690 IEEE Transaction$ on Power Delivery. Vol. 9. No.

2, April 1994
A TRANSFORMER MODEL FOR WINDING FAULT STUDIES

Pauick BASTARD Pierre BERTRAND Michel MEUNIER

Electrical Engineering Dpt. Protection and Control Dpt. Electrical Engineering Dpt.
ECOLE SUPERIEURE DELECTRICITE M ERLIN-C ERIN ECOLE SUPERIEURE DELECTRICITE
91190 Gif-sur-Yvette 38000 Grenoble 91 190 Cif-sur-Yvette
FRANCE FRANCE FRANCE

KEY WORDS I. GENERAL MODELING PRINCIPLES

Transformer ; Modeling ; Simulation ; Winding faults ; EMTP ; The basic model used is the one supplied by the BCTRAN
Leakage routine of the EMTP simulation software.
Based on excitation and short-circuit tests, in positive and
zero sequences, this routine computes two matrices [RI and [L]
ABSTRACT modeling the transformer. In the case of a three-phase
transformer with two windings, these matrices are of order 6 : see
This paper deals with a method of modeling intemal faults figure 1, where Ri and Li are the resistance and the self
in a power transformer. The method leads to a model which is inductance of coil i, and Mi, is the mutual inductance between
entirely compatible with the EMTP software. It enables coils i and j. Note that B C T R A N does not take magnetic
simulation of faults between any turn and the earth or between asymmetry into account.
any two turns of the transformer windings. Implementation of
the proposed method assumes knowledge of how to evaluate the ,
leakage factors between the various coils of the transformer. A R 1 O 0 0 0 0
very simple method is proposed to evaluate these leakage phase I O R 2 0 0 0 0
factors. At last, an experimental validation of the model allows
the estimation of its accuracy. 0 O R 3 0 0 0
[RI =
0 0 O R 4 0 0

INTRODUCTION phase I1 0 0 0 O R 5 0

>k
0 0 0 0 0 R6,
The development and the validation of algorithms for a
digital differential transformer protection require the
preliminary determination of a power transformer model [SI. phaselll
This model must allow to simulate all the situations which will
be chosen to study the behaviour of the protection algorithms. f L1 M12 M13 M14 M15

I
In particular, it must allow the simulation of internal faults [4].
This is the aspect of the model that we shall study in this paper. M21 4, M23 M24 MZ5
Study of the algorithms implemented in a transformer M31 M32 L3 M34 M35 h'
protection leads us to simulate a large part of the power network, ILI =
and not only the transformer itself. The upstream circuit with its rimary secondary M41 M42 M43 L4 M45
lines, cables and grounding system, the power transformer itself,
current transformers, potential transformers and a part of the
downstream circuit with its grounding system and loads must be
taken into account. If the aim is not to finally develop a
complete simulation software for electrical transients, the
"
igure 1
M51 M52 M53 M54
M61 M62 M63 M64 M65
L5 h!
I

transformer model must absolutely be compatible with a

commercially available software ensuring the simulation of the
"environment" and the computation management. That's why
we have develcped a model which is entirely compatible with
EMIT.
93 SM 382-2 PWRD A paper recommended and approved
by the IEEE Power System Relaying Committee of the
IEEE Power Engineering Society for presentation at
the IEEE/PES 1993 Summer Meeting, Vancouver, B.C.,
Canada, July 18-22, 1993. Manuscript submitted Apr
27, 1992; made available for printing May 3, 1993.
PRINTED IN USA
0885-8977/94/$04.00 Q 1993 IEEE
The BcTRAN routine must clearly be considered as an
auxiliary routine of the EMTP itself, and not as a part of the main
program. In point of fact, BCTRAN merely computes the elements
of the matrices [RI and [L] and makes a file which can be
directly read by EMTP. This file [R,L] can then be included in
any EMTP input file. The transformer will thus be handled as
mutuallycoupled R,L branches [l] [2].
This document does not aim at validating the BCTRAN
routine. All the theoretical details relating to this routine are
explained in [3]. Let us therefore assume the accuracy of the 6x6
matrices.
The principle used to model a fault between a coil turn and
the earth or between any two tums is to divide the faulty coil.
Figure 2a shows the diagram enabling study of a turn-to-
earth fault and figure 2b shows the diagram enabling study of a
turn-to-turn fault. In the former case, the transformer can be
described with two 7x7 matrices [RI, [L] ; in the latter case, two
8x8 matrices are required.
 69 1
1. Consistency
If, when using the 7x7 matrix, coils a and b are supplied in
series without any fault, the same results must be found as when
the 6x6 matrix is used.
Let us thus assume that coils a and b are supplied in series
and that a current i flows through them : see figure 3. All other
coils are on no-load.

XJ-

Figure 2a figure 2b

Our aim in this paper is to describe a method for the

&termination of these 7x7 or 8x8 matrices using, firstly, the In this way :
6x6 matrices [R],[L] computed by BCTRAN and, secondly, the
leakage factors between the various coils. The main advantage of
this method lies in the fact that it requires no other test results and
than those required by the BCTRAN module to determine the 6x6
matrices. In point of fact, the various leakage factors can be
determined from the geometrical data of the transformer and the These relations lead to the well-known expression of L3 ,
position of the fault : see section IV. considered as two inductances in series :
In a first step, we shall assume that the various leakage
factors are known. These factors will thus be considered as
parameters.

II. TURN-TO-EARTHFAULT
La, Mab and I+, are elements of the 7x7 matrix.
If coil 3 has to be divided, as shown in figure 2a. the L3 is an element of the 6x6 matrix.
position of the fault point is defined by the following data :
2. Leakage
na = number of turns of "sub-coil" a Taking into account a leakage factor between coils a and b
nb = number of turns of "sub-coil" b is essential since the fault current will largely depend on the
leakage. The leakage factor is :
The 7x7 matrix [RI will be determined with the help of the
following relations :
Ra=%R3
"3 ; Rb=:R3 PI
oh= 1 --

The main difficulty is to determine the new 7x7 matrix [L],

as written in the next column. 3. Proportionality
The elements in italics of this matrix are unknown. The To determine the three unknowns (La , L b and Mab), we
other ones are determined by the routine BCTRAN and can thus must add a third equation to relations (1) and (2) :
be considered as known data.
The first step is to determine the elements relating to the
faulty coil : L, , I.+ and Mab. This purpose will be achieved, 2
L
according to three rules : consistency, leakage and
proportionality. G=):( (3)

f
L1 M12 M l a M l b M14 M15 M16
Letusnote: k = % .
M21 L2 M 2 a M 2 b M24 M25 M26 nb

M a l Ma2 La M a b M a 4 M a 5 Ma6 Relation (3) is approximate. It expresses that k is the

voltage ratio between coils a and b. It is strictly true only if
[LI = M b l Mb2 Mba Lb M b 4 M b 5 Mb6 there are no leakage ((Tab = 0). However, it represents an
excellent numerical approximation when (Tab is close to zero
M41 M42 M 4 a M 4 b L4 M45 M46 and is very widely used.
M51 M52 M 5 a M 5 b M54 L5 M56
L3 is given by the 6x6 matrix computed by B C T R A N .
,M61 M62 M 6 a M 6 b M64 M65 L6 k characterizes the fault position along the coil. In this way, if
692
we consider Q as a parameter which can be computed, 3
equations are obtained for 3 unknown quantities : La, L+, and
Mab. The resolution leads to the following relations :

(7) and (11) lead to :

(4)

I Lb= L3
k2 + 2kd=+ 1
1
I - I

M3i is given by the 6x6 matrix computed by BCTRAN.

We have now to determine the mutual inductances between

the coil a and any other coil i except for b (as well as those
between the coil b and any other coil i except for a).
Generally speaking, the consistency principle leads to : UI. TURN-TO-TURNFAULT
M3i = Ma, + Mbi, (7)

A second equation must then be determined enabling Ma, Let us consider the turn-to-turn fault shown in figure 2b.
and Mbi to be computed.
As in part II, the matrix [RI can be easily determined with
* la case : the coil i is wound onto the same leg as a and b. the help of the following relations :

If n, 2 nb. aa, will be determined with a greater accuracy

than obi. In these conditions, we set down :

The 8x8 matrix [L] to determine is :

I

We assume that o~ and (33i ,hence E, can be computed. L1 M12 M l a M l b M l c M14 M15 M16

M21 L2 M 2 a M 2 b M 2 c M24 M25 M26

(8) leads to :
M a l Ma2 La M a b Mac Ma4 M a 5 M a 6
M b l Mb2 Mba Lb Mbc Mb4 M b 5 M b 6
(9)
M c l Mc2 Mca Mcb Lc Mc4 Mc5 Mc6
M41 M42 M 4 a M 4 b M 4 c L4 M45 M46
Li, L3 and M3i are given by the 6x6 matrix computed by
BCTRAN. La is computed by (4).
M51 M52 M 5 a M 5 b M 5 c M54 L5 M56
,M61 M62 M 6 a M 6 b M 6 c M64 M65 L6
(7) leads then to :

Let us now come back to the 3 "rules" set out above:

consistency, leakage and proportionality, in order to determine
the parameters relating to the faulty coil : Mab , Mac , Mbc ,L a ,
Lb and Lc.
* 2"dcase : the coil i is not wound on the same leg as a and b. Let us assume that the three coils a, b and c are supplied in
series and that a current i flows through them, as shown in
figure 4. All other coils remain on no-load.
The magnetic couplings between coils i and a on the one
hand and i and b on the other hand are extremely bad since the
third leg represents a leakage reluctance. The leakage factors are
then very different from zero and it is hard to evaluate them.
Since the leakage between these coils is channeled by a
magnetic circuit, the corresponding leakage inductances are of
the same order of magnitude as the self-inductances and thus,
they have no effect on the numerical value of the short-circuit;
currents appearing in case of a turn-to-earth fault. A simple
proportionality relation is sufficient :
 693

The resolution of the above system enables the

construction of a 8x8 matrix consistent with the 6x6 matrix.
This means that if coils a, b and c are supplied in series, the same
simulation results are obtained using the 6x6 or the 8x8 matrix.
i 0 In other words, imposing i, = ib = enables the 8x8 matrix to
be reduced to a 6x6 matrix which will be identical to the one
computed by BCTRAN.
What will happen if two of the three "sub-coils" are
grouped together, for example b and c ?

figure 4 I As soon as ib = i,, the 8x8 matrix can easily be reduced to a

0 = + a + Qb + +c
= (hi+ Mat, i +Mac i)+ (I+ i +Mab i + M h i),
7x7 matrix. However, nothing enables us to affirm that this
matrix is identical to the one obtained by the method set out for
the study of the turn-to-earth fault. For this to be the case, the
relations (16), (17) and (18) must be modified in the above
(ki+ M, i +Mbc i) system, no longer considering leakage factors Gab, and oac
but od(b+c)O(a+b)/c and o(a+c)b
1

and Q = L3 i (L3 : value computed by B ~ R A N )

Let us assume that the coils b anc c are supplied in series , as
hence : shown in figure 5 .

This relation represents the rule of consistency. By adding

to this the rule of proportionality and the expressions of the
- 7 a I
leakage factors between the various "sub-coils", a system of
equations is obtained : see hereunder.
Considering the three leakage factors as known parameters
(Gab , oacand (Tbc ), we obtain thus six equations for six
unknowns : Mat,, Mac, Mb,, b , and Lc.
2
(Remark : for n sub-coils, n + Cn unknowns are thus obtained $a=M*i+Maci and +a = Ma/b+ci
2
for 1 + Cn + (n-1) relations ...) hence :

moreover :
[consistency)
2
Mdb+C
and : 0.I(pK) = 1 --
LaLb+c

--
Mab
o a b = l - T s 1 , (16)
a b
thus:
2
[leakage)
(Tat= 1 Mac (17)
a c
2 I 2 1

Both these relations can advantageously replace two of the

2 three relations (16), (17) and (18).
%=(%) (19)
(Td(p+,)and 6(a+b)/c will be actually computed in the same
way as the leakage factor Gab of part 11 which enables the
(proportion .) computation of every 7x7 matrix obtained by dividing the coil

e=(?) 2
(20)
no longer in three (a,b,c) but in two (a+b,c) or (a,b+c). In this
way, by using the two coefficients (Td(b+c) and (T(a+b)/c. the 8x8
matrices generated in this case will be consistent with the 7x7
matrices generated to model a turn-to-earth fault.
The third relation out of (16), (17) and (18) will be
replaced by :
694
We have now to determine the mutual inductances of one
of the three windings a, b or c with any other winding i.
The consistency principle results in

The 8x8 matrix will thus be characterized by only one

"specific" parameter : Q(,+,.~. This parameter represents the
leakage between coils (a+c, supplied in series) and (b).
It should be noted, moreover, that the coils (a+b) and
(b+c) allow a more accurate evaluation of the leakage factors
than the coils a, b and c taken separately.
In short, the system to be solved is the one described
hereunder : see next column.
It should be observed that this 6 equation system with 6
unknowns is not linear and cannot lead to an explicit expression
of the various inductances and mutuals. In practice, a numerical
resolution method must therefore be used.
If such a method requires knowledge of an approximate
solution to initialize its iterations, the following will be taken :
2 2
As in part 11, two cases must then be considered in order to
establish the two complementary equations enabling the
determination of M a , Mbi and Mci.
* 1st case : i is wound on the same leg as a, b and c.
The two windings with the largest number of turns will
then be considered out of a, b and c. Let us assume for example :
n a h C and nb2nc. Two equations are then determined as in
part 11 :
(25
We assume we know how to compute oa, o b i and (T3i
hence E1 and E2 .
2
Equations (25) lead to

(consistency

-
with the
6x6 matrix)
M3i and L3 are computed by BCTRAN; and Lb are computed
with the help of the equations (15) and (19) to (23).

Equation (24) then yields .

(leakage
consistent
with every
7x7 matrix)
* 2nd case : i is not wound on the same legs a, b and c.
For the reasons already laid out in part 11 in a similar case,
relation (24)is completed by two proportionality relations :

2 (leakage
specific to
the 8x8
matrix) The various mutual inductances can then be expressed :

2
1
(proportion.
2

The numerical method we used to solve this system is one

of the mathematical routines of the Fortran library IMSL.
 695
IV. CALCULATION OF THE LEAKAGE FACTORS
1. General principles

I t has already been shown by several engineers [6] that
leakage inductances between two concentric coils in a power
transformer could be easily approximated, using the following
assumptions :
no saturation occurs (pmre>> pair),
current density is constant in the windings,
field 8 is parallel to the axis of the magnetic core,
field 8 is symmetric in relation to this axis.
where v1 ,v12 and v2 are the volumes of the internal winding,
the inter-winding space and the external winding. With the
rotation-symmetry assumption, equation (35) leads to :
R+a,+a,,+a,
x=R+a, x=R+a,+a,,
The complete calculation leads to the following relation :

Let us assume that one of the windings is supplied with a W = po .nf .f(h,R,al ,al2.a2).i?
:urrent il and the other one is short-circuited. (37)

where f(h,R,al,a12,a2) is a function of the geometric quantities of

' axis of symmetry the transformer.
W can also be considered as the energy stored in Lccl, the
total leakage inductance,reduced to winding 1 :

With the help of (37) and (38). it is then possible to

determine Lccl :

Note that most of the authors who have worked on the

method described above propose a correction factor - based on
experimental results - which is supposed to increase the
precision of (39). Unfortunately, this coefficient depends on the
type of transformer which has been used to obtain experimental
results.
In order to determine the correction factor characteristic of
A 2 1 the transformer in question, we propose to use the 6x6 matrix
I
I computed by the routine BCTRAN. With the notations described
on figure 1, the leakage inductance between windings 1 and 2,
I reduced to twinding 1, is :

igure 6

If we know the geometric quantities of the transformer, this

Because of the f i s t hvmthesis. the magnitude of field 8 leakage inductance between the primary and the secondary
is close to zero everywherg h the core itself.-Moreover, because windings of phase I can also be computed with (39). The
of the last two hypothesis, the magnitude H at any point in the correction factor to be used whenever we calculate a leakage
air depends only on the distance x between the axis of the core inductance between two sub-windings of the transformer with
and this point . Using the Amp&re's law applied to the 3 paths (39) can then be estimated once for all :
drawn on figure 6, it is possible to determine the following
values of H(x) :
LEI between prim. and sec. windings computed with(40)
k, = LW1between prim. and sec. windings computed with(39)
for x<R : H(x) = 0 (32)
nl il
for R+al<x<R+al+alZ : H(x) = -=h H, (33) Equation (39) becomes :
for x>R+al+alz +a2 : H(x) = 0 (34)

If we assume that H(x) is linear for R<x<R+al and for

R+al+a12<x<R+al+a12 +a2 , the curve H(x) has the shape
drawn on figure 6, and the equations Hl(x) and Hz(x) of the
lines AI and A2 are easy to determine.
It is then possible to calculate the energy W stored in the
windings :
If the geometric method used to compute the leakage
inductances is good, k should be close to 1. That's what we have
noticed in the example described below.
696
2. Applications

The problem is to use (41)to determine all the leakage

factors oijused in relations (4).(5), (6), and (21), (22), (23). This
is quite simple to do. The only difficulty is to choose correctly
the windings and the shape of H(x), in order to compute the
function f(h,R,al,al2,a2) specific to each situation. Let US
describe some examples :

* calculation of Gab, used in (4) to simulate the case of fig. h

The situation to be considered is described on figure 7. The
maximum values of H(x) are :

The method described above allows to determine Lcc,. It is

then possible to calculate (Tab :

Note that L + b is the inductance of the primary winding. It

is computed by BCTRAN. N,, Nb, n, and nb depend only on the
I* I
I
I
l
l
l
l
l
l
I
I
I

position of the fault. ,"

I I I
n,-t
I axis of symmetry
I
I

Once again, the method described in IV.l allows to

determine &(a=). It is then possible to calculate O(a+c)/b :

O(a+c)/b =

Note that L + b + c is the inductance of the primary winding.

It is computed by BcTRAN.

3. Special cases
TH I I A121
When calculating a leakage factor, one of the sub-windings
I I rl' may not be long enough to cover the height of the core. The
shapes of the field lines are then very distorted and the third
hypothesis of section IV.1 is not valid anymore. What we
propose in such a case is to use correction factors kh, which
increase the leakage inductance calculated with the method
described in section IV.l and applied in section IV.2. The
formulas which allow calculation of the correction factors have
been determined by Maurice DENIS-PAPIN [ 6 ] . They are based
on many experimental results relating to various transformers.
* calculation of ~(,+,p,,
used in (23) to simulate the case of
figure 2b For the two cases shown on figure 9, the correction factor is
determined as follows :
The situation to be considered is described on figure 8.
Windings a and c are fed in series with a current i, whereas
winding b is short-circuited. The maximum values of H(x) are :
01 + 0 2
 697
The short circuits have been made by closing a contactor
between two taps. The test transformer was supplied at low
voltage by an autotransformer wired in series with an insulation
transformer.
Some of the results of these experiments are described

- 4 % I -U
4 812 a 2
in [7].

2. Calculation of the leakage factors

Whenever an internal fault has to be simulated, some

figure 9 leakage factors must be determined with the method described
in section IV. Below two curves are drawn which relate to the
For the two cases shown on figure 10, the correction factor test transformer.
is determined as follows :
* l&example :turn-to-earth fault
(47) Figure 12 shows the variations of as defined in (2) to
describe the case of figure 2a. for a turn-toearth fault when the
position of the fault moves on one of the HV windings,.
The location of the fault is defined as follows :

location = 2
1556

- 4 %
I
0.018
LEAKAGE FACTOR 161

figure 10

Both in (46) and (47), the coefficients k l and k2 are

defined as follows : 0.015
1.6
ki=l+O,l(!) ; i=1;2 with: p = a 1 2 3

V. EXPERIMENTAL VERIFICATION
+ m (49)
1
6
FAULT LOCATION
1

figure 12
1. Description of the test transformer
The leakage factor increases rapidly when the fault occurs on an
A special three-phase transformer has been manufactered to outer layer. Moreover, there is a slight decrease in leakage when
validate the model described above. This transformer has the the 2 winding parts (a and b) are overlapped.
following characteristics :
* 2nd example :turn-to-turn fault
rated power : 100 kVA Figure 13 shows the variations of as defined in (2)
rated voltages : 5500 V I 410 V to describe the case of figure 2b for a fault between two turns,
coupling : Dyn half a layer apart, when the position of the first defective turn
short-circuit voltage : 3,96 % moves on one of the HV windings,.
LV winding : 67 turns wound in 2 layers The location of the fault is defined by the location of the
HV winding : 1556 turns wound in 8 layers first defective tum:
location = 2
The external coil (HV) of each phase has been fitted with 1556
taps as shown in figure 11.

nb of turns nb of turns I LEAKAGE FACTOR IS]

I I

1
FAULT LOCATION
igure 13
698
Figure 14 shows the location of the faults relating to
points 1, 2, 3, ... of figure 13.

I f axis of symmetry

In the cases 1, 3, 5, .... the sub-windings (a+c) and b are

;
-5.
a.
:.
r. . . .
.
:
' -1 ,
%

.
,
;

111.'
.. d'>*'f
.
..
,
/I-\,

....................................................

,
'$
.
X I '
I ',LfI ,
>'
I\
I

much more overlaped than in the cases 2, 4, 6, 8, ... That's why

the leakage factors are smaller.

3. Comparison between calculation and measurements

By reproducing 16 turn-to-earth faults and several dozens

of turn-to-turn faults involving at least half a layer, we have
noticed a difference between the calculated currents and the
recorded currents which never exceeded 10 % in modulus and
10' in phase. The correlation between tests and simulation is
even better when the fault involves only windings covering at turn-to-turn fault
least once the full winding height. Two examples are given
below. The quantities measured are shown on figure 16.
turn-to-earth fault
The quantities measured are shown on figure 15.
I
.

The results of a fault between the 1167th tum and the

1266" turn (half a layer) on the HV winding of phase A are
shown below :
The results of a fault between the 5831h tum and the earth
on the HV winding of phase A are shown below : I..

5.

i 8

-5.

I -18.
..... ........ . ........
# U
TIHB (a.)
.r n

1.0

68
be
49
z 8
21
-S.

C .
-am -18.
# 8.81 # U #.U 8.84 8.85 886 8.17 #.I8
-I nun (a.)
-6a
8 8.01 8 #I a.83 8.84 8.85 # 86 8.87 0.80
TlMB b.)

The good results obtained during the experimental
validation allow us to use the model to simulate winding faults
in large power transformers.
A worked example has shown in [7] how to use this
transformer model to design protection systems.
CONCLUSION
Using the results supplied by the auxiliary routine of EMTP
called B f f R A N , we have shown that every turn-to-earth or tum-to-
turn fault could be modelled in a power transformer as soon as the
leakage factors could be evaluated. From the matrix of
inductances computed by BCTRAN, we have developped a process
to compute a new matrix which allows the simulation of any kind
of internal fault. This computation is based on the determination
of the leakage factors.
We have also developed a simple method in order to
determine these factors without using specific test results since
such tests relating to the transformer in a fault situation will
never be available. Comparisons between internal fault tests
conducted on an experimental 100 kVA transformer and the
corresponding simulations have been made. They have shown the
accuracy of the model.
The next step of the work presented in this paper could be
the evaluation of the leakage factors with a finite-element
method, in order to know if the accuracy could be increased in
this way.
699
REFERENCES
EMTP DEVELOPMENT COORDINATION GROUP ;
ELECTRIC POWER RESEARCH INSTITUTE
EMTP Revised Rule Book, Version 2.0 ;
Volume 2 : Auxiliary Routines , Section 6.
LEUVEN EMTP CENTER
ATP Rule Book ; July 1987 ; Section 19C.
V.BRABDWAJN ;H.W. DOMMEL ;1.1.DOMMEL
"Matrix Representation of Three-phase N-Winding
Transformers"
IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON P.A.S ; pp 1369-1378; june
1982
J.L. BINARD ;J.C. MAUN
"Power Transformer Simulation including Inrush
Currents and Intemal Faults"
JemeConfkrence Internationale IUACS-TCI '90,Nancy,
FRANCE ; septembre 1990
A.G. PHADKE, J.S. THORP
Computer Relaying f o r Power Systems
Research Studies Press LTD ; pp 166-176 ; 1988
M. DENIS-PAPIN
La Pratique Industrielle de Transfomateurs
fiditions Albin Michel ; PARIS ; 1951
P.BERTRAND ;A. DEVALLAND ;P. BASTARD
"A Simulation Model for Transformer Intemal Faults,
Base for the Study of Protection and Monitoring
Systems"
1 2 t h International Conference on Electricity
Distribution; CIRED ; Birmingham ; UK ; May 1993
BIOGRAPHIES
. ck BAS- was born in Pont-Audemer, FRANCE, in
1966. He graduated from the BCOLE SUP~RIEURED'BLECTRICITB
(Gif-sur-Yvette, France) in 1988. From 1989 to 1992, he
worked for the MERLIN GERIN company as a research engineer in
the Protection and Control Department. In 1992, he received a
Ph.D. Degree in electrical engineering from the university of
PARIS (Orsay). He is now a researcher in the BCOLE SUP~RIEURE
D'ELECTRId.
0
was born in Thionville, FRANCE, in
1956. He graduated in 1979 from BCOLE SUPBRIEURE
D'INGmEURS fiLECrrUCIEN.9 DE GRENOBLE, France. He joined the
MERLIN GERJN company in 1983, first as a research engineer in the
Power Network Studies Department. He is presently responsible
for the Electrical Engineering Section of the Protection and
Control Department. He is a member of the S.E.E. (SociCtC des
Electriciens et des Electroniciens).
Michel MEUNIER was born in Merdrignac, FRANCE, in
1945. He graduated from the BCOLE SUPBRIEURE D'BLECTRICITB
(Cif-sur-Yvette, France) in 1968. He has been working in the
Ecole SupCrieure d'Electricit6" since 1968. He is presently
professor at the BCOLE SUPBUEURE D'BLECTRICITB where he
manages a research group on power networks. He is a member of
the S.E.E. (SociCtC des Electriciens et des Electroniciens).