Geoderma 337 (2019) 983–997

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Geoderma
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/geoderma

Tracking textural, mineralogical and geochemical signatures in soils T

developed from basalt-derived materials covered with loess sediments (SW
Poland)
⁎
Jaroslaw Waroszewskia, , Tobias Sprafkeb, Cezary Kabałaa, Mirosław Kobierskic, Jakub Kierczakd,
Elżbieta Musztyfagaa, Aleksandra Lobaa, Ryszard Mazureke, Beata Łabaza
a
Wroclaw University of Environmental and Life Sciences, Institute of Soil Science and Environmental Protection, Grunwaldzka 53, 50-357 Wroclaw, Poland
b
University of Bern, Institute of Geography, Hallerstrasse 12, 3012 Bern, Switzerland
c
University of Science and Technology, Department of Soil Science and Soil Protection, Bernardyńska 6, 85-029 Bydgoszcz, Poland
d
University of Wroclaw, Institute of Geological Sciences, Cybulskiego 32, 50-205 Wroclaw, Poland
e
Institute of Soil Science and Agrophysics, Department of Soil Science and Soil Protection, Agricultural University of Krakow, Mickiewicza 21,31-120 Krakow, Poland

A R T I C LE I N FO A B S T R A C T

Handling Editor: Michael Vepraskas This study investigates the scale of inheritance of signatures typical of loess- and basalt-derived substrates in soils
Keywords: having both components present as parent material due to past periglacial processes. Based on field description,
Aeolian silts particle size distribution, mineralogy (heavy minerals and clay minerals) as well as geochemistry we track the
Basalt signal of both materials (local basalt-derived and loess-derived), estimate the maximum thickness of loess
Zr and Hf mantles and mixed zones (having both loess and basaltic components), and note the presence or absence of basal
Heavy minerals layers without allochtonous additions. The results show that geochemistry and heavy minerals are the most
Clay minerals reliable proxies for a verification of aeolian silt contributions and to define individual layers in complex soil
Pleistocene
parent materials.
Soil formation in the studied landscape depends on the type of slope sediments. Typical fine-grained
weathering of basalt without input from aeolian silt would promote rather vertic development. However, in thick
loess deposits as well as in thin silt-textured materials superimposed on clay loam beds, clay illuviation dom-
inates. Development of argic horizons, however, results in decreasing permeability, promoting water stagnation
and enhanced degradation processes in clay-rich subsoil. Instead of Luvisols, Stagnosols and Retisols developed
in the study regions. Basaltic block covers mixed with loess host cambic horizons. Based on our findings it seems
that at the edge of thin loess deposits no soils exist that developed exclusively from basaltic parent materials.

1. Introduction interrupted by erosional or depositional events (Boxleitner et al., 2017;

Weathering processes lead to mechanical disintegration of rocks and
provide suitable parent material for further pedogenetic processes (Egli
et al., 2010; Kirkby, 2018; Norton et al., 2014) as well as determine the
transformation of primary minerals into secondary phases (Egli et al.,
2014, 2008a). Weathering intensity depends mostly on the suscept-
ibility of particular rock in terms of this process (Caner et al., 2014;
Juilleret et al., 2016; Soubrand-Colin et al., 2005), time of exposure
(Egli et al., 2011), climate (Bojko and Kabala, 2016; Egli et al., 2010,
2008b; Ponge et al., 2014) and type of vegetation (Egli et al., 2008b). In
theory, weathering is a continuous in situ process that delivers weath-
ering products of local material which are transformed into soil by
further pedogenic processes. Sometimes, however, weathering can be
Gild et al., 2018; Stanley and Schaetzl, 2011) that strongly influence
observed weathering rates and further mineral transformations (Portes
et al., 2018).
Basalt weathering in the temperate zone and in the tropics is widely
characterized in the literature (White and Blum, 1995; White and
Brantley, 2003; Soubrand-Colin et al., 2007; Soubrand-Colin et al.,
2009; Rasmussen et al., 2010). Basalts reveal patterns typical of mafic
substrates, i.e. a relatively high share of MgO, Fe2O3, Al2O3, CaO and
undersaturation with SiO2. From a mineralogical and geochemical
point of view, basalts contain easily weatherable minerals such as oli-
vine and pyroxenes, but are also important sources of Ti from ulvos-
pinels, magnetite or titanomagnetite (Soubrand-Colin et al., 2009). The
clay fraction of soils developed from basalts is dominated by smectites

⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: jaroslaw.waroszewski@upwr.edu.pl (J. Waroszewski).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoderma.2018.11.008
Received 31 July 2018; Received in revised form 30 October 2018; Accepted 4 November 2018
Available online 23 November 2018
0016-7061/ © 2018 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
J. Waroszewski et al.
in temperate zones (Bogda et al., 1998), while in tropical regions
gibbsite and kaolinite prevail (Naidu et al., 1987; Noack et al., 1993; He
et al., 2008; Lu et al., 2008; Morrison and Bonato, 2015). Usually soils
formed from basalt have a clay or clay loam texture (Soubrand-Colin
et al., 2007).
The apparent insight into the mineralogy and geochemistry of ba-
salt-derived weathering products and soils strives from studies of deep
weathering profiles and/or locations that were not obviously inter-
rupted by episodic geomorphic processes. Studies that quantify rates of
soil production usually attribute textural, morphological and geo-
chemical gradients or discontinuities in soil profiles to bioturbation
and/or soil creep (Johnson, 1993; Johnson et al., 2005), but also to
incorporation of volcanic ash (e.g., Naidu et al., 1987; Morrison, 1991)
or the contribution of quarzitic components (Rex et al., 1969). There-
fore, in the areas influenced by glaciations or periglacial conditions the
common presence of slope cover beds with variable amounts of aeolian
silt (Kleber, 1997; Terhorst, 2000; Terhorst et al., 2013; Waroszewski
et al., 2018a) leads to the assumption that the complex or mixed slope
covers may prevail in these zones also may prevail in basalts.
More than 300 basaltic outcrops are identified in the Lower Silesia;
however, pure basalt-derived soils have not been discovered in the re-
gion to date (Kabala et al., 2015). All basalt outcrops in the region are
located near (or are surrounded by) loess sheets; therefore, a significant
influence of aeolian silt to soils from basalt-derived materials is ex-
pected. Being dominated by quartz and feldspar, aeolian silts also
contain carbonate, as well as a distinct suite of clays, e.g., mica-hydroxy
interlayered smectite (HIS), hydroxyinterlayered vermiculite (HIV),
chlorite) and heavy minerals (e.g., rutile, zircon). These components
apparently differ from the minerals typically present in basalt and its
regolith and may influence greatly the weathering and soil forming
processes as well as the final properties of the soils. Still, a field iden-
tification of aeolian substrates mixed with local bedrock (e.g., igneous,
mafic derivates) can be very complicated (e.g. Küfmann, 2003;
Waroszewski et al., 2018a); therefore, combined geochemical and mi-
neralogical approaches could help in such differentiations (Muhs and
Benedict, 2006; Waroszewski et al., 2018a). This is necessary, as the
sole presence of silt-sized particles can also be associated with weath-
ering (e.g., Szymański and Szkaradek, 2017).
In the study of parent materials and the direction of soil-forming
processes on the slopes of Mt Sleza, Waroszewski et al. (2018a) dif-
ferentiated aeolian mantles (practically free of coarse fractions and
predominated by aeolian silt) from the mixed zones that contain both
local and aeolian materials and the strata that are solely of local origin
(granite, gabbro, serpentinite regoliths). This study applies this concept
to soils developed on basalt bedrock, where the deciphering of the
origin of slope deposits in the field is often complicated by high en-
richment of the local weathering products with silt fraction. The key
questions of this paper are as follows: (1) Are the geochemical and
mineralogical signatures of aeolian silt and basalt derived-materials
recognizable; and do they indicate predomination of a particular
component? (2) Do different proxies (morphological, textural, miner-
alogical and geochemical) agree in the detection of lithological
boundaries within the soil profiles and specifically in detecting the
maximum depth of the aeolian contribution? Additional issues are (1)
to track the direction of soil-forming processes in such a heterogeneous
environment (transformed by Pleistocene glaciations and loess deposi-
tion) and (2) identification of the probable source (provenance) of the
loess covering basalt substrates.
2. Study area
Two soil catenas were chosen for this study, one in the Kaczawa
Upland (Muchów transect) and the other in the Izerskie Upland (Lubań
transect) in the central and western parts of the Lower Silesia province
(SW Poland), respectively (Fig. 1). Catenas were located on basalt re-
sidual hills (deeper parts of volcanic chimneys) formed at the turn of
984
Geoderma 337 (2019) 983–997
the Oligocene (25–31 Ma) and Miocene (18–22 Ma) due to active vol-
canic processes (Birkenmajer et al., 2004) and later in the Pleistocene
exposed by intensive and selective denudation (Birkenmajer, 1967).
The morphology of basaltic hills is characterized by the presence of
rock outcrops (tors) and block covers (with occasionally smaller clasts)
at the hilltops and the upper-slope positions, while, in the mid-slope
sections, heterogeneous covers were identified which were composed
from basaltic clasts mixed with sand and silt (Migoń et al., 2002). Lower
Silesian basalts belong to the Central European volcanic province,
which reaches reaching from France through Germany and the Czech
Republic into Poland (Alibert et al., 1987). In our study, we use the
term basalt as a common name for all mafic rocks having typical
aphanitic structure.
Both study areas were completely covered by the Scandinavian ice
sheet during the Odra (Saalian, MIS 8/6) glaciation, while thick loess
covers were deposited between MIS 4 and MIS 2 (Jary, 1999; Badura
et al., 2013). The presumed source of the loess in these areas is the
Great Odra glacial valley, which was, between MIS4 and MIS3, supplied
by numerous non-glacial rivers, which delivered fine-textured weath-
ering material from the Sudeten Mts (Badura et al., 2013). The strati-
graphy of loess and loess derivates is not well-constrained especially in
the case of the Lubań region (Kida, 1999). The age of the oldest loess
sections (with features of colluviation) near Złotoryja, are estimated to
be from the Wartha (Saalian II) stage, while the uppermost loess sec-
tions (periglacially transformed) are considered to be Weichselian loess
(Raczkowski, 1969). Glacial deposits were displaced by erosion and
filled mostly valleys or remains (mostly fluvioglacial sands) in lower
slope positions often mixed with basalt-derived slope sediments (Migoń
et al., 2002).
The climate in the Lower Silesia region is temperate, as it is in the
transitional zone between oceanic and continental climates. Mean an-
nual precipitation ranges from 800 to 900 mm in the Izerskie Upland to
around 700–750 mm (Pawlak, 2008). Mean annual air temperatures are
between 6 °C (Izerskie Upland) and 8 °C (Kaczawa Upland).
Soils in the southern part of Lower Silesia developed predominantly
developed from loess and loess derivates, and commonly have subsoil
clay accumulation, which is typical for Luvisols (Kabala et al., 2015) or
have humus-rich topsoil that fulfills the criteria of Chernozems and
Phaeozems (Labaz et al., 2018; Labaz and Kabala, 2016). Soils formed
on consolidated ultramafic/mafic rocks (such as basalt, serpentine or
gabbro) are usually classified as Cambisols or Leptosols (Weber, 1982;
Pędziwiatr et al., 2018).
The forest vegetation in the Lubań transect is dominated by beech
trees (with the addition of birch and oak) in the upper- and mid-slope
sections (sites L1–L3), while, in the footslopes, spruce prevails locally
(site L4). In the Muchów transect, the forest soils (sites M1–M3) are
covered with under-mixed forests with oak, hornbeam and spruce. The
sites M4 and M5 are located on grass vegetation, mostly by Alopecurus
pratensis L. and Festuca rubra L.
3. Methods
3.1. Soil sampling
Nine soil profiles were studied in two separate slope catenas
(Table 1) reaching over basaltic bedrock. The catena Muchów with NW
exposition consist of five soil pits (M1–5), while the transect in Lubań
tends to SW and consists of four profiles (L1–4). The location and ar-
rangements of the soil catenas were selected to provide an insight into
different configurations of loess deposits and mixed zones. Each soil pit
was dug until the underlying bedrock was reached or no changes in the
lithology were observed down to the depth of 150 cm. Soil layers and
genetic horizons were distinguished and described according to the
Guidelines For Soil Description (FAO, 2006). Soil horizons were de-
scribed considering their depth, colour, texture, structure and abun-
dance of rock fragments. We paid special attention to the identification
J. Waroszewski et al. Geoderma 337 (2019) 983–997

Fig. 1. Location of the two studied transects. A: Location of the two study areas Luban (B) and Muchow (C) within Lower Silesia. Note the mapped loess distribution
of Lower Silesia (Waroszewski et al., 2018a) within the European loess belt (map of loess sediments in Central Europe adapted from Sprafke and Obreht, 2016, after
Haase et al., 2007).

of lithological discontinuities and the occurrence of mixed zones be-
tween loess and underlying substrates. Soils were classified according to
the FAO-WRB system (IUSS Working Group WRB, 2015). Approxi-
mately 1–2 kg of soil material was taken from each distinguished soil
horizon. Samples were air-dried, manually ground, and passed through
a 2 mm sieve. Additionally, rock fragments were taken from several
surface and basal horizons to evaluate the presence of basalts.
3.2. Description of rock thin sections
Petrographic descriptions of polished thin sections of dominant
rocks were carried out using a Leica DM2500P optical microscope in

Table 1
Main characteristics of studied sites.
Profile Latitude Elevation Slope inclination Slope position Parent material Land use WRB (IUSS Working Group 2015)
(m a.s.l.) (°)

M1 N 51°01′4.2″ 427 12 Shoulder/back Loess/basalt block Forest Eutric Amphiskeletic Folic Cambisol (Anosiltic,
E 16°01′50.6″ slope covers Ochric)
M2 N 51°01′10″ 402 8 Back slope Loess/basalt slope bed Forest Eutric Luvic Albic Folic Stagnosol (Pantosiltic,
E 16°01′40″ Ochric,)
M3 N 51°01′13″ 396 4 Back slope Loess/basalt slope bed Forest Eutric Luvic Albic Stagnosol (Anosiltic, Ochric,
E 16°01′34″ Raptic, Endoskeletic)
M4 N 51°01′16.5″ 390 3 Foot slope Loess/basalt slope bed Meadow Eutric Luvic Albic Glossic Stagnosol (Episiltic,
E 16°01′32.3″ Endoloamic, Aric, Ochric, Raptic, Endoskeletic)
M5 N 51°01′19″ 389 2 Foot slope Loess/basalt slope bed/ Arable land Eutric Luvic Albic Glossic Stagnosol (Episiltic,
E 16°01′31″ glacial materials Amphiloamic, Aric, Ochric, Raptic, Endoskeletic)
L1 N 51°03′41.7″ 376 15 Shoulder Loess/basalt block Forest Dystric Amphiskeletic Folic Cambisol (Anosiltic,
E 15°14′05.7″ covers Ochric)
L2 N 51°03′34.9″ 347 7 Back slope Loess/basalt block Forest Eutric Amphiskeletic Stagnic Cambisol (Anosiltic,
E 15°14′05.4″ covers Ochric)
L3 N 51°03′30.4″ 322 5 Foot slope Loess/basalt slope bed Forest Eutric Luvic Albic Stagnosol (Episiltic, Loamic,
E 15°14′03.8″ Raptic, Katoskeletic)
L4 N 51°02′58.7″ 307 2 Toe slope Loess Forest Dystric Albic Stagnic Retisol (Anosiltic, Cutanic,
E 15°13′10.9″ Ochric)

985
J. Waroszewski et al. Geoderma 337 (2019) 983–997

Table 2
Morphology and basic properties of studied soils (in distinguished layers).
Profile Layers Depth (cm) Hosted horizons Texture in fine earths Rock fragments abundance (%) Clay skins CaCO3 (%)

M1 Mixed zone 0–80 A, Bw1, Bw2 SiL 15–90 − −

M2 Loess mantle 0–52 Ah, Eg SiL 10–15 − −
Mixed zone 52–110 Eg/Btg, 2Btg, 2CBg SiL, CL 50–80 + −
M3 Loess mantle 0–28 Ah, AEg, Eg SiL 10–15 − −
Mixed zone 28–100 Eg/2Btg1, 2Btg1, 2Btg2, 3CBg SiL, CL 30–80 ++ −
M4 Loess mantle 0–54 AEg, Eg/2Btg SiL 5–20 − −
Mixed zone 54–110 2Btg, 3CBg L 50–60 +++ −
M5 Loess mantle 0–32 Apg, Eg SiL 5–15 − −
Fluvioglacial material 32–100 Eg/2Btg, 2Btg/Eg, 2Btg, 3BCg SCL, SL 30–70 ++ −
L1 Mixed zone 0–80 AB, Bw1, Bw2, BC SiL 25–90 − −
L2 Mixed zone 0–75 Ah, Bw1, Bw2, BC SiL 80–90 − −
L3 Loess mantle 0–35 Ah, AE, E, EBtg SiL 10–15 − −
Mixed zone 35–90 Btg1, 2Btg2, 2Btg2, 3BCg2 SiL, L, CL 55–90 +++ −
L4 Loess mantle 0–140 Eg, Eg/Btg, Btg1/Eg, Btg2/Eg, BC SiL – ++ −

transmitted and reflected light. The modal composition of the studied
rocks was estimated by point counting using the freeware software
JMicroVision v1.2.7.
3.3. Basic analyses
Soil pH was potentiometrically measured in a 1:2.5 (soil: distilled
water) suspension. Soil organic carbon (SOC) content was determined
by the dry combustion method using CO2 spectroscopic measurements
(Ströhlein CS-mat 5500 analyser). After sample pretreatment with 3%
H2O2 and dispersion with hexametaphosphate, particle-size distribution
was performed using sieves (sand fraction) and the hydrometer method
for the silt and clay fraction (Van Reeuwijk, 2002).
3.4. Geochemistry
The contents of major and trace elements (including REE) were
obtained using ICP-ES and ICP-MS after sample fusion with lithium
borate and an alloy dissolution with nitric acid (ACME Labs, Canada).
The analytical reproducibility (2-sigma), as estimated from replicate
analyses of eight randomly chosen samples ranges from 0.3% (SiO2) to
11% (Zr) at 95% confidence limits. Analytical accuracy (2-sigma), as
estimated from four measurements of the reference sample STD SO-19
is from 0.2 (MgO) to 4.3% (Hf) at 95% confidence limits. To evaluate
the aeolian silt contribution to soils and distinguished loess components
from basalt- derived materials, we focused on relatively immobile ele-
ments (Ti, Hf, Zr,) that having relatively high ionic potential and are
considered as chemically immobile in most of the near-surface en-
vironments (Hutton, 1977; McLennan, 1989, 2001; Muhs and Benedict,
2006). In pedogenesis studies, these elements are considered to be
markers of aeolian silt contribution (Scheib et al., 2014, Waroszewski
et al., 2018a).
3.5. Clay mineralogy
The mineralogical composition of the clay fraction from selected
soil horizons was analysed by X-ray diffraction (XRD) using an X-Pert
PRO diffractometer with the Empyrean XRD tube Cu LFF DK 303072;
and the X'celerator detector-type RTMS and the goniometer PW 3050/
60. CuKα radiation was used with an applied voltage of 40 kV and
current of 20 mA. Oriented mounts of clay fraction (< 2.0 μm) were
scanned from 2 to 30 2θ at a counting time of 30 s per 0.02 2θ step. For
XRD analysis, the clay fraction was obtained according to the procedure
of Jackson (1969), including the organic matter and free iron oxides
removal (using 30% H2O2 and a citrate-bicarbonate-dithionite buffer,
respectively). The samples were dispersed with Na-Amberlite. Clay
samples were saturated with Mg and K and prepared on glass slides for
X-ray diffraction analysis. The air-dried Mg-saturated samples were
analysed at 25 °C followed by ethylene glycol solvation. The air-dried K-
saturated samples were analysed at 25 °C and then heated at 300 °C and
550 °C.
Clay minerals were identified based on the positions of basal peaks
(Brown and Brindley, 1980; Brindley, 1980) and the clay mineral
proportions were estimated from the EG solvated pattern. Semi-quan-
titative estimation of the clay mineral contribution was derived from
integrated peak areas (Barnhisel and Bertsch 1989). The XRD patterns
were processed using the ORIGIN software.
3.6. Heavy minerals preparation and identification
The heavy mineral distribution of selected soil horizons were
identified using the separation technique of Mange and Maurer (1992)
and determined in the 0.25–0.1 mm sand fractions. At least 300 grains
were separated using sodium polytungstate solution (2.97 g·cm−3).
Heavy minerals were identified using JEOL JSM-IT100 coupled with an
Energy Dispersive Spectrometer (EDS) at high vacuum, 15–20 kV
working mode and 40 s counting time in polished thin sections. Heavy
minerals were identified based on their geochemical compositions and
the spectra collection from Reed (2010).
4. Results
4.1. Identification of coarse fragments
The rock samples from the Lubań transect have a porphyritic texture
with subhedral to euhedral olivine and pyroxene phenocrysts of
average diameter ranging from 0.5 to 2 mm. The largest phenocrysts
reach up to 3 mm in diameter. Large and spongy central parts of pyr-
oxene phenocrysts are surrounded by clear rims (Fig. 3a). Olivine
phenocrysts are locally zoned and partly or completely replaced by
orange-brown iddingsite (Fig. 3a). The groundmass of the rock is
composed of clinopyroxene, plagioclase and nepheline. Individual
grains are anhedral to subhedral and reach up to 0.05 mm in size.
Furthermore, euhedral crystals of opaque minerals (probably magne-
tite-ulvospinel) up to 0.05 mm in size are evenly distributed evenly in
the rock groundmass (Fig. 3a, b). Based on microscopic observations
and previous research by Puziewicz et al. (2011), the rocks at Lubań
classify as basalts (basanite or nephelinite).
At Muchów, the rock fragments have a porphyritic texture with
subhedral to euhedral olivine phenocrysts of average diameter ranging
from 0.25 to 0.5 mm. The largest phenocrysts reach up to 2 mm in
diameter. The phenocrysts are partly or completely replaced by orange-
brown iddingsite and set in a fine-grained groundmass composed of
unoriented, subhedral pyroxene crystals; anhedral plagioclase and/or
feldspathoids and euhedral to subhedral black opaque minerals (Fig. 3c,
d). The average diameter or length of groundmass minerals is less than

986
J. Waroszewski et al. Geoderma 337 (2019) 983–997

(caption on next page)

987
J. Waroszewski et al. Geoderma 337 (2019) 983–997

Fig. 2. Photos and sketches showing the detailed morphology of all presented soils profiles. The lithological boundaries are drawn according to the findings in this
study.

Table 3
Mean values of major and selected trace elements (Hf and Zr) in distinguished layers.
Profile Layers SiO2 Al2O3 Fe2O3 MgO CaO Na2O K2 O TiO2 P2O5 MnO Hf Zr

% ppm

M1 Mixed zone 75.8 8.45 3.62 0.90 0.70 0.82 1.77 0.87 0.07 0.08 10.8 430.0
M2 Loess mantle 79.2 8.58 2.99 0.57 0.50 0.89 2.19 0.81 0.06 0.03 12.4 493.1
Mixed zone 69.6 11.72 5.63 1.11 0.76 0.79 2.07 1.09 0.10 0.09 12.0 460.0
M3 Loess mantle 81.1 7.28 1.95 0.35 0.42 0.87 2.06 0.80 0.06 0.02 13.6 516.3
Mixed zone 72.4 10.88 4.89 0.96 0.66 0.82 2.12 0.94 0.07 0.06 11.1 424.6
M4 Loess mantle 78.5 8.57 2.60 0.48 0.63 0.88 2.21 0.82 0.10 0.06 12.5 491.9
Mixed zone 76.3 9.52 4.09 0.83 0.62 0.77 2.00 0.75 0.07 0.07 10.7 410.9
M5 Loess mantle 77.0 8.74 3.70 0.57 0.66 0.80 2.13 0.77 0.09 0.08 11.5 467.5
Fluvioglacial material 77.5 9.25 3.78 0.73 0.54 0.57 1.77 0.66 0.07 0.05 6.7 259.9
L1 Mixed zone 74.9 9.07 4.28 1.27 1.03 0.83 2.02 1.16 0.17 0.09 19.0 754.3
L2 Mixed zone 73.9 9.23 4.34 1.06 0.81 0.78 1.93 1.19 0.10 0.07 14.0 548.4
L3 Loess mantle 77.3 8.76 3.66 0.61 0.52 0.84 2.15 0.98 0.06 0.08 16.9 658.2
Mixed zone 74.4 10.71 3.90 0.93 0.62 0.87 2.69 0.73 0.10 0.04 10.7 407.1
L4 Loess mantle 78.9 8.96 3.13 0.57 0.37 0.84 2.38 0.76 0.07 0.04 14.9 599.5

Fig. 3. Microphotographs (PPL and XPL) of the rock fragments from the soil profiles: (A, B) basalt from Lubań transect; (C, D) basalt sampled in Muchów catena. Ol:
olivine, Px: pyroxene, Pl: plagioclase, Opq: opaque components.

0.2 mm. Phenocrysts make up about 20 vol% of rock and pyroxene,
plagioclase or feldspatoids and opaques constitute up to 50 vol%, 22 vol
% and 8 vol% respectively. According to these properties, all evaluated
fragments classify as basalts.
4.2. Soil profile grouping across slope catena based on soil particle-size
distribution and geochemistry
Based on morphological (Table 2 and Fig. 2), textural (Fig. 2) and
geochemical (Table 3, Fig. 2) data, four main cases of slope materials
were distinguished: (1) thick mantle loess — profile L4; (2) thin, silty-

988
J. Waroszewski et al. Geoderma 337 (2019) 983–997

Table 4 increase at the contact with the Bw horizons, until they reach70–90%.
Content of clay minerals estimated based on XRD analysis. Silt dominates in the texture (74–50%), with a decreasing trend in
Profile/horizon Depth (cm) S Ch HIV K I I-S HIS Q V domination with soil depth (Fig. 3). Compared to M1, the profiles L1
and L2 contain more silt and very fine sand (23–16% very fine sand in
M1 Bw2 X XXX XX XX BC horizons). These differences are mirrored by the geochemistry. Hf
M3 Eg X XX XX X X
and Zr mean contents are considerably lower in M1 compared to L1 and
M3 2Btg1 XX X XX X XX
M3 3CBtg XXX XX X X
L2. Still, there is little doubt that M1 contains a significant amount of
M5 Eg X X XX XX X XX aeolian silt, as values of Hf and Zr are below 11 mg·kg−1 and
M5 2Btg/Eg XXX XX XX X 450 mg·kg−1, respectively. Especially in the Bw and BC horizons there
M5 3BCg XXX XX X X is an increasing influence of basalt traceable due to higher TiO2 con-
L1 Bw1 X XXX XX X
tents (Table 3). In all three profiles, well-structured cambic horizons
L1 BC X XX XX XX X
L3 E X XXX XX X X developed.
L3 2Btg1 XXX X X X
L3 2BCg2 XXXX X X X 4.2.4. Thin, silty-textured mantle separated abruptly from underlying
L4 Eg X XXX XX X
materials (aeolian mantle above fluvioglacial deposits)
L4 Btg1/Eg X XX XX X X X X
The loess mantle in the M5 profile overlies coarse-textured flu-
Explanations: XXXX > 70%, XXX 30–70%, XX 10–30%, X 5–10%. vioglacial sediment directly; there is no transitional layer, instead there
S — smectite, Ch — chlorite, HIV — hydroxy interlayered vermiculite, K — is an abrupt lithologic discontinuity present at the contact of those two
kaolinite, I — illite, I-S — illite-smectite, HIS — hydroxy interlayered smectite, substrates (Fig. 2). The surficial mantle is almost free from rock frag-
Q — quartz. ments (5–15%), while the subsoil contains 30 to 70% basaltic rock
fragments mixed with rounded gravels probably of fluvioglacial origin
textured mantle over mixed zone — profiles M2, M3, M4 and L3; (3) (granites, quartzites and so on). The topsoil layer, 32 cm thick, has
basalt block covers with silty infillings — profiles M1, L1 and L2; and texture of silt loam, with silt content ranging from 52 to 54%. The silt
(4) thin silty-textured mantle abruptly separated from underlying flu- content in the subsoil is much lower and does not exceed 32%. Abrupt
vioglacial materials — profile M5. differences between the two materials are also expressed in medium
and fine sand contents that are 2–3 times higher in the subsoil’s hor-
4.2.1. Footslope/toeslope thick loess covers izons (Fig. 3). Due to irregular contents of sand and clay, the texture of
Relatively thick loess mantles cover the plain surrounding the basalt the lowermost horizons varies from sandy clay loam to sandy loam.
hills near Lubań and their footslopes, as identified at the L4 site in the Dissimilarities between the two materials are also highlighted in geo-
Lubań transect (Fig. 1). Profile L4 does not contain coarse fragments chemical data, where Hf and Zr concentrations, are twofold higher in
throughout the entire column, until a depth of 140 cm and shows a the silt mantle compared to the glaciofluvial underlying sediments
constant silt content (70–65%) as well as stable ratio between coarse (Fig. 3). In addition, differences in the content of MgO, Na2O and K2O
and fine silt (Fig. 3). The homogenous nature of the substrate is also point out different lithologies.
expressed in concentrations of SiO2, TiO2 (0.58–0.79%), Hf
(15.9–13.2 mg·kg−1) and Zr (639–551 mg·kg−1). Starting from a depth 4.3. Clay mineralogy of studied soils
of 30 cm intensive tonguing appears (having variable diameters), that
creates a polygonal net in the vertical and lateral orientations, corre- Illite (peak 1.01 nm), hydroxy-interlayered vermiculite (peak near
sponding to retic properties (Fig. 2). The tongues are bleached and 1.4 nm; Mg- and K-saturation and EG-solvation), hydroxy-interlayed
contain substrate from eluvial horizon (Eg), which has a slightly higher smectite (peak ca. 1.5 nm) and chlorite (peak around 1.4 nm after
fine silt content (Fig. 3). Clay accumulation was detected between heating) are typical for soil horizons that contain a considerable share
depth of 20 and 100 cm, classifying this part as an argic horizon. of aeolian silt. These assemblages were detected in thick, homogenous
loess deposits (profile L4); thin, silty-textured loess mantles (uppermost
4.2.2. Thin aeolian silt mantle above mixed layers E horizons in profiles M3, M5 and L3) and loess mixed with basaltic
Profiles M2, M3, M4 and L3 have surficial silty-textured mantle block covers (profiles M1 and L1).
above a thick transition (mixed) zone. The aeolian silt mantles have a Mixed zones in profiles M3, M4 and L3 reveal very high amounts of
variable thicknesses between 28 and 54 cm and contain less than 20% smectites (peaks around 1.7, 1.4 after Mg-saturation and EG-solvation
of coarse fragments (only basaltic gravels and boulders). The content of and 1.2 after K-saturation) while the other secondary clay minerals are
silt fraction ranges between 56 and 72%, and the sand fraction is generally absent (Table 4). The underlying clay loam solifluction beds
dominated by very fine sand, as in other loess mantles (Fig. 3). In all from profiles M3 and L3 show similar pattern of clay mineral dis-
profiles, an abrupt increase in coarse basaltic rocks was observed at the tribution (absolute dominance of smectites, peaks at 1.7 and 1.71 nm
contact of the loess mantle and mixed zones. Below silt-textured man- after EG-solvation as well as 1.39 and 1.44 nm after Mg saturation), as
tles, in the mixed zone, the silt share decreases. The lowermost horizons in mixed zones (Fig. 6).
(3CBg) have silt loam/loam (M3 and M4, respectively) or clay loam Additionally, in all evaluated samples kaolinite (peak at 0.72 nm,
(M3, L3) textures and more than 80% of rock fragments are arranged in collapsing during heating under 500 °C) was detected (Table 4, Fig. 5
lateral position, while the structure in the subsoil is strong and platy. In and 6).
the lowermost horizon of the M4 profile, also some addition of glacial
material was noted. Geochemical data (Table 3) helps distinguished 4.4. Heavy minerals
aeolian mantles from mixed zones and notes that TiO2 increased with
soil depth while Hf (12.0–10.7 mg·kg−1) and Zr (460–407 mg·kg−1) Thick loess mantles (profile L4) exhibit the dominance of amphi-
decrease. boles, chlorite, epidote, ilmenite, rutile, saurolite and zircon (Fig. 7).
The signal from basalt materials is very low as the pyroxene content
4.2.3. Basalt block/stone covers with aeolian silt admixture (mixed layers) does not exceed 0.6%. In basaltic block, covers mixed with loess heavy
The profiles M1, L1 and L2 illustrate the cases where very weakly mineral distribution have a different trend; here, amphiboles are very
weathered basaltic rock fragments (gravels and boulder size) are ad- common (38%); however markers of basaltic materials such as ulvos-
mixed with finer silty substrate. The uppermost horizons (A, AB) consist pinel, pyroxene and olivine, make up 45% in total, proving significantly
of up to 15–20% of rocks, then coarse fragments increase abruptly the presence of mafic components. Soils with mixed zones (profiles M3

989
J. Waroszewski et al. Geoderma 337 (2019) 983–997

(caption on next page)

990
J. Waroszewski et al.
Fig. 4. Depth plots showing basic (grain size distribution, pH and content of organic carbon) and geochemical data (Hf, Zr, TiO2) from the studied soil profiles.
and L3) have a very clear signal in BC horizons from basaltic compo-
nents: ulvospinel (25–40%), pyroxene (5–8%) and olivine (3–17%), but
the aeolian admixture is also very clear (amphiboles, epidote, pum-
pellyite, zircon, rutile). In the Btg horizons, the impact of basaltic
material is decreasing, while components related to aeolian silt con-
tribution are becoming more pronounced (Fig. 7). Aeolian silt mantles
over mixed zones reveal a very high share of amphiboles, epidote, rutile
and ilmenite (as in like profile L4), and, at the same time they hold very
minor contents of pyroxene, ulvospinel and pyroxene. In almost all
profiles, significant share of Fe-oxides was noted and interpreted as
being part of magnetite.
5. Discussion
5.1. Inheritance of geochemical and mineralogical features
The degree of aeolian silt inclusion into residuum materials (local
bedrock) at the edge of thin loess patches is often hard to define
(Schaetzl and Luehmann, 2013, Waroszewski et al., 2018a). Also, the
identification of thin loess deposits itself has proved to be problematic
in such a diffuse contact zone (Schaetzl et al., 2018). Possible ways to
evaluate how strong the intermixing of loess (aeolian silts) with the
underlying sediments are: (1) field work observations and description
(Luehmann et al., 2013; Martignier et al., 2015; Schaetzl, 2008); (2)
tracking original loess texture with particle-size analyses (Schaetzl and
Luehmann, 2013), (3) conducting a mineralogical investigation, in-
cluding basic mineralogy with primary and secondary phases (Muhs
and Benedict, 2006), as well as heavy fraction; and (4) through geo-
chemistry (Muhs, 2018; Waroszewski et al., 2018a; Waroszewski et al.,
2018b).
Thick loess deposits are easy to recognize (Küfmann, 2003;
Waroszewski et al., 2018a) as are aeolian drapes/loess mantles (Gild
et al., 2018; Waroszewski et al., 2018a) that directly overlie continuous
rock or coarser/finer sediments directly where drawn lithological
boundaries are sharp and not distracted. Typically, field observations of
morphological features are sufficient to designating parent materials
and confirming the presence of loess (Labaz et al., 2018; Stanley and
Schaetzl, 2011).
In the case of the four categories of parent material configurations
defined herein, profile L4 developed in thick loess without any sig-
nificant basaltic component. The aeolian mantles of the profiles M2–5
and L3 and the basaltic blocks covered with fine substrate (L1, L2 and
M1) reveal clear aeolian silt signatures detectable in the field. However,
the thicknesses and maximum depths of mixed zones often remain
unclear. Most important in this context is the differentiation of the
lower boundary of the influence for aeolian silt, which is the upper
boundary of the pure residual material and which also may show signs
of transport along slopes. This cover layer composed of local material
without aeolian addition is the basal layer in the German system of
cover beds (Kleber and Terhorst, 2013). Defining the lower boundary of
aeolian influence is obviously challenging in our study area.
The reasons for difficulties to detecting the lithological boundaries
in the field, including the evaluation of grain size distribution, are due
to (a) the prevalence of a silt loam texture even in the C horizons
containing a large share of basaltic clasts (e.g. profile M2 2BCg); (b) the
transformation of the silt loam texture into loam due to weathering (e.g.
profile M4, Fig. 4), blurring loess-like features and their proper re-
cognition; and (c) the transition between silt loam materials (Btg hor-
izons) hosting a high share of coarse basaltic material and horizons
(3BCg) having clay loam (profiles M3 and L3, Fig. 4). In addition to
field impressions and particle-size distributions (Fig. 8) further proof is
necessary in our study area to define the lithological boundaries.
Clay mineralogy could serve only partially as an additional tool with
991
Geoderma 337 (2019) 983–997
which to evaluate the thicknesses of loess mantles and mixed zones. The
specific composition of aeolian silt materials (Martignier et al., 2015;
Munroe et al., 2007; Portes et al., 2018) is very well reflected in thick
loess, loess mantles and block covers with loess input, as HIV, HIS,
chlorite and illite together with kaolinite were detected in these units.
The differentiation of layers composed mainly of aeolian silts, such as
thick loess mantles and thin silt-textured layers is possible (Fig. 4 and
Fig. 8). However, difficulties appear in mixed zones, in which the
aeolian-silt-dominated substrate is incorporated into weathered basaltic
rocks. Smectitic components are detectable in mixed zones (profile M3,
horizon 2Btg/Eg) in medium amounts (Tab. 4). In contrast, swelling
phases predominate absolutely in the clay fraction of the lowermost
horizons (profile M5, Fig. 6; profile L3, Tab. 4) which is not typical for
aeolian silts. However, most of mixed zones hold Bt horizons, where
smectites accumulated via illuviation, which is an obvious phenomenon
(Bogda et al., 1998; Drewnik et al., 2014). Hence, smectites cannot be
treated as a mineralogical marker of basalt-derived materials, although
in relatively young fine-grained basaltic saprolites, drilled in few sites
in the Lower Silesia (e.g. at Męcinka) smectites are abundant (Choma-
Moryl, 2007). They are, however, purely clay textured and represent
warm and humid weathering, probably occurring during the Neogene
and are much different from clay loam slope deposits formed in the
Pleistocene. Nonetheless, the influence of weakly weathered basalts or
basaltic-derived materials, as smectite precursors, cannot be excluded.
Drawing a boundary between the mixed zone and basal layers (based
on clay mineralogy) is barely possible (Fig. 8).
The most convincing evidence with which to evaluate the degree of
aeolian influence down the profile and thus to discriminate mixed zones
from basal layers are heavy minerals and geochemistry (Fig. 8). Soli-
fluction clay loam layers (profiles L3 and M3) are revealed by the
presence of zircon, rutile or monazite (Fig. 7) and also by the contents
of Hf (oscillating from 14.1 to 10.0 mg·kg−1) and Zr (ranging from 551
to 381 mg·kg−1). These data show very weak but significant aeolian silt
incorporation. Therefore, these clay loams need to be treated as part of
the multi-layered mixed zones. The geochemistry also supports this,
showing a still high content of Hf and Zr that ranges from 9.1 to
10.6 mg·kg−1 and from 363.5 to 414.8 mg·kg−1, respectively. The given
concentrations are enough to link such substrates with loess and loess
derivates (Scheib et al., 2014). Despite the high content of TiO2
(1.35–2.11%), which indicates minor basaltic influence, an aeolian silt
incorporation is unquestionable. Based on the geochemical pattern,
only in profile M5 should the material below the loess mantle be de-
signated as unaffected by aeolian components (Fig. 8), despite the
aeolian contribution being significant.
At the outer lateral boundaries of thin loess deposits there are no
soils developed purely from basaltic materials; they always exhibit
strong signals from aeolian silt substrates. This is reflected mostly by
geochemical data, but the heavy minerals assemblages also clearly in-
dicate deep mixing of loess materials with overlying sediments and lack
of basal layers without aeolian silt in most trenches.
Differences in heavy minerals and particle size and data between the
Lubań and Muchów transects indicate two possible sources of aeolian
silts. Based on the abundance of heavy minerals abundance those en-
vironments are: (i) metamorphic and characterized by amphiboles,
epidote, titanite, pumpellyite and ilmenite; and (ii) igneous as re-
presented by monacite, zircon, staurolite and also partially by rutile.
The evident presence of two sources is expressed also by the relation of
fine silt to coarse silt - in the soils of the Lubań transect the coarse silt
content is higher, while, in Muchów fine silt predominates. In addition,
the very fine sand content is much higher at Lubań. The coarser mode of
loess deposits points to nearby sources of material (short distance
transport; Krawczyk et al., 2018). These components were probably
deflated from glacial outwash plains (Badura et al., 2013; Luehmann
J. Waroszewski et al. Geoderma 337 (2019) 983–997

Fig. 5. X-ray diffraction (XRD) patterns of clay minerals with all kinds of
treatments (EG: ethylene glycol, Mg & K exchange, heating) in soils developed
from block covers mixed with loess and thick loess deposits. The d-spacing are
given in nanometres.

et al., 2013; Nyland et al., 2018) mobilized by katabatic winds (Gild

et al., 2018; Martignier et al., 2015; Schaetzl and Attig, 2013). Loess
materials and loess derivates incorporated into the basaltic material at
the Lubań transect, reveal a bit more gneiss/mica schist character (e.g.,
staurolite), while Muchów has a more metamorphic type of source.
Therefore, these differences could be connected with the Great Odra
Valley delivery of weathered silty material via the rivers Kwisa and
Bóbr. This direct supply via mountain rivers of siliciclastic fine-grained
material (silt) probably took place during the Pleniweichselian (MIS4-
MIS2; Badura et al., 2013). The observed differences in particle dis-
tribution in loess suggest the involvement of various aeolian episodes/
sources, which are probably linked to changes in paleoenvironmental
conditions during loess deposition (Gild et al., 2018; Kels et al., 2014).

5.2. The influence of slope deposits on soil formation

In the deeper parts of the periglacial block and grus slope sediments,
the degree of aeolian silt contribution is weak or moderate (profiles L1,
L2 and M1) with a predominance of basaltic coarse fragments, while
upwards the presence of loess infillings increases until the surface,
where it predominates (profiles M2, M3, M4, M5 and L3). Only in-
dividual rock fragments are preserved in continuously deposited loess.
In places, loess deposits are so thick that underlying basaltic material
was completely covered, and no rock fragments are present at the
surface (profile L4). Therefore, four types of slope sediments were
distinguished on both investigated slopes (Fig. 9): (1) thick loess de-
posits in the toe slope positions; (2a + b) heterogeneous deposits
composed of fine clayey/sandy and silty (loess) material with the pre-
sence of larger clasts in high abundance and (3) block fields with
aeolian silt admixture directly below rock outcrops and cliffs. A de-
crease of pure loess deposits with altitude could be related to higher
wind speeds preventing accumulation (Nyland et al., 2018). The other
possible factors are erosion and slope processes (syn- and postdeposi-
tional) that led to the disappearance of an existing loess mantle, which
was not stabilized by basaltic block/grus covers. Stratification features
(e.g., lateral orientation of basalt fragments) recognized in hetero-
geneous deposits indicate the role of solifluction in their formation and
relocation on slopes (Migoń et al., 2002). These processes probably had
only short-range effects (Migoń and Kacprzak, 2014) and variable in-
tensities on the studied slopes.
Basaltic bedrock as the potential parent material for the studied sites
was influenced by an aeolian silt deposition (with syn- and post-sedi-
mentary processes) that differs strongly from old basalt saprolites which
has been never under the influence of glaciations or periglacial condi-
tions. Our findings indicate that the main soil-forming process is clay
translocation, which is not common in typical basalt-derived materials
(with expandable clays) in which vertic properties have been rather
common (Kabala et al., 2015).
Thick loess mantles and thin silty-textured layers contain material
with sufficient (not too high) content of clay minerals, including fine
clays (smectites) and have good water permeability. In a relatively
humid climate, the leaching of carbonates and mobilization of clays is
possible in a material that contains a clay fraction that is easy to
translocate. Domination of clay illuviation and formation of argic hor-
izons causes a reduction in permeability and, under constantly humid
conditions typical argic horizons are transformed via tonging into dis-
continuous/cracked vertical forms. Such degradation processes in illu-
vial-clay subsoil (Bockheim, 2015; Kels et al., 2014; Quénard et al.,
2011; Szymański et al., 2012, 2011) observed in deep loess mantles
(52–130 cm) result in the presence of retic or in the case of thick loess

992
J. Waroszewski et al. Geoderma 337 (2019) 983–997

(caption on next page)

993
J. Waroszewski et al. Geoderma 337 (2019) 983–997

Fig. 6. X-ray diffraction (XRD) patterns of clay minerals with all kinds of treatments (EG: ethylene glycol, Mg & K exchange, heating) in soils having loess mantle and
variable thickness of mixing zone. The d-spacing are given in nanometres.

Fig. 7. Heavy minerals distribution in selected soil profiles referring to thick loess mantles (L1), block covers covered with loess (L1) and soils having different
thickness and morphology of mixed zones (M3 and L3).

994
J. Waroszewski et al. Geoderma 337 (2019) 983–997

Fig. 8. Evaluation of mixing different sediments and distinguishing layers (aeolian mantle, mixed zone, basal layer and fluvioglacial material) by applying different
proxies. The final interpretation is always consistent with geochemical data that serves as the most appropriate tool to track even weak aeolian input on underlying
sediments.

Fig. 9. Idealized catena for the basalt hills of Lower Silesia, in proximity to loess deposits without (fluvio-)glacial influence.

mantles covering dense fluvioglacial loams, glossic properties. These
features lead to a classification of respective soils as Retisols (L4) and
Glossic Stagnosols (M4). The intensity of leaching is expressed in Re-
tisol with qualifier Alic.
In the midslope sections, deposits having clay loam and silt clay
loam predominate, with clay contents of ca. 30%. Contribution of
aeolian silt dilutes the primary (clay loam) soil texture (Waroszewski
et al., 2018a) and determinates the formation of clay-illuviation fea-
tures on soil peds and within root channels. Clay dispersion and clay
translocation result in a differentiated soil texture and the formation of
an argic horizon. At the same time, dense argic horizons and the low-
ermost clay loam horizons caused strong stagnation of rainwater
(Rubinić et al., 2015, Rubinić et al., 2017). Mixed zones and part of the
loess mantles fulfil the criteria for stagnic colour properties and together
with reduction conditions, determines adherence to Stagnosols (Fig. 9),
instead of the expected Luvisols.
Assuming their formation throughout the Holocene, the soils de-
veloped in the block fields with dust admixture are relatively weakly

995
J. Waroszewski et al.
weathered and reveal rather stable conditions (in terms of the present
morphodynamic stability and weathering processes), as pyroxenes and
amphiboles are present in high amounts (Fig. 7). Within the clay frac-
tion, mixed-layered minerals dominate (almost no smectites). Aeolian
additions to coarse basaltic regoliths (block fields) free of fine material
determine further soil forming processes. Silty strata provide a valuable
substrate for the development of well-structured horizons penetrated
easily with roots, while low clay contents and fast water movement
exclude the possibility of clay translocation, so no stagnic or argic hor-
izons were formed. Therefore, in profiles developed within block fields
mixed with loess (M1, L1, L2) a large amounts of roots and the activity
of earthworms were responsible for the moderately pedogenic alter-
nation and formation of young biogenic cambic horizons; therefore, the
investigated soils were classified as Cambisols. It cannot be excluded
that in the past, loess sediments were thicker in the upper slopes on
basaltic block covers and soils with subsoil clay accumulation existed.
Their erosion could be linked to the deforestation that took place on
most basaltic hills from the Middle Ages until the 19th century.
6. Conclusions
This study is a guideline on how to investigate the scale of in-
heritance of signatures typical of loess and basalt-derived substrates in
soils having both components as a parent material. Field and laboratory
data (profile morphology, granulometry, mineralogy and geochemistry)
were compared in terms of their significance in tracking the thickness of
mixed zones between loess-dominated mantles and local substrate
without aeolian silt incorporation. Our results show that geochemistry
and heavy minerals are the most reliable proxies for the verification of
aeolian silt contributions and for defining individual layers (loess
mantle, mixed zone, basal layers) in complex soil parent materials. Only
by comparing all parameters, a universal understanding of their im-
portance to complex parent material arrangement be made possible.
Soil development on basaltic hills at the outer boundaries of loess
deposits is controlled by the Pleistocene relief of the slopes and the way
aeolian silt is incorporated into slope deposits. On basaltic block covers
mixed with loess, Cambisols developed. Midslope sections are domi-
nated by Stagnosols developed from loess mixed with clay loam rich in
basaltic clast layers. The lowermost part of the slope is characterized by
the presence of thick loess deposits that give rise to Retisols formation
under humid conditions.
In the studied Cambisols and Retisols, all signatures typical for
aeolian silts were detected, while the basaltic component played minor
role or was not found at all. Along the slopes impact of basalt-derived
slope sediments is clearer especially in the lowermost horizons, how-
ever input of loess was also traceable even in the C horizons. Based on
our findings it seems that at the edge of thin loess deposits no soils exist
which were developed purely from a basaltic type of parent material;
they always revealed strong or medium geochemical and mineralogical
signals pointing to an aeolian silt contribution.
Acknowledgements
This research was financed by National Science Center (Poland)
projects Sonata 8 nr 2014/15/D/ST10/04087 and Opus 8 nr 2014/15/
B/ST10/04606 as well as by Wroclaw University of Environmental and
Life Sciences, project numbers D210/0021/18 and B030/0020/18. The
authors are indebted to two anonymous reviewers for their constructive
remarks and comments on an earlier version of the manuscript.
Appendix A. Supplementary data
Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.geoderma.2018.11.008.
996
Geoderma 337 (2019) 983–997
References
Alibert, C., Leterrier, J., Panasiuk, M., Zimmermann, J.L., 1987. Trace and isotope geo-
chemistry of the alkaline Tertiary volcanism in southwestern Poland. Lithos 20 (4),
311–321.
Badura, J., Jary, Z., Smalley, I., 2013. Sources of loess material for deposits in Poland and
part of Central Europe: the lost Big River. Quat. Int. 296, 15–22.
Barnhisel, R.I., Bertsch, P.M., 1989. Chlorite and hydroxy-interlayered vermiculite and
smectite. In: Dixon, J.B., Weed, S.B. (Eds.), Minerals in Soil Environments. SSSA Book
Ser., 1 1. pp. 729–788. https://doi.org/10.2136/sssabookser1.2ed.c15.
Birkenmajer, K., 1967. Bazalty dolnośląskie jako zabytki przyrody nieożywionej. Ochrona
Przyrody 32, 225–276 (in Polish).
Birkenmajer, K., Pécskay, Z., Grabowski, J., Lorenc, M.W., Zagożdżon, P., 2004.
Radiometric dating of the Tertiary volcanic in Lower Silesia, Poland. IV. Further K-Ar
and paleo-magnetic data from late Oligocene to early Miocene basaltic rocks of the
foresudetic block. Ann. Soc. Geol. Pol. 74, 1–19.
Bockheim, J.G., 2015. Distribution and origin of glossic horizons in soils of the western
Great Lakes Region. Geoderma Reg. 5, 226–236. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.
GEODRS.2015.08.004.
Bogda, A., Chodak, T., Szerszeń, L., 1998. Properties and Composition of Clay Minerals in
Soils of the Lower Silesia. In: AR Wrocław, pp. 89 (in Polish).
Bojko, O., Kabala, C., 2016. Transformation of physicochemical soil properties along a
mountain slope due to land management and climate changes — a case study from
the Karkonosze Mountains, SW Poland. Catena 140. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
catena.2016.01.015.
Boxleitner, M., Musso, A., Waroszewski, J., Malkiewicz, M., Maisch, M., Dahms, D.,
Brandová, D., Christl, M., de Castro Portes, R., Egli, M., 2017. Late
Pleistocene–Holocene surface processes and landscape evolution in the central Swiss
Alps. Geomorphology 295. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2017.07.006.
Brindley, G.W., 1980. Quantitative X-ray mineral analysis of clays. In: Brindley, G.W.,
Brown, G. (Eds.), Crystal Structures of Clay Minerals and Their X-ray Identification.
Mineral. Soc. Monogr. 5, London, pp. 411–438. https://doi.org/10.1180/mono-5.7.
Brown, G., Brindley, G.W., 1980. X-ray diffraction procedures for clay mineral identifi-
cation. In: Brindley, G.W., Brown, G. (Eds.), Crystal Structures of Clay Minerals and
Their X-ray Identification. Mineral. Soc. Monogr. 5, London, pp. 305–359. https://
doi.org/10.1180/mono-5.5.
Caner, L., Radtke, L.M., Vignol-Lelarge, M.L., Inda, A.V., Bortoluzzi, E.C., Mexias, A.S.,
2014. Basalt and rhyo-dacite weathering and soil clay formation under subtropical
climate in southern Brazil. Geoderma. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoderma.2014.06.
024.
Choma-Moryl, K., 2007. Expansiveness of slected basaltoid wethering products in Lower
Silesia, Poland. Geol. Sudet. 39, 1–9.
Drewnik, M., Skiba, M., Szymański, W., Żyła, M., 2014. Mineral composition vs. soil
forming processes in loess soils — a case study from Kraków (Southern Poland).
Catena 119, 166–173.
Egli, M., Merkli, C., Sartori, G., Mirabella, A., Plötze, M., 2008a. Weathering, miner-
alogical evolution and soil organic matter along a Holocene soil toposequence de-
veloped on carbonate-rich materials. Geomorphology 97, 675–696. https://doi.org/
10.1016/J.GEOMORPH.2007.09.011.
Egli, M., Mirabella, A., Sartori, G., 2008b. The role of climate and vegetation in weath-
ering and clay mineral formation in late Quaternary soils of the Swiss and Italian
Alps. Geomorphology 102, 307–324. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.GEOMORPH.2008.
04.001.
Egli, M., Sartori, G., Mirabella, A., Giaccai, D., 2010. The effects of exposure and climate
on the weathering of late Pleistocene and Holocene Alpine soils. Geomorphology 114,
466–482. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.GEOMORPH.2009.08.008.
Egli, M., Wernli, M., Burga, C., Kneisel, C., Mavris, C., Valboa, G., Mirabella, A., Plötze,
M., Haeberli, W., 2011. Fast but spatially scattered smectite-formation in the pro-
glacial area Morteratsch: an evaluation using GIS. Geoderma. https://doi.org/10.
1016/j.geoderma.2011.05.001.
Egli, M., Dahms, D., Norton, K., 2014. Soil formation rates on silicate parent material in
alpine environments: different approaches-different results? Geoderma. https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.geoderma.2013.08.016.
FAO (Ed.), 2006. Guidelines for Soil Description, 4th ed. FAO, Rome.
Gild, C., Geitner, C., Sanders, D., 2018. Discovery of a landscape-wide drape of late-
glacial Aeolian silt in the western Northern Calcareous Alps (Austria): first results and
implications. Geomorphology 301, 39–52. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.GEOMORPH.
2017.10.025.
Haase, D., Fink, J., Haase, G., Ruske, R., Pecsi, M., Richter, H., Altermann, M., Jager, K.D.,
2007. Loess in Europe e its spatial distribution based on a European loess map, scale
1:2,500,000. Quat. Sci. Rev. 26, 1301e1312.
He, Y., Li, D.C., Velde, B., Yang, Y.F., Huang, C.M., Gong, Z.T., Zhang, G.L., 2008. Clay
minerals in a soil chronosequence derived from basalt on Hainan Island, China and its
implication for pedogenesis. Geoderma 148, 206–212.
Hutton, J.T., 1977. Titanium and zirconium minerals. In: Dixon, J.B., Weed, S.B. (Eds.),
Minerals in Soil Environments. Soil Science Society of America, Madison, Wisconsin,
pp. 673–688.
IUSS Working Group WRB, 2015. World Reference Base for Soil Resources 2014, update
2015 International Soil Classification System for Naming Soils and Creating Legends
for Soil Maps. World Soil Resources Reports No. 106. FAO, Rome.
Jackson, M.L., 1969. Soil chemical analysis: advanced course. Published by the author
2nd ed. Dept. of Soil Science, Univ. of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin.
Jary, Z., 1999. Ostatni cykl lesowy w Polsce SW. In: Jary, Z. (Ed.), III Seminarium Lessowe
– Geneza i wiek pokrywowych utworów pylastych południowo-zachodniej Polski.
Uniwersytet Wrocławski, Wrocław-Bożków, Poland, pp. 35–37.
Johnson, D.L., 1993. Dynamic denudation evolution of tropical, subtropical and tempe-
rate landscapes with three-tiered soils: toward a general theory of landscape evolu-
tion. Quat. Int. 17, 67–78.
Johnson, D.L., Domier, J.E.J., Johnson, D.N., 2005. Animating the biodynamics of soil
thickness using process vector analysis: A dynamic denudation approach to soil
J. Waroszewski et al.
formation. Geomorphology. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2004.08.014.
Juilleret, J., Dondeyne, S., Vancampenhout, K., Deckers, J., Hissler, C., 2016. Mind the
gap: a classification system for integrating the subsolum into soil surveys. Geoderma
264, 332–339. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoderma.2015.08.031.
Kabala, C., Bekier, J., Bińczycki, T., Bogacz, A., Bojko, O., Cuske, M., Ćwieląg-Piasecka, I.,
et al., 2015. Soils of Lower Silesia: Origins, Diversity and Protection. PTG, PTSH,
Wrocław.
Kels, H., Protze, J., Sitlivy, V., Hilgers, A., Zander, A., Bertrams, M., Lehmkuhl, F., 2014.
Genesis of loess-like sediments and soils at the foothills of the Banat Mountains,
Romania — examples from the Paleolithic sites Româneşti and Coşava. Quat. Int.
351, 213–230. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.QUAINT.2014.04.063.
Kida, J., 1999. Stan badań lessów i osadów lessopodobnych na obszarze Dolnego Śląska.
In: Jary, Z. (Ed.), III Seminarium Lessowe – Geneza i wiek pokrywowych utworów
pylastych południowo-zachodniej Polski. Uniwersytet Wrocławski, Wrocław-Bożków,
Poland, pp. 43–54.
Kirkby, M.J., 2018. A conceptual model for physical and chemical soil profile evolution.
Geoderma. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoderma.2018.06.009.
Kleber, A., 1997. Cover-beds as soil parent materials in midlatitude regions. Catena 30,
197–213. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0341-8162(97)00018-0.
Kleber, A., Terhorst, B., 2013. Mid-latitude slope deposits (Cover Beds). In: Developments
in Sedimentology. 66 Elsevier, Amsterdam.
Krawczyk, M., Ryzner, K., Skurzyński, J., Jary, Z., 2018. Lithological indicators of loess
sedimentation of SW Poland. Contemp. Trends Geosci. 6 (2), 94–111.
Küfmann, C., 2003. Soil types and eolian dust in hight mountainous karst of the Northern
Calcareous Alps (Zugspitzplatt, Wetterstein Mountains, Germany). Catena 53,
211–227.
Labaz, B., Kabala, C., 2016. Human-induced development of mollic and umbric horizons
in drained and farmed swampy alluvial soils. Catena 139, 117–126. https://doi.org/
10.1016/J.CATENA.2015.12.013.
Labaz, B., Musztyfaga, E., Waroszewski, J., Bogacz, A., Jezierski, P., Kabala, C., 2018.
Landscape-related transformation and differentiation of Chernozems — catenary
approach in the Silesian Lowland, SW Poland. Catena 161. https://doi.org/10.1016/
j.catena.2017.10.003.
Lu, S.G., Xue, Q.F., Zhu, L., Yu, J.Y., 2008. Mineral magnetic properties of a weathering
sequence of soils derived from basalt in eastern China. Catena 73, 23–33.
Luehmann, M.D., Schaetzl, R.J., Miller, B.A., Bigsby, M.E., 2013. Thin, pedoturbated, and
locally sourced loess in the western Upper Peninsula of Michigan. Aeolian Res. 8,
85–100. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.AEOLIA.2012.11.003.
Mange, M.A., Maurer, H.F.W., 1992. Heavy Minerals in Colour. Chapman and Hall,
London (147 pp.).
Martignier, L., Nussbaumer, M., Adatte, T., Gobat, J.-M., Verrecchia, E.P., 2015.
Assessment of a locally-sourced loess system in Europe: the Swiss Jura Mountains.
Aeolian Res. 18, 11–21. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.AEOLIA.2015.05.003.
McLennan, S.M., 1989. Rare earth elements in sedimentary rocks: influence of prove-
nance and sedimentary processes. Rev. Mineral. 21, 169–200.
McLennan, S.M., 2001. Relationships between trace elemental composition of sedimen-
tary rocks and upper continental crust. Geochem. Geophys. Geosyst. 2,
2000GC000109. https://doi.org/10.1029/2000GC000109.
Migoń, P., Kacprzak, A., 2014. Lateral diversity of regolith and soils under a mountain
slope — implications for interpretation of hillslope materials and processes, central
Sudetes, SW Poland. Geomorphology 221, 69–82.
Migoń, P., Maciejak, K., Zygmunt, M., 2002. Periglacial morphology of basalt hills in the
Kaczawa Upland (Western Sudetes). Prz. Geol. 74, 4,491–508 (in Polish).
Morrison, R.J., 1991. Variability of the Fagaaga Series soils of Western Samoa. Geoderma
49, 105–116.
Morrison, R.J., Bonato, J.A., 2015. Weathering and soil genesis from the Nasinu Basalt,
South-East Viti Levu, Fiji. S. Pac. J. Nat. Sci. 33 (2), 25–38.
Muhs, D.R., 2018. The geochemistry of loess: Asian and North American deposits com-
pared. J. Asian Earth Sci. 155, 81–115. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JSEAES.2017.10.
032.
Muhs, D.R., Benedict, J.B., 2006. Eolian additions to late Quaternary alpine soils, Indian
Peaks Wilderness Area, Colorado Front range. Arct. Antarct. Alp. Res. 38, 120–130.
Munroe, J.S., Farrugia, G., Ryan, P.C., 2007. Parent material and chemical weathering in
alpine soils on Mt. Mansfield, Vermont, USA. Catena 70, 39–48. https://doi.org/10.
1016/J.CATENA.2006.07.003.
Naidu, R., Kirkman, J.H., Morrison, R.J., 1987. Mineralogy of soils from basaltic ash,
Taveuni, Fiji. Geoderma 33, 181–192.
Noack, Y., Colin, F., Nahon, D., Delvigne, J., Michaux, L., 1993. Secondary mineral for-
mation during natural weathering of pyroxene: review and thermodynamic ap-
proach. Am. J. Sci. 293, 111–134.
Norton, K.P., Molnar, P., Schlunegger, F., 2014. The role of climate-driven chemical
weathering on soil production. Geomorphology 204, 510–517. https://doi.org/10.
1016/J.GEOMORPH.2013.08.030.
Nyland, K.E., Ignatov, A., Miller, B.A., 2018. A new depositional model for sand-rich loess
on the Buckley Flats outwash plain, northwestern Lower Michigan. Aeolian Res. 31,
91–104. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.AEOLIA.2017.05.005.
Pawlak, W., 2008. Atlas of Lower and Opole Silesia, 2nd ed. Wroclaw University,
Wroclaw, Poland.
Pędziwiatr, A., Kierczak, J., Waroszewski, J., Ratié, G., Quantin, C., Ponzever, E., 2018.
Rock-type control of Ni, Cr, and Co phytoavailability in ultramafic soils. Plant Soil
423, 339–362.
Ponge, J.F., Sartori, G., Garlato, A., Ungaro, F., Zanella, A., Jabiol, B., Obber, S., 2014.
The impact of parent material, climate, soil type and vegetation on Venetian forest
humus forms: a direct gradient approach. Geoderma 226–227. https://doi.org/10.
997
Geoderma 337 (2019) 983–997
1016/j.geoderma.2014.02.022.
Portes, R., Dahms, D., Brandová, D., Raab, G., Christl, M., Kühn, P., Ketterer, M., Egli, M.,
2018. Evolution of soil erosion rates in alpine soils of the Central Rocky Mountains
using fallout Pu and δ 13 C. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 496, 257–269. https://doi.org/10.
1016/j.epsl.2018.06.002.
Puziewicz, J., Koepke, J., Gregoire, M., Ntaflos, T., Matusiak-Małek, M., 2011.
Lithospheric mantle modification during Cenozoic rifting in Central Europe: evidence
from the Księginki nephelinite (SW Poland) Xenolith Suite. J. Petrol. 52, 2107–2145.
Quénard, L., Samouëlian, A., Laroche, B., Cornu, S., 2011. Lessivage as a major process of
soil formation: a revisitation of existing data. Geoderma 167–168, 135–147. https://
doi.org/10.1016/J.GEODERMA.2011.07.031.
Raczkowski, W., 1969. Lessy i utwory pylaste Przedgórza Sudeckiego. Archiwum
Instytutu Geografii i Rozwoju Regionalnego. Uniwersytetu Wrocławskiego (149 pp).
Rasmussen, C., Dahlgren, R.A., Southard, R.J., 2010. Basalt weathering and pedogenesis
across and environmental range in the southern Cascade Range, California, USA.
Geoderma 154, 473–485.
Reed, S.J.B., 2010. Electron microprobe analysis and scanning electron microscopy in
geology. University of Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.
Rex, R.W., Syers, J.K., Jackson, M.L., Clayton, R.N., 1969. Eolian origin of quartz in soils
of the Hawaiian Islands and in Pacific pelagic sediments. Science 163, 277–279.
Rubinić, V., Galović, L., Husnjak, S., Durn, G., 2015. Climate vs. parent material — which
is the key of Stagnosol diversity in Croatia? Geoderma 241–242, 250–261. https://
doi.org/10.1016/J.GEODERMA.2014.11.029.
Rubinić, V., Galović, L., Lazarević, B., Husnjak, S., Durn, G., 2017. Pseudogleyed loess
derivates — the most common soil parent materials in the Pannonian region of
Croatia. Quat. Int. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.QUAINT.2017.06.044.
Schaetzl, R.J., 2008. The distribution of silty soils in the Grayling Fingers region of
Michigan: evidence for loess deposition onto frozen ground. Geomorphology 102,
287–296. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.GEOMORPH.2008.03.012.
Schaetzl, R.J., Attig, J.W., 2013. The loess cover of northeastern Wisconsin. Quat. Res. 79,
199–214. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.YQRES.2012.12.004.
Schaetzl, R.J., Luehmann, M.D., 2013. Coarse-textured basal zones in thin loess deposits:
products of sediment mixing and/or paleoenvironmental change? Geoderma 192,
277–285. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.GEODERMA.2012.08.001.
Schaetzl, R., Bettis, E., Crouvi, O., Fitzsimmons, K., Grimley, D., Hambach, U., ... Zech, R.,
2018. Approaches and challenges to the study of loess—introduction to the LoessFest
Special Issue. Quat. Res. 89 (3), 563–618. https://doi.org/10.1017/qua.2018.15.
Scheib, A.J., Birke, M., Dinelli, E., Project Team, G.E.M.A.S., 2014. Geochemical evidence
of aeolian deposits in European soils. Boreas 43, 175–192.
Soubrand-Colin, M., Bril, H., Neel, C., Courtin-Nomade, A., Martin, F., 2005. Weathering
of basaltic rocks from the French Massif Central: origin and fate of Ni, Cr, Zn and Cu.
Can. Mineral. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoderma.2006.08.017.
Soubrand-Colin, M., Neel, C., Bril, H., Grosbois, C., Caner, L., 2007. Geochemical beha-
viour of Ni, Cr, Cu, Zn and Pb in an Andosol-Cambisol climosequence on basaltic
rocks in the French Massif Central. Geoderma. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoderma.
2006.08.017.
Soubrand-Colin, M., Horen, H., Courtin-Nomade, A., 2009. Mineralogical and magnetic
characterisation of iron titanium oxides in soils developed on two various basaltic
rocks under temperate climate. Geoderma. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoderma.
2008.11.018.
Sprafke, T., Obreht, I., 2016. Loess: rock, sediment or soil — what is missing for its de-
finition? Quat. Int. 399, 198207.
Stanley, K.E., Schaetzl, R.J., 2011. Characteristics and paleoenvironmental significance of
a thin, dual-sourced loess sheet, north-central Wisconsin. Aeolian Res. 2, 241–251.
https://doi.org/10.1016/J.AEOLIA.2011.01.001.
Szymański, W., Szkaradek M. 2017. Andesite weathering and soil formation in a mod-
erately humid climate: a case study from the western Carpathians (southern Poland),
Carpath. J. Earth Environ. Sci.,13, No. 1, p. 93 – 105; DOI:10.26471/cjees/2018/
013/010
Szymański, W., Skiba, M., Skiba, S., 2012. Origin of reversible cementation and brittle-
ness of the fragipan horizon in Albeluvisols of the Carpathian Foothills, Poland.
Catena 99, 66–74. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2012.07.012.
Terhorst, B., 2000. The influence of Pleistocene landforms on soil-forming processes and
soil distribution in a loess landscape of Baden–Württemberg (south-west Germany).
Catena 41, 165–179. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0341-8162(00)00098-9.
Terhorst, B., Kleber, A., Bibus, E., 2013. Relative dating with cover beds. Dev. Sedimentol.
66, 229–251. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-444-53118-6.00007-6.
Van Reeuwijk, L.P., 2002. Procedures for Soil Analysis, 6th ed. ISRIC, Wageningen,
Netherlands.
Waroszewski, J., Sprafke, T., Kabala, C., Musztyfaga, E., Labaz, B., Wozniczka, P., 2018a.
Aeolian silt contribution to soils on the mountain slopes (Mt. Ślęża, SW Poland).
Quat. Res. 89 (3), 702–717.
Waroszewski, J., Egli, M., Brandová, D., Christl, M., Kabala, C., Malkiewicz, M., Kierczak,
J., Glina, B., Jezierski, P., 2018b. Identifying slope processes over time and their
imprint in soils of medium-high mountains of Central Europe (the Karkonosze
Mountains, Poland). Earth Surf. Process. Landf. 43 (6), 1195–1212.
Weber, J., 1982. Genesis and properties of soils derived from serpentinites in Lower
Silesia. Part IV. Characteristics of colloidal fraction. Roczniki Gleboznawcze 33 (2),
73–84 (in Polish).
White, A.F., Blum, A.E., 1995. Effects of climate on chemical weathering in watersheds.
Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 59, 1729–1747.
White, A.F., Brantley, S.L., 2003. The effect of time on the weathering of silicate minerals:
why do weathering rates differ in the laboratory and field? Chem. Geol. 202 (3–4),
479–506.