 , ,tr, 1
gold-bearing gravels in Siberia, Alasl<a, a11cl tl1.e Yt1l<.on. [11 111c)1il l>y 1111• 1,J:,v,· J;.,,t,,i·1 t>Í ¡11il.i111,1l ¡111•i1,111·1·,. :., ,, 1,11 Al,i•I 111. y¡,11k j
ca.ses, the detrital nature of these de¡)osits 1nal<es tl1c111 SLI i L~ IJIC fo, i,11111· S11vl1·i J1r11 l•'.;,,-,11l1 1·i11}; 1111·. 11111•· (l,1111,·¡, 1,~, 111,J J1, .,, 111'1 ),
artisanal. mining by simple hand-excavatio11 1netl1ocls 01· b11II< 1111·,l¡•,1111; 11111111,lt,;•,V v,;.1. t1,111 1, r1c ti 1r,11 1
mining by either direct excavation or d1·edging. 'l'l1e f1,ozc11 g1·avels Sorne buried placers were too dcep to be clred~{t··<I, 1111(l ll1c
in northern latitudes are exceptio11al for two rc<1so11s. ~··J ,·s1, 11·
because the material is frozen, it m.ust either !)e tl1.awed o¡· l>.l1:1sled were arrempts to develop thern IJy ot her 11ictl1c1cls. l 11 t 111· 1 ')'.!(),¡,
befare it can be loaded and processed. Seco11(I, 1na11y el 'l)OSils
exist at depths too great for economic míning l)y sLtrface 111cLl1olls.

11.2 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

Mining of frozen gravel in modern times l)Cgt:111 w i 111 1 l 1c'
exploitation of gold-bearing grave} bars ;:111cl strcam banks i11 1 he
rivers of Alaska and the Yukon Territory. As early as 1880) LyJJÍ.Ci:11
practice in the Forty-Mile district of Alaska was Lo 1J1,1w g1·t1vc.·I i11
the winter and wash it in the sumrner (Gatcs 1994). Mi11c1·s
would build a large wood fire on the SLtrface dcposit ~111(! rcmove
layers of thawed gravel after the fire burncd oLJL. Port íous ()Í (•:1c:l1
thaw level were typically panned, and gra>1el was srockpiled élS
pay or waste. The pay grave! was washed i11 the SL1m111e1·, LlSL1,1lly
in an in-stream sluice.
During the Klondike Gold RL1sl1 i11 J 897 and 1898, a nd I l1<·
later rush to the Fairbanks area in 1902, thc dcposits 111~11 C.:<>·Lll(I
be exploited by this method were rapidly c.xlli:JlJStcd. J•c¡Jlriwi11¡.¡
the lead of miners in California (Pcclc and C~J1L11·cli l9'1f1),
Alaskan miners rurned ro u.ndergr.ouncl rnlning 111ctl1<1(I~
(Purington 1905). I-Iowelfer, in conLrast· wit h practlce <>11 1111·
Mother Lode, the buried placcrs in rhe No1·1]1 w .re acccsscd 1111.cl
mined by thawing the írozen gravel wirh stcarn polnts.
Descriptions of these mines are give11 by GilJsoi1 (1914), l<'le1r1l11);
(1917), and Wimmler (1927). wímrnícr also diS<'lJSSf~S 1J1,: 1,1t;c• <>Í
underground hydraulíc míníng but does uot refcr 10 ,J11y filJ(•c·lf'ic·
location. However, as also noted by W'i1n11ilc.:r, drift 11ii11i11g w11,
11f
a1most obsolete by 1927 as a result of ihc apJJlic.:,11 ion l11r~~1·
scale dredging, which was more cconomíc.
 ;111cl l11 1111· l;1l1• l'J/,\fJ.,
•1 1,1,, 1i1t11,11·i 1 11~,,~ .11,1111,v I l'>'J.J W11l1 1! l !\l;111¡1cl1•1
1,l<;1 }·.11·1,1111<1
1¡ 1111· 111l11í,1~~
,';c,vt 111 Al,,1,Ji,1 ¡4rt<I tl1 Y11k1,11 l 8,
c·ull111J11,• <)1 1111•~)<iv11·t ,y•,11,111 ÍJ1 111,1 1 ,11 ,¡1,i~tt,1 1l11·r • w 1 I lc,wc·v< 1, it ji, l<IIIJWII I l1;1t l,y l1J'J(}, .,t 1 1 1 t1v ll .,
11t.111Jt•11J11:, vl•,il:, .111cl 11·1·l111I< :11 ,·x, 11:111;'.''. l11•1w, 1 11 Al,, .k, in 1 t)1c· ()J)í'1·:,1 i,,11•, 111 Al¡1,.l<íl ;111<1 tlrt• Y11kc,11 r, 1<1 b. '11 lJ V 1,,p 1 11 ( f
fo1111<·1 Scivi1·1 11;11 11,1:,I, l~1··,í<l1 , 1111 • 1·xL1•11 .lv:, ·.1 1 f 1 , I'<'' 111 ,1 1 [1<•111 lli,lll}\ Vill i:11 ICJII. (JII t ltl' 1 IJl>l11 ,llltl t>lll 11 tll ·tl\ , J
(J~·11l<1•1 l<)1JC)), 11 W,1•, 1111111,I 11111 1!1,1·11· w 1<• 111,11,y ll111l ·1••11 i11u 'l'l1i1, ;11·1 i<·li· <lt•.1·111,c· 1111<1 rgrt>l11 1 1111n1ng i,1 c11
(Jlj(•J·,,11,,1tl, 111 1{111:. i;tJI i(Jl(I !;ll,i 1J;,11 1, ,,¡1,111 ' (. kt1tl,,,;k IJl I 11<1:t.1•11 } ,1r1v,·I 111 1l1ir1i11·,11
1 N,,,111 A111 • 1,··1 ,n,t 1mr11 r1z rh
11111 I ('I 11)1}())' l<~<·l111,,l1)~!Y ,1'1111 ;1<'1Í('1·(I i11111 • l<1r111 '1 ~<1V t 1 11 J·.,1 t ,tñ(I V ku11
l1J;11•t•1 111l11i1,,·, ,,,,1·,.11i,111•. 111 Al:11,l<:1 ;111<1111 Y11~1111 11? 1 'I JI 11l11ci el,·. c·r1l11·:'í 1·1,11¡, ·1¡11Í\'t' rt· 1•,11(.:!1 t 111• <.l l> 11 by 1nv 111' tr
i11 l11¡tl1 ·~1:;.t· :111{1 11111111>1·1 .1f,11·1 111,· { 1.s. >~')v1·r11111 ·111 ,,11, w1·cJ rh i11Al;1sl<,11111cl 1l1 · <:c,111111,,11w •11ltt1 til 111(1 •t 11 l •111 t 1 .
~l<>111t·:,I i1· g1,lcl 1)1 ¡, .,. 111 11 ,ll<1W 111:11 <1f W(1111 111,11 k •t ,. W1tl1 tl1
J11c·1 t·¡1: 1• i, rl1·<'1)ly 11111 l,1 <I Íl(J'/,t'll llc·¡11i• ti•; w, ·r I X 1111111 •el !·1,1 11A3 MININ METHO
l')!,lJll!llc·, Alli,;t11,·1;1• ( l')t\ 1) ,llr\}'.I :)t•(l llfl li·,·~J()llfl 1 (lj) ·r tl()f\ t) ·1·11 • 111(·111,1,l'i 11 1•,I i11 111 • 11,i,lt rgrc,l111(I 1 \11,i11g óf (roz n gr v )
11 l,11,~1· <11·11<> 11 <,11 W.ill>111 <:, •i•k 111 ti••· l,lv 11yt1<1<I ,11111 ,r,(l 1n il!I'. l·l,i ,t·ly tc·l,tlt <I te, 1t,,, • 11 •el Í<lf lll\(l 1Kíl)Ulld mln ng f
11111,11:11 l,c 1J<lc el (11·¡1,1 11 . l\c,111 r ·~11! r ,n 1 lrr ·gul r ro m n
(Sl(t1<l1,.yl< ,·1 :11. 11)fi'/). 1\., 1·;111 · ,111;1, ,., 111ir1 1 , tJ 1111 1,lll,11 111c·tltc11! 111vc 1 • ·11 r11¡>l<>Y •ti¡ , llffV it nd d
i11tl<•¡J1•11<l(·11I <1J><•Jill1i11,, 11 1:: 1lilfi(·t1lt t11 1¡111111t1fy tll t Jll l(>11xw:1fl 11••·th(><I ,111111.,, ,~> 111, • 11 d in th • r ( f

* U11iversity of LJta11, Salr Lt1l<e c;ity, u·1·.

 ,

:J.20

Roorn-and-plltar un e
f'IGURE 11..3
and l(atz 19:14)

. . . cer wlth steam polnts (from (.,

Thawlng an underground pla .
FIGURE11.1
Glbson 1914) 2 1

',
•; '
- ~- -
Creek _ Bonanlfl - •• -·- -

•
· ··-- ., Slulce '-- _ _: - - ·- • -_ 0,..00,. • •

r¡ •
0\\C)' • --
... ' ~ . ----· .............
.
. ~- ---·--~
. j . .'
. '
'
'
' .
: 1 •
' .
' • o 10 ?O J!l ,U,JMI
•
•1 .
• •
•• • •
•
•

: ¡ 1
• •
• 1• •'
' •

,.,,.. .-
. --· ·- . .-· \:.. ,_.,...--·--- ~···-. .
'
\
»<

~ -

. ": , ··- I :
( _.-· 1 · ·'

./ .k'·-- 7 (
d ground ptacer mine
! .
l.
FIGURE 11.4 Shaft arrangement for an un er .
/ -· ( from Prlndle and Katz 1914)
I
I
•

\• ..-
\ •

\• •
· N
\•
\
\ -D'ríftlng
--·-- .
Op&rations
\• •
• \ ft) into bedrock and were timbe red as required . Figure ·
\• \
Clalm Boundarie$ · x
,.-''
tent
--\ -·
•

\• 3 00
two or four directíons far distances of 60 to 90 m (200 to 29 1
1
scale (11 F'ect
_.,....• \
100º/o was comrnon, with rock-Iilled cribs being left to provi e
support as mining retreated toward the shaft. In produci:on,
FIGURE11.2 Underground placer mine in the Klondlke (from
Purtngton 1905)

out ?f the mine. The operation of such a mine is descri>

deiaíj by l-lefflinger (1980).
Af rica. Access to the workings is by shaft or adit, depending on
the requirements of the deposit.
1i.3.2 Practlce in the Soviet Far East and Yakutia
U.3.1 Early Practlce In North America

111 early rnining oí frozen placers, the ground was oficn rhawed wouhld .' l)e expecte d n a planned econorny wu. h 1 merolY¡5
nu 5
using stearn points. Figure J 1.1 shows miners in the Norne, tcc n1cal exp - M' · · g det:i 1 1

. · eits. tn,tng method selection and opera,t11 . d

Alaska, district using stcam thaw points. Figure 11.2 shows 1:1 pla11 were selec . . . cribe

víew of driíting operations conducted by the Atiglo-Klondilte

.r ow. oom-,and -pi-1 lar methods were the mosr cor,nmo nly os •• ·,
Mining Cornpany on Solomon Hill in the Klondikc. This mine is beíore Anglo-Klondike acquired the mining rights to rhe ¡Jroperty. Aírer the
describcd in detail by Purington (1905). Thc irregular roorn-am]. ground was thawed, it was supported with 10~tn1 (4-in) tirnbers set on l.68-
pillar dcvel opment rcsults mainl y f rom thc íact that sorne 111 (5.5-[t) centers.
unsystematic work had been clone by independcnt operators
 1gt11·es 1l s •nined by ui1.de oc me. In Ya1<ut1a, placers deeper than 2 J11
. ar1·0~· 40
. epost ts, res1:>ective ly
. Dccl111es were • · . _ · ho'WS 3 perated Year-round. In ut1.tim,bered opera
 , a ,
--
'
, .
• •

, ,,.. ... ,. ... a

• '
' .,. -
_,. ~- J!,»
.....
;:,:;>'
"\
,, • .

\
, , /
, '
\ '',', '

.,..
, • •
. -' ,
,\
,, ..
~~

• •

b
H
, ,
• -. - - • t--
- 3,730---<
• -- 3 330--
b
. ' . /
•
•
, '

"
a
. . ...
' .,_
- 15
~
... o
• a,
"'•
... . , -- '
~
1
"'1
'
.:. ! •

-- ' .
- - -~ - •

, 1
--
~-•.ooo--~
-•.•oo --- -J

FIGURE U. 7 Timbered decline used In Soviet placer mtnea. a, Portal

wltb elevated kip dun1ptng point; b, foadlng potnt, 1-1 c:ross sectlon
tbrough d'eéllne. ~11 dlmens ons are in mtlltmeters (from Emelanov et al.
1982).

ÍI .', l
'-' 7 (i b - t. -- - -
, ,.¿ - -
b
- ¿'
' ,r- ,, - ,,, '

f j , • •
1¡, .,~~ I
• l '
ft 1 •' -
:S 1•/,'¡(/
l! 1 1 1 '

•
.... ¡ i) / / 11 1( <Q • . lI I • 1 \ '
1 1 l 1• b
' ¡ 1 •
' ¡
¡ ! •

... ., ! l
1 1
1
' 1 '
. ~

••
' ( 1 .: - J -1
•

,,
• J l
• 1
• ,
1 - •

1 '

1 -'
(,

e - -~------l
•
1 ,,, , , •

• ,I
, ,
j r 1
J
6
/
,.
r __. •
. -,. . . ,. / ~ //1
--
-r
•

---- .
- - - --~
1
1
........ .
- -
.p.-,.;.'
1- ,,..... -,,..
_ ..
- ,,..-..,,.
' - , ,,.. .,... .

"" , a
• ,I
,
" -
• • I

= •
•/ •

-- ..•
.
--r,-- ,
/ •

,..
1
--·- .

FIGURE ti.8 Typioal longwal1 con gura on for mlnlng frozen placer&
,,.
/ In So\ltet mines. 1. Ga he,\ng a,rn loader; 2, aa,nored tace conveyor; 3,
j '
•• • • • I
/
•
, Sputntc-type ,oof uppe · 4. oarrier trame; 5. sereen; 6, advance ram
/

' .J ( tirom Emelano>J et a . 1.982.)

J '
•
1 •
' ,. .,
/
-- Longwail methods began to be used ebout 1980. The most
•

I successful merhods cornbined coal loadíog and handling

-
:is: ¡'
eqttipmen (an armored tace conveyor, a gathering-arm loader,
., -//'.//
•
/ / ,
/..., -- and individual prop-rype roof supports) with drilling and blasting
-- ·. I r
,,/ '/,¡ ,
•
j 7 rechniques rypical oí those usevd in the deep gold mines of South
z Africa. Figure 11.8 (Emelanov et al. 1982) shows a cross section
' rhrough a face usíng such equipment. Packaged ammonia
---· - -- dyna.mite and \"later-resístant aluminized dynamite were used to
FSQU~E 11.6 Roont and-plllar ~ayou,ts for wide deposits as used in
Soviet mines. a. s1ngte, one-slded; b doubte, two-sfded; c. mu'ltipte,
WCHJ,dect; 1, decllhe; 2, matn access drtft; a. ·panel c,osscut, 4, eent,al
cto scut; 5 ventttat)on drift; 6, extractton opening; ravel remove
3 of7, ventttation shak . . ,
.
(f om Emetanov e al. 1982)
 biasr do ~ rhe face. Barrier frames with wire or plastic screens
¡, O i11'~~/ -r (38,000 to 53,500 fr3/yr) (M1lyuta et as, . ere used to conraín the rock during the blast. The equipment
rransferred from coal mining suffered very high wear. For
example, armored face conveyors that lasted 5 years in coal
lasted only 0.5 to 3 years in the underground placer mine
(Skud et al. 1991).
Recently, there have been attempts to use longwall shearing
machines similar to those used in coal mines. Modifications made
included reducing cutting tool velocities, increasing power, and
increasing resistance to abrasion. It was also dete1111ined that
rotating cutter heads could be severely damaged when they
encountered large boulders. Pieles broke off, piel< blocks were
cracked or broken, and gear teeth were dainaged. A shearer was
 •
,~1
, .. •
,
,.
•
1
•
• •

•• ,'
•

,,
' '

1
'

¡ ¡ _·
c.
UUtl'
,,_
1
•
- N . o
' lt ,(l{ o . - l t - ~·- - f.· . ... J ..

• -- -J

wt h · 1 v klp dumplng polnt· b, lo dtng polnt 1.. 1 ero

d
hr · ugft d fin . Ali dl,m n Ion ar ln mllltm. t· rs (from Em l no
9 2) .

•
r o+;

••
."

•
e 1 4/
N• ,,
N •
5
, '· D
a)
1
.,
•
,, -
-
./
' •
•
• ' ~·. o·.•
' •

?•' o '
2 6
0
'- ) 11 /
•
• •
••' •

,~ , ••

•
•
J
,.
•

- -- --·
• •
•
.
¡, ,/ .
l

•
•
,.
. 11 confl Ion for mlnln
•
, Fl'GURE 11. 8
df
roof
ov
• 1

.•
1
'

Lo11g,rV~1ll 111c thc ds l>. g~111 to 11 uscd about 1 >8(1. 1·11' 1110 't
• suc ccssful 111c.. thods L'()t11l)it1c..' l <.:0·11 k ading ·111 l 1111'-lli111
( (Jtti1)111t'11t (·111 arruorcd t',1t.'L <.: )11 'l'Yt)l'
,
¡1 g, the
,
ring-:., •1·111t hload
·, 1 : • l ·1~tn
r
i 1
 11!1 ,/

1
• J

,, '' '
1 ••
¿ J

Il 1 1
\
Li
1
(
l

8-
l
'
So\ll :t d ,,, of íl ,nodlfl d trlcon bl · ror urlllln · In
1
~,,, i, 3 bit body; 4, oone a,m; ., . In; s,
b
2
,1 ' o ,,,d, 1. N,1t; • 11k• 8' dimo11alon of dr,1gtln r lt l,,
1 •J 1 111 ]1 1 1111 ,11 [•>•JI), e:

i,11111m t ( t,on1 klldr Y a • ,•

I' ) •\ 1 11' ,¡lt,>l\ 'I''' ,1 1 ', s
I , J'I\IJ [11 1 111 ]lt i 1\111,
, ,\11,1 ,111,• ll l 1 1\ ¡111 1 \ 1,1>11'1 \ 111 '1

\ j¡1 II, \II

111
II\ 1 111 1\ 1 1 J 1 (1 1llllllt 1> ,\, I• < 1, 11> 1 11,111 \(l ~· ( I.C, ttl 5 ft/ll,1¡11). A lrirgct" 1ncl·.l1n11ic,1l LIJ .u model •

I \I 1\ ll (11 1 11 111,I> 1 1\11 !1 1 11 1 \\\1 )IIL• \111111 ,IJ 111111 II 1\,1:\ 1· 1111111111
f l 't'tl by Cl1ic,1~•0 l..,r1cu1nat1c, ,1lL,11r11·LI ,1 pene- 1
1

¡¡, ll• 11 J,,·, 111,• ¡1, 1111 1\ , 1· t,~1ll m.uu; ji(' 1 l 1 ' . ' ,,. ( '
1\11 1111, 1 111, 1 11 111l111\ · .. f O 75 111/111i11 (2 5 Íl/lll1íl) usmg él 20 . ,¿•lrfl 8 111)
11 , l l ú l l 1 1 l L' l) · ·
1 111 • 1,, 11 11111,,1 lll 111 , ltrl, 11 1 \11\ ~ , - . . .
1 1111 11, 111,1,111, 111,,, 1
1111 ·111 l' 1
L l,1111l' ('I
bi: .
)1' ·111 Cí1Sl'S c.[1'lll111g ratos deci cased wiih
111· 1,•11 ,,., 1'\I '11,·,I \LI 1!1111111, 111 11,·1 1•111,\11, [IL'II 1 lllt) 111 1 • ·,

111,,11·.1si11~: holc c.lct.•¡)tl1. . • •

'11111111111,,1 1111 IJr
Wi·t drilling, dry drilling, and dr y drllling wr \1 u dusr
1 (.'c1lli•t'l()1 wi•rt· all tcstcd. D1·y drilling aloric is not rccun1n1l'nded
1,, 1 1 1 ,, ,, 11,. 111 111,l 1111 \ \11 <l)l 11,l' 1111 11111~ ,1' 1111 1,,1111\ l>L't·,111s1 it produces l1igl1 ,,111l)ie11L dust lcvels. With wei clrilling,
1

11,1 ¡111111 111 111,1,j \ 1111 1111 I' 11.. '1J 11' ¡1:11 lt< ,11 1\11,,11:I, ,1 1l1t·1,· ,v.,.s cli.f1.ic.·t1lty i11 cxtract ing rhc l.ool and stccl when drtlling

• 11111 ,11111 ,1, ,, l,11 1l 1,111 11 lfil 1 l)j[\l llJ!lll 1'' 1 ,llill \V,1s roiuplctod. This problern was worse with srnaller Jríll sreels
1i.1l,1111¡.1 111 11\ \111111,•1 I•\ 11 \1 .1,,1 ~ ,11, 1111,•, 1 l t1,·111l 1, 111tl w,1\ 1J10L1~l11 to occur Ior 011e of rwo reasons: Eithci the
111111, 11 ,,l
l 11 l \j 1 1 J 1 \ , l 1 11 [ 1 l 1 I' \\ 1 [ l 1 1\)111 ! ,1 1 > 1 1 •1 ) J 1 , , 111, 1 l 1 [ l \ l 111 \ l\' 1 ,' r11·111'1i:1I around rhe tool and refroze bchind ir, or the
1l1ílWL1<.I
' lt 1111111,· \ 1/11 \ll [ 11 ' JI 1 1 \ 1 .1t1·r 11-,(:cl i11 clrilli11g continually ihawed rhe hole, allowin.g bits
o,1 1,11 lteri;1 I tu Ial] i11 bchind thc tool, Dry drilling with a dusi
1

, utl,·{·10, Wit'i ju.c.lgt.·d succcssful. "" a

St>\'il·~ experi .ncc is prirnarily with hand-operaied jttckleg:,.

\ ¡J,·r 'Lr,it1u11 rute of 0.74 n1/111in (2.4 ft /rnin) was re¡Jortc<l with
I•, ·1 ¡·1,l 111 '1111r1 1 ~1 cri1-d1..1111et1.:1· Again, ciril1in.g rates
l)il (J¿m,elar1ov el al. 1982).
! 11)\
<1~ 1 ' ed wnh l11c1·ea<;ing depth. A prornising new bit design \\'~5
l,i)l1f1i1·
r L por: d l,y • kudrzyk et al. (1991). This design is sirnilcir in
1 11• \\111[1
•
il\llJI'
•
l 11 \1,t
cvucept 10 [he modiñed 1011gw;;1ll shearer described abo e. lt
1 'ltll, 1,1111 1 I', 11• l• ,l 111 l 1,,1111 l ll'l K 1 1111 J11 (.' i 11 , t 1 c· 1 n ¡)l.., 1 tJ , <I el r e t l11l' , , • I . . <l tll
~ ' w1c.1t' Y varying materials enco:unlt'ti.!
,11 111, 1 .t111 J ' 1 Ir .11 11 sl1l,1 t ,1 111 •l1 IJ11 1 ,· 1r 111 1 1

•
,l. \ji, 1 1111 1 ll 1111 l 1,111.1. 1 1\1 11'! 1l1 1\
lr(J1 11 gr,,vt•I . ' ¡)· ar t ic.u ¡ ar ¡ Y t
hiosc relaied to ihc occ: 100,1
I
11 l)

(\11111[1.1 111ccit1111
, •1 wirh -' 1 lurs ge h ar d , JOLtl( el r. As shown in r1gL11·L· 11. lO · J
1 1

typrca 1 ,y 1, f ·11· · h
>l 1r1co11e
,¡ · ¡ 1
. )tt or d rL, 111g harcl rock i'> con1b1nt'(I \ 11 .l
T ( )t
WI
·lyp
¡ ll!l~(J
.r,
l)tl · h' t
' wi t,c l pe1·for,n1-; best in so,ft to1111,1r1on). .
~nc11111t•111 1 . O oft, d.· . . - ·-d
11( I 1 l1 • grot1r1 , the s~11·1ng 1s 11ol li1.111\¡·1 con1¡.:ii ..·~:- '
• i Ig 1 >l l s ·1 e · · • 1h n

(1,1tl · <I 111 prir11.iry co11tt11ct wítlh tht.' n1· ie111,tl. \

11111 1

() , : c>r\ ~ ~ 11g.i.~e l 11 , ock

JJ 1 1111l\ 11111 ·:-. ¡1 N .I . ' ¡ ,,,
i1,r1<l .1 x11),lll1ll 1 't¡· . , º:'
l l\r1le11 ·,, l,1~Vc rL'p(11·\t?d -,ti L,
 o
,1 1\ ' 1\ • • l . ' l l\ 'l 1
Jl, íl lllt' 1 r> 'll 'l.. . ' •,ti ,t\1et1gL)OC\, r l.t k \, Z1 '_' 1 '
I' l,\li(lll l'[lll S f ' ' • 1 \ ¡, ' 1
JUIIJ) I l1J 11 ·<I W l)í íl \ C\]'111,! ¡\ [ 11- \ :. h
lt~ ,11\ l..

¡·· 1. l
líul • l
, ,1r1 lll't!-',,0"'-0 .1 l) J l'\ill l .. . \
( 11l)'i· 'l 1
i
•
IT, 1• 1•1: ( 11ILL'·.

1) 11 '\¡, 1111111 ¡¡ ¡ 'l'Wt 1 • ll

~
1
l, ,1 l
1 1 ,\.l,'S '\l'l l' l,1\~·t1
1 ,lit' 1 1

11,1
1,<i¡,111 I lit l l1l1 :11 j l. l\,) lll{I 111 1 lL1[l ,! [ll l1 üt 2..6 111 18 'lt},
11'""
> 11
1 J\ 1 ¡J r 11 1,i I t)1! · 11 1
)J 1, '11.:1 1..I ••
' 111 ,11 JI l17lJ,I tlhl>IJL (j l ) tl, ¡) 1\ lI lit)(\ I¡• ,ll 1.J ¡ ,111 111 11 dro~k .
1 1 l1
IlI

1
I t , l c1'1 t 111
• t,tt · tll 111 v ti•! ..:L1rri11, < UL O ·

...... ~ .. '
 •
oom -an • nin

S166
S12 - ,7 -

3-121

1 '

4
11) 5 .,,
'

"'
6
....

B 244,5
- -

. . · - rillln t·n
11, • 1 '
was ' ' •
' ' ' • · 't I
prn.
tch.
d to
was 1.5-in- · . . , _, o ,
•
,I'Ve,
This
O to ~l

tameter it . . se. a
\Ar . _ e enth
 ,, • 1 t1
--------
11 .. ,., ....
,,
.111 IIJ'
l '• 111 (
I •

1 /.
1f

lt IJ
,,¡ 11'11,i
ft/mln
- ... ....--
-

ft/mln
1 "" 1 r¡

(111'1
I '1 1
-
. 14 O R7 2.85
fJ 1'11
() r 1() O, Tl 2.34
, , , r , (/, Ir,¡ I? ? . ''-'
;¡ 1
r1 ,, I
2 ;/() o.: 1 .H 1 o, 78 2.57
? (. 1,

1 , (' ¡
o. {1 t.98
t. ti ,,,1, ('1 ', rt1¡; ·I ~ II rI
(¡ )\'1
/ 1'
'/. ) 1
o '1(., 'l, 11\ ().8 7 z.ss
(J.11 1
'/. ,1 1 o ')() z.r ~ O. 71_ 2.'.34

--· V ,,
t ~Jl'fl OI•
n 11ult
r,11,;,¡ ',1(,-,/{ (Jt ,,,¡·. ,1,,, ,,,,,,, r111111·,,,,.1,11,J
Ir, 111111, ( J,11 1¡.,,1e;11

4 r1'%, • ,.r11,1,1 ,J r!i ¡ il 1,1 ( ,{)'/.. l 1tf(t1 111,11 lly r\/lr>1r 1 (1f 1ifl)J flTI rnl 1r;j,
,rr1,1r111r1l,1 <l;r1,1111lt11 r1ll1i w111, 1,1w11r 1 ,rr•·,,
r11c11Jut..1,1J J,¡¡ ll11r J>i(>f,k'., 'IIJ l!1r1) '
'
Top Vléw
t1r1,¡¡. ,,,,1
r111ioklF11\ 1 Jrr111 w 1 .
(Í!)(,(f 11 fJ(Í

1 (,
r (,

l
1 5
7
·-

,.¡ A ,7

Top VI' w 4.6 m

,, :; ( ·I ·I . ,, FI' UR tl.12 Molttfled'V cut ( t,om Zlegter 1987)

I 1"',¿ ') l ' 1

, .)~ ... "1

Long
'r r I ,,5 1 /, I 6 1 -
-
.
;J
Short Stlort
7.6 m Siclo Vlow j) J
-
-
Long Long 1.4 m

Modlfl1Jd
1 butn cut (from Zl&gler 1987)
, 1 ¡¡' (}ir·lr,r (,! h,: (r(JZF~r,, matérif11I t:!'.nd1ed. ~o frccze
the
· , · ., ·• · od1f1ed
IJum cur
ll.4.2
l'rcJz1·11 •,.,1í1 or Xíí.1Vf;l í •. more plzt!~IÍ.C t han rock, bec,1L1.Sc of LIJ<.' ice
µr1··.1·r ', 'I IJ11',, .it i;.:; gt·r11Lre1Jly cl,cs.ir::JIJI<~ IC) tJS(; a11 r-xplosivc wilh a
•,J<,Y1f•r rJ ·11>1,í1I ÍCJJfJ v(·!,,<·í4 y wh ·r1 IJlF1sting rhesc 111atcrials. This will
r;)l<JW tJ l<Jr)~~ ( 1 lrne r()f tll(' (.;J 'fí-,7)' ()Í thc c:xpJ,,s:ior1 lo be trans-
Í(·rr ·<J ir1í<J il¡t· xroi.i1nc1, p·rodticii1g ,.1 lnrgt:1· fracture zone. Chcslcr
iilFJrJ l'rrio~ ( JíJ(i9) c·<>11,(IL11<·1c,d ..J 2'.l f,actoriBl-c!csign expc1-1Lnent o.n
l;i' ,lii1y, ir: fr<J1)(·,n g <Ji11J1d, as cJ ·!>cril>cd in 1'.al)ic 1 l.2.
Ar t 11(· V'/1jJJ¡J 1 (r(·<:k Mí ne, 7,J,;g-Jc1· (1987) coníirmcd that
Íl, 1 cJ,·11;-Jy. rincl lowe-r-cr c:1·gy rxp·losi~ ·s (in tf1is case ANFO
,J 1rry) ¡>rr;(J uced l>l.:I rcr .l)rt?Jk¡.1gt. t low ve , he Iound that
i;irí, ti{,1n .í11 f roí~rr, 'JJl~ili(Jn and throw ,bctwt:cn V n,1,,d burn curs did
r r.,, ; . (r· ·t rri,LttYlr1r, t irnc. f t w¡i<1, 11oted t hat overal] face advaocc
l!7J'. f,,,, er wlt )1 1.2 m ( 4-fl) rhan witl1 2.4 rn (8 Ir) rounds
Z1t·iJ .r ¡iJ ,<i
1, . .,1(;(1 J2 cJirfercnt rc)ond dcsígos whose
'fJr1f11, Jfflti<ffJ, wt·r<· ',LJg'.Y,{"!>,tCd in thre .S<Jvicit Jitcrntu,r·c. A burn cut
I á ,j11í!I L.iiil(,~rlr.ci h(>!,: gaYt: vcry poor rcsulrs bccat1.sc che
 123

4 5 - designs, a mínimum butden of 0.6 m (2 ft) was used to avoid

Shott dead-pressing the ANFO. This conforms with Soviet
(¡ l - practjce, where the minimum recommended burden is O. 75 m
y -
(2.5 ft) (Emelanov et al. 1982)
FIGURE 11..13 P,rlsmatlc cut (from Zlegter 1987) 11.4.3 Cuttfng
Mechanical cutting of frozen gravel and sílt has not been
successful. The unsorted nature of almost all deposits means that,
·Ll1is roun?,. tl1e bust.er hole is fired first, cratering to the surface and sooner or later, the cutting device will encounter a large, hard
pro,v1d1ng a fr-ee tace f or subsequent b&asting. The prisma tic cL1t, roete. As mentioned above, this has defeated attempts to use
shown in Figure 11. 13, worked well with eíther six or four holes roadheaders, continuous miners, and longwall shearers. The
(alternating long and short around the perimeter). In all th.e roun<l
·. ·, . J '"'í< ri,1.,,cJ WiéÍ J but reci,uJ red many ho es. results obtained in the Soviet Far East with the modified shearer
• 1 1 J1•1[Í- 1 . 1 1 vv·J"'·· ' , ·

' , , . ·.¡ requircd Jcss r1 111g. n are not known.

. _,f r íJI (j Wfl', ry((·Í(·{ff_(J u<,;f_·11LJS l ,·
 _..

2.95 0.71 2.34

0.90

1.83 0.78 2.57

0.56
. 79 0.49 1.60 0.71 1.98

0.96 3.14 0.87 2.85

2 .6 0.90 2.95 0.71 2.34

tM:

n muck
er large

Top View

. ., a··----·
.) ···-·--

os 01
··-·-··02
-·-----

04 04
----4.6m----

FIGURE 11.12 Modified V cut (from Ziegler 1987}

Long
c(j
Short Short
o2 o3
g Long 1.4 m
Lon
4 o5
o
Short
ol

FIGU
RE 11.13 Prismatic cut (from Ziegler 1987)

this r
ound, the buster hole is fired first, cratering to the surface
and p
roviding a free face for subsequent blasting. The prismatic
cut,
shown in Figure 11.13, worked well with either six or four
er
ound OP,io-n, ~ 111ini11111r11 h11rri~n nf () h l't't (') ft-'\ 1A'l".-:it, 11C' ~ t-"'
 Room~ana·r111c1, 1Y11n1ng of unar.i h
"(lt~

tee content, wet wt % Texture

25 Massive
TA8lÉil.3 S()\llot eln lflcotlon o ro -<
. _ compo111t1on
, . _ - lona! bouldcrs
Stn blllt Y o, - - . . .- 1 co))L1lc;&. ,incJ occa . . by len.

-1.- t-f.lm1t~ !':l<;T-;lt' 1. Alluvl il d< pn: ll:• w1111 r1r bl>, ,, Coll'lpl1 re soturatlon of poros
< 25 Massive
e;· ' wltl1 nt itrl tlf ·.11r1d, t11lt, ,,nrl el iy, • T1 nt loa l j Orn lhlCk.
in<JOU ,;tr,,.,ur • -6 to -3

SLr<.1tll1orl wlt~, .,lnf{lt' 11on101, ttlon and thlckness

ll ·iln1llr1r In cornpos < 25 Massive
t. Allt1vlol ;1r1<.J 1ucu•,trlnt1 dopes " ·
11, s1~1blli < -3
to 11lt' ,11.loVu pobbles, and
I
h up to 30% cobb es,
? . S ,ndy 11nd IOsl01)1 oo .pots W lt 25 to 50 Massive' stratifiect

pt l·f{I rvel. ICtJ-~ J!UfJlllJd porcs. < -4

< 25 for large-grai,ned Massive, stratified
l--lorr101t 11( o1J6 slilY an<J cleyoy do¡>oslts. . < -3
material, 25 to 50 for
. water coastal rnarrne
A. Allu\/léll, l[lcu-.trlne g¡uclal, and sl1~llo~ nd flne-gralned rnaterials flne-grained material
s dl111ont. oí lr1turboddod layers of targe ªrs 5 to 10 rn thlck.
< 25 Mass1ve
wllll poor str,1ttt1c(1tlon, t1ornogonoous laye . -3 to -2
lts cornpositlon as in
1. AIIL1vlal ¡,111d iaoustrlnc coarsc-gralne d d epas ·
111. Medtun1 srnhle 25 to 50 Stratif1ed
cioss 1. -3 to -2

bbl ·S and pea-grave!. 25 to 50 St,rati íied lattice

2. Snndy ooooslts wltf1 up t.o 30% cobbles, pe e • -4 to -3
3. f·lomogenoous sllty and clayey sedlmonts. <25 for large-grained Massive layered iattice
-2 to -1
material, 25 to 50 for
4. lnLerbodded iayers of large·gralned to clay·size material
1w~th fine-grained material
horízontal srratlílcatton, hornogoneous íayers up to 2 m th e •
> 60 Ataxic basal
< -6
5. Ground Ice and olear Ice. < 25 Massive
-2 to -1
1. AIIL1vlal and tacustrlne coarse-gralrted deposlts, cornposltlon as In
IV. POO{ ly stable
Class 1. 25 to 50 Stratifted
<6
2. Sandy deposlts wlth up to 30% cobbles, pebbles, and pea-gravel. Stratified lattice
25 to 50
-2 to -1
3. Hornogeneous sllty and clayey sedlments. Massive, porous,
-2 to -1 25 to 50
4. ínteroscdeo layers of íarge-gralned to clay-slze material wlth stratified lattlce
horizontal stratlñcatlon. homogeneous layers up to 2 rn thick.
-3 to -15 25 to 50
5. Eluvlal-sollfluction sllty forrnatlons; loess-llke clays of take-swarnp
and marine tagoon takes.
> 50 Blocky ataxic

6. Hlgh Ice content, salt content > 0.25%, clay forrnations of lake and -6 to -3
swarnp, offshore marine, and lagoon genesls.
-6 to -3 > 60 Ataxic basal
7. Ground ice and ele ar Ice.
> -1.5 < 50 Any
V. Stable 1. Plastlc frozen alluvlal materials of any grain slze dlstributlon with
silty and clayey rnatrtx.
> -1 < 50 Any
2. As above, wlth sandy rnatrix.
Any <3 Massive, porous
3. Unconsolidated and poorly cemented by ice.

4. Ground Ice and olear ice. > -3 > 60 Ataxic basal

11.4.4 Haulage unir, creeping slowly into the entry until slabs developed along
All known ope1·ations i11 Nortl1 An1erica have used 1nine trucks, silt l~yers or other planes of weakness. Steady-state closure in
LHDs, or modified front-end Joaders for haulage. Tl1e Soviet 1nact1ve areas approached a constant rate of 0.42 mm/d, but
líteratt11·e shows drift layot1ts for rajl a11d belt hat1lage, bt1t gives closure rates as high as 75 cm/ d were recorded in active areas.
no details on tl1ese methods. At mining sp~ns of 45 to 60 m (150 to 200 ft), entries 2.5 to 3 m
(8 to 10 ft) h1gh experienced complete closure within 4 to 7 days
11.4.5 GroundControl (Sey~our et al. 1996). Interestingly, this closure was not
The properties of frozen grave! and silt have been stt1died considered a problem by the miners because it occ11rred slowly
extensively. Tl1ose properties depend on 1nany variables, and, for the most part, predictably.
including in sitt1 te1nperatt1re, ice content, pa1·ticle size and B~ndopadhyay et al .. (1996b) completed a finite-eleme?r
composition, and stratification. Tabulations of material ana.lysis of roof-to-floor convergence for entries in frozen rnatenal
properties for fi·ozen alluvium are found in Chester and Frank t~at accounted for both material characteristics and heat ti·ansfer.
(1969), Sellman (1972), Haynes et al. (1975), and Sl<t1cl1·zyl<
(1983).

Soviet researchers l1ave defined stability classes for frozen o owe.d by a. p e- n·o d o f secondary creep 1. n wh1·tch clost1re ra e was
materials, as sl1own in Table 11.3 (Emelanov et al. 1982). Tl1ey

also defined stable spa11s a11d recon1mended pillar sizes for each an s an . . de
of those stability classes, as shown in 'fables 11.4 a11d 11.5. accot1nted fo · . ' n
Ta.ble 11.5 shows recon1me11ded pillar sizes fo1· given widths
typical results from the analvsis The s1mulat1
of 1·ooms, based. again 011 tl1e stability criteria 111 Table 11.3. s h own were m · . J · • º d a
 The n1ost in1porta11t characteristic of these mater.ials is their mperature of -4ºC
te11dency to creep, and they 1nay exhibir co11siclerable Roof bolts e · · 0zefl
deforma1·io11 lJefore fétílure. Extensive measttrernents in tl1e Dome
C1·eek Drift Mine, nea1: Fairba11l<s, Alaska, showed tl1at roof-to-
íloo1· closure depe11cled on tl1e wiclth of the entry, proximity to
acti,1e mini.ng, and elapsed time. Tl1e roof usually moved as a O
perature reg1mes around var1ous roof

1
 PI
125

't t1r lCtlon

•• P nin zs ¡ n ,· oz n ground
Ti 1, _ fttf$c Ma,clmum apan of oxtrectlon openlnge, tt

I rtt,I r -
f Longwall ( cavlng roof)
t. ltlfl d ro~f --- -··- ------·--

1 ;-------M~onoll11hlcroof Strntlflod roof Monollthlc roof Stratlfled roof

lJ l,8

Jó 45 JO 40 26-37 26-37
lO l.>.
1 2S 5 23-27 22-30 22-30
-
20-25 15-20 19-24 19-24
-1 6
• 10 15 8-12 8-12 8-12

6 10 5-8 5- 7 5-7

6 f ' d d plll, ( tz d Pendltig en thlck f

• . • ness o extracten pay gravel In mines In frozen ground, meters
36 6 rz
- 30.5 20.1 10.1 5.03
Thlcknoss of extracted pay grave!, m
::, .1. !.l 1. 2.~ .o 1..-4 r.s 2.4 3.0 1.4 1.8 2.4 3.0 1.4 1.8 2.4 3.0 1.4 1.8 2.4 3.0
r.o
1 l l 5.2 2.0 2.4 2.9 3.4
2.3 2.7 3.2 3.9
11
2.5 29 3.6 4. l 2.2 2.6 3.1 3.5
111
2.3 2.6 3.3 3.8
1\
2.5 2.9 3.6 4.1 2.0 2.4 3.0 3.5
\'
23 2.6 3.3 3.8 1.8 2.2 2.9 3.5

. 6 - ---.-- -----1.:---1.-r--.-- -~-,----,--,.- 0.6

-' 1

E 0.4 •
'

---~-- k
~
1

0.2 g 0.4 -
'

1 '
8...,
. µ •
1
.

1
e
~

o
o 0.2
•
'

'
o -0.2 ...
o 1
l
-l o
''
1
'

o
'
1 TI E
' '

•••o l
1
-0 . .t
a: o 2 4 6 8 10 12 o
a:: o -
'
Span, meters 4 6 8 10 12 14
- Floor Heave Span, meters
---• · Root Oeflection
-&-Roof-Floor Convergence -•-1 year - 4-10years
1

FlGURE U.14 Root-floor convergence versus time (from but sorn al o e chilled air during st1111n1er operation.
LI, .
Bandopadhya et al. J..996b) Bnudopadh: av t al. (1997; 1999) perfo1·n1ed stud1e~
of
\1:nt1la,rion ,111u clima e control in t1nderground placer mines
L 1r1~ u l'inir -diff 1- ne -1tgorithm. Tl1ese studies showed that
--~ ¡ t11_·. ch at 11: ¡_1 t ro nducted thro ugh the bol ts into
Ir \ :1 , J \ 11
r e roof conrríbur d ro 1·001· taílur , but that the ten1perature of
rh ,11 i nr air was r tru ch more important factor.

U.4.6 Ventilation and Climate Control

Te-u1,p r rtlI' conrrol i cspecially important in rnining frozen
pi icers. Obvio 1 l)·, it. rhe tcn1pe1·att11·e of material st1rrot1ndj?g
rh 111i11 p nin:~, ri abov freezing, ir becomes unstable, with
o ..111<.I roof fJiling rapidly, Mines in North Arnerica typic~lly rely
on rh ci«: Iation of cold , int 1- aír to keep the entry peruneters
r t. n. Th ~ min s operare in th winter and are se~led in the
t1n1111 f. : 1 ine in u, form r Soviet Unión also use this method,
FIGURE U.15 Roof-floor convergence versus span (from
Bandopadhyay et al. 1996b)

during the winter months, underground temperature could be

controlled adequately by circulating cold, outside air. In sorne
cases, preheating of outside air could be required to maintain
temperatures comfortable for workers.
In another important study (Bandopadhyay et al. 1996c), it
was shown that thermosyphons can be used to remove
ventilation-induced heat in underground placer mines. A
thermosyphon (sometimes called a heat pipe) is a passive device
with very high thermal conductance resulting from the repeated
cycle of evaporation and condensation in its working fluid (Heuer et
al. 1985). Therrnosyphons can also be used to freeze thawed
ground rapidly, preventing water inflow and entry instability.

11.5 EXAMPLE B THE WILBUR CREEK MINE

The. Wilbur Creek placer property near Livengood, Alaska, is a
buned stream channel. Auriferous gravels are covered with 20 to
 d-Pfllar Mlntng of Hard Roe~
oom-an
_.
t the Wtlbur Creek Mlhe
fO n c,icle a _
eal product Time (hr:mln) 1'.ASLE
126 'TYP l
TABLE 11·6 2:25

1:30 e,
secbOíl A-B.
11e111cal X~e po<1al and orflfing d. a hales 0:30
1 d roa rn..
tt,roug.11 d channel
1
c1eanif1g an - e apita
3;20
U,e Hlgh-Gra e Post-btasl ventrlatron
8:00
• . ndtiautage
Muc~1ng a
Grave!
TOTAL
Layered. • J
Frozen S1't j
\
\
\ Muck 2 venttfatton ssure with a 7.5-kW (10-hp)
\
\
• }. Pro1eot1\ll&-
convorgeooe
\ P1h1'f fan provi in was a equ oper
MonltOOOQ 100 tt · 5 stem
SIAftOO!
T _\
Long· 'erm \ 1
¡' . Slable \ producr1on cy
, Slope
'
•
\ -
' ~ -,_ =- --
'
:t Cot\i'r · t2
' 11.s.3 Economics . were caJculated 011 the basis of
--· 1 1 .s: Po,1a1
m ies of rhe operation k 3 (10 700 yd3) of grave! pcr
1•
'.
1 f
' Portal
Foot of Hig)1wall In Existlng Pit The econo . 8 180 han m •
.r¡;r .' mining and process1ng . ' d in Ta·ble 11. 7.
year. Costs a r e sumn1anze
B. IA
Fen · •
TOT
FIGURE 11.16 General layout of Wilbur Creek Mine

ca~
' d ,#(RL Report No. · 1
- 'lt and Ltvengoo . 1v.1 • Fairbaniks. pp. 61-84. .

gravmel. The pay section i· nc 1 u d es 1 . s m es ft) o.f grave] an 60· m Bandopadl1y11y, S., K. B . A ctk P'lacer. fines. Transactioi ..1 of

(3 fr) of fragmented bedrocl<.. The pay sect1ondaverages ntains Roof Bolt Support Systcm in r l

(200 ft) wide, bttt a 2S-m- (82-ft-) wid.e, high-gra e zone co . SME~N ME , vo 1 ·
298 P 'P LBOl -1808.
' · 1996a Effecl of Roo Bo t 1ng
r ¡ ·
·
S X w .g and M G 1 I e, son. ·
abour 80º/oof the val11es. . . f to Bandopadhyay, ·• · an 'b·¡· · f · Openin.g iin a Frozen Ground Placer
The claims had been mi.ned by hydraul1ck1ng rom 1961 Pararncters on _the Sta 1 sry o an . 140-145.
1985, when enforcement of the 1972 Cl~an W~ter ~etmade h
draulic mining impracticable. At that time, financia! ~ants Bandopadhyay, S., X. Wang, and M .. l e son. . . . . . l , in
f:Om tbe state of Alaska made tbe design 3:1<l implementat1on of an Undcrground Placer Mine in the _Arct1c. In 1~111g in tic
Arctic. Proccedings of the 4rh Internanonal Syrnposiu m, ed · by
undergrou11d mining possible by recirculat1ng 100°/o of the water
to n1eet tl1e standards of the Clean Wate.r Acr. A. Myrvang (Svalbard, Norway, July 1996). _ . . •.
Bandopadhyay, S., H. Wu, and M.G. 1 elson. _199~. enr1lat1?f1 Design
01
11.5.1 Developmentand Mining Alternatives for Underground Placer ~11.nes m rhe Arctrc. In Proceed-
The 1nine was planned as a room-and-pillar opera?ºº· Bec_ause of ings of the 6th Iraernanonal !\iltne Ventiiarion Congress, ed. by
R.V. Ramani, SME, Lirtleton, Colorado.
the narrow width of tbe pay section, it was des1gned w1th two
Bandopadhyay, S., !·T. Wu, M.G. Nelson, and V. lzaxson, 1999. A finitc
rooms along either side of a single row of pillars. A general layot1t
Element Model of Heat Transíer ·n a Shallow Placer Mine in the
is s.hown in Figure 11.16.
Arctic, ed. by J.E. Udd and A. J. Keen. In Mining in the Arctic.
A po1·ral was established in the existing highwall, and an
Proceedings of the Sth lt1ter11ational Symposium (Yellowknife,
access dríft was driven into the pay section. The portal was above -
Nonhwesr Terrtrories, Jt111e 14-17. 1998). Balkema, Roltte1·dam, l
the elevation of the pay section and did not decline i.nto the pay Netherlands. -
section until it was 30 m (100 ft) back from the highwall. This Bandopadhyay, S., H. Wtt, M.G. Nelson, and V. lzaxson. l 996c. Tbermo- l
provided a p.rotective pillar for the access drift and also isolated •
sypllons for Remov,11 ot.Ventilatio,n-Induced Heat in an Under-
the new workings fron1 tl1e highwall. ground Placer Mine in rhe Arctic, Transactions of SME-AlME,
An ATH12 Seco1na .iumbo fitted with a single RPI-I 200 vol. 300, pp. 1915-1921.
hyd1·aulic drifter was used to dril] blast boles 3.6 m (8 2 ft) lo11g Barl,er J.C 1990 Surfac PI M. . .

by 4.4 cm (13/4 in) in diameter. The RPH 200 dri fter is desig11ed u:on a·r l2th · ann ¡ eAl acker 1n1ng in the Soviet Far East · Presemta-
ua-24 aFs · anb C
Al ask a, M arch 22 ~ o=nfe1·ence on Placer Mining, Fox,
to drill boles 3.19 to 4.4 cm (11!4 to 13/4 in) in diameter for
1 (
pr_oducrion boles and 8.9-cm (31/2 in) in diameter for cut hales e omm1. tte·e, Fa1. rbanl, · a1l r aknks Placer Mini-ng Conferen.ce .
A )

w1~!1 water flushing. The hydraulic drifter generated no mist. The Bogdanov, E. 1992_ Pe s, . as ~· pp. 4~6 (abridged compilatioa ·
no1se leve} was 105 dB at 0.9 m (3 ft). Drilling rates were Chester, J.W., and J.N.r~~~al tnterv1ew,_ Fa1rbanks, Alaska, July 23._
generally good, at 1.5 to 3 m/min es to 10 ft/min). Research Pi 1 R. nk. 1969. Fa1rbanks Placers Fragmentat1on
9-1115-33 ,:;.~. Cep?rt, Heavy Metals Pr,ogr.arn. Aurhorízatíon N'o.
~everal blasti11g patter-ns were tried based on local . , • vv1n 1t1es M. · . n f M.

e~per1ence and refer:?ce to the Soviet literature. As sl1own in M1n11eapolis M' tntng t"\.CSearch Center, Bureau o 111es,
Co ' innesota 52
Figure 11.12, a mod1f1ed V-cut in which a short center l1ole is pe, D.W. 1994. Personal · ' · pp. .
 R

fir~~ first was the preferred pattem because it re uire Emelan?v: V.I., U.A. Manea~ntervtew, P~1rba1:l<s, A1aska, February 26.
dr1ll1ng. The biggest problems in drilling and bl t' q d less Mtn1ng offrozen Pl 'and E..D. I<ud!ai. 1982. Undergroun,d
P ress1·ng o f ANF. O slur1·1·es. F·ragmentation was aalswa1ngs were dead M ·tne Developrn_e,nt acers Ch · 4 m
· o,. . . . r:
O e . · L:JI\Cavat1on _cind Support o;
_(translated copy ¡ P ning~. Nedra, Moscow, U.S.S.R., pp. J -18
Flem1ng, E.E. 1917 BJ n posse~sron of author).
haulage we.re done with a Wagner ST-2D LHD f't d
~c <111g and M..1rt1·r1g · 0ck Stop1n
& Scicrttifi.c Pr · . g an
d T' .
tmbering in Deep Placer M1n1ng.
. ·
(2 yd3) bucket. The LHD clelivered ore to 1 t~ w1th a ~-5 m3
processing during the summer. an outs1de stockpile for Gates, M. 1994. Gold F ess, ~eptember 15, p. 378.
Press V at ortym1le Cr k · UBC
G l.b son, A.- , ancouver Be ee : Early Days i11 tl1e Yul<on.,
A typical prod\tction cycle is SUimnarized in Table 11.6. 1914 '. .
Se: . . Thaw1ng Froze G
ientific Press, January round for Placer Mining.Mí11ing &
· 17 n
• pp, 143-145.
'
 ,, f I
• 2.27
"
'

.1
------ . - .
~ 111 ~ _ ! •111110 1,, 1 87 ctoJlnr• ( kucSr.zyk ot et . 1987)
1 DolJ•r• pe, unlt
o,, t
Ot1 t,
c1 1 1•t l 11 1 1 lr 1 , ( r, f ,l 1 • 1 '
, 1r,1 ,1J Jiil 1rr1 11 11 ,I 11 1(111
' I Ji¡
'

l1c 1,
(J ,1 '¡ IIW 111 11 1) ' '
Lll< f 1 (JIJ (). .
I I 11 11111 f¡ IJ ()71 0 0~4
11 ,
1 • ,,1 ¡J 1,('¡() () ()1k o 014
/)
)1 1>11, 1l
l\\{l 1 l 11¡,(J!i(J o. './'1!i .
0 182
1,\ IJl l)/ ,
/1(),(J()() (J 4 { ( ().365
.,, r1 1 l . l
. . ,
ltllr1¡¡ c, 11J <.;f) l'1l111r. lr1J1 (J ():.!() 0 1)1 ~
11,()()0
M1 -,1, .11
11 1, o
,,,
0.094
.
() 072
?(),()00
l<)l,tl
O.'l2
c. 7()
(Jpr1r1¡,tln¡1_ co: \•,:
I r111l¡i1r11 111 1r11 1t1111,r 111111 i1
;.>L ')(, e¡( riwr,lnt\ c:ri 1,1 0.235 Q .180
1 1 11 1
'!, l /¡1.,1\ 0.209 0 .1,.,0
IIIJl1JJ,
') f \llllltl cJ!IJ 1r111)1
'h 1 ,;;1J/yc1~1 nf •,111 l11t1ulc¡(J o. -1S4 (J.580
1 ,,lir,r 0.750
!l,?()/ 11( 0.981
lCJL11I 1 .67
2.18
TOTAL PROCl!SS INQ 3. 10 2 . 31
-- -
MININO
--
CrJplt1-JI
-IJqulpmri-nl ,,r 1u fr1CJlll1Jr J . (coiil 01 ownor- J,Jp) :
Sl101) 11n1J llvln¡,, c¡Lirir t ur:, j0,000 0.127 O 097

LI ID 36,000 .
0 268 0205

J111nho 78,000 0.089 0.088

0.31 3
Ocnoru tor 13,880 0.409

fn11 and ductwork 2,500 0. 038 0.029

Dump t ruck 15,395 0 .115 0.088

,
009'3
?5,000 0.122
Por t·al
O 122 0.093
Mlscoll,..1noous 25,000
letal
J 29 0 .99

o pera ti n(! : 0.398

Equlpmonl m~..1lnt0n,1nco 50% of awning cosí 0.521

$1,/gal 1 .556 1 .190

Fue !
1
2 .420 1.850
Exploslves
9 .116 6 .970
$20/hr
Labor 10.41
13.61
Tot la 14.90 11.40
TOTAL MINING
Ownershfp costs caloulatad by i:;tralgt,t-lJno cJopreclatlon ovar oqulpmont llfo, wlth no saívagc valuo. ·
I r lb : oí TOVEX 220 at $1.37 per stick, and 1 cap at $i_75_

fxplo&lv0s use calculatod for 19 hales po round, oach halo uslng '.1.0 oí ANFO at ¡;0,33/lb, 1 stíck

Kudlai, 1992. ~rospccts for Underground Mining of Frozen Placer

Croppel, C., ¡111cl J.A. Maclor1t1,t. J989. Orifl ,Mining at 'l'endcrfoot Cree!<.
Jn Mini11g in t lie Arciic, Pr·oceedi1·1g's of Ll1e J .si J11le,rnc11 ional ,<;y111¡Jo-
.si11111 on Mir1i11g i11 1/1e Ar·ctic, cd. by S. 13a11dopfJdl1yay and
f1.J. Skudrzyk (llaii·b~ii·iks, /\J11sJ<,1, July '17-l9). JJalkc111,1, Rott.crcla.1n,
pp. 211-215.
l lt.1y11es, l•.D., J.A. l(c1r,11iLis, ,1,,c.1 J. 1<~1J,1fu1. ]975. Strt1i11 R,lle Effcct 011 rhe
Strength of Proz ,1, Soil. CJU'lEL J'le1Jo1·t J~fl-350. Colcl RcgJons _
Rescarch and I·:11gincc1·i11g l,¡:1borato1·y, U.S. /\r111y Corps of Engi-
ncers, l Ianover, New .1 L:11npsl1i1·c.
I lefflir1g<·'r. 1980. Drifl Mjning. ¡>rcst:11t,1tio11 ,,L 211d ,1_111111al Alasl<;,11
Confcrencc on f>J;tter Mining, 1:oX", Al"isl<.a, A¡:,r.11 7~8._ MfllL Rcport
-16. Ml11cr~I J.1idListrics l"tcscarcl1 l,¡1IJor,11ory, U11ivers.1t-y of Alaska,
Fairbanks, Alaska, ¡JJJ. 16'.3-168 (,1bríclged co1:1ri!~1ioI1)_. , .
Deposus m the North-East oí Russia. Presentauon at 13tn annual
':-l~1ska11 Conference on Placer Mining, Fairbanks, Alaska, March 4- 7.
Fairbanks Placer Miníng Conference Committee, Fairbanks, Alaska,
pp. 7-8 (abridged compílanon).
uulepagc, J.D., and D. Bess. 1938. In Search of Soviet Gold. Harcourt,
Brace, New York, 310 pp.
McDonald, R. 1990. Drilling in Frozen Ground. Presentation at 12th
annual Alaskan Conference oo Placer Mining, Pox, Alaska, March
22-24. Pairbanks Placer Mining Conference Committee, Fairbanks,
Alaska, pp. 4-6 (abridged compilation).
Mellar, M., and l)_V. Scllman. 1970. Experimental Blasting in Frozen
Gro~nd. CRRl~l. lleport SR-153. Cold Regions Research and Engi-
ncer1ng Laboratory, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. Hanover, New
.

flt·11<·r, C.L<: .. r~.I .. J,OJJ, J.JJ. z,,i·ling. 1985. Pétssivc 1ecl11~1c¡L1c!-i_fo1 . l l,1mpsl1irc, pp. 1-33.
. . g, 8ncl ?'/ ,n s

, · . , ¡ JJesi< G'or1.';tde1·at1c1r1 Ltl Milyut ..1, B.I., V. Kuz~etsov, a11d V.A. Sherstov. 1992. Placer Deposits of
(JJCJu11cl J<.·11•1'¡Jer;1lu1·e
· J . . Co. 11trc>. 1 [11 1e1r11 ! · · ."' .
and n.o. , I.art.
1'1rsew1,1sl< Yakutia: Techn1cal Improvements and Mechanizatíon. Presentation
l by TG r .1
Ir 1urc<111 Gro1111c f!,'t1g111eer1r1g, ec. · ·
l\rnt·rité111 Socicty of Civil 1::1igincc·1·s, JJjJ, 72-154.
• • • • •

- -

r
J

J
 -----

• • • • • • • • • • • • •
CHAPTER 12

ining at I

P. Livingstone, * J. Purcell * o. Moreh

' ouse, * and D. Waugh *

12.1 INTRO
DUCTION r
The lMC Kalium
owned subsidiary Carlsbad Potash
l l Com a (I cultur~ throughout the operation. IMC Potash
r has irnpiemen d a
. 6 km (16 of. IMC G oba ' Inc·, p ny MC Potash), a wholly behavior-based safety program direc cd . I 1and 1:staffc bv
owns and operate 5 ª
mme 2 . · ) f l .
h representatives
i t from the hourly workforce n 999, IC Pottí sh
miles east o Car sbad a s pot~
ach eved a otal of 1.26 million work hours with onty one losr-i m s
) T accident. There was a 40º/o reduction qin the nurnoer of , · dr ·11
ir, acc
( 7 ) ' 200 acres . 1 . 28 ' 800 ha
eases or over over the last 3 years, and a 35 10 reductíon. i ~1, i
. w o types of ore one contaíní cornpensation cosrs over the same period The M ne Safe aí1(
4 g 4 , are rnined at Health Administration's (MSHA) incident rate foi reporta! .
- h Th ese ores are processed thr h
I MC P otas . dd oug two separate
accidents was 2.31 for the ñrst 9 months of 1999 cornpared wirh ,.
· I ' ·
inon the operation incl · ra e of 7.46 for the mining indusrry nationwide, 4.ó3 for the D as
re fjmenes, n a , ude s a 1 ang b emi· ·e t 'l
· l nt a muriate . · · pl
t
district of MSHA, and 4.11 for the Carlsbad area
granu 1 p a , (sy vi
l t
e) compaction an t a p 1ant. .
tassium sulfate K2S04) warehouses a nd rai·1 an d
cilities, 12.2 GEOLOGY ANO HYOROLOGY
anon . . ,
m d 19~0s there were seven companies oper The Carlsbad rnining area is par o an evaporite sequence
th at pro d uces po f . processmg
. . ( w hin
plants
, an area about 29 km
, depos ted in the Delaware basin of southeast New Me.~co nd
true Ie l oa d -out west by 38 km 24 miles north-sou h. Today outhwestern Texas The Upper Perrnian deposi in the Delav are
ons and closures in the area there are just two basin is characterized by a thíck accumu arion of evaporites that
. Du~ing the aining i - IMC, Potash and Mississippi Potash Inc. - have been subdivided bottom to opt ínco f the Casrile, Salado. and
armg mines and produced at Carlsbadit is predominantly used as a Rustler i forrnations (Figure 12.1). These evaporítes vere buried, by
(18 miles) east- sium nutrients in( agricultural ) t
fertilizers. Po ash s the Dewy Lake red . beds that marked the close of t the Pet m an -era.
, vered n the Carlsbad area n 1925 during The Salado Pormation is essentially l a haljre un interlayered
after consolidati cuttings taken while drilling , for oil benea h salt with anhydrite polyhali e potassiurn r salts, c ay, and minor
cornpanies rern , , amounts o sandstone and siks one. ts thicknes varíes in the
potash mine belonging o the U.S. Potash
The potash Carlsbad area from zero along tl1e dissolution boundary east í of the
source of potas n operations in 1931. The Pota~h Companyt of city of Carlsbad tomore than 600 m (2 000 fr) 24 km (15 mile o
ít
was first disco anotheri mine in 1933. The Un1on i Potas~ and , t , l
the east. The Sa ado s divided into three lnits: the Lower (oldest)
examination of any s arted sinking shafts fo a third minet in the f t l s
McNutt and Upper (youngest) Econornic potass um m nera.Is are
beds. The first Before he shafts , t
and deve opm~nta work w~re confined to 11 unirs . in the McNutt Member The most common
Cornpany, bega Intemational Minera s & Chem1ca Corporaoon , ) t
potassium minerals l iare polyhalite, sylvitel langbeinite can1allit .
América started
Chemical Comp ra road t r 5 kainite , and leonite The identified . ore reservesi of the i McNutt
cars of refined angbeínire was pp Member ai e confined too an area east of Carlsbad, as delim ted b•
basin in 1936. t l l .
es 243 million tons of the federal government's ''Known Potash Leas , ng Area." , This area,
completad the l l covers , more than . 1 100 km2 (425 rni2). although potassiun1
mineralization · is estirnated to cover an area ten times grea ir.
IMC Potash, two il l , i The a11hydrite and polyhalite beds of thei Salado For1nation
in. October 1940. eve s) over an area
. . h A roximately 4 800 ) km are persistent th rot1gholtt , the area. Forty-three bed re
2 miles) north-sou pd a this operation. identified as formal marker beds by the U.S. Geologicnl u
(USGS) with beds 117 through 126 occ.urring within the tM u
Member. Several informal polyhalite intervals are present. u h
as the 2.5-cm (1-in) . unit separating the thi1·d zon oro" h
zones (rnining l 1.5l rn ll on rons) 0
P· ,
At 23 500 tonnes/day
and 19 km (1 t · r fourth These marke1·s are critical to stratigraphic l'O l tio ot :
the potash zones because of thei1· persistence. 1 tt
IMC Potash ~s o~entil last year, plant capacity Potasl1 zones we1·e subdivided . b th ar1ou n11n1ns
m nes in he nation 20 000 tonnes/day companies into stratigraphic i11tervals sepacaling n~inerali fr t
rn1ll1on tonnes ( i í cnon o
beds from. halite a11d clay halíte. The potash zones typrrcall.' h11 '
.
a muddy interval at the bottom with varying \IPl . b?und . n.
(25,000 t/d), ay 14 000 ~ :;ton rhe No 2 shaft to feed between the balite polyhalite, and!or _ cl~y. T~ man l1ied
underground
. .
i
second t
producnon .h . f
, . jntervals vary from cenrirneters to 1 m (~.3 te) ~h1 k. nd s
5 very irnportant. Significant intervals make up a potash - zone. Scrat1graph all the t po . h
an underground mmed loping a safery awareness l r _
12,700-tonnes/d ces are ( dedícated
, -t to eve . ,
and installed a l
the new plant. . . 1 -
Safety in arl bad NM
time and resour :13:1

' IMC Po·tash, C s , .

 nd-Pillar Mining of Soft R" ,,
Roo m·a "º'I

132

OCHOAN
.. ..., .
'
•
.. .• .• '
•
' McNutt Ore zonestCommon
111
... '
1 IJ

oewey Lake
'..
1. •!
' 1

Potesslu m Mlnerel
' .
• • •
.•
1 t'
: \ • • • Marker Bed
Rustler
1 vaca Triste
1 1
~ ..
~
,--11,h carnalllte
8.
.o 103
'
i I ~
a. E
2
.. 109 117
118
·1 1 119 1 t
• vaca Trl5te f--
O h Sylvite
' ~
;, .o ..
~

Un Ion 120
ZE
2o ::":!:' 121
126 122
Salado
Unlon

-----
~= 7thSylvite
Bth Camalll e
-5 h Sylvite La
-"
39 t
t / ngbel nlte
1
------·-· -1 123-
124-
4th Langbeinit
-Cowden >---- 3rd Sy vlte
f--2nd Sy vile/La e
,- l .
r--1s Sy vlte/Lan
l ngbelnile
t l gbelnite

Casi lle

Legend
..,..,.....,
mm
Oolomlte
~
Anhydrlte,
D
Hallte
rmJ
Polyhallle Potash
t;,;_J
Sandstone
' 1
Gypsum Ore

FIGURE 12.1 Stratigraphic column Castile/Salido/Rustler with

detailed McNutt member of the Salado

1
1
1 1 zones vary from 1 to more than 6 m (3.3 to 20 ft) thick. Mining
' horizons are selected from these zones with regard for ground
control, mining equipment constraints, and economic potash
mineralization.
The principal economic minerals are sylvite and langbeinite.
Economic quantities are confined to intervals 1 through 5, 7, and
! 1 10, of which 4, 5, and 10 are mined at IMC Potash (interval 1 was
1 '
1 1 mined frorn 1940 until 1987). The fourth interval is the main
langbeinite zone, although langbeinite mineralization occurs to
sorne extent throughout most of the zones.
The 11 ore zones are consistent in their stratigraphic
relationship to the marker beds; however, their thickness
mineralogy, and potassium mineralization are extremely '
variable. Regional variations in thickness and mineralogy occur
gradually over thousands of meters, while local variations occur
rapidly over intervals between a few meters to severa! hundred
meters,; Local fea:~res such as potassium-barren zones (locally
called salt horses ) are cornmon throughout all potash horizons.
These barren zon~s may occur within individual mineralized
beds or across entire potash zones, and their lateral extenr ma
1
)
J cl_ays, polyhal1te stnngers, and halite be ds s how littl t
d1sturbance, with only the potash mineralization ~. o. no
Frequently'. íncreased potassium mineralization and :.si~g.
1 1
conce~trat1ons
The limits of
and less commonof mineral
distribution ota h ~g. er
1
nterpretedleonite,
loewe1te, to be the
or result of a are pfound
kiesersite, fss1~m m
:Íonsu~ as k~n1te,
•
en e o
' proce es The present potassium distributio
1 comrnon along these contacrs.
pr1mar la ire are also
•
. econdary deposition from migrat n b · nis .
of . .
lthat the brines migrated throu sh ~e . gu nnes 1 1neral1zat1on is
ss . s . y ai.1d secondary
would
s flow horizontally until a cl1ann:~
· . e e?1ª1nl~ the resulj
•
was .here is eVidence

t .ªY beds. Brines

mtersected thaj
 OCH
•••
1 :
••
• •
• : 1
• •
• 1 •
•

• n
•• • ••
d

••
- •

-· .-
• ---
• - •
•

- • -
- J 09 . . ..--·- 117----
•••
...;-··_,··- 118-
_ • ..J..-·
119-

r-- Union 120 -

121
·-
-12·6 122-
5af,ado ir ar
Union-, oun
-1 .
are 1
-139
123-,
t ou ·•
124- te m
-Cowden _ 4th La~beini·te
··mal- -3rd • ' t e r
- 2 V v, e/La fil in
'l l .
-1 y tte/Lan bei te
l res ur
126-
ºª o
con · itii

Casti·le

••
Legend ma1n ·
an si t
Oolomite Anhydrite1 Halite Polyhaltte Potash Sendstone
Gypaurn OA? T
us er
Salido Rustter with 1
detaite,d McNutt member of the Salado
eva oni
e timat~
o on
zones vary om 1 to more t an 19
horizons are selected · orn these zones wit ,,...
Ci
regar . or groun
econom1c potas ran in
minet"alization.
1
., ..
~ •,
•

ans.{beinÍtfl 7:()np !:ilt-hn11,,h 1,.. •. 1- - -- - •

enu
i ua
1
 J l 1)11.-, 'lJ on yield strcngth of the rock b .
11 . ,¡¡111 l-oncL•pt for l1edclecl rock to d ol~ and 1r1volve the 1
' f 1ear11 rniners J1,1v,• li1•(•r1 c·1111l11x: y·lvít1· ,,,,. i11 1!1, (,,Jrl t ad rr ,n
1l1t' roe 1c. !\. . ty f etern1u1e tl
.'-el e actor of at least 2 . .ie deacl weigl1t f
. 1 . l IS used h o thc 11iicl-19<>()1,. 'J'l1.,. ,. ¡,·1·11v,·,J 1,,1 1,,,, ff., <tiv. 1r1 111,, "'''' r ¡ylvit
it1,f 1-i,> ttilg f) nns. w en fotinLtJ a l.111g
1L · · bcds wi111 Jt•l.:11 lv«·ly 1111 le llt1lf:111 , 1,111 J • 'I 1,r,,,J1r< tlv,· In hlgh .,
St1Jt:,1lc• <)11• U<>cJi, .,. 'J'll<' •,ylvítt• ore 1,,1<li1·•1 ít1 IM(; Ji<>lít h hav hlgh
12. • Alr Rellef Holes
sulfate <'(>1111•1111,; 11111•; 1111· 1r;111. 11,,,,1 1,, ,.,,,,1i,11t,> tN mín r h,
¡>ot'kL•rs . of co nfin
. ed air . under p·ress ure are fou . . bccn slowor 111:111 i111111111y 1,1J11·r 111,1;1·!1 r11i11•'L,,
.. ·1·11e tt~<.· ot c.:,1r1v,·111 f,,11,11 1·,¡11i¡)r1> •111 rt·<1111r<· 't 1rlir lmum
. ase o anh . . m111111g hcigh: of .,t,,1111 l r11 (<,.<> ftJ, wl1i,·l1 t1,r1í1t·<I tt,,• r<:<Jn,,mlt'

. _ . . rave . T . 1'e?ovc1·y of f,ylvíte rt·f1(•rv1 ·. 111 l'J(J4, two .loy 141'M JC) drum
rruncrs
tl"tt' ,1i1· p1·esst11·c. A confined air pocker ee ace for the release of arca of WCJ'(.' placed into r,r,,,J11c·ti1111 IIJ íl l<,w l)•·íit,t, low .,,Jlf;:,fr:
tl1e USf1S't1 J()1J1 c1rt· z,,,,, .. w,1t,i11 ·~ y,·:1r , tw,, n1·vi1•·r,
. b · can exert enough f
rhe forn1a t1ons. a ove o.r below the w orce on 1norc robusL 111c>d<·ls c)f' <.l1llrr11,1ír1•·r'.,, t'li·•· .f1c1y l41'f-.4 J '> ltrtcl J~lfM
or<1. 1n s ·· .
2~, wcre t-tCLflli1·etl fc,r 1.11í11i11g r;ylvi1,· ,,,,. ,.,,,1~;1i11i11r, rr1,,r{• •,tilf;Jt
m111crals as wcll ~1s lr1r1glJci11itc· c,r<;.
12.4.3 Contlnuous Mlnlrrg wtth Con tnuou H ulaC
. , o es are · · As in tl1c case oí co11vc111 Í<)n,1J 111i,1ir1,g, r111•cl1 c,f 1ti1· 1:<¡ 1ipm ·nt
il pi·ocl,tclion panel, r intersect1on across and tecl1nology Ltsed i11 co11tir1L1c1,11i, rr1i11i11r, 11t IM<; J;<, ;1·.i, h,,~ lJeen
adapted from 1l1e ccJ:JI i1idL1<;try, <.;í11 · · 111,· f1r',t rvr! cootinuous
12.3.4 Extraction Rates and Pillar Determlnations mi11ers were jus1Jficd IJy 111,cír ..i'IJ,ility 1,, min • r1t 1,,w r
heights than conve11tion21.I ec¡,uí¡>tr1l·11l1 fac·<· l1;i11l¡1Y,'. · , (¡11ir)m ·nt
Ext1nction prar·es are primar.ily .designed on th e b as1·s o f t h e depth was also seJectcd Lo meet 1J1is co11.s1 rairit. c:t1ain <'tJr1 ·y(Jr typ, 1~

of thc ore. nrnary extraction ts empirically de · d continuous haulagc W<.1S cl1>cJscJ1 l1cc·a,t1'1t: e;{ i t', ,1cJv..i11t:t~( f11r 1

. . . ' sy vite areas and
27 MPa ( 4,000 psi) tn langbeinírc areas.
12,4 MININGMETHODS
!MC Potasl1 has adopted
11011n1ctal mines. The two basic classifications, which are best
defined by the rype of equipment they employ, are conventional
and continuous rnining, Continuous mining is further categorized
into car haulage and continuous conveyor haulage. All three
variarions are contingent on a relatively horizontal ore body.
Physical dimensions and the degree of consistency of a particular
ore body are important factors in dictating which variation is
used. Prior to 1994, conventional mining had been used almost
exclusively for production, with the exception of sorne early-
generation boring and ripper machines, circa 1960. Up to seven
conventional sections were in production at one time. Currently
S)1J\1ite ore production consists of five continuous 11:1iner sect~o11s,
while langbeinite production consists of four cont1nuo11s rmners
and one rernaining conventional section.
12.4.1 Conventional Mining Method
as drill-and-blast mining.
. ·
continuous 'mining technology, only one conven tona tnining
panel remains active.
and right (a total of nine adva.nc1ng rooms),
rectangular config11rations have also been usec ·
12.4.2 Continuous Mining Method
lower miníng heights. As Jargcr, r11orc r<>IJt1s1 c<;ntintJ(JtJ•, mín r,
w·ere selecLed to mine langlJcínilc cJr<:, the c<,rl(:(!J)1 c,f c·or1tínu<, •.
l1aulage was carried <)Ver to th,e IC)W·,<;<·,1rri ¡,orl ícy11 r¡J' h ·
langbeinite reserves. Currcntly, tht·rc are fiv,<~ ít,ctÍVf~ (·c,nr1r1tJf)l1.
several variations on the basi mining-continuot1s hauJagc sccti1or1s.
Each panel consists o,f a drL1r1i-t ypc c·o111 in Lic,11s n1 i n1~r í1nd a
multiu11it, rnobile chain convcyor systl!m. ·1·11c liatrlug<· ·,y'.,11:r
consists o.f three 7.6-rn- (25-ft·) lc>ng, cr,iwltr-rrt<JUnt ·<l n,,,r)il ·
conveyoru11its with tl1,·ee 12.2-in· (40-ft-) i(Jng l)rí,d1~,; ,:,,,Jv·yi;r
units piggybacked onto the n1.obile t1nits. [\t1ch oí 111~· •,ix
components has scparalc conveyc1r chaí11s, bttt tl1ey ar· ¡Ji11ned
together at tran.sfer points. Th. t1r1it clc>scst to tl1c min(..r is th ·
''hopper'' mobile unit, whjcl1 is pl1ysíc:ally detached frc1m tht•
conveyor discl1arge boom oí t.hc co11ti11u<)US 1nín<.:r. l'hc fi11al
bridge conveyor is pír1ncd 1,0 a dolly tl1at rolls fJ11 thc r>an·l'I bclr
structure frame. This framc is typícally alJout 67 m (220 ftJ long
and includes Lhe par.el belt tailpicce. Tl1c taíl¡,iccc gives the
l1aulage syscen1 the cap¡1bility oí backíng aloogsí<.le thc panel belt.
Wl1en fully extended. the haL1lagc syst·em re~chcs al)(>llt 61 m
(200 ft) from the panel IJelt.
Tl1ere l1ave bcen two panel clcsigns uscd: production layout
ancl develop111ent.
A typical productiot1 layotrt consísts of a scc¡t1c11c that
adva11ces t·o tl1e limits of the ore boc.1y or property bot1nclary and
It is accompl1shed ~hrough .t re is the111·etreatcd. Tl1c advancing scc¡uence (I;igurc 12.2) h,,s an
extraction ratio of abottt 400/o, After tl1csc roo111s are completed,
t vent o
e a improved tl1e lJelL Lail¡Jiece a11d rigíd fra11ic strttcturc is advancetl 49 m ( 160
ft), and thc seqt1cnce is rcpcatccl. Bclt storagc uníts are s t in-line
near tl1e hcad of tl1c panel belt to cx.peclitc mov s. ·rhe r treat
. . . ction consísts of sec1t1ence (Fig111·c 12.3) is cliaractcrizcc.\ by ,, t'hevr<.>n p·1tt rn. Th
first belt n1ove is a 24-in (80-ft) rctrca,l. Aftcr thc fir t r ·tr at
0.r pattern is míned, Stll)sec.1t1c11t n·1oves <>f thc rct1· ·1ting b lt r on
ot1s room-a11 d -p 1·11ar
49-m (160-ft) ccnrers. 'l'he cxtrétction r,ttio ot· th r tr at patt m
sl1own is also al)Olll 40o/o, 1'cst1lti11g i11 a11 ov r,,11 tr ction of
80º/o. Tl1e i11clivic.lt1¡1[ pt111t.•l lé1yc.)t1ts 111· • 11or111ally arrang d ·id -by·
sicle so t·ltat rc)o111s cl1·ivt•n !) rpcn<licl1la1· tll th b lt lin will
con11cct f01· p111-¡)oscs <>f ventil·1tio11.
Devclop111c11t 111i11i11g p,,ttt r11s with contint1<.>US haulag hav
b t'n 11s d te> o¡)t n ltp main co11v yorw y and ro dways.
Oevelop111e11t is ty11it•,1lly withi11 tl1 <>r llody u ing an dv n •
. mii1ing at I MC
To understand the application of cont1nuous only se,1t1encc. l)cvt•lop111 •nt xtra ·tion is low r than in h
pr·od 11ctio11 st <1l1c11ct• bt~c·,usc th s room 1nust r in
Potash, a brief history is in order. de in continuous miner ,iccessil)lc f01· l<>11g ¡Jcriods of ti1n (Figt1r 12.4). 1\vo p r
<lcvelopme11t (),111cls are driv n parall l to 11 orl1 • with room
design, it becarne clear that continuol~S al mini11g. Drum-typc
econon1ic advan tage over co11vent1on
 Room,,an.Pillar Mining of

134 -

-: 1
,, /
»:

V /
- 4:im
46m
/1 43m
•
46m '
/ ~)'¡ <, ...
\ ' •
,, ·~ -
\ ' '

•
1
•

- ,,-,
_,,.,. -
-
7 , \ • '$ '-a. .
~ ~

9m 8m
V
~

'
.

"'- •
/ 1 -
<, •

/1 <,
,¡;:.Y
~
. <,
...

\.,..<:'.:
•
/
-
~
-
)'91/J;..... _l -
'
., .... \
•

· ... .e:, •

.,
3
... --r .e:,
CD
, 3 ,,.
r-, -:
J'

•
,
-
7
17 lll -17 m
, 17m 17m-
... \"'"'.
•
.> r-
~

•
•

FIGURE 12.2 Continuous haulage advance sequence-three entry,

RGURE 12.3 Conttnuous haulage retreet Se<l ence hree e U), '
17 m x 49 m centers, 9 m rooms, 60 degree chevron showing three
advance sequences 17 m x 49 m centers. 9 m rooms. 60 deg,ee e e ton sno g rwe ''
retreat sequences
•

'
driven at right angles to the beltline designed to li~e up wit.h each
other. This overcomes an inherent problern wíth cont1nuous vertical openings in the salr wírh capacitie of SO ro 1,3 O ror~-=-
(90 to 1,400 t) of ore .. A t·eeder a che borrom of eacl .• 1:,., •
haulage systems-the distance rnined to the sides of the panel belt
is not enough to set up the haulage system and belt structure to discharges ore cnto a conve ·or. Problerns with ore brid.§ir:g ~::; •'
these raíses have repeacedl')' requir,ed 51) osives to break .:n.1rt0..:..: íl
turn off a panel. The panel belt of the first developrnent pass free.
becomes a main belt, while the second pass opens up ground to
•
give sufficient distance between the rnaín belt and the faces. To increase storage capad(\' and reduce the o <is ·~
pi·oble~s virh raises, I1 1C Para;h desig1~ed and irise ''e-: ··
12.4.4 Continuous Mining with Car Haulage
su_ccess1onof three stackers. tackers are ore torage . srerns r.. -: •

Continuous rnining with a drurn rniner and diesel cars involves a win drow ore on the floor parallel ro a con 'evor nd then re··~ ,: -
layout nearly identical to that for a conventional section. A síngle •
panel belt with a belt feeder is positioned in the middle of the and trams 1tse1f h 0n·zonfally 0 ') ~- t
panel, typically nine rooms wide. Room and pillar dimensions are . .: om1 rail in a <1allen· u ro O·' ·· {

essentially the sarne as those in conventional panels. Mining

progresses by cycling through the faces from right to left across a o a room), afee . . . . ···.
sectíon. Each face is advanced a predetermined distance that l
varíes between panels and is determíned by belting and
ventilation re_st~_cti~ns. Car haulage has the advantage of The 1 . · le rate mdependent ot che r· or 1 -· m n,~ '· _ -
argest stacker li.nd
tncr~~·s~d flex1b1l1~ i_n compa~1son t? continuous haulage. This (5 =, erground hoid_ abou1r ~. ti') "nr.~ ~
000 t) f ~C r.,,
fl~x1b1l11:Y a~lows m1n1ng to adjust quíckly to erratic variations in ' o ore can st ª·ck . -· .
(SO t/min) . ' ore at the rare of a u e .15 r0nr.c. ,: .
m1neral1za~on and the pre~~nc~ of salt ho1·ses. Mining can be requirements., and recovers· 0..,.e at a prec1. e rare co fl!lcc,.,. i... ~- , •• ,-
1 ~ -- . f
more selectíve because mob1l1tyis greater. In addition, waste c •

be cut and gobbed to maximize the ore feed grade. The syh-= '"e , • ·
an O•te lS tran
l Vlc . 1,
··
l .
-
conv:eyor system th sponed to the 1 o. 1 ·h 1(( _ ;' ·. ., .• ,
\.

12.4.5 Underground Materials Handling and Hoisting stackers, a,nd ~t Uses 10"'-cm L-12-in"l , ::iJe Le-. ·.- r

onto 107-cu1 c4tw raises

2_o. ) ·. · ore t·rom rhe lan,g be 'ni - re ;1r~3.:-
· , , e··
T e ore is transponed from an extensive
h the working panels over u~dergroLtnd
be~t conveyor system consisting of over 56 krn c35 ma1. n conveyor Th•n Wlt.de f;eed er b elt ro u 13- -cm {..J-- • -t 111 ' ,, r
miles) of belt. With two types of ore hoisted from the inine at two 2 shaft 10.S~ (6e ni~ con, }'orbe t carnes rhe ore co ch'·
Th · .5 Jn1les)
differenr shafts, two complete!~ sepa1·ate belt systems are used e ne, ..., 1.3 7 ·m ~ ª· ·. . . 1 ,¡ ··"' •
225 ·kW (300-hp) PM (S~-in) belt s> re:tau ha single :irr '. :
gear boxe.s. the . C <Íti\'es. The e dri\e· uriJ.i2e l' n1c:n -_r~
raises an ionzonra ore storage [sta.ckers]). Ra
ises are large
facilit ent:ire he lt 11: - - ·_.. t ·. · (\.'
ate uspended , --· ,

cleanup. Th une 1 n·o u1 - .:

actually a 1950 moJ ~ew Production hoi r a d1e . ·0. ~, .·!. 1~·, ~
3,35-nt
e' (11-ft) diam ,er. dou t, ..... Jr,.
 135

12 .4. 7 Productlvlty

'1-l - , < é , i l l
~0 <:e.1.11 ,twor orce _ tt IMC Potash Ma ntenance
r and e ectrica
l
5
,
cc~unt Ior 30°/o_of the unde ground ernployees.
is l l. l
- 46m a b e_ mme o~gantzed by rnining s eve The sy vite and
~ -
- 43 in - 11~ e1111rc operauons havc eparase production and
r , l
111~n\e11ancc
. ) l_L pe sonnel but a commons main shop land e ectrical
j
:11l. e groups.
s The long distance and trave l times
, lima
tb~tanttal hart~g of labor resources between evels The ~<J
• t s ( il )
9m r·- ex
r r~mc production
r l
equires ove t hour of trave time
area are
l 32. km 20 m es apart ' which
'
1' -• t Since he lsdeployrnent rof coruinuous mining sysrerns
"' I
e np~oyment leve have r been_ educed lby 7o/o while prod11cti<>~
3 /
has 1~c:eased by s ove . 25º(º· The annua ) f production capaciry ¡~
---- l 1
8. lm1ll_ o_n tonne (8 9 rnillion tons o combined sy v re and
l i
l .
angbeinite
. ore r
The operarion is organized around rwo 10-hou producrion
I shifts pe <lay with the 4 hours. between shlfts u ed for a
preventive maintenance prograrn The shifts are sraggered to
/ /
3 maxímize the ma intenance "window" avai lable . This window is
J al so used for bel t work, moves of electr ica l squiprneru, and any
-18 m.....¡....:is m ... fill -in bolting. Each production area has one scheduled downsl "f(
-----, per week for major maintenance repairs and routine preventive
\
rnaintenance. The continuous miners are rebuilt offsitc when
'
they have produced approximate ly 3 million tonnes (3.3 mitlion
tons) of ore. A completely rebui lt continuous miner is placed into
service prior to hoisting a worn miner to the surface for shiprnent .
FIGURE :12.4 Contlnuous haulage development sequence-three
entry, 18 m x 31 m centers , 9 m rooms , 60 degree chevron showing 12.4.8 Mine Ventilation
three advance sequences The underground ventilatíon systern at IMC Potash is extensrve
and complex . Open mine workings are spread over 14, 245 \1J
(55 m i2) of land on four working leve ls. The re are rwo separace
ventilation systems. The north system, provid ing approximately
Nordbe1-g hoist. Two 745-kW (1 ,000-hp) de motors, power 2,800 m3 (100 000 , ft3) of air pe r minute, uses the No. 1 shaft as
supply, and con trols were purchased new from ABB. Toe hoist is the in take shaft and the No. 2 shaft as the exhaust shaft .
automatic, a11d tl 1e hoistman is stationed about 1.5 km (1 mile) The south syst em usest he No. 5 and No. 7 shafts as ínrakes,
away a t the No . 1 shaft. The hoist lifts the ore f1· om the new s kip providing approxirnat el y 21, 000 m3 ( 750, 000 ft3) of air per
loader app1-oxi1na te ly 290 m (950 ft) to a point where it is minute. The air i s exhaust ed from the No. 3, No. 4. and No. 6
discl1arged into the new 900 -tonne (1 ,000 -t) mass flow ore b~n. shafts . The entire mine, including old workings, is venti ared. l
This hoist uses 41-mm (15/8 -in) ropes , 13 -tonne (14-t) capac1ty Stoppings consist of wooden o r muck bulkheads and , closer ot
s kips, an Ultimate Hoist Monitor from ABB, and Nordberg production panels , curtain lines. Stoppings no rnally
r separate the
intake air entries and main travelways frorn the exhaust roorns
l1ydraulic braldng controls.
and conveyo r belt lines. Ventilation doors are located ar most belt
12.4.6 GradeControl and D ilution dríve s to provide access to the belt lines.
Grade conu ·ol in each mining secrion is based on visua l in_spection Ventilation to the working areas is accomplished with
in. con1binarion w ith the collection of belt samples dunng ea~h bulkneads , curtains , and waste rock walls foamed a t tne top to
. - . ali · t of both red and wh1te separate intake from exhaust air. Production panels utilizing
l11.ft. Sylvite ore zones cyp1c. Y consis d ha ite mixture, díesel powered haulage equipment require auxilíary fans in he
s . l - t
last open breakthrough. There are usually three 120-cm 48 in). e
bu mos have a least sorne angbeinite ka1rute, oeweite, e~n111 ( -
t t t l. , ore zones typtca ,y 11 kW (15 hp) fans ar even intervals across the panels to help
. . . -
direct - addition each heading or room s equipped with a
air, In
60 cm (24 in) 2 2 kW, (3-hp) fan to direct airi to each working
Visual estima es of potassium conten P:esen Gamma-radiation - - , . -
r t face.
In the continuot1s miner panels utilizing continuou
hat1lage a 90 cm (36-in), 22-kW (30-hp) fan is po.ition d it the
exhaust , side, - and a curtain line is carried ttp close to the f. el A
of the complex 1nix of potass1um mi~er al marker beds such as 60 cm (24-in), 2.2-kW (3-hp) portable fan is used Oll th tnt ·
Co11s1ste 1t rnud _seams or ininer , roof or
the immediate -
1 . side.
floor are usually present withtn nrional sections such a 12.5 SAFETY- AND HEALTH·RELATED ISSUES
, , IMC Potasl1 is subject to he Federa Mi1 e Safety _and He lth et
(MSHA) of 1977. The n1ine l b 1 egu at,on 30CFR. P rt
t· 1nust abide
n1arker bed ust1ally prov1des ª g~~ h bacl<. 111 continuous rn1ner . r h alth
l
fi·acture zone and allows far a sm :1me t d. e roof n1ust be cut out 57, wl1icl1 sets forth n1a11<.latory safet and s nd rd for
_ 1a t tinderg1 ound metal and 11onn,~t \l mi": s S~ t condllC
. · -
or it may create t11e potent1a for s ~ ha been a benef1t 111 qt arte1 ly· inspections of eact1 worki \gi '~ a 111 .h ~1tn •
Tl1e advent of continuous l m1nedrsc1 ngs mining height the 1 The · mine has been has be n t des1g · atedt s Cal · gory
dd 1tion to re u · h 'gassy'' n 1e by MSHA. Ca •go1·y lV n1eans 11 tl1a based on th
tontrolling dilution T11 a er tolerance tha1 ,wit
back aild [loor can be _ 1eld
· · to e os · ' 1i1 r t,
. 1 s 1
conventional min ng l
i .
 Room-and-PiJlar Minln
--- gofso~
~Q I\
1.36

hat he
bl and t able r of
history of the mine, the ore is no11combus~a nor cap ane is
concentration of rnethane i· s nei·th er explos.1ve f r metJ1ch ace·
• • • •
from
. · lth · Test1ng o cHAPT
forming explosive m1xtur~s w1_ . air. . f
work at ea 0CFR 1

required at least once a shifr pnor to starting here

. . . f . h mine ann·osp
and upon 1111t1al release o· gas into t. e. i ment (3 ,
.
boreholes. However, the use of penn1ss11Jle equ P pos1ts.
New •
Part 18) is not required.
O
of tSS
ion h
12.5.1 Oil and Gas Drilling Regulations potas k of
. . O il d gas de ~
Below the Salado Forrnation are commerc1a 1 Victori
an fung
.
The Bureau of Land Management (BLM) and the State gs and
Mexico while promoting múltiple use and the conservat nd ?as
' · ring
resources, have establish~d. regulatíons protec ~ . rrune
deposits from oíl and gas drílling and from the ass?c1ated r1 d w0 13.1
explosive quantities of methane entering the mine ~orl held s.m MíssissJ
Current regulation.s protect both the open mine wo:kin
one of t
"life of mine reserves'' (LMR) by restricting any 011 a is the ,
drilling in those reserves and adjacent buffer zones. Current potass1
•

maps and LMR reserve maps are updated annually and filered i by growth
the BLM and New Mexico. All data on the reserves are e with underg
strict confidence. Mississ
•
of ore
12.5.2 Training
mately
In addition to the 40-hour new miner training as requi MSHA, a.gricul
all new underground employees, including thos experience, índusn
receive a mínimum of four additional weeks of training fertilizi
when hired. The training is "hands on" and is taught in a 12. 7 CONCLU·SION potassr
production area designated as a training panel that <loes not have IMC Potash approached the new century with requiremem 10 P1
to meet daily production requirements. The time spent with optirnize the reserve base, increase productivity, and reduce os impon
equiprnent is used to become familiar with the safe operation of per ton of ore. This was successfully achieved by utilizin¡ United
machinery and to learn standard operating practices and continuous miners and adapríng mine layouts and suppon of fert
procedures. Ali training is the under the direction of a training equipment to match the complexity of the ore body. Maintenance found
supervisor and is taught by qualified instructors, and production schedules were organízed around production near
Supervisor development is accomplished through on-going windows using 10-hour shífts. The managernent organizarion establi
training programs. Quality management tearns, made up of both T'
was flattened and direct supervisión reduced by placing more
hourly and salaried personnel, have been formed to look at responsibility in the hands of the crew leaders. The behavior· the Un
various issues and bring about improvements throughour the ?ªsed. s3!ety prograrn combined with in-depth, root-cause 1929 a
•
rmne. carloa:
1nvest1gat1ons of all incidenrs and supervisor safety tours has •
conta1
12.5.3 Safety Programs improved safety and successfully fostered other employee-driven
programs. startec
•
The safety of ali employees is a primary concern to IMC Potash. rrune.
An employee-driven, behavior-based system incorporating . IMC Potash's mining operations will continue to find waysto <lepen<
observation and positive feedback is one innovative process used rrnprov~ safety, increase productivity and reduce costs. Railroé
lm.med1at. e goa 1 s 1· nclude i· ncreasíng cuttin'g time per conti·nu ous· •
at IMC Potash to increase safety awareness. Daily tool-box mine t

meetin.gs, monthly safety meetings, quarterly area inspections, and is

1 entl n · · ttoui T.
supervisor safety tours, a personal safety plan program, pre-
operation equipment check lists, and quarterly incentive award au age un1ts , and conanued
· .
testíng it
to reduce b · coses. marke1

programs are also part of the overall safety prograrn. An 8-hoLir cu bac
off-site annual refresher cot1rse is given once a year to alÍ
12.8 REFERENCES indepe
employees. The result of fuese activities is a 1999 MSHA tun, Caro! A. 1996 G Apac.Jie. operar
and Gla M · eology of the Delaware Basin Guadalupe'. aasin Cotpo1
reportable-in~ident rate of 2.~c~om
·pared to the nationwide 1·ate Sectio~.s;EP:ntain~ Ne_w México and West Texas. Perrn1 11 ª T'
of ~.46. Work1ng over ?ne m1llion m~-hours withottt a lost-tin1e Mercer J w · Pubt1cat1on No. 96-39. srd
acc1d~nt has been ach1eved severa.! tlmes i11 tl1e recent history of srarted
the mine. Environm ton Pilot Plant Site in Southeastem Ne"'. lVle;i G w,lls Corpo1
and w L ental Geology and Hydrology in New Mexico, · publirJ· Teledy
12.6 COSTS · am.bert ed New Corpo1
tion 10 . ' s. Mexico Geological S oc1e· ry · spec.
Me1·cer J W , pp. 123-131. hY· Trans l
12.6.1 Operating Costs ' · ·, and B R . he Geº . Potash
Total mining costs represent 35o/o of total planr cosr M' d1·ology of the·p¡. Orr. 1979. Interim Data Repoi·t on 51
t·re 501,r~· In
eastern New M ~posed Waste Isolation Pilot Plan.t ~urces
rnaintenance accounts for less than 30o/o of the operari· s. ~ne ruso, rl
ng mine Investigatio Rexico. U.S. Geological Survey, Water Res
n epo1·t 79-98. Potasl1
tl1e Mi
 * Mi, si:

'
·"· ... · ·· ~ . ~ .. # •

. ..
ississtpp: Potas Irte. s

ictor·a Herne ~ ano to

13.1 11 TRODUCTIO ~m the m·n.e' location .. Both 111ines ar e ..1st of Cnrl bad on
, issíssipp. Potash, Inc., located · the C r sb . . . Htg_h 'ª)' 62-180. The West i line is on}_ 24 miles east of C,1rl. had
\ h1le che ~sr · line i 35 miles ea :r of C, rlsbad. Today, . is is. ipp;
is the cornrnon industrial ·e tha in e Ln red Se e. Potash
• L r r11 a t refers co -a . - . P ra h. fnc. s. underground ope ations employ S 15 pcople.
poLa,ss1um saits ·hich are \"'e-'<11 numenrs
.
'
nou
· types ot 1

. , ro uc-es ca . 13.2 SAFEIY

· · · · • ine a. t e \\esr Iine. Saíe()' i a ke,-· a peer of mu1ing tnat l1as become essential for
JS5l5S ppi Poc~s~, Inc.,_ p aduces approxi areiv 1.1 illion ron producci\-e operation . t i sissippi Potash, lnc., has ¡i(w.i :
of ore annuaul , i. nc.lud. ing. both red and 'i rh'ite · pot<1 h . A ro ·1·, emphasized rhe in1portance of safety and s,tri,•es to ensurl' rhat ali

of irs operalio,ns u1eet high stand~1·ds. The con1pan1's

· cu.ltu l · · · pro ucc is used or
~gn . ra purposes, and 40 of i final produce is used for
1nd~~mal p11,'r po es. _The a?r~cu1rura1 produces are prirnaril
íierol1z~rs, ~nd the industrial P educes include animal feed,
potaSSJUID rurrace, and sodiu 111 h rdroride.
. Prior_ to the First orld ~\\Tar. porasn vas primarily an
tmiported irern. After the var srarted, ir becarne es enrial thar the
United States de -elop a domesric supp )" ro en ure the availabiliry
of íertilizer. In 1925, the Snox .·den-;:.lcS,veeae:-,· Oil Co1J111pany
found crysrals of che porash mineral sylvite in oil-: ell baiiings
near Carlsbad 1 'e\\' ~Me..-x:ico.
esrebashmen of the presene porash índusrry near Carl bad.
The firsr cornpany ro begin , -ork in che Carl bad ba in , -a
the Unired Stares Pota h Company. The firsr haft was started in
1929 and cornpsered in 1931 10 a rotal depth of 936 ft. The fase
cerload was shipped in 1931 and consi red of manure salts
coneaíning 250/o K20. In 1932. rons.rructio~ of the refinery \Va,
scarted near the Peces ru.,,er. about 13 miles oum\vesr of che
mine. This location '"'ªS selected for CT o r,easons: it had a
dependable , rater supp,i)' and ·t was dose ro the Santa F
Railroad. A nar 1-0 . -g:age railroad was ~ons_rruc.red co co·~ect ch~
· th fin T1h;,c landnn,ark rnine JS sD!l operao.ng toda)
mine Cú e r.e ery, 11w . ""' ·
commicrnen:r to safet)· h s been acknowledged 1,y botl1 thc Ne,
í\-Je)..ico S(are i\line lnspector's Office and tll Mine Safecy .1nd
Health Adrninisrration. ln recenr histo(}', Mississippi Po:rasl, has
been n var,ded for its o,u csc;:ind ing safet)' reco,·d. Ci:rations include
three Senrinels of S::ifet)' a\ acds in the t1nde1·gro\1nd non111etal
di "Í ion and si · a\ ·ard. for Operaror of the Yea1· 1·or Large
Un,derground, tines.
The Carlsbad porash operations 3re reiatívely free of tl1e
hazard of underground mi ing due prin1arily to the no1lgassy
salt deposits in 'nich the ore body i hocated. Con ergence an<l
This di cov erv, led ro rhe floor hea,,e are conrr,olled b·_' engineering mine layot1ts, openíng
,\idchs. and p,iliar . izes to enst1re sat·e and efficient extractio11 of
.the pota h. 1hen el«)' :-e:i.m occt1r in the salt formation, they
form zones of \,·eakne s thnt are controlled dui·ing mining
operations b> root· bo)ts o,r cribs.
lt i nlso con1m,on pr erice to e11sure that the back, or roof of
che n1íne. c,on i·es of a sal{ 1a ·er rather than rnud layers. This is
o,flen nc,complished b~· eithe1· n1ini11g tlle clay. which results in a
diluted g1-ade of pocn~·h, or clumping (gobbing) the clay in n1ined-
ot1t are·:\'. A nlt l;:-i~· r in rh back is p1·eferable to clny becat1se.
unlike mud, the snlc layers do oot e·1sily separate frotn the uppcr
srr·,1:ta. }\.ir pockets associated with clny seams oc.cur an<l ,tre
i• .

and is now 1 Iississippi Pora h. ]ne. 's, \•\7~sl l\ ine. . . . d t'Otioel) i-eliev Li by d,-illing sn1all-di,,m te1· hales into the ttppcr
Througho,u[ the year , che pocash indu ?')' l1a e,-xper1ence zones.
market h!'chs and loi,•s, ,,,h1icll resulted. 1n hutdo,., · and
º . ·thi (he ba·Sln Tod'-1y the sn,all 13.3 GEOLOGIC DESCRIPTION
curback· s in se,•eral J11>1nes '.\ n · · · e · ,Lea,.,·n ·on ly t \VO Southea t e,.v texico ¡~ ct1ar.1cteriz d by a d solate landscap
nternau l\ilining o{ mes.quite b,usl1es and native grnss , . The gen z·al rolling
operations, Jississippi Potash. Inc .. an
t · '
topography is n1.ark d b scatte1·ed, ir1·egt1lar:ly sha¡) d
Corporation-Kaili um. . . . . p . ¡1 Inc.'s opei·,ttiol1S sinkhotes. Tl1e 'JV st Mine plant li s 011 tl1e eclg of sa11dy plains.
The acquisition ~f 1 1 ssrss»ppa or:s ~:Iissi si.ppi Chen1ical
vvith 1o, ,1a11ds 10 the sot,rh and w st, in the n,orth cst ar111 of
sr.aned in. 1974, '-''hen 1 parent_ c~mp~. ·Chemical ~1ine frorn
. . e t1ssr s1pp1 ·· the Y-sh·1p.ed Nasl1 Draw. This is ¡.\ topographic depre io1\
appro, i111ately 19 n1iles long :111d 4 n1il s wíde bot111d d b. _tl~e
T eled)rne Corporaaon. In dd. . l mining onerat1ons fron1 Quaha<la Ridge, the Livingst<.111 Ricige, ancl the Ma1·0011 Cl1fts.
e . \o a o,
orporanon pm ch' as e·d (\ , io.• · oa
0
Pot:lSll
r-
1iine 11d r11e Edd)' Tl1e Ea. t Min ptant li •s east ot· Nnst1 D1·aw on the north t

Tran·s Re ources, Inc.: ,the ¡ re,~ 1 le, re sl1elf of tl1e Delaw,11·e bnsin (Figttr 13. l). Tl1 d1·aincl~ pattern
Pot:ash 1 l1'ne. h e ,,,a sllut do 1 ,. t tl1is ri111e ¡ · gt.>11 1·i\lly ro tl1e ,ottth,v st. Th 1·ed ,·an<I. to11 n\a1·ki11~ th
1.
1 10
I n 1997, the Ed. d\.,' Pocas· t,.Iule ,vas renait1ed die ! , 1· s•~• 1· ss1· pp1· la11(\scape is of T1·i,lssic ¡ig . 111 Nash Dr,\ . th Dew Lake

1·cd.b~cls crop O'llt i11 the d1·é1ws a1,d gullit>s (Fi~t1re 13.2).
the Mis issipp·i Potas res-r me·
 . . . .p h Inc Curlsbad. r i l.
l lSSISS!lpl[)l o,ras . . .
137
 l t 1

138
e ,otash salts
,'lill lea"Ve ª , .
the
Th.. P ill rasce salty. . is con1posed c~,e~y of anh.yct .

coromon ; d an g l F . . e

, . ekn ess and e. ara . ess ran2oIDg berween . an .:,60 ft , \",,'th

East t , of 2 ·• h . · is
1
an average th1dwess ain sbaft. Althou?, it is a tnosr ent1rel1·
\
'
1
cover ed by sand. gy· p e vic, i ínir".vJ of rhe \ eSL \l1oe. . FIGURE
• •

• The salado Forma. d to fi e principal rock grouo . Tb~

mines
oups are arg1Uaceo h beds. The porash becl are a
r;:. ,,. -4,,'.L'.LL. -- ' gr • potas . 1 . 2 to 6
"4,p or p~rlf of Eddy and nd . . k .
'
-+--+---t--"i Lea Coun l01t Now Mo-.1oo sulfates, cíay, a . langbeintte, eomte. . c11n1te, a11d achiev,
} -
r

·- , thowln¡¡ aré!> of ca,1,b11d m· ' . e roe . to,rque

'• • Pot••h Dlrtrlct
A
T ( ; i -A_i .. -- '

~¡ - . . j. !,-,~ few íncbes to ft. wirh an average u11(· ness of abour

30 vvithir
discontinli1.11ous seam. to, . l!y only a few incho, rhick. The 48 lfl
Map of the East Mine CI beds are ge ncra . d 1 '' .:
l f t.
FIGURE 13.1
ay is berwcen 6 in aoo ., n space,
h b .ds .
Lhickness of the potas . e .1 the ,1 lest ¡' 1¡ ne con · ! oi· rnixed 10-ít
1nc potash ~ disrincr zories .virhin onc ol rhe Ilai-
depos1t.s one o
sylvitc and ha I te ores _1 n bed . 1 red near l e I dle of the storn~
· h 1· b ds Th IS e · IS oc
lyrng a ue e. . Thi zones of enrich d pot h-bearing syste1
Salado Porrnatíon. in . · li ·
ffi0:\1C
mi.nerals /irhin he 15_0-fi-, cn1ck eposir
r
•••
• •· •
•
a:re 1 oca t eu_, V' •
1 1m1ng
-
l.
EXPLAI~ TION slop
18
- - S. C'.:)0.1 A~I WIWTI
prod1
Thickness grade and tonnage lirnir explo rauon ot the o. er
che s·
Qob . ~s
change from ore sale is abrupr, ,,. hile ¡]1 lac1:ral
no barren • •
m1111
transirion at the edges of the o re body is grad u l . Ba rr_e n rnasses 73,0
of balite, .known as "salt horses," are sea rercd 1rregular.ly cnbr<
T.
21
c::]T
Trtaa,'1<.
noc•• "••'e throughour the ore body. sJ1af1
s ~

. Oew1 Lak•
• m!1 Pd
Red Bed1
t The Easr Miine is located prirnaril in the tenth ore zone, Fron
e

22
3 ~= P,
=
JluaUe
F°""'• ,'<in C"
This zone is subdivíded into rhree distínct la ers: top, bonom, ore
sl. o -
.
i t
•
~
and middle. The layers are 2, 3, and 4 S fir thick. Tlle borro~ hois
f member is the almosr al~va)s mineralized, the middle member 15
T•n1111
F'ormtttloi'l alrnost always barren, and che top mernber rnay or may AOt be 13.1!
T
2• mineralized. The common nunerals found in the tenth ore zone Mis~
e
•
are halite, sylvírc, clay (montmorilionice) sulfate mi erals, aíld (Fig
¡ . h ' . f
carna · l ~te. _T e eascer.n secrions of the mine ha e large deposi~5.ºd
•

two
car~:1alltte and lcieser1te. The te11th ore zone is a}so charactenze b1·e,
FIGURE 13.2 Geologlc map of southeastern New Mexlco by ts~1ated pod of barren cla>'s ranging from a few square fee.t to are
sevei al htttldred-thousand squat·e feet in a rea. These pods appe~r the
at 1·andom ' and no wa h as b eeu d. 1. scovered to pre a··cI t thetr •
lS U
occturence. · Y
ese,
Few people who pass througl1 this area are aware that
approximately 1,500 ft beneath the Chihual1uan desert líes a vast for

1nfrastrucLure oí room-and-pillar mines in the potassit1m-bearing 13.4 MININGMETHoos dev

salt beds. This region is called the Carlsbad Potash Enclave. The Although minin h . d west pat
. · g tec n1ques vary between the East an .
U.S. Geological Survey l1as identified 12 potassium-bearing ore
zones within rhe Ca1·lsbad Potasl1 Enclave. The cwo mines are e roo control . . . er) ext,
cunently opera·ting in three of these ore zones. The West Mine is cor
•
n1ining in the fifth and seventh ore zones, while the East Mine is ffi\I
min ing in tl1e tenth ore zone. Tl1e Salado and Rustler fo1111ations electrical sho , ~1;1es, includmg a rnain ~hop, ~ diese! s op. 6.2
primaríly characterize these ore zones. Variations in the the
mineralogy of índividual formations are common. operation As m. . an essen,nal part of the un.derground J11d ¡bs 1n1•,

The ore is an intiruate interg1·owth oí c1·ystalline halite are scaled. t iru,ng advaoces into new areas the back an. r1 ·5 •
111
o remov · · ' 111 ·
(sodiu111 chloride-NaCl) and sylvite (potassium chloride-KCl) in dir
 N1 ss ssi
variol!.ls proportions. Most oí the ore contains 500/o more halite ~e competency of th sound1~g tests are conducted to deced ·¡Jed
tl1en sylvite. The sylvite ore is milky or faintly bluish gray, but
maoy grains are stained red by iro11 oxide. The halite is clear,

grayish, or ora.nge-yellow with occasional red staining. bolts are mstalled ? ng_ rnud seams. All 11oles are d11lled e
1
-11g
Occa,sionally, blue balite is fou11d associated with the sylvite. The

éasiesr way ro d,istinguisb between the two ores is to taste them. ~ent~~s 1n alternatin e often uses a set patter11 of bolt1ng O Jrínl(

e ftfth ore zone. The other areas 111

--
. i , 1 ,
_

"

n l
. -ill i_ . , .
_ 1
2
. • ' . . ~ 1 .:1 , . . '
' J
All a reas o both
l
f . e su bj i ,1
m1nes .
cable-supported belt e ale eqtiippcd w.u .
·
48 in Wl
id e and travel ve rmrung f aces.
. T hcse eb leles _ ·
tuna re
450
s1 rs ar

moved from the ore p ockets b ' u,ccess101;1. TI1_e pota

sloped conveyor belt to the J means of_ vibrating Iccd r
. . autorna ti . a
che surface . ' e is e mto skips and
-
. The West Mine be1ts termina . . /
.· . ,
..
t

'
730 ft/rnin, Troughing idlers are . 111 widc and t r ave l 43 to
l l l ,
\ t
. . . space on 15-rt centers. r t
shaft th
wa-a• M><I
From , thise moaim
nt líne. belts dí.scharg
· e into <a l -?5 - f I sror
T~plta Df• hé gll
~U!;etotf"I o Titr\Gfé fO('lil&

ore o . . . . on
oíste to the surface. '

13·4.1 West Mine Mining Methods -4 • lli,... .:..¡._ ,¡,,.

M~ssissíppi Potash's West Mine i In id ou t in a che,·ro t 1 l , ,

I l · ,
(Figure ~3.3). The strbmains and panel developrnenc c : f
two entnes, Room 1 and Room 2. These encrie.~ are co L
t i ,
break-throughs. The breakthroughs in rhe submains ls
are cut on 125- and 46-ft eenrers. respecrively. Room 1
che pnmary exhaust airway anda secondary escapew
is used for the primary airway (30,0·00 fr3/min), rra ' , l r l f t
escapeway. It is also used for primary ore haulage. The s ct <Jl 11 .
for developing and mining a new area consiscs oí four sr _l ,t t l, I
t
developing the submains, developing che pancls, ext , r t t ·
: ,r . s r 1, l
paneís, and extracting the barrier pillars (Figure 13.4).
The subrnains are )ocated in rhe ce:nter of the or 1 1
extend for the 1engt1i oí the deposit. Ideally, rhe sub r t , fl f
completely de eloped befare panel work starts. T r
s s. 1 ·
1 l, is t
_
í is r , t .
mining hcights for both the submains and panel dev i
· , t c l
6.25 ft. The preferred location of rhe rirst panel ,s m r r
, r í I
che subrnains lt is essential f or safety reaso05 that a l i
I l ,1\- 1) I
mined berween rwo rnined,out pnnels By Jocating the _r l
¡ , !'f
in the center of ch submaios, n1iniog can proceed
dire· crion witl1out viola' íng rhis saf e,1 t Y1, , u¡ le. T,vheer 1,agnra l l , 1 !• •r '' 1 }', . 1 1 11J

es:1maced using the ore ,·cserve i11ou,<!1S', 1c>wi.:_ . ' , .. . .• ' rr ' Í
tkickness ate continua]ly n,onitored 'º cle1er101t>e ih l ) 1 1 1 t
· .1 • , · !>l..111 1c.>l1 , (J 1 !, t ÍI
of tl1e panel .A.ftet· rhe pa11el is dcvelo,pcu,
 ississipp Potash nc.s Und
peratton

111111,e,rs ,, , , } · , . 1l
. J f , t t
•t '
. ·y,, iC'l y L'I• l ' •

the ore layer and wJ1ac is abo ve "· 'P ' '' ' ,
Of

FtGURE 13.3 Mining sequence

11nes bolt only when w ea area

ro ft ong and S/s d _s are Iound
6
e ion s or

ec ed Lo

Len

sh is then
ers and flGURE 13.4 Typlcal eonfigurat o

hoisted to
~-- ---
' ... ,..,, -,
,.,,./., /· ,,,_ ~~

0
Nea he
age area.

n pa tern Typ ca
pt..t~ o
o helgtll g,
U\
rta, illnd
Of41 oa•
onsís o
nnec ed by
F GURE 13. 5 M n1ng be•ghts 0 ore zones
and pane
is used as
ay. Room 2
vel /ay and or a roud aye wilJ )e ound abo e th <)r al
ouncl back and o n eed to be cut O ,c On the
sequence
rnud ayers do no provide c1 s ab e ck nd m
basic eps rhe sever1th o e zone cends o h e k ID
racting che
~h o e ln Lh1 a e, Lhe mud is no dumpe
1t s gobl>ed 0r place<.! í11 rnined-Ollt ~e
e zo 1e and
a o ~es be ween 5 a d 9 be u th
mains are rnud can1 n th fifth ore 2011 h m
he ave ag e n iníma an<l tl ualiy 1Ti1n el ,· h
elopmenc s l1e ghr rn11ct1 lowr and ng n
he cente of r11,fi11 1l p ti h n
pane s not robbí11g ti\· b 1r11c p ll b
A s1 pane l1t: ¡Jn11e 11 n
'º e,ther )t:(111 111 •¡ Ofll 1t1 fi
e<lL' cng1(tl tJ e Gc 1 r,111 P In
g ,tl (JI lllÍI TillI11 () tl
1,na lcngth <l clo¡ h d
t1ng 111 \iC 1ll
líS o l t.: )t 111t¡>l ron
Li íll 11 tl\
 Mleelestppl Pota ,

• - , 'J l,
\ pi)f0XÍl11 •
ll .l Y
1 r J , ,;
i..
l. , . ,' M /\ l) o sc,J
c..: P'11pply11~g
w,,y. l hein
(Jl l'OWl~l{ Jl()C)M
e,l ,rrt•ntly, tlr,«·r 111
i\l~l·;i\ ()N
(l.l) )ll•:J 1' l\()()M
pcr day or 9, l l 7
\ t (:1) !l1lcl IJ'r R
<,
,,
1 i\llV AN<;l•'. (4) ;!t, rl m, (,
13, 5 co e
(0 1 ,! 11'1 -1{
Mir si
'
,, ~-t IV
(!1) l ;or1. ur r.
:,f •
IJ}f)I ¡>.c)I ¡_¡
,1 t ¡e; n
-, "
•
1 -8 ·a.
13 ('I) 1·:x1.1 A uar ltOOM
cypCl

' ¡n,111,t1,í11 rts_ t

- J -o..->- (U) LltM J,

t-
' ·r,t1tí1111 • tú 1111
• ·• @ LtiM-1, X'C-lt O.!>
" -
$ 1 t,ltM 1, xc-i (JO
,,'' \
(") (")
1 ,. Lf,M- lt

1 @ J,RM-lt XC-1<

''
- "' @ LltM-f! XC- L
lttlltl /10 NOT CU, Hl(OJrl 1,kM'~ lllilll

<í3) MOVE Rl',J,1'

- -
- -
--- -
-
,

(1) ll)
() o
-- - e:Q) e
CI)
•

\ :, :str A baslc mine advance sequence

11\ -e: J
O"
Q) CI) FlGURE 13.7
- _¡¡ «! •
U) U)
o.. (l)
'tú(1)
~

o...,...
¡,:
(..)
e(\'I ....... CD-@ ts TllE F1RS'f RE'l'REAT
--
&l l<! > CI)
~ 1 ;.
-o -o ce SEQUENCE Of 'l'}tE AREi\
LOW HEIGI-I'f
iil: <
Ir ' <{

1 i o SEQUEN @~@ SEQUENCED XC'S

@-0 )'fEDCE & PILLAR WORK
CE
- AREA ON @ LRM-R

RE1'REAT @-@ SEQUENCED xc's

¡
@-@ WEDGE & FIL.LAR WORK
' @ MOVE BELT

RGURE 13.6 Eost Mlne's tt:iree entry system

The ore bodv has b t'11 rnodcleo with Tccnbasc soft.wa1·e; CD-@ JS TI-TE REPEA'fED RETREAT
no.: .ever. due eo thc corel10\{' ·p:1<.·i11g, ihe model is not always SEQUENCE 01~ 'J'HE AREA
able to predi t mall elt borscs in ihe 01·c body. Therefore, if che CD-© ,vEDGE & PlLLAR WORK
sample nas dropped in gr.lcle, ~\11d if tl11.:. Iace does not show @ LRM-L
reasona ole ore L.11:ickness, tle,·elopmt: r1 L will be stopped. Once ®-® SEQUENCED xc·s
0-@ W"EDGE & Pil,T,i\R WORK
extraction is started, rhe ore grade will be highcr because of the
t¡§ LRM-R
dilotion , ·pc1·icr1:ccd during de, elopment. De\it'lopment mining ~-@ SEQUENCED xc·s
h i~hr is l,i.gher than rhe ore l,eighL, rhu · diluring rhe grade. @-@ WEDGE & PILLAR IYOR1<
Currentlv 1 he , esr ruine has six operating pancls-five @ MOVE BELT
. '
primarv pa • and one backup panel. Typical panel equipmeru
els FtGURE !3.8 A baslc mine retreat sequence
con ists of a 1ru11: r, shunle cars, fans, a roof boltcr, u stamler, a
beit une. aud ,1 111in1:r tran forme: (miner por). Thc equipmenr
v: ries in makc · nd ruodel írom panel 10 pa nel. Ali of the six
operaring ruiners are Jo)' 111i111:rs. A variery of cars are used,
inciuding Jo')' \O S·C shuule cars, Long 1\..ird,o:x Un-A-1-latilers, a11d
Eirnco batl• t)' c¡11·s. Eacl1 ¡)·111 ...•I l1élS tv.10 of the sa111e rype of
ht1ttle c::i:r. rb1.: roof bo!ters ,1n(,l fans are also a mesl1 of cli·ffercn.t
niodels. Tl1.e o,eraLl av,1íl.tbility of ,1 pa11et is arot111<l 72ºAi, a11d thc
o,'erall a, ail,ibilirv o( 1l1c n1incrs Is 95º-'11.
Or ho1sci.1tg is ,iccon1plisl1ed i11 n rjn1ber-lincd production
sh ift. Tbc shaft is used for l1olsti11g raw ore, Sltpplyirig intnke air
()27,000 ft3 L11i11), ~nt\ as an 1:111erg ncy l'scapeway. The
m1,inual\ o¡)Ctatl·d \101st 11, s a ca¡Jac11y o·f 338 t/l1r. Cttrre.1itly th,
. ¡·
r.11111c 101~1s
2'4 ,11 ,1 <l,1y at ,111 ,1 erage of J ,477 slci¡,s per cla 'e -
01
8, 123 uJ. 'Y,
1.3.4.2 East Mine Mlttlng Methods
l\·\1 si~si1J11, i _ P,)t.,~l1,'s f,al s.1 M,i11e ,ilso utilttl'S- 11,e cllcvrlJ, n1111111g
· ·
l,
¡1, rrerr1, ""''º' 'n 1n t lt' 1>ot,1sh l,asii11 as .1 tl1o<lit1c•(\ 1,or1gw,1 •• JI
. \ 1·1
l\1.t't l )Oc ,lt'. tnlflC U.)L'S ,1 l 1 1íl l' ('Llt[\' ~y 'll'J.1l l{ooh., 1 't.
. . . · . · "•• s ll ~l. 'c 1 f" o·r
t. l~;\tlsl ,1,111tl ll ,\~l'l. l{ootn1 2. 1: L1,·ccl lo, <ll.L' l,,1LiL.t(>,e itii<I · . k .
' 3 .1 r I ,. - I . e l C\l ,\, t
l
 ,o.om 1s lll-Cu ,01 ,\e ,1111ot1,11 1,\1,tk.l' ,1r1cl Lr,1, ,... t (Jligtlll' 13.6):
l
1
ppt

141

prQduction levels, developi11g the índícared reserves, expanding

t he reserve base, and improving milling processes will
accompltSb rhís.

s 13 6 REFERENCE$
.Jont_ . C .L., C .G. Bewles, and A.E. Disbrow. 1952. Generalizad Columoar
Sectlon and ·Radio ·,ctivity Log, Carlsbad Porash Districr. U.S.
Geological Survey Open-File Repon, 25 pp.
Eddy Po rash. lnc. 1996 . lliltemal archives, geolog íc map of southeastem
I ew ,Vle ioo .
ÑI · ssiss. ppi Pota sh. Inc. 2000 . lnternal archives, figures 3-8.

'
1•
•
. . . . . •· . . . . • • •

cHAPTER 14

•
vanee zne-

stephen J. Fortney*

14.1. INTRODUCTION
The Potash Corporation of Sask
. ve otas . . . . , ., ts a f11 '1'1111 t 0 ilNI 11,1 [)

. · . . . a rno . nn Ol'fl1"l 1 s X>Nt'C~

COl!IVl o~ l~')\

, as atchew . h . · ª """' l
an annua 1 po.tash production eapac1. of an. T. e.se mines ha e ••
1

e-'

.S srve y l ~ .' l
-.
mee 198 3, p·cs has activel .
TAA 1 ,1aro1,;; 1 >
l

costs. nance programs, and operating ,

14.2 HISTORY OF ROCANVILLE EX'(ENSl~LE CONVE OR 1 1

The Rocanville operation is located in th·e sou th east comer of Bm \ :r··¡'
1 '---.

S as.kate h. ewan. near the Manitoba border · Th e P1ant was put 1.nto l SECTl\.
TUS1N I
1

underground mimng. The ore body líes ata depth of 1,000 m in o\ 1 FIAST PA t.llNING
the. Esterhazy Member of the Prairie Evaporite Pormatíon. The active
underground operation covers 145 km2 and has 950 km of tunnels,
of which the farthest frorn the shaft is 11 km. .
The operation is highly mechanized and uses five Marierta \ .!:XTf:NSIBLE COJ:,I VE_ R ---- -- '

'
780-AW4 continuous borers (Figure 14.1) to cut a roon1-and-pillar ~- - -- - -
1
1 1
pattem. The miner initially cuts a 1,825-m-long fírst pass (Figure
14.2) that is 8 m wide by 2.4 m high. The miner is turned around,
1
the tub removed, a cross-conveyor attached, and an additional
6-:n-wide pass ( the ''second pass") is cut for the full 1,825 m. The
rmner then crosses the belt and cuts an additional 6 m off the
opposite wall ( the ''third pass"). This completes the room, which is
now 20 m wide by 2.4 m high by 1,825 m long. The rniner and S) SECONO
extensible belt are moved 45 m do·wn the panel conveyor and the
process is repeated, leaving a 25-m pillar. The cycle rypically takes FIGURE 14.2 First· and second-pass mtntng cu.t
1 month and produces 180,000 tonnes of ore.
After the ore leaves the extensible belr, it passes along 10
mainline conveyors to be deposited vía a trippe1· into seven bins
h~ving a total capacity of 6.,000 tonnes. The ore frorn ~he sto~age
bins is then conveyed to a 300-tonne-capacity surge ~1n an? inro t
~o loading pockets that feed rwo 27-to,nne-capac1ty sl<1p~. ~
Iriction hoist lifts the ore 1,000 ro to the surface, whei·e rt rs ,n
transported to a storage building. A hoist cycle is con1pleted every
103 s. •
Prior to automation, rwo superviso,rs drove from. miner to
miner visually inspecting che progress of rhe macl1111es. If a

au, Canadá.
Potash Corp. of Sasl,atchewan, Inc., Rocanville, Saskatche

143
•
s a
REAR TA, CYUND.ERS (2 - ,,,--TOP BAR
wan OPERATOR S CONSO ;.
hate CONVEYOA (2 ~

iead
iave .·1 1 CfJ?I a
,

and

ugh TRAM MOTORS (2 1

- BO 1 O SA.i=\

v-il]e - FRO IT TRI CYLi DERS (21

TRACTOR
~
FRAME
ion ASSEMBLY
'
rrol
t e FIGURE 14.1 Marietta continuo
I on
ting

EX ENSIBLE CON'VEYOR
8 rn

A} FIRST PASS MI ING

EXTENSIBLE CON VEYOR

: 14 m
CROSS
1
· CON EYOA

B) SECOND PASS MINTNG

URE 14.2
FIG First- and second-pass min1ing cuts
lPr11 o~r11rrPíl thP nnPr~tnr~ wo11lri r-onrar-t rhe sunervisors
 .and~Plllar Mlntng of Sqft b

"' - '\()~~
.,, .oc,,> M.1 rr ,,~,
•
f}ftOI\IJl 11\NP ,~, .c
144 (Jf\(f( .
•
- rt (l u ir
,
t)P •, '
+11 1111,1111,¡
,¡11/II
1•1 r;
1
1~ 11,11\l~II 11\11 )l1 r,· 1 (J.'75·
Jll(~II

u I fl~l,,
y¡,g 1 •
I JI t 1 1 ' t,1 )( 11
tJN 11r u1JN[l
l t)N"() I f f Al.Al fl"'- •

'1
1

••
'

•
r AMI t •A ( IT
. "''
"'
f 1!ll f\ '
- ', MINI
!<'.,

f . derground autornated mlntng (JV r

overvtew o un ig
AGURE14,3
r adi
d CA1'V. 1··11ercfore, ali_ cornponeru, art
pre ·
lOW
rrar
. 1_1 e o f ten ser
establ1.s l1e d s.uppl1ers.. h . roa n iniportant rteattLre as L 1 1e C.ílu l ·g
•
3'.Rccli1cc hoi. 1 dt1,, ni in1c. h . d ee ers 1 . · c,1r
4. RL'(l11..1ct \\t'.lr :ind rc·1r on L'quipmcnt tl1roug irnpro,·e rr
:l!,1rn1in~. nd compL1lcr corirrol.
s. \l:1'.\:imi 0 un lcrt-irounJ bi.n usagc ..
easily change Ya
tn
s. r:.10niror Kl") loca1ion, 1 •ithin tl1c mine 1·ist1all). r
anysizeofn1ine. . d at Roca1111vill re, w h ere de
7. \aintain s,·_rtin 1~'itl1 lit1lc 01· no 1ncrcase in labor. Tl1e 11· h systern was installe
' A 1 g -pass . • 1 · be d
_ ,·.-1em lil1U~t ~L' tL' hni<', ll)' m, n:1gL•ablc. •
outbound frequencies range from 5 to 186 MH.z, anc in oun ea:
•

8. -\ssll[l (1~ 1bilil) ol Lht l'ílllíl' COllliOl S)1Sl n1, ílS mine frequencies tange from 210 to 450 MHz. The curreru tn
~1lt.1n ch:tn_ cs. 1, l·rL oftL'n ur1íc1rL'. L'L n. configuration has 33 km of 19-mn1 coaxial ~a?le strung ~long all tr¡
9, Conrrol. 11d rT1L111itt11 ~ll ., .tcr11s frt1111 :i t·c11tral locarion, the conveyors. Every 800 m, an in-line amplifier reestablíshes the th
•
p1t'fc .1bl Onl Llíl [llL' ·u¡·. l'L'. signal levels. The power for the arnplifiers is passed thr?ugh the m
10. ,\sst11.: lh.1t, ,1 ,i.n¡;lL' ¡1Lii11t t\Í l.1ilurL' 1 0uld disable the coaxial cable. Every 8 km, a new power supply must be installed. r
t?nrirc r111t1L··~ ¡,10,luc11on. At any point along the first 550 rn past an amplifier, a drop tap
can be installed. A drop tap is a passive device, and once o
14.4 COM RVE er
installed, the full capabilities of the broadbancl system can be
1-J1L' idt:"al s\ srt'nl I uttlJ u. e ne Lon1111unic;1r1on n1ediun1 fron1 the
• used ar that point .
maln c·onLTL1l r1.>01l1 tl11ou~l1 tt) rl1c n1inct:,. 'fhis 1 • s nor possible, so
:1 e 1111 bi.11;:i tion of tt>cl1nolul'.!"lc.-. .t~useJ. Thc backbone of rhe
L-01na1unicalior1 S) te11i consisted
~

of ~ broa<lband signal
14.4.2 Radio link to Miner e
r1--an:.rnis~io11 S). ten1 i11stJ.llc:d alor1g lhc mainbne and panel belts One of the most crucial links in the mine is between the minet f

a.11ci ttp r.be shali:. T\11.s I equire-J . ll in. tallaoon tota.ling 33 and che extensible belt drive. The mining machi ne can advance as
km. rnuch .ª5. so_o m in a 24-l1r period, making b1·oadband •
BCL-au~e 01· Ull mobilit) o( rl t' mi11ers, i( t.s not pracr:cal ro in.srall

Lhe S}':>ler11 ro Lhe mining fuLe. ·1-his porcior1 of rbe con1muruc-ation tbreansm1ss~on unpractic a l · A ra di10 1.in le provi. des comn1un ·rea· tioo -
lil"tl, is llar1dled b~' a digit~11 radi lin.h insralled on each miner
'!'he datil han<llt'd b:-• ilits s>'sten1 (Figure 14.3) cons1sc of e m1ner T · · . . ,
\td1:o rtaii1sn1i:,s-ior1~ from che fi,e miners and fi\e ke>' belt
1'
lr.111sft>r:. ro che co11rrol room_. A standard compucer link (RS232)
nd t1.:J0ph?n~· are also requtred from Lhe nliners ·rhe mine has
1~ . _L·\.r_ n:,1_blt:: ~elrs ~nd 1: n1~inlin1: ~11d panel belts, each of
\\ h1cl1 , t:LJU fl.'S an llS232 l1nk. fl1e 1natn computer in rhe h ¡·

íl:TI acts as n da¡a co11cencralot· and controls lhe loa<l·, . ka t requt

. c1lstain te 2- lo 4 - G"-I z rang are a b 1 to c.o \'t'I r ...
red r
fou, ,hdft be_lts, e_ight pa11 fe •ders. and 20 '.lbrato;rs~°?h~o ~t. nce. Preql1e11 . . i... h, Li111,
and use the tu cíes in l.111s rango couple to l
LOílrrul !>l:.tr1011 is on che :.urface alorrg . l I r11a!11 I i J' ,,,t
progr,1r11111i11g laci.l.ties Asco, dar,• c.onL -l l/'.1r1 ~le ¡na1n ¡ \, e I . . l . re lar>,1b1J1a')' vl . .
. d . . ' ro ::.rac1011 is lo. d
U ílL <.'. r of0i1Il and l~ U!>~ 011\)· lJl trJ(' ev1,: íl,f OÍ a f j · <.:a{e '
, rnn1un¡cut1tin e· l)l . 'í1 l: liead l.'.nd for lil. ~1d~-1~ in he s1,,ifr
¡ d ,1 e 1 Jroa uand ,, l .
ite u1 1.11.: r 11JU1ld l!l Lile ~f1afi él,ea so Ll,e ~ SL, . '-,, l:rn 1~
dep r)dcr1r , n rh1: s.l1aft l'.i:!blc. > ern ould noi IJ

4. .1 oadband ransm• slon S)I te,n

Tri .' br ,udl,ai1J lrc llSflll.J}Ü[I .:, tl 111 i, <! ' •
Lo:lt:\ i~1ut1r1 ... 1, ·urk (CJ\'1 r •. lLh 11 , • . ~llll !LI, i •• bll.!
 "ºº

. nne as a w . • f . r 1
1.. ui-itt 1s;_ loca1i.ed <ll tl , 111ob1le urnr ¡_\11-u a {1, L-'Ci L1111t. l 11 in l~'
m plan view, tindul· . , a~e gL11cie. ltbough L h .. l 1·11 is s :~:,.
sight propaoa•i·o attons 111 the 01·e body resulr 111 <1 11011111• t, inera:,, 11.:ke¡ll. e e 1 U111t consí ·es of O,L1" l10_ 1,11lL) \ l1iL·l1 ¡l\r, l {
,, e,< I~ í\ p h . ){; ,,. ütll', a { llS') ') i11,
. 1 he radio link ha ., . . - . •
'

•. , ,1 ¡le
l
l
lt~ lle
rns l
'
(,.'Cj)• flltc U(. ª_111u~ ·t' b ,llll'I.) l1,1 1 LI]) n n: Cü[llll.'Lll..l.
, J •
.
l!)(•. ,,- , l)f tl , . · .. • ·, . . ()11
l 1(>ll )1in.a s 1n t:1111,·r d11 ... c l ori 1 ·¡ • ,,1, · l)~t 111~
r,· .lJ1ll, ~. 'I el l't}j-)Jj,l) \\llt [l L';1,['1\c [ •I ·1 ¡,tl
1
J¡ ·.
(, t1 t
ítls .,
i , l 1 h)e
í\) l: \.. .
• U1luI)111g11.:tl.. l l,
,I
O

, 111r1 gv l\.t' t'() • , wS U() S , , . 'll)l

-
I ' lQ(~(I ¡ ¡1 1
! ,ltli(ll,ll I • lo, i ~ l) 10011\ o•¡)e,rJl()t sc11Js ,l'Oll)fllal tlic
<..:t'l>ntt ol'l'-=t' (Pl.C) on til , 11ai11l!1, :io,l

tOv
(")
 36,000 METERS

t
l e r r
'-.-J DISH AI\/TEI\¡~
opera
l SHAFT
16MAINLINE
6 EXTENSIB:LE
PLC'S
0.75-
PLC
l PLC'S -~-- Yagi a
UNDERGROUND
CAMERA
bo h
CONSOLE

l
OL ROOM CONSOLE
CONTR CAMERA o
video- a
des rabl
HOIST ROOM CONSOLE CAMERA telepho
decís o
' signas·
••
FIBER •o
• •
• ••
110
digi al e
5 MINER~
n·g

F GURE 14.3 a
•
JO

is base
•

1 to
an s stems are
l •

•
. . . . ca Y nu:

•
1
•

1ne , m Iti
•

• 1 J¡[ l u b

n,
on as 3 . . - 8 .01 l t'
. 1, rd r
•
n m11

lf
- .. ~ 1'
 •
ffte-

1.45

;:-:.._e -cnrro vv] ich camers i b .

e: cr,. room operaror ro disaoi..,_ e1ng \ie, ·ed. This a iow • " The central control room operator i also responsible for
· ~ - odí · .1" cena tn x · . ·, '--
:·,
•'"'"- re . o m , irv. . the'- ' '"'e , .
., , mg se . . lle 'S if. 1...,.) t ti'-- . r
a e not control o[ peak powcr. Al) productíon crews are ínformed when
.:-~:-.,ra.,~~ ~ooe o the miner. th gU1e~ce as dicta ed by he o operare _ancl when lo rake breaks. ·111ís has sulted in a major
•
-- Ti -v.r .c
enna • S U ed , r híl e stanona d t
or ft . e) end a t treduction in rhe tlemnnd portton of rhe clectrical r i bill. lf th re s
be
..l.11...:
" e a srn
1 ~--;.: . ar,. eru a 1 me •
sed lat min \ .
~
a _er, ut more . - rugged suífic1ent 01 c L1nd ergrourid, the control roon1 o¡lerator will hut i
• l 11 . do v11 part ·of tl1ic, mín e to redlice elccrric,11 C<>st.s and scnd the
,~-- <.a,··-~·- is suscep"''- u· e o d a agom. etter resu ts but a d s h
e fr. ,11b,....,.~ r1
operating
, crci.vs to, perforrn auxiliary clutit•s. rhe c<>ntrol ror,m
:::,'
.- _ -e>.. aps. .., ._ l t - •
QUÚ{l ano üpet·ar:or
, ·.,. , .t operato wi~~lso shut clown all belts , that 're ,1ot
' re<\llired.
_ ; In ,t add1t1on to tracking the maintcnt1nce and productíon
~. :- coruro - e er properl, fr t:h •
.::cO~ .:>ra vie 1 from che l~tiner (~~ e susface ar leas t\ o personnel, thc ce11tra control roo111 operator ha!'i camera tha
-::..- ra:., e, n ad. irion b direcrio al e main control room are m~nito1· key locaitions throt1ghout the mine. ·n,e most important
- _ · "" '-· n RS232-link potnts are the belt transfers immediatcly behind tht· miners The
~2;-: 0~ a e required Severa¡ opti data and
·,¿~--: ;-i '· .as znade o converr
.· 1 e de ' ere re\rie . ed and r a carneras allow the cent1·al l . control room operator t('J cJetect tleltt
" -. l I i spillage aind alert operators before such spillage bec:omes a majc,r
: ::~ , · ca er
. _· i
. -
.
' · e. s gnals . o-ver a single problem aind damages the bel:t.
The control room operator has the capacrty to monitor a
.
=:,_igi .al ~. .ideo rransrnís on has several miner's operation during the second an<l third pass and make
=-c..t -' .. ~':!.
----iP4lUPi10 modU!la~=d
• t ,;d
.. eo iU.a s ' inherent , , advantages
,
L
:= ::;ca.C.d narro er bandv ridth
''""
1-.,chnSIIllSS on. It requires a minar adjustments to cutting íf required. lt is possiblc to start and
--v • " u,. 11.ll rneans th th stop the miners, but an operator is still reqltired to change rhe
- =-- ";º u!:'~
- - ..;- ~
a .. s ,
th
che si,g aJ
k
ríll tra el f t
anher Because of the
a ro e same cutting head bits every 4 hr.
7~~- ~·~'- r o ;: o~~tors i e~pmg the radio. , signal . strength as The central control room operator has complete control over
-~-- . ___ "' . ;_ .?0 · ~·
561'-' ·- e
1-.- das an · unportan ' ·actor
· D gital . video the bi.n area and hoists. This inf01111ation is used to control he
.
-=,- ~
.,:::;::rss:o -·'-· C3hna1l v ue . ernodula ed, ,a . a sist:, ifi i
cant t e: ower siznal flow of ore into the bin area, so bins do not overfill and cause thc
'
. •, me:
'
~--;.'=c~S~~
·-
. - .. ~ uan
_ O \ S11 ~·,en_ • furrher - penecraoon . down r the dfrift. mainline belts to shut down fully loaded. All infoc r11atton on b1n
ceo on ~ a . relaavely new. technology and evels are fed into a PLC which then draws tl1e bins down even1y
...,~~&
,. · _.13
- : : l ~ .h giher ·. cos
, .
rhan frequency-modulated video
.
If desired the central control room operator can ma:-iua1ly
_o-5 SS}()Il
t f . i. . .
control one or ali of the bins.
r
The production and cage hoists are fully automated, and r.o
- • Se era•• rechnica issues must r ber overcome vV'hen l 1 elephony
· · - - deo ar· e mtegrated :Y'
e -,. .,~ ~,..,,..,)-') aiJl d operator intervention is required. Prior to initiating the ptogram
tlJ
,J:!l -....,
J
into a single digital
. ~ each hoist hada dedicated control station in the main hoist room
___ ,.,.;¡ .
3JI .hree si..gnals m s be multiplexed and then l ,
:..?7 D,? e.xea a¡: me opposite end
1 The ,ideo an d RS232 can During the day shift, the sha:ft crew assigned a hoist operaror ro
the main hoist room. During the night shift the secu1·iry guard
rr-i:.: 3c 5¿ir up and
_
men i t
demodulaced ar me opposite end but
filled in as, hois.t operaror in the event the hoist requircd mant1a\
.- _.._::""-fo,.. rie relephony ro operare properly, the da a mus be
, 1i : .. intervention. This often caused unnecessary delays when the
_~m ,i. e<l a 111ost conrinuously This p aces great demands on security guard was perfom1ing other duties and was unab1e ro
'.- ~ 1 t
_:.=
.·, co:i-;"· 111n :1.
, 1, 1 carions
• l· compucer
' sin.ce
. relephony is broken down
respond immediately. , ,
•

;_:o ~;:-.e r;i: s1,1a ler packecs and reassembled at the receiving Part of the new prograrn was the conversion of borh hoists to
= :. "JE :»e daca pa.c...~ets are oo arge telephone conversations .
:1 _· :. , , . ¡1 L computer control. Individt1al controls f,or the production and
~ :le sen m e.L :ai rrentl}T· If che data packets aire too srnall the cage hoists are stíll 1ocated in the main hoist room.. In the central
~~":leéG T,• it o,;er oad the corr a1.unicaitions computer and the control room a dual-function hoist console can be switched. to
=-- ..;re ~dio lin.l:
' l i1l no " 'ork properly. . , control eithe1· hoist. However, at no time , can both locations
; , contend for control over the same hoist. Dttring the day shift, a
-' t .t hoist operator is stíli assigned to the rnain hoisting room, but
, L 1 . l duríng the night shift, the central control room operator can
; i ,
operare either hoist.
· l
. r: l , 14.5.1 Miners
· ..- · r c ~1 , All underground production is generated by , five 7SO-AW4
. l 1,1, , , ,
Marrieta four-rotor miners. These miners weigh 250 ton11es each
-~ r and have a gearcase powered by four 300-kW motors. The miners
are propelled forward by individually powered calked t1 ack pads.
The rrack pads, conveyors, and cylinder functions are all
hydraulically driven. The hydraulic power is gene~ated by a 190·
kW electric motor mounted on the side of the m1ner. All of che

miner functions are initiated fron1 the operator's C<.)nsole. When

the operator initiates a function, the PLC checks to se~ if all the
permi,ssives are set, then executes the con1111.,,nd. or d1spla. ~ ·'~
alarm indicating why the fttnccion cannoc be can1ed out. Thi ,s
mie under all n1odes of cutting.

1.4.5.2 Manual Cutting

Under manual cutting rhe ope1·<\tor lltilizes cwo basic ac~io11s to
control the miner, tl1ie tr,1ck p,tds, a11ll rhe sil\ j· cks. The to ard
advance rate ;_111d direction a·rc botl1 controll d by th track P ds.
Tl1e operator l1as rwo i11<.t~pe1 d nt le ers, one for e~chtrack. By
,,djusting these le rs, the 111incr c·,n be n1,1de to cut 1n the ~rop _r
direction and ~ itl1 the optintum ,ld anee rate, wh1ch lS
detet 111ined by torque on the cuttí11g heads. A reliable method of

----
146
uired by che
e am erage req ves \
four bead motors. If the amper_at . rurn increases che pres is
both trarn levers forw~rd, whíc in e is too high, rhe pressure
applied to both tracks; if che amperag . d
ears away i· n s ecaons an z --
reduced. . · o
-tt r1l'I
1
2. \.
· rge forwar an ery few
adjustments ev . \ •
causes che ro su .
.
rmner . e uires '\
'-~
Gj \
'-

...J '
Ul \ FIGlJ
a few hours, the operator
's natura ten e of the surges is W1.th.in an '--\...._
eak

acceptable range, thereby requ1rmª1e rniner is required. If cutting

surges occur, more ma1ntenance o~. ~ miner is redticed.
y
Tl1c~
11e ·
The other function of t.1:e tram evers is . . detern1ined ,ln:' T
:.ai tl r
b a laser mounted on the back and pointed towar . ORE GRADE e
'
J E

'" sele
mattc of ore eoncentrat,lon
FIGURE 14.4 S eh e
operaror changes the ratio of the left trarn t?
th~ right traro w~
he
maintaíning the overall average so as to 111a1nta1~ the pen~trat1on - -----~
rate. In the second and third passes, the heading is determ1ned by .------~----Min'ing Too Low •
following the wall of the first pass. The obj.ect in the .second and Ore Grade 13.4 º1o m1
third pass is to cut as wide as possible while producing an even exCt
back. . 27.6 ºlo thc
The second major function controlled by the operator is the 23.2 ºlo al1
front trim cylinders. These independently controlled cylinders 17.4 ºlo
raise and lower either side of the gearcase, which is connected to 9.5 ºlo 14.•
the cutting heads, which then determines the pitch and roll of the 9.5 "lo To
miner, In the first pass, the pitch of the miner is determined by the 7.2 ºlo sel e
lay of the ore body. An on-board ore analyzer provides the operator 5.9 ºlo ,,·itl
with a graphical representation of the cross section of the 01·e body. es·e
The operator then guides the miner through the ore body and ·Mjning Too H gh
J.ffif
Ore Grade 19.2 ºo
adjusts the front trim cylinders to adjust the pitch of the gearcase pan
to follow the ore body and maxirnize the ore grade mined. 4. 7 ºlo m·11'
In the second and third passes, the pitch of the rniner is set 16.1 o/o b,· (•
so the backs of the first and second or third pass are at the same 14.8 ºlo le~
elevation. In all three passes, the miner cuts a level back. An 19.0 ºlo ope·
angle sensor on the gearcase indicates the roll of the gearcase. To 21.6 ºlo com
rnaintain the level back, the operator moves one trim cylinder in 24.5 ºlo fu,l l,'
one direction and the opposite one in the other direction until the 29.8 "lo
mo
angle sensor indicares zero roll, at which time the trim cylinders
(
are equalized.
Miniog On G,r.ade
The operators are also responsible for controlling the 14.4
Ore Grade 24.6 ºlo
backup equipment. In the first pass the tub (Figure 14.2) follows
7 .9 "lo To,
the min~r. The. ~xtensíble bel~ is dr~wn from the take-up by the 20.7 ºlo
tub, which positions the belt imrnediately behínd the míner. The ~le
25.0 ºlo
tub serves to align the belt behind the miner and drills holes for 30.7 ºlo
posts i11 the floor for the extensible conveyor, These functions are 24.6 ºlo
handled by the backup operators, who install the extensible 22.1 "lo
co!1veyor structure ~nd ventilation brattice. In the second and 9.5 ºlo
third passes, the tub is removed, anda cross conveyor is attached
behind the mmer. The cross conveyor takes the ore from th
· . d · e rear FIGURE 14.S - •

o f ~h e m1n~r an conveys it onto the extensible belt ¡ . 11 d lO.pl

during the first pass. nsta e Ore grade profile as read by gamma detectton ar.ar
p ec
•
1np
14.6 COMPUTERIZED CONTROLS ad¿jt
center of th
All functions on the mining machine are controll d b .. . e ore body d . ' fl · 1·11
max1m1ze the r an tapers off in borh di1·ect1 ur,' ? ·· 0(1
•

analyzer. ecovered ore, PCS developed an on-ltill' op 1

makes certaín all interlocks are met befare th ' w ic in tur11
cylinder or trarn function is executed. e corresponding
O g1ve the ope a o 1sotope tha t erni rs g, m1ti,1 1 a ,1
UfC
During first-pass cutting the operator u d ra~r . ot·1,. rub
. h ' se to guid h
n1111er t rough _the ore body to obtain the best rade e t e ope1

ore body has sl1ght u11dulations, and r11e operat;r foil of ore. The ~otinted in an etect1on array is used. Tl1e seven pro r0bt'.
clay band 1 m above the floor. 'This clay seam w owed a gray
1100_ m 11

PLc wh · ra 1anon Tl . e ·d ro pu 11
reference, and ofte11 the mi11er would cut to h. has only a rot1gl1 ' h co · ore analyzer co mee
 h . F' o ig or too 1 íc nvert le is e 01d,'
s own In 1g,.1 re 14.4, the ore is most highly con ow. As 14.«
. centrated in tl1e

a S s l10da.ta· to detenn·
.
. display stanon. Tl1e o¡.Jerato,r rh ¡011.
• •• llne 1 . . roo
 ne
a,ion

LAS.tR
SS'EMBLY-
MICROPROCESSOR
-
1.• ;

.:_. ¡ ¡ G_ 1 1

FtGVRE14.6 Compo e ,

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- -
r í lI f r f ·
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l 1 ,r 1 .r1 . r 1 ¡ L e 1
· - 11 1 1 11 ] . : t
. f , t i

r r s í1 · _i t
·1 i í . . 1 1
'1 • ·
t i, r t •
r •i · -
,ill l'll r
r- ·
r · . 1 • . _
. i . · ~ ! ·

·r ,¡ ..r· , I t1. · r ,¡ . 1 t. 1 ' , , r ¡ t r r .

-. . t r \ 1 . LJ • L r - ; . ,

,,11 1_!1, '!> ; r tl r ¡ l í _ - - - • -

1 ! 1 , r ] l rl r t r · - _- , - · -·-
,¡ í r· l, r L , l ' l ~ ·'
f1 l, '.1 cl ti) l i t tr t c L - _
. - _r
1 i 1 ·ir t l st r r: · : - _ , . ·
¡) r 1,1 r xi i ,f sr r r i - · · f - _ ·
l<· r , l J r r 1, · • ·
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r i ti, . ·
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r , r· ¡J i l . r =-1~
t , ·, · · ···· _
l · i s \· r :s - iL
·1· I i t t t . , r t L r . r r l
~ L 1 t i i t L ' r t r , · t f . -
ts r t , r · · -
l ~ t r , r . r _.
. - r 1 l ·
- 1 r · ·
ti l 1 l. t r l i ir·
_ . . J t t r

t ¡ . J '
l' r f t11 l - r
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r. r i (1) t r I l r t t
t r i t , i e 1 , ,

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t r, t_ ' ·. r ·
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. ..
i- l , , r · .
, · s 1 r • e · .
, . . . 1
 n~
rotash

r--

. ·
i ,
.
CAMERA
. 1 t e
ASSEM8LY ' ' OREGFW)E
AliAl.VZER ~ -
l) l1 ·,t , 1 i -
REFLECTIVE ~ - ~

. , TARGET
. . - 7""-- L.-..
J
•

., i , . .
~

1 L r , t .
.
1 1· '
1 i'. , l r s
-
-
h Th e e a re esse ru a y () u
d es o p íl'lo -
T ese rno d e (; t:: varío S am o un s o Op c ac on Ior tne rni ner. 1

n ar y tora mat1~a C( n1ro 10 1II aL1

0
erat1ng f ecdom f orn r=.
a e mPtnu 1I ·rn au1()matíc firs ,y oma11c control Thc modes
A 1Jromat c a d '. CPOPROCESSOR
utcJmat,c. rnod c., are sc cc cc n second and th rd
r('{c e1rJr w ch 1n the op<.: it< r's using a our posiLiori
con o Yconso c C?E;:i.;; U" --
::. S?VY
14.6.1 Ma na Mode - -
~
-
......

W 1<· Jr c: 11 f.; 1;1 nde 11 ~ n u a rno d h op

t ·c r1 <w11 11 11 (' ruanua craror paces hc
pos1t1on Under h d AGURE 14. 7 L,.ayout for automated
mme prr o. rn ?1·.
docs wuhoui an s rno e, hc
,·xc<-r>' 1l1a hc -'1 C will autom"tt't<>IJ Y Ysenc on puLenzed
e bock th
corurols,
' "
111<.: 11 am j<)y<. ck.'i if Llie rninc inpu s from
n11 n s star ·cJ v. ah e desire'3 ~a arr:;:;e·a~e .e::
lJW,l <· lirnn hcad umpc agc cxcceds ihc
ecnnd pass back even 1' :..<.: - s oa_ss ~ ar:o
he c:co nd pass as d~ as yOS.,ib ~ .__ Ot..:. _ ""& - ci.._
14 6.2 S~mla1..ttomat c Mode cusp The opc aror a pr1 i .:.s lh~ r-r::,..:, ro:- e.• ..s
o L1 ncie
~c 11iauLoma ic n ode the O pe ator p acc!> l1c: cer,l ed ove the e t€nsili e e'"- e; 'l"' 2 '1 ~e~_~.:
~' c o ~ J\11JC 1 1n Lhe semiautomaLic pos'tt.on s o 1e m1ncr cu s co rectl)' on ü,e ~x¡e-:síb e: bel ?-~_re ., - :::: -: ~ ..
w 1(: d Jrc d hcad amperage. A 1is tin,e, Lhe mine 5 con1inues o cut urde -an .-.. cn:-:rol. "'~ ::.[ ;:-~ ~ _ t_
C:!>S(•11 1i,tlly cu 1ring u11dc n1anua control. \rV 1eri 1e desired head a esa ísfi·d, the ope a o. es.'::: ab ,,. -e, -·
. 111 )c·ra~({: .-. e:achec rl1c ope a or presses a button on the con:tro [he PLC ocks on o r:.e !'éa1 r,'5S ::,-~- ·ec • e

!) ri<· n (; PLC sca es the nputs from he aim joys( cks o sJ s em from the _ecor.d 7ass aiu.. a c.. e-
assumes conuol o· e ali f;i_ncr:Bíl3 o -::::: :-- ;-
111a 11 ,;1n 11 {: d ·s ccl cu ting amperage. T 1e miner ís srill ee ed
con,e1or. The PLC aCJ rs t c Ta a o Jffi ei.e.- -;:; o
l>y 1l1t· o e ·r o híle tl1e PLC ma nrains the ratio o rhe rram
e.e rhe jnt and ma1rta .:, L e s.a. ~ :: o C'- 2-s o!
ve po~ilions and sca es each eve by an equal amount. The se :hen rht'. m ner ·as D ~::::C! ~n a_:o ü~. -
•
o >c ·é1to ca11 aic us he am perage w11ile curring by usíng a oLher modes rhe PLC scaJes L-e .• am .te e:- - :,_i:_s _'J ma.-·3·n
co 11b n.i or1 of eXiSring contro1s The miner can be rerurned ro die desired LLl[ ·ng amperage_
L1ll 1J1a.oL a co Jlro by rurnmg che se ector switch o anorhe All three funcrions o G-:e cross cm; e o are e- ![! ~ _
11od(' o L1ll f1g cirher tram Jever inca the 11eutra position the PLC in orde [O dru;ip .e o:-e prv?<'=
during the f1rs pass opera:or is free o ad J

14.6.3 F rst Automatlc Mode ali serr ng hilt.> the m: e rnnin~ o~ce ;,as beer.. se
0 cu us ng (1e firs auroma ic m ode ~~e operaro places he 1ride i<leal conditions :ne mir.e is ab.e o Oll ~M, e
elet· o swi e h n he firs au oma ric postCI.Oll. Then he opera o se ·eral J1ours. The m~ m m amo n o co
se the miner o cutnng wi h he desired head a mperage, the been 7 hours, a hich time tl',c rr,_:, er as s·o:-pe<l o
asei 11 roughly J1 correc posirioíl and the ore anal;rzer ~.idtn_g bilS As ii1 orhe modes r},e miner can be rerur ·cea o ma
(F. 14 6) Aga11J1 he mmer ::. con rrol b) curning the se ector S\ ritcl" ro rro e mode o
11ear opt1111u 11 ore rccove y 1gu.re h h
essentially cut ng und r mant1a conuo When ese the eirher rram e,·er nro t.he neuua pos on.
presses a but on 011 e
condirions are sausñed. 1e opera or 0
ver ali functions of 14. 7 SAVt GS AND MPROVEME TS FFFICI
control pane and the PLC assumesd. conht a aoo o e rraro e e Mine automario11 has n merous pa baa:s s.ome
the rnme Toa s, rh f>LC a JUS~ ~ 1e ase do a a ob\'ious and can be easil\" meas red. Ot.lier beneñts are
inpurs o stee he rn iner and 1na n ta n e
obvious.
e a e, V'.'liC e V ;itlt regard ro saiet)', tbere has been o. onc ra a
re s ea n mining panel since completion of miner auto atia11. 1be
adjusted by he opera~o and 3 nrerp 51de acks to recove rhe im!)ro emenc is ata ibuted to the e en back res
ore analyzer and a<lJt s s he m ne eve d nift auromared c.uriing thar is an e en ba does not iea a suess
porn and reduces t.he risk of a rock fall.
The frequency of minero erhau.s as decrease<l t:_
automatícally repos tions the ase1. t~ bo ~e operators. As hen a mioer ,,ras o, ernauled on e a\erage o e ~ 2 ~ millioo
hJb f1.1nction are ha 1dled rnanu.a!l) Y be eturned ro full ronnes; no the a\ era ge is ce~ 6 mi toones mtt
rhe n1 n,er can d auroma tion has assísted ·n e.xtending petiod of
opera[1ng tn sem1auromat c ~ ro anotlier mo e or
ctor SW1[C 11
frequenC} b! reducing pea curr·ng oads and by generaung more
ll lirig e her tram ever n to che neutra e, en curring forces. During thi period also there been
d Automatic Mode numerous unpro\em.ents to the mining mach-ne of the
Second and Th1t1
4.6 4 ode Lhe operator auromaoon program.
d h rd aucomauc m The
o c:1.1 un.<Je rhc secan or d aucomatíc pos1non
1 tc
·h .,1 the secon
P 1ces thc se ecto
 •
me-

SER
ASSEMBLY \\ ,--·
/
1

l 1 ' • _..:,..
1 L, - ""'""
1
, .
1 1

1 1
1 ¡ , 1
.
1

1
1
¡
1 '

Lll 1

! 1

.i l

l MfCROPR1
'1
r

1
1

miner is started ·
s.econd pass back
the second pass
cusp. The operar
centered over the
4.6 2
n ,.. 1 ..
 147

ORE GRADE
ANALYZER -
:::: • rr.
- k-G
- '.

?,..,, .

r,

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= 1

-~·
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1 ~""
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m
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M ICROPROCESSOR
' ,u
•

OPERATOA LASER
DISPLAY GUlDANCE
1
1--- CONVEYOR FIRST PASS
__J ALIGNMENT POSIT!O
Le
Le FIGURE 14. 7 Layout for automated mining
s,
n
te miner is started with the desired head arnperage and rith the
second pass back even with the first pass back and the ,. idrh of
the second pass as wide as possible without leaving a center
cusp. The operator also positions the cross con reyor so it is
Le centered over the extensible conveyor and the ore is deposired
ts correctly on the extensible belt (Figure 14.7). The miner
is continues to cut under manual control When all che condirions
td are satisfied, the operator presses a button on rhe control panel.
ol The PLC locks on to the readings presented by che ultra onic
to system from the second pass arm and cross con eyor and
assumes control over all functions ,..of the miner and •
cross
• • • ,
 f t• X1 L'll,'iilJtC
i•l\1 'I !\1 ~\\llll{'ill íl • es
ll,\ \ \ 1 Ji \ l

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\· 11'
.
1 1
I
\t '1
11t1111., ¡11l< 11 ) ¡ 11 lcvL' s
1\\ 11 • 1' 111' ·~

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·''l ' ,~\' l l .,ti'\' 11111,i, 1 111\ 1
i 11
1
)11 ·111l()I ' •
1 .
\lll t!'l)lpty
f'or.
. í
11 , 1 • 11 • , ( 1 y 1 \ 11 • l•( l , l I t 'l () 1 · ' 11
1 '\ \ \ '1 \ I ' \ ' \ , ' •I 1 11 \ ' 1 \ .
, \1:\ \11' . ) . ).; iots tl1 OltgJ1ottt
1,1, 1

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, l uces J)<'fl 1,s 111 e cct rica
i· 11 , ,,1111 , \\'' ,.11,·,l ,,1 ,, \ ,~: 1 it. i,1 l \\,1 • .
t .
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,·,,t,\•i\ 111 :s\1!,~ttii1tl11l s11vl11gs 111 clectnc
1

1
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11
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11
,,, t',: \1 , ~\1111 lo,,v11 1·0,· 2()4 l10Lt1's when
11 1,1111 1 1•

111, 1,,
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