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Functions and Limits: Animation 1.1: Function Machine Source and Credit: Elearn - Punjab
Functions and Limits: Animation 1.1: Function Machine Source and Credit: Elearn - Punjab
CHAPTER
The term function was recognized by a German Mathematician Leibniz (1646 - 1716)
A function can be thought as a
to describe the dependence of one quantity on another. The following examples illustrates
computing machine f that takes an input x,
how this term is used:
operates on it in some way, and produces
exactly one output f(x). This output f(x) is
(i) The area “A” of a square depends on one of its sides “x” by the formula A = x2, so
called the value of f at x or image of x under
we say that A is a function of x.
The volume “ V ” of a sphere depends on its radius “r” by the formula V = 4 pr3, so
f. The output f(x) is denoted by a single
(ii)
3 letter, say y, and we write y = f(x).
we say that V is a function of r.
The variable x is called the independent variable of f, and the variable y is called
A function is a rule or correspondence, relating two sets in such a way that each
the dependent variable of f. For now onward we shall only consider the function in
element in the irst set corresponds to one and only one element in the second set.
which the variables are real numbers and we say that f is a real valued function of real
Thus in, (i) above, a square of a given side has only one area.
numbers.
And in, (ii) above, a sphere of a given radius has only one volume.
= x3 + x2 + 3x + 2
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Solution: We see that if x is in the interval -3 < x < 3, a square root of a negative number is
Solution: Here y = f(x) = x2 + 1
We see that f(x) = x2 +1 is deined for every real number. Further, for every real number
obtained. Hence no real number y = x2 - 9 exists. So
Domain f = { x d R : |x| 8 3 } = (-T, -3] j [3, + T)
x, y = f(x) = x2 + 1 is a non-negative real number.
Hence Domain f = set of all real numbers
Range f = set of all positive real numbers = (0, + T) and Range f = set of all non-negative real numbers except
the points 0 7 y < 1.
1.1.4 Graphs of Algebraic functions For graph of f(x) = x2 +1, we assign some values to x from its domain and ind the
corresponding values in the range f as shown in the table:
If f is a real-valued function of real numbers, then the graph of f in the xy-plane is
deined to be the graph of the equation y = f(x). x -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
y = f(x) 10 5 2 1 2 5 10
The graph of a function f is the set of points {(x, y)| y = f(x)} , x is in the domain of f in the
Cartesian plane for which (x, y) is an ordered pair of f. The graph provides a visual technique Plotting the points (x, y) and joining them with a smooth curve,
for determining whether the set of points represents a function or not. If a vertical line we get the graph of the function f(x) = x2 + 1, which is shown in the
intersects a graph in more than one point, it is not the graph of a function. igure.
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p
(iv)
(e + e-x) is called hyperbolic cosine function. Its domain is the set of
1 x
y = sec x, Domain = {x : xdR and x ≠ (2n + 1) , n an integer}, Range= R
(ii) cosh x =
(v) 2
y = csc x, Domain = {x : xdR and x ≠ np, n an integer}, Range = y 8 1, y 7 -1
2 all real numbers and the range is the set of all numbers in the interval [1, +T)
(vi) (iii) The remaining four hyperbolic functions are deined in terms of the hyperbolic
sine and the hyperbolic cosine function as follows:
e x - e- x
1.2.3 Inverse Trigonometric Functions
=
=
e x + e- x e x + e- x
sinh x 1 2
tanh x = sech x =
cosh x cosh x
e x + e- x
We denote and deine inverse trigonometric functions as follows:
=
=
p p e x - e- x e - e- x
cosh x 1 2
1.2.4 Exponential Function The inverse hyperbolic functions are expressed in terms of natural logarithms and we
shall study them in higher classes.
1 x +1
A function, in which the variable appears as exponent (power), is
sinh -1 x = ln(x + x 2 + 1 ), for all x (iv) coth -1 x = ln , x < 1
2 x -1
called an exponential function. The functions, y = eax, y = ex, y = 2x = (i)
1
ex ln 2, etc are exponential functions of x.
cosh -1 x = ln(x + x2 - 1 ) x ≥ 1 (v) sech -1 x = ln + , 0 < x ≤1
1 - x2
x
(ii)
1.2.5 Logarithmic Function x
1 1 + x 1
ln , x < 1 (vi) csch -1 x = ln + , x ≠ 0
If x = ay , then y = loga x , where a > 0, a ≠ 1 is called Logarithmic Function of x. tanh -1 x =
1 + x2
2 1-x x
(iii)
x
(i) If a = 10, then we have log10 x (written as lg x) which is known as the common
logarithm of x.
(ii) If a = e, then we have loge x (written as In x) which is known as the natural 1.2.8 Explicit Function
logarithm of x.
If y is easily expressed in terms of the independent variable x, then y is called an explicit
function of x. For example
(i) y = x2 + 2x - 1 (ii) =
y x - 1 are explicit functions of x.
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Symbolically it can be written as y = f(x). Note : In both the cases, for each x in the domain of f, -x must also be in the domain of f.
1.2.9 Implicit Function Example 1: Show that the parametric equations x = a cos t and y = a sin t represent
the equation of the circle x2 + y2 = a2
If x and y are so mixed up and y cannot be expressed in terms of the independent
variable x, then y is called an implicit function of x. For example, Solution: The parametric equations are
2
xy - y + 9 x = a cos t (i)
(i) x2 + xy + y2 = 2 (ii) = 1 are implicit functions of x and y.
xy y = a sin t (ii)
We eliminate the parameter “t” from equations (i) and (ii).
Symbolically it is written as f(x, y) = 0. By squaring we get, x2 = a2 cos2 t
y2 = a2 sin2 t
(ix) Parametric Functions By adding we get, x2 + y2 = a2 cos2 t + a2 sin2 t
= a2 (cos2 t + sin2 t)
Some times a curve is described by expressing both x and y as function of a third ∴ x2 + y2 = a2, which is equation of the circle.
variable “t” or “q” which is called a parameter. The equations of the type x = f(t) and y = g(t)
are called the parametric equations of the curve . Example 2: Prove the identities
The functions of the form: (i) cosh2 x - sinh2 x = 1 (ii) cosh2 x + sinh2 x = cosh 2x
x = at2 x = a cos t x = a cos q x = a sec q
y = b sin q y = a tan q
(i) (ii) (iii) (iv)
y = at y = a sin t e x - e- x
are called parametric functions. Here the variable t or q is called parameter.
Solution: We know that sinh x = (1)
2
e 2 x + e -2 x + 2
For example: f(x) = x2 and f(x) = cos x are even functions of x.
Here f(-x) = (-x)2 = x2 = f(x) and f(-x) = cos (-x) = cos x = f(x) e 2 x + e -2 x - 2
sinh 2 x = and cosh 2 x =
4 4
1.2.11 Odd Function e 2 x + e -2 x + 2 e 2 x + e -2 x - 2
cosh 2 x - sinh 2 x = -
Now (i) 4 4
A function f is said to be odd if f(-x) = -f(x) , for every number x in the domain of f. e + e + 2 - e - e -2 x + 2 4
2x -2 x 2x
= =
∴
For example, f(x) = x3 and f(x) = sin x are odd functions of x. Here 4 4
f(-x) = (-x)3 = -x3 = -f(x) and f(-x) = sin(-x) = -sin x = -f(x)
2 2
cosh x - sinh x = 1
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e2 x + e-2 x + 2 e2 x + e-2 x - 2
3. Express the following:
2 2
and (ii) cosh x + sinh x = 4
+
4 (a) The perimeter P of square as a function of its area A.
e2 x + e-2 x + 2 + e2 x + e-2 x - 2 (b) The area A of a circle as a function of its circumference C.
=
4 (c) The volume V of a cube as a function of the area A of its base.
2e 2 x + 2e -2 x e 2 x + e -2 x 4. Find the domain and the range of the function g deined below, and
g(x) = 2x - 5
= =
6 x + 7 , x ≤ - 2 x -1 , x < 3
Example 3: Determine whether the following functions are even or odd.
g (x) = g (x) =
4 - 3 x , -2 < x 2 x + 1 , 3 ≤ x
(v) (vi)
3x
x + 1
(a) f(x) = 3x4 - 2x2 + 7 (b) f (x) = (c) f(x) = sin x + cos x
2
, x ≠ -1 , x ≠ 4
x 2 - 3x + 2 x 2 - 16
(vii) g (x) = (viii) g (x) =
Solution:
f(-x) = 3(-x)4 - 2(-x)2 + 7 = 3x4 - 2x2 + 7 = f(x)
x+1 x -4
(a) Given f(x) = x3 - ax2 + bx + 1
f(x) = 3x4 - 2x2 + 7 is even.
5.
Thus If f(2) = -3 and f(-1) = 0 . Find the values of a and b.
3( - x)
f ( - x) = - 2 = - f (x)
6. A stone falls from a height of 60m on the ground, the height h afterx seconds is
approximately given by h(x) = 40 - 10x2
3x
( - x) + 1 x + 1
(b) 2
f(a + h) - f(a)
x2 y 2
- =1
2. Find and simplify where, a 2 b2
h
f(x) = 6x - 9
8. Prove the identities:
(i) (ii) f(x) = sin x sech2 x = 1 - tanh2 x
f(x) = x3 + 2x2 - 1
(i) sinh 2x = 2sinh x cosh x (ii)
(iii) (iv) f(x) = cos x (iii) csch2 x = coth2 x - 1
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Solution:
fg (x) = f (g (x)) = f ( x2 - 1) = 2 (x2 - 1) +1 = 2x2 - 1
9. Determine whether the given function f is even or odd.
(i)
(ii) gf (x) = g (f(x)) = g (2x + 1) = (2x + 1)2 - 1 = 4x2 + 4x
(i) f(x) = x3 + x (ii) f(x) = (x + 2)2
x- 1
f (x) = x x 2 + 5 , x ≠ -1
x+ 1
(iii) f2(x) = f (f(x)) = f (2x + 1) = 2(2x +1) + 1 = 4x + 3
(iv) g2(x) = g(gx) = g (x2 - 1) = (x2 - 1)2 - 1 = x4 - 2x2
(iii) (iv) f (x) =
fg (x) ≠ gf(x)
x3 - x
We observe from (i) and (ii) that
x + 1
2 3
(v) f (x) = x +6 (vi) f (x) = 2
Note:
It is important to note that, in general, gf (x) ≠ fg (x) , because gf (x)means that f is
1.3 COMPOSITION OF FUNCTIONS AND 1.
applied irst then followed by g, whereas fg (x) means that g is applied irst then
INVERSE OF AFUNCTION followed by f.
2. We usually write f as f 2 and ff as f 3 and so on.
Let f be a function from set X to set Y and g be a function from set Y to set Z. The
composition of f and g is a function, denoted by gof, from X to Z and is deined by 1.3.2 Inverse of a Function
(gof)(x) = g(f(x)) = gf(x) , for all xdX.
Let f be a one-one function from X onto Y. The inverse function of f denoted by f -1, is
1.3.1 Composition of Functions Remember That: a function from Y onto X and is deined by:
Briely we write gof as gf. x = f -1(y), [ y d Y if and only if y = f(x) , [ x d X.
Explanation Illustration by arrow diagram
Consider two real valued functions f and g deined by The inverse function reverses the correspondence
f(x) = 2x + 3 and g(x) = x2 of the original function, so that
then gof(x) = g(f (x) ) = g(2x + 3) = (2x + 3)2 f -1(y) = x, when f(x) = y
and f(x) = y , when f -1(y) = x
The arrow diagram of two consecutive mappings, f
We can ind the composition of the functions f and
followed by g, denoted by gf is shown in the igure.
f -1 as follows:
Thus a single composite function gf(x) is equivalent (f -1 of)(x) = f -1(f (x)) = f -1(y) = x
to two successive functions f followed by g. and (fof -1)(y) = f (f -1(y)) = f(x) = y
We note that f -1 of and fof -1 are identity mappings on the domain and range of f and
Example 1: Let the real valued functions f and g be deined by f -1 respectively.
f(x) = 2x + 1 and g(x) = x2 - 1
Obtain the expressions for (i) fg (x) (ii) gf (x) (iii) f2 (x) (iv) g2 (x) 1.3.3 Algebraic Method to ind the Inverse Function
The inverse function can be found by using the algebraic method as explained in the
following example:
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Example 2: Let f : R " R be the function deined by So the value of f(x) = 2 + x - 1 varies over the interval [2, +T).
f(x) = 2x + 1. Find f -1(x) Therefore range f = [2, +T)
By deinition of inverse function f -1, we have
Remember that: domain f -1 = range f = [2, +T)
The change of name of variable in the deinition of function does not change that function and range f -1 = domain f = [1, +T)
where the domain and range coincide.
EXERCISE 1.2
Solution: We ind the inverse of f as follows:
Write f(x) = 2x + 1 = y 1. The real valued functions f and g are deined below. Find
So that y is the image of x under f. (a) fog (x) (b) gof (x) (c) fof (x) (d) gog (x)
Now solve this equation for x as follows:
, x ≠1
y = 2x +1 3
⇒ 2x = y - 1
(i) f(x) = 2x + 1 ; g (x) =
x -1
g (x) = 2 , x ≠ 0
y-1
1
⇒
(ii) f (x) = x +1 ;
x
x=
, x ≠1
2 1
∴ (y) = ( y - 1 ) ∴ x = f -1 (y)
-1 1 (iii) f (x) = ; g(x) = (x2 + 1)2
f x -1
∴ f -1 (x) =
1 2. For the real valued function, f deined below, ind
(x - 1)
2 (a) f -1(x) (b) f -1(-1) and verify f (f -1 (x)) = f -1 f(x)) = x
Veriication: (i) f(x) = -2x + 8 (ii) f(x) = 3x3 + 7
f ( f -1 (x) ) = f (x - 1) = 2 (x - 1) + 1 = x
1 1
2x + 1
(iii) f(x) = (-x + 9)3 (iv)
2 2
f (x) = ,x>1
x -1
f -1 ( f (x) ) = f -1 ( 2x + 1) = ( 2x + 1 - 1) = x
1 3. Without inding the inverse, state the domain and range of f -1.
and
, x ≠ -3
2
1
(i) (iii)
Without inding the inverse, state the domain and range of f -1, where
f (x) = x+2 f (x) =
Example 3: x+3
f (x) = 2 + x -1 (ii) f (x) =
x -1
, x≠ 4 (iv) f(x) = (x - 5)2 , x 8 5
x -4
Solution: We see that f is not deined when x < 1.
∴ Domain f = [1, +T)
As a varies over the interval [1, +T), the value of x - 1 varies over the interval [0, +T).
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The table of values of f(x) for diferent values of x as x approaches 2 from left and Theorem 2: The limit of the diference of two functions is equal to the diference
of their limits.
Lim f ( x ) - g ( x ) = Lim f ( x ) - Lim g ( x ) = L - M
right is as follows:
from left of 2 2 from right of 2
x 1 1.5 1.8 1.9 1.99 1.999 1.9999 2.0001 2.001 2.01 2.1 2.2 2.5 3
For example, x →3 x →3 x →3
3
f(x)=x 1 3.375 5.832 6.859 7.8806 7.988 7.9988 8.0012 8.012 8.1206 9.261 10.648 15.625 27
Theorem 3: If k is any real number, then
Lim kf ( x ) = k Lim f ( x ) = kL
The table shows that, as x gets closer and closer to 2 (suiciently close to 2), from
Lim ( 3 x ) = 3 Lim (x ) = 3 (2 ) = 6
both sides, f(x) gets closer and closer to 8. x →a x →a
We say that 8 is the limit of f(x) when x approaches 2 and is written as: For example:
f ( x ) → 8 as x → 2
x →2 x →2
3
or lim ( x ) = 8
x →2
Theorem 4: The limit of the product of the functions is equal to the product of
1.4.5 Limit of a Function their limits.
f ( x ) Lim f ( x)
g ( x ) ≠ 0, M ≠ 0
x →a
Lim
( ) ( )
x →a L
It is neither desirable nor practicable to ind the limit of a function by numerical = = ,
x →a g x Lim g x M
x →a
3 x + 4 Lim
approach. We must be able to evaluate a limit in some mechanical way. The theorems on
Lim =
(3 x + 4) 6 + 4 10
x →2
x+3
limits will serve this purpose. Their proofs will be discussed in higher classes. For example: = = =2
x →2 Lim (x + 3) 2+3 5
x →2
( )
n
Theorem 6:
Let f and g be two functions, for which Lim f ( x ) = L and Lim g ( x ) = M , then Lim f ( x ) = Lim f ( x ) = Ln
n n
x →a x →a x →a x →a
Theorem 1: The limit of the sum of two functions is equal to the sum of their limits.
Lim f ( x ) + g ( x ) = Lim f ( x ) + Lim g ( x ) = L + M
( )
Lim ( 2 x - 3) = Lim ( 2 x - 3) = (5)3 = 125
3
3
For example:
x →4 x →4
x →a x →a x →a
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Lim P ( x ) = P ( c )
positive integer.
then show that
x →c
xn - a n x-m - a -m
Solution: Using the theorems on limits, we have Now =
-1 x m - a m
x -a x -a
=
Lim P=
(x) Lim+ (an x n an-1 x +
n -1
+ .... = m m (a ≠ 0)
x a x -a
a1 x + a0
x →c x →c
+a a
→
We simplify the given function by using algebraic technique of making factors if possible 1.5.2 Lim =
and cancel the common factors. The method is explained in the following important limits.
0
By substituting x = 0, we have form, so rationalizing the numerator.
0
xn - an
= na n-1 where n is an integer and a > 0 x + a - a
x - a ∴
1.5.1
= Lim
Lim
x →a x+a - a x +a + a
a
Lim
x →0 x x →0 x x +a +
Case 1: Suppose n is a positive integer. x +a -a
= Lim
x →0 x(
0
x+a + a)
By substituting x = a , we get form. So we make factors as follows:
0
x
xn - an = (x - a) (xn-1 + axn-2 + a2 xn-2 + .... + an-1)
= Lim
x →0 x( x+a + a)
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Example 1: Evaluate (b) Limit as x " -T. This type of limits are handled in the same way as limits as x " +T.
i.e. = 0, where x ≠ 0
1
x2 - 1 x -3 Lim
(i) Lim 2 (ii) Lim x →-∞ x
x →1 x - x x →3 x- 3
The following theorem is useful for evaluating limit at ininity.
0
form
2
x -1 Theorem: Let p be a positive rational number. If xp is deined, then
0
Solution: (i) Lim (By making factors)
x →1 x2 - x
a a
∴
Lim = 0 and Lim p = 0 ,where a is any real number.
x2 - 1 ( x - 1)( x + 1) x+1 1+1 x →+∞ p x →-∞ x
-5 -5
Lim 2 = Lim = Lim = =2 x
x →1 x - x x →1 x( x - 1) x →1 x 1
x -3 0
6
(By making factors of x - 3)
For example, Lim 3 = 0 , Lim = Lim 1/ 2 = 0
x →±∞ x x →-∞ x →-∞ x
form
x - 3 0
(ii) Lim x
x →3
1 1
∴ Lim
and Lim = Lim =0
x -3 ( x + 3 )( x - 3) x →+∞ x →+∞
5 1
= Lim x
x →3 x- 3 x →3 x- 3 x5
= Lim ( x + 3)
x →3 1.5.4 Method for Evaluating the Limits at Ininity
= ( 3 + 3)
=2 3 In this case we irst divide each term of both the numerator and the denominator by
the highest power of x that appears in the denominator and then use the above theorem.
1.5.3 Limit at Ininity
5 x 4 - 10x 2 + 1
x →+∞ -3 x 3 + 10x 2 + 50
Example 2: Evaluate Lim
, when x " c (a number)
f(x)
We have studied the limits of the functions f(x), f(x) g(x) and
g(x)
Let us see what happens to the limit of the function f(x) if c is +T or -T (limits at ininity)
Solution: Dividing up and down by x3 , we get
-4 / x + 5/x 2 0+0
to zero when the number x is suiciently large.
4 x 4 - 5x 3
=0 x →-∞ -3 - 2/x - 1/x -3 - 0 - 0
Lim = Lim = =0
x →-∞ 3 x + 2x + 1
1 5 2 3 5
We express this phenomenon by writing Lim
x →∞ x
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Example 4: Evaluate
x →0
Deduction Lim (1 + x )1 / x = e
1
2 - 3x 2 - 3x
We know that Lim 1 + = e
(i) L im (ii) L im n
x →-∞ x →+∞
n
2 2
3 + 4x 3 + 4x (i)
x →∞
-2/x + 3
When x → 0, n → ∞
2 - 3x 0+3 3
Lim = L im = =
x →-∞ x →-∞
1
3 + 4x 2 3 / x2 + 4 0+4 2
Lim 1 + = e
n
n
(ii) Here x == x == --xx as
a xx > 0 As
∴
x →∞
∴ Lim (1 + x )
Dividing up and down by x, we get
1/ x
-3
=e
x →0
2 - 3x 2/x + 3 0-3
Lim = Lim = =
x →+∞ x →+∞
ax - 1
3 + 4x 2 3 / x2 + 4 0+4 2
1.5.6
x →0
Lim = loge a
1
1 +
n x
x →+∞
n
1.5.5 Lim = e.
Put ax - 1 = y (i)
then ax = 1 + y
By the Binomial theorem, we have
So x = loga (1 + y)
1 1 n( n - 1 ) 1 n( n - 1 )( n - 2 ) 1 when x " 0, y " 0
1 + = 1 + n + +...
n 2 3 From (i)
n n n n
+
1 1 1 1 2
2! 3!
= 1 +1 + 1 - + 1 - 1 - + . . .
2! n 3 ! n n ∴
x
a -1 y 1
Lim = Lim = Lim
x →0 y →0 log ( 1 + y) y →0
( )
x 1
when n
→ ∞,
1 2 3
a log a ( 1 + y)
, , , . . . all tend to zero. y
1
n n n 1 1
Lim( 1 + y)1/ y = e
∴ L im 1 + = 1 + 1 +
= Lim = = log a
y →0 log ( 1 + y) y →0
n
1 1 1 1 1 / y e
n
+ + + +... a log a e
x →∞
2! 3! 4! 5!
= 1 + 1 + 0.5 + 0.166667 + 0.0416667 + ... = 2.718281 ... ex - 1
Deduction Lim = loge e = 1.
x→0 x
As approximate value of e is = 2.718281.
1
∴ Lim 1 + = e .
n
n
x
a -1
x →+∞ We know that Lim = log e a (1)
x →0 x
version: 1.1 version: 1.1
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1. Quadratic Equations eLearn.Punjab 1. Quadratic Equations eLearn.Punjab
1. Functions and Limits eLearn.Punjab 1. Functions and Limits eLearn.Punjab
1
Lim (e x ) = ∞ Lim (e x ) = Lim - x = 0,
e
(i) (ii) Many limit problems arise that cannot be directly evaluated by algebraic techniques. They
x →∞ x →-∞ x →-∞
a
require geometric arguments, so we evaluate an important theorem.
Lim = 0 , where a is any real number. sinq
x If q is measured in radian, then Lim
(iii)
q
x →±∞
1.5.8 =1
q →0
Proof: To evaluate this limit, we apply a new technique. Take q a positive acute central angle
Example 5: Express each limit in terms of the number ‘e’
3
Lim 1 +
of a circle with radius r = 1. As shown in the igure, OAB represents a sector of the circle.
2n 1
n
(a) (b) Lim (1+2h) h
n→+∞ h →0
Given OA = OB = 1 (radii of unit circle)
∴ In rt ∆OCB, sinq =
Solution: (a) Observe the resemblance of the limit with BC
= BC ( OB = 1)
OB
1
Lim 1 + = e In rt ∆OAD, tanq =
n
n
AD
n→∞ = AD ( OA = 1)
OA
1 + = 1 + = 1 +
n n
2n
3 3 1 3
n n n / 3
Area of ∆OAB = OA BC = (1)(sinq ) = sinq
1 1 1
put m = n/3
(i)
3 1 when n → ∞ ,
2 2 2
∴ Lim 1 + = Lim 1 +
6
n
m m → ∞
= e6 1 1 1
n→+∞ m→+∞ (ii) ( r = 1)
2 2 2
Area of ∆OAD = OA AD = (1)(tanq ) = tanq
1 1 1
and (iii)
2 2 2
1
(b) Observe the resemblance of the limit with Lim (1 + x) = e , x
From the igure we see that
x →0
q
1 1
m
m →0 2
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1. Quadratic Equations eLearn.Punjab 1. Quadratic Equations eLearn.Punjab
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EXERCISE 1.3
q p
q
sinq cos q
1
2
1< < 0 < <
sinq sinq
1. Evaluate each limit by using theorems of limits:
> cos q cos q < (ii) Lim (3x 2 - 2x + 4)
q q
i.e., 1> or <1 (i) Lim (2x + 4) (iii) Lim x2 + x + 4
x →3 x →1 x →3
when q " 0, cos q " 1
Sin q x2 - 4
2 x 3 + 5x
q
(iv) Lim (v) Lim ( x3 + 1 - x2 + 5 ) (vi) Lim
x →2 x →2 x →-2
Since is sandwitched between 1 and a quantity approaching 1 itself.
3x - 2
So, by the sandwitch theorem, it must also approach 1. 2. Evaluate each limit by using algebraic techniques.
sinq
x3 - x 3 x3 + 4x x3 - 8
q (ii) Lim 2
i.e., lim =1
q →0
x →2 x + x - 6
x +x
(i) Lim (iii) Lim 2
x →-1 x →0
Note: The same result holds for -p/2 < q < q
x+1
x 3 - 3 x 2 + 3x - 1 x3 + x 2 2x 2 - 32
sin 7q Lim 2
x3 - x x - 1 x - 4x 2
(iv) Lim (v) (vi) Lim 3
x →1 x →-1 x →4
q x- 2 x+h - x
Example 6: Evaluate: lim
q →0
sinq
xn - an
x - 2
(vii) Lim (viii) Lim (ix) Lim
x →2 h →0 x →a
q
Solution: Observe the resemblance of the limit with lim =1 h xm - am
q →0
Let x = 7q so that q = x/7
when q " 0 we have x " 0
3. Evaluate the following limits
1 - cos q
,
sin 7q
sin x 0
sinq
sin 7 x
∴
(i) Lim (ii) Lim (iii) Lim
x →0 q →0
q
x →0
sin x sin x
Lim = Lim = 7 Lim = (7)(1) = 7 x x
q →0 x →0 x/7 x →0 x
x →p p - x
sin x sina x x
1 - cos q
(iv) Lim (v) Lim (vi) Lim
x →0 sinbx x →0 tan x
= sinq
x
q (1 + cos q ) q (1 + cos q )
q 1 + cos q
1
= =
1 - cos q sinq
4. Express each limit in terms of e:
∴ = lim sinq lim
q q q →0 1 + cos q
1
1 1 2 1
lim lim
q →0 q →0 q →0
Lim 1 + Lim 1 + (iii) Lim 1 -
n
2n n
n n n
(i) (ii)
1 n→+∞ n→+∞ n→+∞
1+1
= (0)(1)( )
1 4
(iv) Lim 1 + Lim 1 + (vi) Lim (1 + 3 x ) x
n n
2
3n n
= (0) (v)
n→+∞ n→+∞ x →0
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(vii) Lim (1 + 2 x ) x
(viii) Lim (1 - 2h )
Example 1: Determine whether Lim f ( x) and Lim f ( x) exist, when
x →2 x →4
(ix) Lim
1 x
1
x →∞ 1 + x
2 x2
0≤ x ≤2
x →0 h →0
2 x + 1 if
h
e1/ x - 1 e1/ x - 1
, x<0 , x>0 f ( x) = 7 - x if 2≤ x ≤4
+1 +1
(x) Lim 1/ x (xi) Lim 1/ x
x →0 e x →0 e
x if 4≤ x ≤6
Solution:
1.6 Continuous and Discontinuous Functions
(i) Lim- f ( x) = Lim- (2 x + 1) = 4 + 1 = 5
x →2 x →2
=
Since Lim =
f ( x) Lim f ( x) 5
-
x →2 +
x →2
In deining Lim f ( x) , we restricted x to an open interval containing c i.e., we studied
x →c ⇒ Lim f ( x) exists and is equal to 5.
x →2
the behavior of f on both sides of c. However, in some cases it is necessary to investigate (ii) Lim- f ( x) =Lim- (7 - x) =7 - 4 = 3
x →4 x →4
Lim+= =
one-sided limits i.e., the left hand limit and the right hand limit.
f ( x) Lim ( x) 4
x →4 +
x →4
Lim f ( x) = L is read as the limit of f(x) is equal to L as x approaches c from the left i.e., Therefore Lim f ( x) does not exist.
x →4
x →c
for all x suiciently close to c, but less than c, the value of f(x) can be made as close as we We have seen that sometimes Lim f ( x) = f (c) and sometimes it does not and also sometimes
x →c
please to L.
f (c) is not even deined whereas Lim f ( x) exists.
x →c
= = =
be discontinuous at “c”.
Lim f ( x) L if and only if Lim f ( x) Lim+ f ( x) L
x →c x →c
-
x →c
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1. Functions and Limits eLearn.Punjab 1. Functions and Limits eLearn.Punjab
∴ f (x) is continuous at x = 1
Lim- f ( x) = Lim- f ( x - 1) = 3 - 1 = 2
x →3 x →3
f(x) = x -3 g( x) = if x ≠ 3
2
x -9 i.e. condition (ii) is not satisied
6 if x = 3
(a) (b)
∴
x -3
Lim f ( x) does not exist
x →3
Solution: (a) Given f (3) = 6
∴ the function f is deined at x = 3.
Hence f(x) is not continuous at x = 3
x2 - 9 EXERCISE 1.4
Now Lim f( x ) = Lim
x →3 x →3
( x + 3)( x - 3)
x -3
1. Determine the left hand limit and the right hand limit and then, ind the limit of the
following functions when x " c
= Lim
= Lim ( x + 3) = 6
x →3 x -3
x →3
x2 - 9
f(x) = 2x + x - 5, c = 1 , c = -3
x - 3
2
(i) (ii) f( x ) =
f( x ) = x - 5 ,
As Lim f( x ) = 6 = f( 3 )
x →3
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1. Quadratic Equations eLearn.Punjab 1. Quadratic Equations eLearn.Punjab
1. Functions and Limits eLearn.Punjab 1. Functions and Limits eLearn.Punjab
2 x + 5 if x ≤ 2
We now learn the method to draw the graphs of the Explicit Functions like y = f(x) ,
f ( x) =
4 x + 1 if
(i) ,c =2 where f(x) = ax, ex, loga x , and loge x.
x 2
3 x - 1 if x < 1 1.7.1 Graph of the Exponential Function f(x) = ax
f ( x) =
(ii) 4 if x = 1, c = 1
2 x if x > 1 Let us draw the graph of y = 2x, here a = 2.
We prepare the following table for diferent values of x and f(x) near the origin:
-4 -3 -2 -1
if x ≤ - 2
x 0 1 2 3 4
2
3x
If f ( x) = x - 1 if - 2 < x < 2
x
y = f(x) = 2 0.0625 0.125 0.25 0.5 1 2 4 8 16
3.
if x ≥ 2
Discuss continuity at x = 2 and x = -2
3 Plotting the points (x, y) and joining them with smooth
curve as shown in the igure, we get the graph of y = 2x.
From the graph of 2x the characteristics of the graph
x + 2 , x ≤ -1
of y = ax are observed as follows:
If f ( x) =
If a > 1, (i) ax is always +ve for all real values of x.
4. , find "c" so that Lim f ( x) exists.
x →-1
c + 2 , x > -1
(ii) ax increases as x increases.
(iii) ax = 1 when x = 0
(iv) ax " 0 as x "-T
5. Find the values m and n, so that given function f is continuous
at x = 3.
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1. Quadratic Equations eLearn.Punjab 1. Quadratic Equations eLearn.Punjab
1. Functions and Limits eLearn.Punjab 1. Functions and Limits eLearn.Punjab
Table of some of the corresponding values of x and f(x) is as under: Each of which deines y as a function of x.
x "0 0.1 1 2 4 6 8 10 "+T
y = f(x) = lg x "-T -1 0 0.30 0.60 0.77 0.90 1 "+T
Plotting the points (x, y) and joining them with a smooth curve we get the graph as
shown in the igure.
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1. Quadratic Equations eLearn.Punjab 1. Quadratic Equations eLearn.Punjab
1. Functions and Limits eLearn.Punjab 1. Functions and Limits eLearn.Punjab
± 3 ± 3
t 0 1 2
y ±2 ±1 0 ±1 0
x 4 1 0 1 4
-2 -1
Plotting the points (x , y) and connecting them with a smooth curve as shown in the
y 0 1 2
igure, we get the graph of a circle.
We plot the points (x, y) , connecting these
x2 y2 points with a smooth curve shown in igure, we
(b) The graph of ellipse of the form 2 + 2 = 1 obtain the graph of a parabola with equation
a b
y2 = x.
graph is symmetric with respect to the y-axis, x-axis and the origin.
x2 = 4 ⇒ x = ±2
Solution: The domain of the function is 0 7 x 7 2
y = 0 implies
y2 = 9 ⇒ y = ±3
For 0 7 x 7 1, the graph of the function is that of y = x
x = 0 implies and for 1 < x 7 2 , the graph of the function is that of y = x - 1
Therefore x-intercepts are 2 and -2 and y-intercepts are 3 and -3 We prepare the table for some values of x and y in 0 7 x 7 2 satisfying the equations y
By assigning values of x, we ind the values of y. So we prepare = x and y = x - 1
a table for some values of x and y satisfying equation (1). x 0 0.5 0.8 1 1.5 1.8 2
y 0 0.5 0.8 1 0.5 0.8 1
x 0 1 2 -1 -2
± ±
y ±3 27 0 27 0
4 4
Ploting the points (x, y), connecting these points with a smooth curve as shown in the
igure, we get the graph of an ellipse.
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1. Quadratic Equations eLearn.Punjab 1. Quadratic Equations eLearn.Punjab
1. Functions and Limits eLearn.Punjab 1. Functions and Limits eLearn.Punjab
Plot the points (x, y). Connecting these points we get two straight lines, which is the Scale for graphs
graph of a discontinuous function. p
x2 - 9
Along x-axis, length of side o f small square = radian
, x≠3
6
x - 3
Example 2: Graph the function deined by y = Along y-axis, length of side of small square = 0.1 unit
Two points (0, 0) and ( (p/3,1) lie on the line y = x
Solution: The domain of the function consists of all real numbers except 3.
We prepare a table for some values of x and y in the interval -p 7 x 7 p it satisfying the
0
When x = 3, both the numerator and denominator are zero, and is undeined. equation y = cos x.
x 2 - 9 ( x - 3)( x + 3)
0
= x + 3 provided x ≠ 3 . -p -5p/6 -2p/3 -p/2 -p/3 -p/6 0 p/6 p/3 p/2 2p/3 5p/6 p
x - 3 x - 3
Simplifying we get y = = x
y = cos x -1 -.87 -.5 0 -.5 .87 1 .87 .5 0 -.5 -.87 -1
We prepare a table for diferent values of x and y satisfy the equation y = x + 3 and x ≠ 3.
X -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 2.9 3 3.1 4
Y 0 1 2 3 4 5 5.9 6 6.1 7
p radian = 0.73
the students.
43
x=
180
Solution: To ind the solution of the equation cos x = x,
43
Check: cos p = cos 43o = 0.73
we draw the graphs of the two functions
y = x and y = cos x : -p 7 x 7 p 180
version: 1.1 version: 1.1
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1. Quadratic Equations eLearn.Punjab
1. Functions and Limits eLearn.Punjab
Note: Since the scales along the two axes are diferent so the line y = x is not equally
inclined to both the axes.
EXERCISE 1.5
2 2
x2 y2
(i) x +y =9 (ii) + =1
16 4
x - 1 if x < 3
y=
2x + 1 if x ≥ 3
(i)
x2 - 4
x ≠ 2
x-2
(ii) y=
x + 3 if x ≠ 3
y=
2
(iii)
if x = 3
x 2 - 16
x ≠ 4
x-4
(iv) y=
= cos x
x
(ii)
2
(iii) 2 x = tan x
version: 1.1
44
version: 1.1
CHAPTER
2 DIFFERENTIATION
Usually the small changes in the values of the variables are taken as increments of variables.
2.1 INTRODUCTION
Note: In this Chapter we shall discuss funcions of the form y = f(x) where xdDf and is
The ancient Greeks knew the concepts of area, volume and centroids etc. which are
called an independent variable while y is called the dependent variable.
related to integral calculus. Later on, in the seventeenth century, Sir Isaac Newton, an English
mathematician (1642-1727) and Gottfried Whilhelm Leibniz, a German mathematician,
2.1.1 AVERAGE RATE OF CHANGE
(1646-1716) considered the problem of instantaneous rates of change. They reached
independently to the invention of diferential calculus. After the development of calculus,
some ixed point) after times t and t1 are given by s ( t ) and s ( t1 ) , then the distance traveled in
Suppose a particle (or an object) is moving in a straight line and its positions (from
mathematics became a powerful tool for dealing with rates of change and describing the
s ( t1 ) - s ( t )
Dependent and Independent Variables
t1 - t
In diferential calculus, we mainly deal with the rate of change of a dependent variable and the diference quotient (i)
with respect to one or more independent variables. Now, we irst explain the terms dependent
represents the average rate of change of distance over the time interval t1 - t .
We usually write y ∈f ( x ) where f ( x ) is the value of f at x D f (the domain of the function
and independent variables.
If t1 - t is not small, then the average rate of change does not represent an accurate rate
v f ( x=
f ). Let us consider the functional relation = ) x 2 + 1 .......
of change near t. We can elaborate this idea by a moving particle in a straight line whose
(A)
For diferent values of x ∈ D f , f ( x ) or the expression x 2 + 1 assumes diferent values.
s (t =
) t2 + t
position in metres after t seconds is given by
f ( 2) = ( 2) + 1 = 4 + 1 = 5
s ( 5 ) - s ( 3) ( 25 + 5 ) - ( 9 + 3) 30 - 12
Interval Average rate of change (i.e. average speed)
t = 3 secs to t = 5 secs
2
5-3
the value of y or f ( x ) is given by
We see that for the change 1.5 - 1 = 0.5 in the value of x , the corresponding change in = = =9
2 2
f (1.5 ) - f (1=
) 3.25 - 2= 1.25 t = 3 secs to t = 4 secs s ( 4 ) - s ( 3) (16 + 4 ) - 12 20 - 12
It is obvious that the change in the value of the expression x + 1 (or f ( x ) ) depends 4-3
2
= = =8
1 1
t = 3 secs to t = 3.5 secs 49 7
+ - 12
s ( 3.5 ) - s ( 3) 4 2
upon the change in the value of the variable x . As x behaves independently, so we call it the
independent variable. But the behaviour of y or f ( x ) depends on the variable x , so we call it
15
3.5 - 3
= = 4 =7.5
the dependent variable. 0.5 0.5
The change in the value of x (positive or negative) is called the increment of x and is
denoted by the symbol d x (read as delta x ). The corresponding change in the dependent We see that none of average rates of change approximates to the actual speed of the
variable y or f ( x ) for the change d x in the value of x is denoted by d y or d f = f ( x + d x ) - f ( x ) . particle after 3 seconds.
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f ( x1 ) - f ( x )
Now we construct a table by taking small intervals.
((3.1) )
Interval Average rate of change
+ 3.1 - 12 x1 - x
lim
x1 → x
12.71 - 12 0.71
t = 3 secs to t = 3.1 secs
2
3.1 - 3
= = =7.1
((3.01) )
0.1 0.1 provided this limit exists, is called the instantaneous rate of change of f with respect to x
+ 3.01 - 12 12.0701 - 12 0.0701 at x and is written as f ' ( x ) .
t = 3 secs to t = 3.01 secs
2
((3.001) )
0.01 0.01
3.001 - 3
dx
= = =7.001 (ii)
0.001 0.001
and
f ( x + d x) - f ( x)
The above table shows that the average rate of change after 3 seconds approximates
to 7 metre/sec. as the length of the interval becomes very very small. In other words, we can
dx
lim (iii)
say that the speed of the particle is 7 metre/sec. after 3 seconds. d x →0
If t1 = t + d t
provided the limit exists, is deined to be the derivative of f (or diferential coeicient
of f ) with respect to x at x and is denoted by f ' ( x ) (read as “f-prime of x ”). The domain of
then the diference quoteint (i) becomes
s (t + d t ) - s (t ) f ‘consists of all x for which the limit exists. If x ∈ D f and f ' ( x ) exists, then f is said to be
dt diferentiable at x . The process of inding f ‘ is called diferentiation.
which represents the average rate of change of distance over the interval d t and
s (t + d t ) - s (t )
Several notations are used for derivatives. We have used the functional symbol f ' ( x ) ,
Notation for Derivative
dt
lim
d t →0 , provided this limit exists, is called the instantaneous rate of change
of distance ‘s’ at time t . for the derivative of f at x . For the function y = f ( x ) .
y + d y = f ( x + d x) - f ( )
2.1.2 Derivative of a Function
where d y is the increment of y (change in the value of y ) corresponding to d x ,the
Let f be a real valued function continuous in the interval ( x,x1 ) ⊆ D f (the domain of change in the value of x , then
d y = f ( x + d x) - f ( x)
Dividing both the sides of (iv) by d x , we get
f ), then (iv)
f ( x1 ) - f ( x )
diference quotient
x1 - x
(i) dy f ( x + d x) - f ( x)
dx dx
= (v)
represents the average rate of change in the value of f with respect to the change x1 - x in
Taking limit of both the sides of (v) as d x → 0 , we have
the value of independent variable x .
If x1 , approaches to x , then
version: 1.1 version: 1.1
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1. Quadratic Equations eLearn.Punjab 1. Quadratic Equations eLearn.Punjab
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dy f ( x + d x) - f ( x)
2.2 FINDING f’(x) FROM DEFINITION
d x →0 d x dx OF DERIVATIVE
lim = lim (vi)
d x →0
dy
= f ' ( x)
d x →0 d x Given a function f , f ' ( x ) if it exists, can be found by the following four steps
dy dy
lim is denoted by , so (vi) is written as
Find f ( x + d x )
dx dx
Simplify f ( x + d x ) - f ( x )
Step I
Step II
f ( x + d x) - f ( x)
dy
Divide f ( x + d x ) - f ( x ) by d x to get
Note: The symbol is used for the derivative of y with respect to x and here it is not a
dx
dx
Step III and simplify it
f ( x + d x) - f ( x)
dy
quotient of dy and dx. is also denoted by y ’.
dx
dx
Step IV Find lim
d x →0
Now we write, in a table the notations for the derivative of y = f ( x ) used by diferent The method of inding derivatives by this process is called diferentiation by deinition
mathematicians: or by ab-initio or from irst principle.
Name of Leibniz Newton Lagrange Cauchy
Mathematician Find the derivative of the following functions by deinition
f ( x) c (b) f ( x )
Example 1:
f ( x) f ' ( x) Df ( x ) =
=
dy df (a) x2
Notation used for derivative
dx or dx
x +dx
Solution: (a) For f ( x ) = c
by a, then the expression
f ( x + d x ) - f ( x ) becomes f ( x ) - f ( a ) . and the change d x in the independent variable, in this
If we replace by x and x
case, is x - a . f ( x + d x) =
f ( x + d x) - f ( x) = c - c = 0
(i) c
f ( x + d x) - f ( x) f ( x) - f (a)
(ii)
dx x-a f ( x + d x) - f ( x) 0
So the expression is written as (vii)
= = 0
dx dx
(iii)
Taking the limit of the expressiom(vii) when x → a , gives
f ( x + d x) - f ( x)
f ( x) - f (a)
= lim = ( 0) 0
dx
= f ' ( a ) . Here f ' ( a )
(iv) lim
d x →0 d x →0
x-a
lim
x →a
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1. Quadratic Equations eLearn.Punjab 1. Quadratic Equations eLearn.Punjab
2. Diferentiation eLearn.Punjab 2. Diferentiation eLearn.Punjab
f ( x + d x ) - f ( x ) ( 2 x + d x )d x
in f ( x ) f (a)
or
= + ≠2 x d x ,
= (d x 0) = x a=
=
dx dx
f ( x) - f (a) = x - a
(iii) Putting x , gives a
f ( x + d x) - f ( x)
= lim ( 2 x + d x= ) 2x
So
dx
(iv) lim Using alternative form for the deinition of a derivative, we have
d x →0 d x →0
f ( x) - f (a)
f ' ( x) = 2x =
x- a
x-a x-a
( )( )
i.e.,
( )
=
Example 2: Find the derivative of
( x - a) x+ a
(rationalizing the numerator)
f ( x) = x-a
(x a)
( )
=
= ≠
f ( x + d x ) = x + d x and ( x - a) x + a
Solution: If x , then 1
x+ a
(II)
f ( x + d x) - f ( x) = x + d x -
(i)
Taking limit of both the sides of (II)as x → a, gives
( )( )
(ii) x
( x + d x) - x f '( a ) =
x
=
1
i.e.,
x +dx +
2 a
dx
x
f ( x + d x) - f ( x) =
x +dx +
i.e., (I)
If y = at x= - 1 by ab-initio method.
x
Dividing both sides of(1)by d x , we have
1 dy
Example 3: 2
, then find
(iii) x dx
f ( x + d x) - f ( x) dx
== ≠ (d x 0) Solution: Here y =
1
dx d x( x + d x + x +dx +
1 , so (i)
x) x x2
Taking limit of both the sides as d x → 0 , we have
y +d y =
( x + d x)
(iv) 1
f ( x + d x) - f ( x)
(ii)
2
= lim
dx x +dx +
1
x
lim
d x →0 d x →0 Subtracting (i) from (ii), we get
=f ' ( x) = ( x > 0) 1 x - ( x + d x)
1 1
x+ x 2 x dy
= =
- 2
i.e.,
( ) x x2 ( x + d x )
2 2
1
+ d
f '( a ) =
( x + ( x + d x ))( x - ( x + d x ))
2 2
1 x x
and
=
x2 ( x + d x )
2 a
2
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1. Quadratic Equations eLearn.Punjab 1. Quadratic Equations eLearn.Punjab
2. Diferentiation eLearn.Punjab 2. Diferentiation eLearn.Punjab
=
=
( 2 x + d x )( -d x ) -d x ( 2 x + d x )
3
( )
x2 ( x + d x ) x2 ( x + d x ) + d -
( x + d x)
3
2 3
(iii) 2
- x2
2 2
x x x
=
=
3
2
d y -d x ( 2 x + d x ) -( 2x + d x)
3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
=
= 2 ≠ (d x 0)
d x ( 2x + d x)
d x x ( x + d x )2 d x x ( x + d x)
2
f ( x + d x) - f ( x) =
( x + d x ) + ( x + d x ) .x + x 3
2
i.e., (i)
Taking limit as d x → 0 , , gives
4 2 2 4
dy -( 2x + d x)
= lim 2
d x →0 d x
x ( x + d x) f ( x + d x) - f ( x) 2x + d x
lim
d x →0
=
2
dx
( x + d x)
+ ( x + d x ) .x + x
(ii)
- ( 2x )
4 2 2 4
3 3
dy -2 -2 -2
= = |x =-1 = 3= f ' (=
x) = =
( -1) -1
dy 2x 2x 2
i.e., and 2
x + x .x + x
4 2 4 2 4 1
dx x3 dx 3 3 3 3
3x 3 3x 3
=
f '(8) =
2 1
at x = -1 is written as
dy dy and 1
Note: The value of | . 3
dx dx x=-1 3.(8) 3
y + d y =( x + d x ) + 2 ( x + d x ) + 3
Solution: Let f ( x ) = x .Then
3
(i)
d y = ( x + d x ) + 2 ( x + d x ) + 3 - x3 + 2 x + 3
2
3
f ( x + d x ) =( x + d x )
3
(ii)
= ( x + d x ) - x3 + 2 ( x + d x ) - x + ( 3 - 3)
2
3
3
and
= ( x + d x ) - x ( x + d x ) + ( x + d x ) x + x 2 + 2d x
2
( x + d x ) - x ( x + d x ) + ( x + d x ) . x + x
d y d x ( x + d x ) + ( x + d x ) x + x + 2d x
2
2 2 4 2 2 4
f ( x + d x ) - f ( x) = ( x + d x ) - x3 =
3 3 3 3 3 3
=
2
2 2
( x + d x ) 3 + ( x + d x ) 3 .x 3 + x 3 dx dx
3
4 2 2 4 (iii)
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1. Quadratic Equations eLearn.Punjab 1. Quadratic Equations eLearn.Punjab
2. Diferentiation eLearn.Punjab 2. Diferentiation eLearn.Punjab
= ( x + d x ) + ( x + d x ) x + x2 + 2
( x ) = nx n-1 reduces to ( x ) 0=
2
= x 0-1 0 i.e.,
d n d 0
dy
lim = lim ( x + d x ) + ( x + d x) x + x 2 + 2
Note: If n = 0, then the formula
dx dx
d x →0 d x d x →0
2
= (x) 2 + ( x ) x + x 2 + 2
dy dx
( x + 2 x + 3) = 3 x 2 + 2
dx
y + d y =( x + d x )
and m
(ii)
n
1 x - ( x + d x)
Using the binomial theorem, we have
dy
= =
-
( x + d x ) xm xm ( x + d x )
m
x ( (d x 2+) ...
+ (d x) n )- x n
m
1
n(n - 1) n-2
d y = x n + nx n-1.d x +
m m
m ( m - 1) m-2 m
x m - x m + mx m-1d x + x (d x ) + ... + (d x )
2
2
=
x ( x + d x)
2
n(n - 1) n-2
d y d x nx n-1 +
i.e., = x+ .+d x ... (d x) n-1
m m
(expanding ( x + d x ) by binomial theorem)
(i)
2 m
Note that each term on the right hand side of (ii) involves d x except the irst term, so
m m
dy -1 m-1 m ( m - 1) m-2
= + mx + + x .d x ... (d x )
m -1
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1. Quadratic Equations eLearn.Punjab 1. Quadratic Equations eLearn.Punjab
2. Diferentiation eLearn.Punjab 2. Diferentiation eLearn.Punjab
=( -m ) x m-1.x -2 m =( -m ) x(
- m )-1
=nx n-1 [ ]
m- n= 2.2.2 DIFFERENTIATION OF EXPRESSIONS OF THE TYPES:
( x ) = nx n-1 ( ax + b ) n=
( ax + b )
d n
1
or n
and , 1,2,3...
dx
[ x ] = nx n-1 , if n ∈ Z
n
( ax + b )
So far we have proved that n 1
dx n
n n
x = nx n-1 is called power rule. ( ax +b )
y +d y =
+ ( ax b ) ( ad+x ) +( ax b ) ( ad +x ) + ...
1 + ( ad x )
d n n -1 n-2
2
n 2 n
Note that
dx
n n
dy= ( y + d y) - y = 1 ( ax + b ) ( ad x ) + 2 ( ax + b ) .a (d x ) + ... + a (d x )
n -1 n-2
2 2 n n
Exercise 2.1
n n n -1
= d x ( ax + b ) .a + ( ax + b ) .a 2d x + ... + a n (d x )
n -1 n-2
1 2
1. Find by deinition, the derivatives w.r.t ‘x’ of the following functions deined as:
2 x2 + 1 2- x
d y n n
So = ( ax + b ) a + ( ax + b ) .a 2d x + ... + a n (d x )
1 1 1
x-a
(i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (v)
n -1 n-2 n -1
d x 1
x x3
2
x ( x - 3) (viii) ( x + 4 )
3 5
d x →0 d x
m
1 2
lim
d x →0
dy n
= ( ax + b ) .a [All other terms tends to zero when d x → 0 ]
dy n -1
from irst principle if
dx 1
2. Find Or
dx
( ax + b ) = n ( ax + b ) .a
d n n -1
Thus
x+2
1 dx
x+a
(i) (ii)
version: 1.1 version: 1.1
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2. Diferentiation eLearn.Punjab 2. Diferentiation eLearn.Punjab
n
+ ( ax + b ) .a 2d x + ... + a n (d x ) ]
n-2 n -1
( ax + b )
1
Find from irst principle, the derivative of
2
Example 2: n
w.r.t. ‘ x ’,
dy n
= ( ax- b ) .a +
n -1
n
( ax + b ) + ad x ( ax + b )
dx
1
Solution: Let y =
and [
( ax + b )
1 n
1
(when n is a positive integer). Then
n
+ ( ax + b ) .a 2d x + ... + a n (d x ) ]
n
n-2 n -1
y +d y = 2
a ( x + d x ) + b
1
and
Using the product and sum rules of limits when d x → 0 , we have
n
d y = y +d y - y = -
( ax + b ) + ad x ( ax + b )
1 1
n n
dy=
( ax + b ) - ( ax + b + ad x ) d y dy
=
d x→0 d x dx
n n
( ax + b ) + ad x ( ax + b )
lim and
n
n (
- b ) .a
or
= all other +terms containing
n
n -1
n
( ax + b ) ( ax + b ) 1
dy 1
-1
+ n x ( ax b ) ad x ( ax b) ] d x vanish
. ax
dy + + -n
n
( ax + b ) + ad x ( ax + b )
dx
n n
or (I)
d -na
n ( ax b )
Using the binomial theorem, we simplify the expression
-( n +1)
= n
=
- + n+1 =
( ax + b ) + ad x - ( ax + b ) ,That is, dx ( ax + b ) ( ax + b )
1
n n or .a
n
( ax + b ) + ad x - ( ax + b ) = [( ax + b ) + ( ax + b ) ( ad x )
n n -1
1
n n
Exercise 2.2
n
+ ( ax + b ) .a 2 (d x ) + ... + ( ad x ) ]
n-2
1. Find from irst principles, the derivatives of the following expressions w.r.t. their
2
2 n
respective independent variables:
n n ( ax + b ) ( 2 x + 3)
= ( ax + b ) .ad x + ( ax + b ) .a 2 (d x ) + ... + a n (d x )
3 5
n -1 n-2
(i) (ii)
1 2
2 n
( 3t + 2 )
-2
n n n -1
= d x ( ax + b ) .a + ( ax + b ) a 2d x + ... + a n (d x ) ( ax + b )
1
(iii) (iv)
n -1 n-2
5
1 2
( az - b )
1
(v) 7
Now (I) becomes
dx n
dy= ( - ) +
n -1
( ax + b ) + ad x ( ax + b )
n n
[ ax b .a
1
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2. Diferentiation eLearn.Punjab 2. Diferentiation eLearn.Punjab
d 43
2.3 THEOREMS ON DIFFERENTIATION
3x
dx
Example 1: Calculate
We have, so far proved the following two formulas:
d 43 d 43
3x = 3 x
( c ) = 0 i.e.. the derivative of a constant function is zero. dx dx
dy Solution: (Using Formula 3)
1.
( x ) = nx n-1
dx
= 3x =
4 43 -1 1
d n x 4x3 (Using power rule)
2. power formula (or rule) when n is any rational 3
dx 4. Derivative of a sum or a Diference of Functions:
If f and g are diferentiable at x , then f + g, f - g are also diferentiable at x
number.
f ( x ) + g ( x ) = f ' ( x ) + g ' ( x ) ,
Now we will prove other important formulas (or rules) which are used to determine
f ( x ) + g ( x=
) f ( x ) + g ( x )
derivatives of diferent functions eiciently. Henceforth, in all subsequent discussion, f, g, h and
'
that is,
d d d
Also
etc. all denote functions diferentiable at x, unless stated otherwise.
Derivative of y = cf ( x ) f ( x ) - g ( x ) = f ' ( x ) - g ' ( x ) . that is, d f ( x ) - g ( x=
dx dx dx
) f ( x ) - g ( x )
' d d
Let y = cf ( x ) . Then
3.
( x ) f ( x ) + g ( x ) . Then
dx dx dx
Let f=
y + d y= cf ( x + d x ) and
Proof:
f ( x + d x ) = f ( x + d x ) + g ( x + d x ) and
Proof:
y cf ( x + d x ) - cf ( x )
(i)
y +d y -=
(i)
f ( x + d x ) - f ( x ) = f ( x + d x ) + g ( x + d x ) - f ( x ) + g ( x )
d y= c | f ( x + d x ) - f ( x ) |
(ii)
(ii)
= f ( x + d x ) - f ( x ) + g ( x + d x ) - g ( x ) (rearranging the terms)
or (factoring out c)
dy f ( x + d x) - f ( x)
= c f ( x + d x) - f ( x) f ( x + d x) - f ( x) g ( x + d x) - g ( x)
dx dx = +
(iii)
dx dx dx
(iii)
Taking limit when d x → 0 Taking the limit when d x → 0
f ( x + d x) - f ( x) f ( x + d x) - f ( x) g ( x + d x) - g ( x)
dy f ( x + d x) - f ( x) f ( x + d x) - f ( x) (iv) = +lim
d x →0 d x
lim c. dx dx dx
dx dx
lim
d x →0 d x →0
f ( x + d x) - f ( x) g ( x + d x) - g ( x)
(iv) lim c. lim
d x →0 d x →0
= +lim
A constant factor can be taken out from a limit sign. dx dx
lim
d x →0 d x →0
=
Thus '
dx
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1. Quadratic Equations eLearn.Punjab 1. Quadratic Equations eLearn.Punjab
2. Diferentiation eLearn.Punjab 2. Diferentiation eLearn.Punjab
( )(
Find the derivative of y = 2 x + 2 x - x with respect to x. )
Note: Sum or diference formula can be extended to ind derivative of more than two
functions. Example 3:
(
Solution: y = 2 x + 2 x - x )( )
( ) ( ) ( )( )
Find the derivative of y = x + x + x + 2 x + 5 w.r.t. x .
3 4 2 3 1 2
x +1 . x x=
-1 2 x x +1 x -1
Example 1:
4 3 2 =2
32
Solution: y = x + x + x + 2x + 5 = 2 x ( x + 1=
) 2 x - x 2
1
3 4 2 3 1 2
4 3 2
Diferentiating with respect to x, we have Diferentiating with respect to x , we have
x + x + x + ( 2 x ) + ( 5)
dy 3 4 2 3 1 2 d 3 4 d 2 3 d 1 2 d
x + x + x + 2 x=
+ 5 dy d 32
= 2 x - x 2
d
dx 4 dx 4 dx 3 dx 2 dx
1
dx dx
3 2 dx
d 32 d 12 3 23 - 1 1 12 - 1
(Using formula 4)
( x )+ ( x )+ ( x ) + 2 ( x) + 0
= 2 x - x = 2 x - x
3 d 4 2 d 3 1 d 2 d
= (Using formula 3 and 1) dx dx 2 2
1 3x - 1
= ( 4 x 4-1 ) + ( 3 x3-1 ) + ( 2 x 2-1 ) + 2 (1.x1-1 )
-1
4 dx 3 dx 2 dx dx
= 3x 2 - x 2 = 3 x - =
1
3 2 1
(By power formula) x x
4 3 2
= 3x3 + 2 x 2 + x + 2
5. Derivative of a product. (The product Rule)
f ( x ) = f ( x ) g ( x ) . Then
= x + 5 x3 + 7 x 2 + 35
f ( x + d x) = f ( x + d x) g ( x + d x)
dy d 5 Proof: Let
f ( x + d x) - f ( x) = f ( x + d x) g ( x + d x) - f ( x) g ( x)
(i)
d d d d
f ( x + d x) - f ( x) = f ( x + d x) g ( x + d x) - f ( x) g ( x + d x) + f ( x) g ( x + d x) - f ( x) g ( x)
= 5x + 5 x 3x + 7 x 2x
5-1 3-1 2-1
+0
= f ( x + d x ) - f ( x ) g ( x + d x ) + f ( x ) g ( x + d x ) - g ( x )
= 5x4 + 15x2 + 14x
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1. Quadratic Equations eLearn.Punjab 1. Quadratic Equations eLearn.Punjab
2. Diferentiation eLearn.Punjab 2. Diferentiation eLearn.Punjab
( ) ( )
f ( x + d x) - f ( x) f ( x + d x) - f ( x) g ( x + d x) - g ( x) 1 1
(iii) = + + g ( x d x) f ( x) = 2 x- x + x + 1 x 1 -
dx dx dx 2 x
( ) 2 2 x x- 1
2 x
Taking limit when d x → 0 x- x
= 2 + x +1
f ( x + d x) - f ( x) 2 x
1
dx x - x + 2x - x + 2 x - 1
x
(iv) lim
d x →0
f ( x + d x) - f ( x) g ( x + d x) - g ( x)
=
= lim .g ( x + d x ) + f ( x ) .
3x - 1
d x →0
dx dx
=
f ( x + d x) - f ( x) g ( x + d x) - g ( x)
. lim g ( x + d x ) + lim f ( x ) . lim
x
dx dx
= lim 6. Derivative of a Quotient (The Quotient Rule)
d x →0 d x →0 d x →0 d x →0
=
'
at x and
f ( x ) .g ( x ) + f ( x ) .g ( x ) f ( x ) g ( x ) g ( x)
d
= g ( x )
d d
dx
2
or
d
( )
( ) ( ) d
g ( x )
dx dx
-
d f ( x)
( )( )
dx dx
=
f x g x f x
Example: Find derivative of y = 2 x + 2 x - x with respect to x dx g ( x ) g ( x )
that is, 2
(
Solution: y = 2 x + 2 x - x )( ) Proof: Let f ( x ) =
f ( x)
g ( x)
2 ( x + 1)( x - x )
Then
=
f ( x + d x)
f ( x + d x) =
g ( x + d x)
Diferentiating with respect to x, we get (i)
( )( )
f ( x + d x) f ( x) f ( x + d x) g ( x) - f ( x) g ( x + d x)
= 2 x +1 x - x f ( x + d x ) -=
f ( x) -=
dx g ( x + d x) g ( x) g ( x) g ( x + d x)
dy d
(ii)
( )( ) ( ) dxd ( x - x )
dx
d
= 2
x +1 x - x + x +1 Subtracting and adding f ( x ) g ( x ) in the numerator of step (ii), gives
dx
f ( x + d x) g ( x) - f ( x) g ( x) - f ( x) g ( x + d x) + f ( x) g ( x)
( ) ( ) f ( x + d x) - f ( x) =
1 12 - 1 1 12 - 1
= 2 x + 0 x - x + x + 1 × 1 - x g ( x) g ( x + d x)
2 2
( f ( x + d x ) - f ( x ) ) g ( x ) - f ( x ) ( g ( x + d x ) - g ( x ) )
g ( x) g ( x + d x)
1
=
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1. Quadratic Equations eLearn.Punjab 1. Quadratic Equations eLearn.Punjab
2. Diferentiation eLearn.Punjab 2. Diferentiation eLearn.Punjab
f ( x + d x) - f ( x) f ( x + d x) - f ( x) g ( x + d x) - g ( x)
.g ( x ) f ( x ). Using the product rule to f ( x ) .
g ( x)
-
g ( x) g ( x + d x)
1
dx dx dx
(iii) 1
, we have
dx f ( x ) - g ( x )
(iv) lim
d x →0
+ f ( x ) dx
d d
g ( x) g ( x )
= dx
f ( x + d x) - f ( x) g ( x + d x ) - g ( x )
( ) ( )
2
lim -
x →0 g ( x ) g ( x + d x )
f ( x ) g ( x ) - f ( x ) g ( x )
d d d d
1
d f ( x ) dx
. g x f x .
dx
x x
=
dx g ( x ) g ( x )
i.e.,
( lim g ( x )
2
Using limit theorems, we have
f '( x ) f ' ( x ) g (=
x ) f ( x ) g +' ( x ) d x) g ( x)
( )
-
g ( x ) .g ( x ) 32
1
x + 1 x - 1
d x →0
if y = ,
( x ≠ 1)
dy
Example 2: Find
x2 -1
dx f ( x ) g ( x ) - f ( x ) dx g ( x )
d d
1
dx
f ( x) f '( x ) g ( x ) - f ( x ) g '( x ) d f ( x)
'
g ( x) g ( x ) dx g ( x ) g ( x )
Thus 2
or 2 Solution: Given that
( )
23
x + 1 x - 1 ( x +1 )( ) - (1)
First Alternative Proof:
f ( x)
3 3
=
=
f ( x) = can be written as f ( x ) = f ( x ) g ( x )
x
x -1
g ( x)
y
x2 -1
( )( )( )
1
( )( )
x +1 x -1 x +1+ x
Using the procedure used to prove product rule, quotient rule can be proved. = x +1 x +1+ x
x -1
( )( )( ) ( x + 1) + ( )
=
Second Alternative Proof: We irst prove the reciprocal rule and then use product rule to
x +1 x -1 x +1+ x= x +1 x
2
prove the quotient rule. =
= x + 1 + 2 x + x x + x= x + 2x + 2x + 1
The reciprocal rule. If g is diferentiable at x and g ( x ) ≠ 0 , then
3 1
2 2
1
is diferentiable at x and
dy d 32 d 32 d d 12 d
x + ( 2 x ) + 2 x + (1)
g
= x + 2 x + 2 x += 1
1
dx dx dx dx dx
2
g ( x )
dx
-
d 1 dx = x + 2 (1) + 2. += x +2+
d
=
3 12
dx g ( x )
1 3 1
g ( x )
0
2
(Proof of reciprocal rule is left as an exercise) 2 2 x 2 x
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1. Quadratic Equations eLearn.Punjab 1. Quadratic Equations eLearn.Punjab
2. Diferentiation eLearn.Punjab 2. Diferentiation eLearn.Punjab
( ) 32 2 x +1 x + x +1
x + 1 x - 1 x -
with respect to x. 2 x 2x + x - x - x - 1 x -1
=
=
=
2 x
Example 3: Diferentiate
x2 - x2
3 1 3
x x.2 x 2
2x
( )
32 2 x3 - 3x 2 + 5
x + 1 x - 1 x2 + 1
Example 4: Diferentiate with respect to x .
Solution: Let y =
2 x3 - 3x 2 + 5
Solution: Let f ( x ) =
x2 - x2 x2 + 1
( )
3 1
f ( x ) = 2 x3 - 3 x 2 + 5 and g ( x=) x2 + 1
. Then we take
32
x + 1 x - 1
2 x3 - 3 x 2 + 5= 2 ( 3 x 2 ) - 3 ( 2 x ) + 0= 6 x 2 - 6 x
x ( x - 1) f ' ( x )=
= d
( )( )( ) ( x - 1) ( x + )
Now
dx
x +1 x -1 x + x +1 x +1 g' ( x ) = x + 1 = 2 x + 0 = 2x
( ) ( )
dx
and d 2
x -1 x -1
f '( x ) g ( x ) - f ( x ) g '( x )
Using the quotient formula: f ' ( x ) =
x x
x + x +1 g ( x )
,we obtain
d 2 x 3 - 3 x 2 + 5 ( 6 x - 6 x )( x + 1) - ( 2 x + 3 x + 5 ) ( 2 x )
2
=
x
( x 2 + 1)
=
dx x 2 + 1
2 2 3 2
Diferentiating with respect to x , we have
6 x 4 - 6 x3 + 6 x 2 - 6 x - ( 4 x 4 - 6 x3 + 10 x )
2
dy d x + x + 1
=
(x + 1)
dx dx =
( ) ( ) ( x)
x 2
2
x + x +1 - x + x +1
6 x 4 - 6 x3 + 6 x 2 - 6 x - 4 x 4 + 6 x3 - 10 x
d d
( ) (x + 1)
=
x
= dx dx
2 2
2
( )
x
1 - 12 1 - 12 2 x 4 + 6 x 2 - 16 x
(x + 1)
x 1 + x + 0 - x + x + 1 . x =
= 2 2
2 2
( )
x
1
x 1 + - x + x +1
1
2 x
EXERCISE 2.3
=
2 x
x Diferentiate w.r.t. x
a+x
x 4 + 2 x3 + x 2 x -3 + 2 x -3/2 + 3
a-x
1. 2. 3.
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1. Quadratic Equations eLearn.Punjab 1. Quadratic Equations eLearn.Punjab
2. Diferentiation eLearn.Punjab 2. Diferentiation eLearn.Punjab
2x + 1 = =
x dx dx
4. 5. 6. x du d
(
)
1+ x x - x2
(x + 1)
= = f ( u ) f ' u
du du
3
dy d
x2 + 1
2 2 and
x2 - 1 x2 - 3
7. 8. 9.
x Thus (i) can be written in the following forms
1+ x 2x - 1 a-x
1- x x +1 a+x ( f (u )) = f '(u )
10. 11. 12. d du
2 (a)
x2 + 1 1+ x - 1- x x a+x
dx dx
=
1+ x + 1- x a-x
dy dy du
x2 - 1
13. 14. 15. (b) .
dx du dx
If = x- , show that 2 x + y =
1 dy The proof of the Chain rule is beyond the scope of this book.
16. y 2 x
x dx
If y =x 4 + 2 x 2 + 2 , prove that= 4 x y - 1 = 1. Let y g ( x ) and u
= g ( x)
dy
17. Note:
n
dx
=Then y u= nu n-1
n dy
and (power rule)
2.4 THE CHAIN RULE du
= = nu n-1
dy dy du du
But .
( )
The composition fog of functions f and g is the function whose values f [g(x)], are found dx du dx dx
for each x in the domain of g for which g(x) is in the domain of f . f g ( x ) is read as f of g d
g ( x ) = n g ( x ) .g' ( x )
n -1
= g' ( x )
du
dx
n
or
of x). dx
dx g ( x ) dx
(=
fog )( x ) f g ( x ) , then
The proof of the chain rule is beyond the scope of this book.
= = ( -1) g ( x ) .g' ( x )
-2
If y
u = g ( x)
dx
Then y = f ( u )
( x3 1)+ =
Let y+= and u x=
Let (ii) 93
Solution: 1 Then y u 9
(iii)
version: 1.1 version: 1.1
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1. Quadratic Equations eLearn.Punjab 1. Quadratic Equations eLearn.Punjab
2. Diferentiation eLearn.Punjab 2. Diferentiation eLearn.Punjab
a+x + a-x
=
= if y = ( x ≠ 0)
du dy dy
a+x - a-x
Now 3 x 2 and 9u 8 (Power formula) Example 3: Find
dx du dx
= 9u 8
a+x + a-x
dy du
y=
Using the formula , we have
( x + 1) =9 ( x3 + 1) ( 3 x 2 ) u =x3 +1 and
a+x - a-x
dx dx
Solution:
=3 x 2
d 3 du
9 8
= 27 x ( x + 1)
or
a + x - a - x , gives
dx dx
Multiplying the numerator and the denominator by
( )( )
2 3 8
( a - x )( a - x)
a-x
,( x ≠ -a ) with respect to x y=
a+x a+x - a+x -
Example 2: Diferentiate
a-x
y= =
=
a-x
( a+x ) (
- a-x )
(a + x) - (a - x)
( )
1
a+x a+x
2 2
= =
Solution: Let and u . Then y u 2
( a + x ) + ( a - x ) - 2 a 2 - x 2 2a - 2 a 2 - x 2
2x
2 a - a2 - x2
=
= =
dy 1 12 - 1 1 - 12
Now u u
du 2 2
d
du d a - x dx
( - )
( + ) - ( - ) d
dx ( + )
that is, y =
x
a - a2 - x2
= =
a x a x a x a x
(=
0 - 1)( a + x ) - ( a - x )( 0 + 1)
0- - (=
a x- ) ( a -x ) ( x2 )
a
-a - x - a + x -2a
= = 2 f ( x)' =
1 and -g' ( x ) = 2 2 -1 d
(a + x) (a + x) (a + x)
1 1
d 2 2 2 1 2
2 2 a2
dx 2 dx
-= -x ( x)
2=
1 x
= . , we have 2 a2 - x2 a2 - x2
dy dy du
dy f ' ( x ) g ( x ) - f ( x ) g ' ( x )
Using the formula
dx du dx
=
d a - x 1 - 12 -2a 1 a - x -2a a-x g ( x )
Using the formula , we have
-
= u 2
= × u =
1 2
( )
2
dx
dx a + x 2 ( ) 2 a + x (a + x) a+x
2
+
1. a - a 2 - x 2 - x.
a x
( )
x
( a - x ) × -a = -a = a2 - x2
- dy
=
1
(a + x) ( ) (a - x) (a + x)2
a - a2 - x2
2
+
2
dx
-
1 2 1 3
a a2 - x2 - ( a2 - x2 ) - x2
2 a x 2
( ) ( )
a a2 - x2 - a2
=
a -x a- a -x a2 - x2 a - a2 - x2
2
= 2
2 2 2 2
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1. Quadratic Equations eLearn.Punjab 1. Quadratic Equations eLearn.Punjab
2. Diferentiation eLearn.Punjab 2. Diferentiation eLearn.Punjab
(
-a a - a 2 - x 2 ) y =( ax + b ) ( ax + b ) =
(a - ) (a - )
-m
-a
( ax + b )
1
=
n
= m
(i)
a -x a -x a -x a -x
2
= 2
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
( ax + b ) . Let+u =
d m
(1 + 2 x ) .x
We first find ax b. Then
( ) ( u ) dx
dx
if y= ( ax + b =
) u=
3
dy 3
d m d m d m du
Example 4: Find 2
(using chain rule)
dx
( ) ( )
dx dx dx
dx
3 3
.a
2
(1 + 2 x ).x
Now diferentiating (i) w.r.t.’ x ’, we have
u= (i )
1
(1) .( ax + b ) - 1. ( ax + b )
2
Let
Then y = u 3 ( ii ) dy d
d m d m
=
=
Differentiating (ii) with respect to u , we have dx dx ( ax + b )m ( ax + b )m
1 dx dx
2
(
) ( ) 0.( ax + b ) - 1.m ( ax + b ) .a
m -1
+== 3u 2 3+ =1 2 x x 2 3 1 2 x .x
2
=
1
( ax + b )
dy 2 m
( b ) .a ) x+ ( ax- b=
dx 2m
- =+ ( ax ) + m ( ax b )
Diferentiating (i) with respect to x , gives m -1 -2 m m -1- 2 m
( )
m .a
du 1 12 =
(-m ) ( ax + b )- m-1 . a+=
n( ax b )n-1 .a =
= 0 + 2. x + 1+ 2 x
1 ( -m n)
dx 2 x 2 x
1+ 2 x 2 x +1+ 2 x 1+ 4 x
+= 1 = =
,q≠0
dy p
2 x 2 x 2 x Example 6: if y = x n where n =
Find
dx q
( ) ( )
dx du dx
d 1+ 4 x
q q
+ + = x
3
y =x
3 2 p
dx 2 x
2
1 2 x . x 3 1 2 x .x
( ) ( )
q
(i)
Taking qth power of both sides of (i), we get
+= 1 2 x+ x 1 4 x
3 2
(1 2 x+) ( x )
2 yq = x p (ii)
+=
Diferentiating both sides of (ii) w.r.t. ‘ x ‘ , gives
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1. Quadratic Equations eLearn.Punjab 1. Quadratic Equations eLearn.Punjab
2. Diferentiation eLearn.Punjab 2. Diferentiation eLearn.Punjab
Multiplying both sides of (iii) by y, we have Now we explain the method of inding derivatives of functions given in the form of
parametric equations by the following examples.
= py x p -1 or = p . x x p -1
dy dy
q . yq q. x p (using (i) and (ii))
dx dx
⇒ × xq
dy
. p . x q x p -1 =
p p
dy p 1 p +p-1-p Example 1: Find if x = at 2 and y = 2at.
= dx
dx q x q
p
x = nx n-1 q =
p
p q -1 dy
= n Solution: We use the chain rule to find
q dx
(x ) n x n-1 .
d n dy d
Thus Here = (2at ) = 2a.1=2a
dx dt dt
dx d
and = (at 2 ) = a (2t ) = 2at
dt dt
2.5 DERIVATIVES OF INVERSE FUNCTIONS
( 2a = y )
dy
If for each x d Df , f(x) = y and for each y d Dg, g(x) = x, then f and g are inverse of each dy dy dt 2a 2a
so = . = dt = =
other, that is, dx dt dx dx 2at y
( g o f= )( x ) g( = =
f ( x )) g( y) x (i) dt
and ( f o= f (g= f= y
Eliminating t, we get x = a = = ⇒ y2 =
2
g )(y ) (y )) (x) y (ii) y2 y2
2a
a. 4ax (i)
Using chain rule, we can prove that 4a 2 4a
f '( x ). g'( y ) = 1 Diferentiating both sides of (i) w.r.t. ‘ x ’ we have
⇒ (y ) =
1 d 2 d
f ' (x) = (4ax)
g' (y ) dx dx
dy ⇒ 2y
d 2 dy d dy
⇒
dx
(y ) . = 4a (x) = 4a (1)
dx dx dx dx
f (x ) = y f ' (x ) =
⇒
⇒
dy 1
and g (y ) = x ⇒ g'(y ) = dx
= dy 2a
dy
dx dx =
dx y
dy
is called a parameter and the equations of x and y in terms of t are called the parametric Diferentiating (i) w.r.t. ‘ t ’ ,we get
equations.
version: 1.1 version: 1.1
34 35
1. Quadratic Equations eLearn.Punjab 1. Quadratic Equations eLearn.Punjab
2. Diferentiation eLearn.Punjab 2. Diferentiation eLearn.Punjab
= (1- t 2 ) = (1) - ( t 2 ) =-
( 2t ) (1 + t ) - 2t x (1 + t )
0 2t =- 2t d
dy d d d
d 2t
d
dt
2 2
(1 + t 2 )
=
=
dt dt dt dt
dy
dt 1 + t 2
dt
Diferentiating (ii) w.r.t. ‘ t ’ ,we have
2
dt
2 (1 + t 2 ) - 2t ( 2t ) 2 + 2t 2 - 4t 2 2 (1 - t 2 )
= ( 3t 2 - 2t 2 )= ( 3t 2 ) - ( 2t 3 ) 2 - 2t 2
(1 + t ) (1 + t 2 ) (1 + t ) (1 + t )
= = = =
dy d d d
=3 ( 2t ) - 2 ( 3t 2 ) =6t - 6t 2 =6t (1 - t )
dt dt dt dt 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
2 (1 - t 2 )
( ) 2 (1 - t 2 ) t 2 - 1
Applying the formula
+
dy
= .= = = =
2 2
dy dy dt 1 t
-4t
dt
(1 + t )
dx dt dx dy - 4t 2t
dy
= =
2
dy dy dt dt dx 2
.
dx dt dx dx
6t (1- t )
dt
-3 (1- t ) =3 ( t -1)
2.7 Differentiation of Implicit Relations
= =
-2t
Sometimes the functional relation is not explicitly expressed in the form y = f ( x )
1- t 2
Find= if x =
dy 2t
1+ t 2 1+ t
Example 3: , y but an equation involving x and y is given. To ind dy from such an equation, we diferentiate
dx dx
(1+ t )
each term of the equation and use the chain rule where it is required.The process of inding
=
= (i ) ( ii )
2
2t
1+ t 1+ t 2
Solution: Given that x 2
and y dy
in this way, is called implicit diferentiation. We explain the implicit diferentiation in the
dx
Diferentiating (i) w.r.t. ‘ t ’ ,we get following examples.
d
d 1- t dt
(1- t 2 ) (1+ t 2 ) - (1- t 2 ) . (1+ t 2 )
d
= = if x 2 + y 2 =
2
dx 2 dy
dt 1+ t (1 + t )
dt Example 1: Find 4
2 2 dx
( -2t ) (1 + t 2 ) - (1- t 2 ) ( 2t ) 2t ( -1 - t 2 - 1 + t 2 )
dt
(1 + t ) (1 + t ) (1 + t )
=
=
4 (i)
2 2 2 2 2 2
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1. Quadratic Equations eLearn.Punjab 1. Quadratic Equations eLearn.Punjab
2. Diferentiation eLearn.Punjab 2. Diferentiation eLearn.Punjab
2x + 2 y = dy 2 ( 2 - x ) 2 - x
⇒ =4 - 2x ⇒ = =
dy dy
0 2y (ii)
dx dx dx 2y y
or x + y =
0 ⇒- =
dy dy x
dx dx y Note: Solving (i) for y , we have
y2 =5 + 4x - x ⇒ y =± 5 + 4 x - x 2
Solving (i) for y in terms of x, we have
Thus y = 5 + 4 x - x 2
y±=-4 x 2
(iii)
y=
- 5 + 4 x - x2
⇒ y= 4- x 2
or (iv)
(ii)
Each of these equations (iii) and (iv) deines a function.
or y-=-4 x
y = f1 ( x ) = 5 + 4 x - x2
2
(iii)
Let (v)
y=f1 ( x ) =- 5 + 4 x - x2 .
dy
found above represents the derivative of each of functions deined as in dx and (vi)
dx
(ii) and (iii) Diferentiation (v) w.r.t. ‘ x ‘ , we get
f1 ' ( x )= ( 5 + 4 x - x ) × ( 4 - 2 x )=
2- x
x ( --2 x ) =
2 - 2
=
1
1
5 + 4x - x2
dy 1 x
dx 2 4 - x 2 4 - x2
( )
From (ii) 2
2- x
= - 4 - x2 = = (v)=
, 5 + 4 x - x 2 y, f1 ' ( x )
x
y From so
( )
y y
-x
=- x ( -2 x ) = =- - 4 - x =y
Also f 2 ' ( x ) = ( ) × ( 4 - 2x) =
2- x
dy 1 x
2 4 - x2 - 4 - x2 - + -
From (iii)
2 - 2
1
dx y 1
- 5 + 4 x - x2
5 4 x x
2
2- x
From (vi) -=
5 +=
4 x - x 2 y, so f2 ' ( x )
,if y 2 + x 2 - 4 x =
dy
y 2 + x 2 - 4 x = ( 5 )
dx
( y ) = ( y )
dx dx
d 2 dy
+ 2x - 4 = =
2y
dy d 2 dy
dx
or 2y 0
dx dx dx dx Diferentiating both sides of (i) w.r.t. ‘ x ‘ , gives
version: 1.1 version: 1.1
38 39
1. Quadratic Equations eLearn.Punjab 1. Quadratic Equations eLearn.Punjab
2. Diferentiation eLearn.Punjab 2. Diferentiation eLearn.Punjab
y - xy - =
x 2 + 4 ( 0=
) 1 2 ( x - 1) 2 ( x 2 - 1)( x 2 + 1)
= 2 x + ( -2 ) . 3 = 2 x - 3 =
=
d 2 d 4
0 dy 1
x
dx dx
dx x x3 x3
dy dy 1 x2 + 1
- 1.y + x - 2 x + 0 = = 1 - ( -1) . 2 = 1 + 2 =
dx dx
or 2y 0 du 1
dy dx 2 ( x - 1)( x + 1) 2 ( x 2 - 1)
and
dx x x x2
dy 2 x + y
⇒ (2 y - x) =
+ ⇒ = Thus = .= = . 2 =
- 2 x
1
2 2
dy
dx 2 y - x
dy x2
x +1 x
2x y
dx du dx du x 3
x
if y 3 - 2 xy 2 - x 2 y + 3 x =
dy EXERCISE 2.4
Example 4: Find 0.
dx
dy
Solution: Diferentiating both sides of the given equation w.r.t. ‘x’ we have 1. Find by making suitable substitutions in the following functions deined as:
dx
1- x a+x
y - 2 xy 2 + x 2 y + 3=
x ( 0 )= 0 y=
1+ x
= x+ x y=x
a-x
d 3 d (i) (ii) y (iii)
( y ) - ( 2 xy 2 ) + ( x 2 y ) + ( 3 x ) = ( 3x 2 - 2 x + 7 )
dx dx
a2 + x2
y=
d 3 d d d
a2 - x
6
or 0 (iv) (v)
( y ) - 2 1.y 2 + x ( y 2 ) + 2 xy + x 2 + 3 =
dx dx dx dx
d 3 d dy
dx
0
( y ) and ( y ) , we have
dx dx dy
2. Find if:
d 3 d 2 dx
3x + 4 y + 7 = xy + y 2 =
Using the chain rule on
dx dx (i) 0 (ii) 2
dy x 2 - 4 xy - 5 y = 4 x 2 + 2hxy + by 2 + 2 gx + 2 fy + c =
- 2 y 2 + x 2 y + 2 xy + x 2 +3=
y ( x 2 - 1=
) x x2 + 4
dy dy (iii) 0 (iv) 0
dx
2
3y 0
x 1+ y + y 1+ x =
(3 y - 4 xy + x 2 )
dx dx
(v) 0 (vi)
= 2 y 2 - 2 xy - 3
2 dy
or
dx dy
2 y 2 - 2 xy - 3
3. Find of the following parametric functions
⇒ =
dy dx
3 y 2 - 4 xy + x 2
a (1 - t 2 )
dx
x= q + and y = q +1 =
=
q
1 2bt
Diferentiate x 2 + w.r.t. x - 1+ t2 1+ t2
1 1 (i) (ii) x , y
Example 5:
x2 x
1- t2
+ y=
x-2 = Prove that y = +x 0 = =
dy 2t
1+ t 1+ t
1 1 4. if x , y
Solution: Let and u x . Then dx 2
x2 x
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1. Quadratic Equations eLearn.Punjab 1. Quadratic Equations eLearn.Punjab
2. Diferentiation eLearn.Punjab 2. Diferentiation eLearn.Punjab
5. Diferentiate
x2 - (1 + x ) dx
dx
sin dx
2 → 0
1
2 n
2
(i) w.r.t x 4 (ii) w.r .t x2
= +lim cos x dlim
2 →0 d x
2
x
x2 + 1 x -1 ax + b ax 2 + b
when d x → 0
dx
→0
x
x -1 x +1 cx + d ax 2 + d
(iii) w.r .t (iv) w.r .t 2 2
2
dx
2
x2 + 1
dx
x -1 =
Thus = cos=
x+.1. lim cos x 1
sin
cos x and
(v) w.r .t x3
dx
dy
2 2
lim
d x / 2 →0 d x / 2 →0
dx 2
( sin x ) .
x →0 x →0
= - -
x x
cos x
dx dx dx
formulas for sin x and cos x.
We prove from irst principle that
dy sin d x 1 - cos d x
-lim ( sin x ) -
=
( sin x ) = cos x and ( cox x )= - sin x
cos x
d x →0 d x dx dx
lim
d x →0
d d
- lim - cos x
d x d x →0 dx
and d y = sin ( x + d x ) - sin x
d x →0
Let
( sin- x ) .1 ( cos x )( 0 )
lim
Thus - =
2 2
- d
dy
dx dx dx dlim = 0
2 cos x + dx
dx 1 cox x
sin sin
dy 2 +cos x d x 2
x →0
= =
2
dx dx 2 dx ( cos x ) = - sin x
d
or
dx
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1. Quadratic Equations eLearn.Punjab 1. Quadratic Equations eLearn.Punjab
2. Diferentiation eLearn.Punjab 2. Diferentiation eLearn.Punjab
Let = =
dx dx
d 1 dx
d
(1) cos x - 1. ( cos x )
Using
( y) =
d
=
( cos x ) quotient
d dx
dx cos x formula
Example 1: Find the derivative of tan x from irst principle.
0.cos x - 1.( - sin x )
2
dx
=
=
1 sin x
sin ( x + d x - x )
dx
sin d x
( cot x ) = cos ec 2 x =
=
cos ( x + d x ) .cos x cos ( x + d x ) cos x
d
Proof of
dx
= = dy sin d x
=
d x cos ( x + d x ) .cos x d x
cos x 1
Let y cot x (i) .
sin x
dy sin d x
= lim
Diferentiating (i) w.r.t. ‘ x ’ , we get
d x →0 d x d x →0 cos ( x + d x ) .cos x
. lim
d x →0 d x
1
or lim
d
( )
- ( sin x ) Using
d cos x dx lim cos ( x + d x ) = cos x
( y) =
d
= quotient
cos x sin x cos x
dx sin x ( sin x ) d x →0
d dx
formula =
=
dx ( cos x )( cos x ) sin d x
dy 1
=1
2
and dlim
dx Thus .1 sec 2 x
dx
( - sin x ) sin x - cos x ( cos x )
x →0
=
( tan x ) = sec 2 x
- ( sin x + cos x )
= sec 2 x
sin 2 x dy d
Thus or
= -2 - = =2
2 2
1 dx dx
cos ec 2 x
sin x sin x
( cot x ) = cos ec 2 x
d
Thus
dx
version: 1.1 version: 1.1
44 45
1. Quadratic Equations eLearn.Punjab 1. Quadratic Equations eLearn.Punjab
2. Diferentiation eLearn.Punjab 2. Diferentiation eLearn.Punjab
x +dx + x x +dx - x
cos sin
(i) cos 2x (ii) sin x (iii) cot 2 x
2 . 2
x +dx + x x +dx - x
y cos 2 ( x + d x )
y cos 2 x, then y + d=
Solution: (i) Let=
d y= cos ( 2 x + 2d x ) - cos 2 x
2
x +dx - x
x +dx + x sin
and
2 x + 2d x + 2 x 2 x + 2d x - 2 x
2+sin ( 2 x d x ) sin d x
lim
- = - = = →
lim . x + d x - x
cos
0
x +dx - x
2
x +dx + x
dy
dx d x→0
Thus 2
2 sin sin
2 2
dy sin d x
2+sin ( 2 x d x ) .
2
- =
2
dx dx x+ x
Now
x +dx - x
sin d x →
lim 2 sin ( 2+x d x ) .
=
= .1
cos
=-
dy cos x
d x
0 when
dx x+ x
2
dy
dx d x→0 dx→0
2
Thus 2 x
sin d x
- 2+lim ( sin 2 x d x ) . lim
=
d x →0 d x →0 d x ( iii ) Let y = cot 2 x, then
sin d x y cot 2 ( x + d x )
y + d=
( 2 sin-2 x=
-= ) .1 2 sin 2 x dlim sin ( 2 x + d x ) = 1 =
y cot 2 ( x + d x ) - cot 2 =
x cot ( x + d x ) + cot x x cot
+ ( x - d x ) cot x
x →0 d x →0 d x d=
sin 2 x and lim
d=
y sin x + d x - sin x + d
sin x cos ( x + d x ) - cos x sin ( x + d x )
and sin x x sin x
= cot ( x + d x ) + cot x ×
x +dx + x x +d x - x
= 2 cos sin sin ( x + d x ) sin x
sin x cos ( x + d x ) - cos x sin ( x + d x )
d y cot ( x + d x ) + cot x - sin d x
( )( )
2 2
x + d x - x =( x + d x ) - x =d x, ( )
= .
As x +dx + x d x sin ( x + d x ) sin x d x
=
- ( + d ) = ( -d ) =
- d
cot ( x + d x ) + cot x
sin x x x sin x sin x
x +dx - x dy sin d x
= -lim .( 1)
sin ( x + d x ) sin x
sin
x +dx + x d x →0 d x dx
dy
lim
d x →0
= 2 cos .
2
dx dx
lim cot ( x + d x ) =
So
cot x + cot x cot x
.( 1) . 1
2
x +dx + x x +d x - x = -
and lim sin ( x + d x ) =
dy d x →0
2 cos sin sin x
Thus
( )( )
dx sin x sin x
= -2 cot x
d x →0
= .1 = -2 cot x co sec x
2 2
x +dx + x x +dx - x
2
sin 2 x
version: 1.1 version: 1.1
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1. Quadratic Equations eLearn.Punjab 1. Quadratic Equations eLearn.Punjab
2. Diferentiation eLearn.Punjab 2. Diferentiation eLearn.Punjab
p p
Differentiate sin3 x w.r.t. cos 2 x
= = x Sin ∈ - x
Example 3:
sin y for y
== 2 2
3 2
Then y or , (ii)
Solution: Let y sin x and u cos x
-2 cos x ( sin x )
Diferentiating both sides of (ii) w.r.t. ‘ x ’ , we get
Now = 3 sin 2 x cos=
( sin y ) (=
sin y )
dy du
= 1 =
x and d d dy dy
dx dx cos y
dx dx dx dx
( 3 sin2 x cos x ) .=
dx 1
Thus= = dx p p
=
⇒ ∈ - for
dy dy dx 1
-2 cos x sin x du y ,
. dy 1
du 2 2
du dx du
dx cos y
p p
= - sin x. = ∈ - ,
3 1
1 - sin 2 y 2 2
cos y is positive for y
( sin -1 x )
2
y ∈ ( 0 ,p )
d 1
1 - x2 ⇒ - =
2. , dy 1
dx for
Tan -1 x = - x ∈R
dx sin y
d 1
sin y is positive for y ∈ ( 0 ,p )
1 + x2
= -
3. ,
dx 1
1 - cos 2 y
Cosec -1 x = - x ∈ [ -1 , 1]' , [ -1 , 1]' = ( -∞ ,-1) ∪ (1,∞ )
( Cos -1 x ) =-
d 1
| x | x2 - 1 -1 <x <1
4. ,
dx d 1
1 - x2
Thus for
Sec -1 x = - x ∈ [ -1 , 1]' , [ -1 , 1]' = ( -∞ ,-1) ∪ (1,∞ )
dx
d 1
| x | x2 - 1
5. ,
Proof of (3). Let y = Tan -1 x
dx
(i).
Cot -1 x = - x ∈R
p p
d 1
1 + x2
= ∈ y- for
6. ,
y ,
dx
2 2
Then x=Tan y or x tan (ii)
Proof of (1). Let y = Sin -1 x (i).
Diferentiating both sides of (ii) w.r.t. ‘ x ’ , we have
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1. Quadratic Equations eLearn.Punjab 1. Quadratic Equations eLearn.Punjab
2. Diferentiation eLearn.Punjab 2. Diferentiation eLearn.Punjab
= = ( tan y ) (=
tan y ) p
When y ∈ - ,0 ,cosec y and cot y are negative
d d dy dy
2
1 sec 2 y
dx dx dx dx
p p
=⇒ ∈ 2- y , As cosec y = x, so x is negative in this case
dy 1
2 2
for
dx sec y
and cot y = - cosec 2 y - 1 = - x 2 - 1 when x < -1
= = for x ∈ R
1 1
1 + tan y 1 + x 2
2
( )
-1
Thus = Tan -1 x ∈ 2 for x R Thus= Co sec -1 x < - (x 1)
d 1
1+ x
d
dx dx x - x2 - 1
Let y = Co sec -1 x -1
= <- (x 1)
( - x ) x2 - 1
Proof of (4). (i)
p p
= =x Co sec∈y -or x cos
- ec y for y {0}
2 2 cosec -1 x = - x ∈ [ -1, 1]'
Then , (ii) d 1
| x | x2 - 1
for
dx
p p p p
- 2 , 2 - {0} is also written as - 2 0 ∪ 0 , 2
Proof of (5). is left as an exercise
Proof of (6). is similar to that of (4)
Diferentiating both sides of (ii) w.r.t. ‘ x ’ , we get
x
=
= ( cosec y ) ( cosec y ) if =y x Sin -1 + a 2 + x 2
dy
a
d d dy Example 1: Find
1
dx dx dx dx
= ( - cosec y cot y )
dy
x
Solution: Given that=y x Sin -1 + a 2 + x 2
dx
p p
⇒ =- y ∈ - , -{0} a
dy 1
2 2
for
dx cosec y cot y
Diferentiating w.r.t. x , we have
p
When y ∈ 0 , , cos ec y and cot y are positive.
2 =
dy d
dx dx
x Sin -1 x
a
+ a=2
+ x 2 d
dx x Sin -1 x
+
a dx
(
d 2
a + x )
2 1/ 2
.(+a ) (+a x2 )
As cosec y = x , so x is positive in this case d x
= 1 . Sin + x.
-1
. + 2 2 -1
1
x 1 1 2 d 2
and cot y= co sec y - 1= x -1 for all x > 1 x dx a
x
1-
2 2 a 2 2 dx
a
=
d
( Co sec -1 x ) >
-1
x x2 - 1
Thus for x 1
dx
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1. Quadratic Equations eLearn.Punjab 1. Quadratic Equations eLearn.Punjab
2. Diferentiation eLearn.Punjab 2. Diferentiation eLearn.Punjab
dy
.( -2 x )
3. Find if
Sin -1 +x . +
x 11 1 dx
x2 a 2 a2 - x2 y = x cos y x = y sin y
1- 2
a (i) (ii)
a
Sin -1 + x . - = Sin -1
x a 1 1 x
a2 - x2 a a2 - x2
4. Find the derivative w.r.t. x
a a
1+ x 1 + 2x
1 + 2x 1+ x
4 (1 + y 2 )
(i) cos (ii) sin
x
=
= If y tan 2 Tan -1 ,show that
dy
4+ x
Diferentiate
2
Example 2: 5.
2
dx
(i) sin x w.r.t. cot x (ii) sin 2 x w.r.t. cos 4 x
(1 y2 ) .
9. Find
dx
Thus + == . =
2
dy dy du 4
dx du dx 4 + x2 4 + x2 10. Diferentiate w.r.t. x
( sin 2q - cos 3q )
dx x x y
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1. Quadratic Equations eLearn.Punjab 1. Quadratic Equations eLearn.Punjab
2. Diferentiation eLearn.Punjab 2. Diferentiation eLearn.Punjab
ah - 1
2.10 DERIVATIVE OF EXPONENTIAL FUNCTIONS:
= a .( ln a ) Using lim= = log a e ln a
x
h →0
( a ) = a x .( ln a )
h
f ( x) = ax
A function f deined by
d x
or
a > 0 , a ≠ 1 and x is any real number.
dx
e x ( ed x 1)
dy ed x - 1
That is , d y-= = ex
dx dx
.
dx dx Diferentiating both sides of ( A ) w.r.t. 'x' , we have
and
dy xe -1 x ed x - 1
( e ) ( e ) . dx
dx
=
=
d x →0 d x
lim e
dx
e . dlim
dx
= ( y) =
Thus lim d d u d u du
d x →0 x →0 (Using the chain rule)
Using ( e ) e
x
dx dx du
x
dx→0 e =e =
= eu .
lim
du d x
x
dx dx
eh - 1
e x +1 .( 2 x )
=
= e x .1 Using lim 1 = +u x2 1 =
= 2x
dy dy du
2
Thus and
h →0
( e ) = ex
dx h dx dx
or
d x ( ii ) Let u x
=
= Then y au ( A)
( x ) =
dx
y = a x , then and= =
du d 1/ 2 1 -1/ 2 1
y + d y= a x +d x and d y = a x +d x - a x= a x . ad x - a x= a x ( ad x - 1)
2. Let x
dy a -1dx = =
dy d u
( a ) =( a ) dx
d u du dy
dx
dy du
.
du dx
= ax
dx dx
= ( a u ln a ) . ( a ) a x ln a
dx dx du
=
ad x - 1 x ad x - 1
du d x
Using
=
= =
( ) (a )
lim a x ax
lim
dx d x→0 d x d x d x → 0
dy dx dx
1
Thus a . lim ax
d x →0
Thus = ln a = =
u
d 1 du
2 x
a x x
. x and
dx 2 x dx
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1. Quadratic Equations eLearn.Punjab 1. Quadratic Equations eLearn.Punjab
2. Diferentiation eLearn.Punjab 2. Diferentiation eLearn.Punjab
dy 1 dx
= Now= 1 +
dx dx
ln a 1
x
x
.a . ln
2 x
d x 1 d x d x
= . ln 1 + = ln 1 +
x
x dx
1 x
Example 2: Differentiate y = a x w.r.t. x. x x x
dy 1 dx 1 dx x
lim = lim ln 1 + = lim ln 1 +
d d
x x
d x →0 d x d x →0 x
x x d x →0 x
x
Solution: Here y = a x
Thus
= e x ln a
d x d x
= + . ln lim
x
1
dy 1
d x →0 x
Diferentiating w.r.t. ‘ x ‘ , we have
x
dx x
= e x ln a , ( x ln a ) dx
dy d
( e x In a ax )
→ 0 when d x → 0
= a .( In a )
= x
dx dx
( e ax )
x
= a x .( In a )
= = ln e
lim
( + ) z =
z →0 e
1
x In a 1
1 z
( log 1)
x
= = =
1 1 e
.1 e
x x
2.11 DERIVATIVE OF THE LOGARITHMIC FUNCTION Now we ind derivative of the general logarithmic function.
y = log a x then
y log a ( x + d x ) and
Let
y + d=
Logarithmic Function:
If a > 0 a ≠ 1 and x =
x +dx dx
d y = log a ( x + d x ) - log a=
( x 0)
a , then the function defind by
log =
log a 1 +
= y >log a x x
x
x
dy 1 dx 1 x dx
= log a 1 + = . log a 1 +
is called the logarithm of x to the base a.
dx dx x x dx x
x x
The logarithmic functions log e and log are called natural and common logarithms
respectively, y =log e x is written as y = ln x .
10
d x d x
= log a 1 +
x
1
x
( In x ) .
x
d d x
d
Thus = lim log a 1 + =
lim log a 1 +
d d
x x
We first find dy 1 x 1 x
dx d x→0 x x x d x →0 x
x
dx
Let y = ln x Then
y + d y= In ( x + d x ) lim x
dx x
= + log a d x 1
and
d
x
1
x +dx dx
d y = ln ( x + d x ) - ln x = = ln 1 + x →0
x
x x
version: 1.1 version: 1.1
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1. Quadratic Equations eLearn.Punjab 1. Quadratic Equations eLearn.Punjab
2. Diferentiation eLearn.Punjab 2. Diferentiation eLearn.Punjab
z →0 ( )z =
2.12 LOGARITHMIC DIFFERENTIATION
= log a x + e
1
1
lim 1 z
x
Algebraic expressions consisting of product, quotient and powers can be often
1
log a= = =
simpliied before diferentiation by taking logarithm.
log
d 1 1 1
ln a
x e
or . a
dx x ln a log e a
Differentiate y = e
f ( x)
if y log10 ( ax 2 + bx + c )
Example 1: w.r.t.' x '.
=
dy
Example 1: Find
y=e
dx f ( x)
Solution: Here (i)
Solution: Let u = ax 2 + bx + c Then
In y = f ( x ) . In e
Taking logarithm of both sides of (i), we have
y= log10u ⇒ =
= f ( x) ( In e = 1)
dy 1 1
( ax + bx + c ) = a ( 2 x ) + b (1) = 2ax + b
du u In 10
. = f ' ( x)
dx dx
dy dy du 1 1 du
1 dy
= = .
dx du dx u ln 10 dx
Thus . y dx
×= ( x ) e×f ( x ) f ' ( x )
y f '=
dy
( 2ax b )
( ax + bx + c ) ln 10 ( )
So
= + 2
dx
e = e ( ) × f ' ( x)
1
d f ( x) f x
or
( )
dx
d
+ + = 2 2ax + b
dx (ax + bx + c) ln 10 x x2 + 3
2
or log10 ax bx c
x2 + 1
Differentiate ln ( x 2 + 2 x ) w.r.t. ' x '.
Example 2: Find derivative of
x x2 + 3
......( i )
Example 2:
( x + 1)
Solution: Let y = 2
Solution: Let =y ln ( x 2 + 2 x ) , then
Taking logarithm of both sides, we have
ln ( x 2 + 2 x =
) ( x + 2x)
( )
( Using chain rule )
( )
dy d
- ln ( x 2 + 1)
= x x2 + 3
1 d 2
+ = y ln 2 = ln x x 2 + 3
.
x +1
2 ( x + 1)
2
dx dx dx
x 2 x ln
= .(=
2x + 2)
ln ( x 2 + 3) - ln ( x 2 + 1)
1
x + 2x x2 + 2 x
or ln y= ln x + ......( ii )
2 ( x + 1)
2
( )
1
d =
+
2
dx x2 + 2 x
2
Thus ln x 2 x
Diferentiating both sides of (ii) w.r.t ‘ x ‘,
version: 1.1 version: 1.1
58 59
1. Quadratic Equations eLearn.Punjab 1. Quadratic Equations eLearn.Punjab
2. Diferentiation eLearn.Punjab 2. Diferentiation eLearn.Punjab
[ In=
y] In ( x 2 + 3) - In ( x 2 + 1)
d
2.13 DERIVATIVE OF HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS
+
d 1
dx
In x
dx 2
The functions deined by:
= + . 2 × 2x - 2 × 2x
1 dy 1 1 1 1
x 2 x +3 x +1 ex - e
-x
e x + e- x
sinh x = , x ∈ R ; cosh x = ; x∈R
y dx
+= 2-
1 x 2x
x x +3 x +1
2 2
sinh x e x - e - x
(x + 3)( x 2 + 1) + x . x ( x 2 + 1) - 2 x . x ( x 2 + 3)
= = ;x∈ R
2
cosh x e x + e - x
tanh x
x ( x 2 + 3)( x 2 + 1)
=
2
= x - x , x ∈ R - {0} ;
y (3 - x )
cos ech=
1 2
x x2 + 3 3 - x2 sinh x e - e
dx x ( x 2 + 1)( x 2 + 1) x 2 + 1 x ( x 2 + 3)( x 2 + 1)
x
=
=
2
dy
Thus .
= = x , x∈R
1 2
cosh x e + e - x
sec hx
3 - x2 e x + e- x
, x ∈ R - {0}
x 2 + 3 . ( x 2 + 1)
= = = x
1
tanh x e - e - x
2
coth
- = - - =
Example 3:
d 1 x -x 1 x
dx 2 2
e e e e ( 1 )
dx 2
Solution: Let y = ( ln x )
( ) ( e - e - x ) = sinh x
x
( cosh x ) =
d 1 x -x
(i)
+ =
+ -x
-
=
d 1 x 1 x
dx 2 2
Taking logarithm of both sides of (i) , we have e e e e .( 1 )
In y In ( In x ) x In ( In x )
(e + e- x ) ( e x + e- x ) - ( e x - e- x ) ( e x - e- x )
=
=
dx 2
x
d e x - e- x
[tanh x ]
(e + e )
=
=
dx e x + e - x
x
d
Diferentiating w.r.t x , -x 2
+ 2 - (e + e - 2)
dx x
e 2 x + e -2 x
= 1 . In ( In x ) + x . . ( In x )
-2 x
(e + e ) (e + e- x )
=
=
2x
1 dy 1 d 4
y dx In x dx x -x 2 x 2
In ( In x ) + x . In ( In x ) +
2
= . = = = -x
2
1 1 1
e +e
x
sec h 2 x.
In x x In x
1 1
= y In ( In x ) + = ( In x ) In ( In x ) + In x
In x
dy The following results can easily be proved.
x
dx
version: 1.1 version: 1.1
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1. Quadratic Equations eLearn.Punjab 1. Quadratic Equations eLearn.Punjab
2. Diferentiation eLearn.Punjab 2. Diferentiation eLearn.Punjab
[ 1,1] , y R
Solution: Let u = 2 x, then
= y =
coth -1 x if and∈only
- if x ∈coth- y {0}
'
; x (0 ,1` ] , y [0 ,
4. ; x
= y sec∈h -1 x if and
∈ only
∞ if x= sec h y
∈ech- y ; x ∈R -{0} , y {0}
5. )
= =
⇒ = y cos ech=
-1
dy
y sinh u cosh u 6. x if and only if x cos R
( ) ( )
du
( 2 x ) 2.
The following two equations can easily be derived:
= =
du d
(i ) sinh -1 x = In x + x 2 + 1 ( ii ) cosh -1 x= In x+ x 2- 1
and
dx dx
= = cosh= cosh (=
2 x ) .2 2 cosh 2 x
dx
dy dy du du
Thus . u.
[ sinh 2 x ] = 2 cosh 2 x .
dx du dx
Proof of (i).
=Let y ∈sinh -1 x for x, y R,then
d
or
dx
e y - e- y
y = tanh ( x 2 )
dy =x sinh y ⇒=x
Example 2 : Find if 2
⇒ 2 xe y =e 2 y - 1
dx
e 2 y - 2 xe y - 1 =
Solution: Let =
u x ,then =
y tanh u ⇒ = sec h 2 u
dy or 0
2
2 x ± 4 x2 + 4
= =
and
du d
( x ) 2x ey =
2
2 x ± 2 x2 + 1
dx dx
= =
x ± x2 + 1
sec h×2 ( x 2 )
du
= = sec h 2=
dy dy du 2
Thus . u. 2x
As e y is positivefor y ∈ R, so we discard
dx du dx dx
tanh x 2 = 2 x sec h 2 x 2
x - x2 + 1
d
( )
or
dx
Thus e y =
x + x2 + 1 ⇒ y =
In x + x 2 + 1
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1. Quadratic Equations eLearn.Punjab 1. Quadratic Equations eLearn.Punjab
2. Diferentiation eLearn.Punjab 2. Diferentiation eLearn.Punjab
( )
Derivative of cosh -1 x:
⇒ sinh x = In x + x + 1
∈ -1∞x ; ∈ x ∞[1 ) , y [0,
-1
=
Proof of ( ii )
2
Let y cosh )
e y + e- y
=
x cosh y ⇒
= ⇒ e 2 y - 2e y =
+1 0 ......( I )
x
dy 1
2
2 x ± 4 x2 - 4 2 x ± 2 x2 - 1 = sinh y ⇒
= =
Solivng ( I ) gives, e = dx dx
dx dy 1
= =± x2 - 1 .
( )
and
y
dy
x dy dx sinh y
2 2
e y =- x 2 - 1 can be written as y =In x -x 2 1-
( )
or
( > -1 x )
dx sinh y 2
( )
for each x ∈ (1,∞ ) , y ∉ ( 0 ,∞ ) ,so we discard this value of e y
Thus cosh
dx dx
( )
As cosh -1 x = In x + x 2 - 1 , so
Thus e y =+ x 2 + 1 which give y =
In x + x 2 - 1 , that is
( )
x
2x x2 - 1 + x
cosh -1 x = In x + x 2 - 1 . cosh x =
dx 1 + = =
-1
x + x 2 - 1 2 x 2 - 1 x + x 2 - 1
d 1 1 1
x2 - 1 x2 - 1
.
Derivative of sinh -1 x :
Derivative of tanh -1 x :
=Let y ∈sinh -1 x ; x , y
Let y = tanh -1 x ; x ∈ ( -1, 1) , y ∈ R
R
Then x = sinh y
Then x = tanh y and = sec h 2 ⇒ = = dy 1
dx dx
dx dy 1
sec h 2 y
dy
dy dx
= cosh y =
⇒ = dy 1
dx dx
dx dy 1
dy
= = (sec h= y - 1 tanh 2 y )
dy dx cosh y
dy 1 1
dx 1 - tanh 2 y 1 - x2
2
(
∈sinh -1 x ) (x R)
The following diferentiation formulae can be easily proved.
=
=
( coth -1 x ) =
dy d 1
1 + x2
or - ; x >1
dx dx d 1 1
dx 1 - x2 x -1
2
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1. Quadratic Equations eLearn.Punjab 1. Quadratic Equations eLearn.Punjab
2. Diferentiation eLearn.Punjab 2. Diferentiation eLearn.Punjab
( sec h -1 x ) =-
EXERCISE 2.6
0 <x <1
d 1
x 1 - x2
Find f ' ( x ) if
;
( x) =
dx
1.
- -1
>
f ( x) x e ( x ≠ 0) f ( x ) = e x ( I + ln x )
d 1
x 1 + x2 f ( x) = e (ii) =
cosech ;x 0 1
x -1
( cos ech -1 x ) =-
dx
x ∈R -{0}
3
(i) x
(iii)
ln ( e + e )
d 1
x 1 + x2 e ax - e - ax
f ( x) = -x
or ;
-x
fx = ax
dx ex
e +1 e + e - ax
( )
x
(iv) (v) (vi)
Solution: Let =
u ax + b , then
dy
2. Find if
= =⇒
dx
sinh -1 u
dy 1
1 + u2 y = x ln x y=
y
y = x 2 ln x
dx x
(i) (ii) (iii)
( )
= =
dy dy du 1 du ln x
1 + u dx
x2 - 1
. .
y = ln 2 y = ln x + x 2 + 1
dx du dx 2
y = x ln
sinh -1 ( ax +=
b) +(=
ax b )
x +1
1
du
(iv) 2
(v) (vi)
=
y= e - x ( x3 + 2 x 2 + 1)
a
y ln ( 9 - x 2 )
1 + ( ax + b )
d 1 d x
dx (viii) y = e -2 x sin 2 x
Thus .a
(vii) =
dx 2 dx
(ix)
(x) y = x e sin x (xi) y = 5e3 x -4 (xii) = ( x + 1)
x
( sec x )
y
= ≤ -≤ x p /2
x 2 - 1 ( x + 1)
dy
Example 2: Find if y cosh 1
0
(xiii) y = ( ln x )
(x +1)
y=
dx
(xiv)
ln x
=y cosh -1 u ⇒
=
dy 1 dy
3. Find if
u2 -1
dx dx
=
du d
= ( sec x ) sec x tan x (i) y = cosh 2 x (ii) y = sinh 3 x
y = sinh -1 ( x3 )
and
p p
- -1 <( sin< x )
dx dx
= =
dy dy du 1 du =
(iii) y tanh (iv)
u - 1 dx
Thus . . x
2 2
x
dx du dx
y = ln ( tanh x )
2
=
=
= ( sec x tan x ) ( sec x tan x ) sec x y = sinh -1
2
1 1
(v) (vi)
sec x tan x
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1. Quadratic Equations eLearn.Punjab 1. Quadratic Equations eLearn.Punjab
2. Diferentiation eLearn.Punjab 2. Diferentiation eLearn.Punjab
( )
2.15 SUCCESSIVE DIFFERENTIATION
if y = ln x + x 2 + a 2
d3y
Example 2: Find
(OR HIGHER DERIVATIVES): 3
( )
dx
Sometimes it is useful to ind the diferential coeicient of a derived function. If we Solution: Give that y = ln x + x 2 + a 2 (i)
denote f ’ as the irst derivative of f, then (f ’)’ is the derivative of f ’ and is called the second
Diferentiating both sides of (i) w.r.t. ‘ x ‘ , we have
( )
derivative of f .For convenience we write it as f”.
Similarly (f ”)’. the derivative of f ”, is called the third derivative of f and is written as f ’”.
= + +
In general, for n ≥ 4 , the nth derivative of f is written as f . (n)
dy 1 d
x + x 2 + a 2 dx
x x2 a2
dx
1× 2 x
Here we state diferent notations used for derivatives of higher orders..
= + . 1
1
x + x 2 + a 2 2 x 2 + a 2
1st derivative 2nd derivative 3rd derivative nth derivative
y’ y ’’ y ’’’ y (n)
x2 + a2 + x
= ×
1
x+ x +a 2 x +a
dy d2y d3y dny 2 2 2 2
dx dx 2 dx3 dx n
That is, dy =
y1 y2 y3 yn 1
x +a
(ii)
dx 2 2
Dy D 2y D 3y D ny
Diferentiating (ii) w.r.t. ‘ x ’, we have
d2y d 2
= ( + -)
2 -1/ 2
=
+ ( × ) 2x
df d2 f d3 f dn f
2 -3 / 2
dx 2 dx
1 2
dx dx 2 dx 3 dx n x a x a
2
( x2 + a2 )
= -
d 2y x
Example 1: Find higher derivatives of the polynomial or 2 3/ 2
(iii)
f ( x )=
dx
x - x + x + 2x + 7
1 4 1 3 1 2
12 6 4 Diferentiating (iii) w.r.t. ‘ x ’ , we get
1 . ( x2 + a2 ) - x. ( x + a 2 ) .2 x
( 4 x3 ) - ( 3 x 2 ) + ( 2 x ) + 2 + 0=
3 2
( )
3/ 2 1/ 2
f ' ( x )= x - x + x+2 = -
3
d y
+
1 1 1 1 3 1 2 1 2
Solution: dx 3 2 2 3/ 2
a2 - 2 x2
1 1 1 1
(x + a ) ( x2 + a2 )
= = -
2 2 1/ 2 2 2 2
f "' ( x= ) 2x - 1
3 2 2 2
2 2 3 5/ 2
f iv ( x ) = 2 2 x2 - a2
(x + a2 )
=
d3y
5/ 2
dx 3 2
All other higher derivatives are zero.
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1. Quadratic Equations eLearn.Punjab 1. Quadratic Equations eLearn.Punjab
2. Diferentiation eLearn.Punjab 2. Diferentiation eLearn.Punjab
Example 1: -a (q sinq=
If x = )+, y a (1 cosq ) . Then
if y3 + 3ax 2 + x 3 =
d2y
Example 3: Find 0
+a=
dx 2 d2y
Solution: Given that y3 + 3ax 2 + x3 =
show that y 2 0
0 (i) dx 2
+ 3a ( 2 x ) + 3 x 2 = + ( 2ax x 2 )
dx dx
⇒ -y 2 = = a (1 + cos q )
dy dy
dq
3y2 dx
0 (iii)
dx dx
2ax + x 2
⇒ = - and = a ( -sinq )
dy
dq
(ii) dy
(iv)
dx y2
(y )
= - =
dx y 2
d2y
- a sin q -sin q
2 2
=
=
dx 2
a (1 + cos q )
2 ( a + x ) y 2 - ( 2ax + x 2 ) . 2 y × -
2ax + x 1 + cos q
2
= - sinq
= -
y2
1 + cosq
dy
(v)
( 2ax + x 2 )( 2ax + x 2 )
4 That is,
y dx
2 ( a + x ) y + Diferentiating (v) w.r.t. ‘ x ’
2
= -
y
d2y d sin q sin q dq
-2 =
- = ×
2 ( a + x ) y 3 + ( 2ax + x 2 )
y4
dx 1+cos q dq 1+cos q dx
d
= -
2
dx
(-y )
= -
- = =- (1 + cos q )
2
3 2 3 2
.
3ax x dx
2 x 2 - ( a + x )( 3a + x ) + ( 4a 2 + x 2 + 4ax )
cos q +cos 2 q +sin 2q dq
5
y
= -
(1 + cos q )
d2y
= -
2
.
dx 2 dx
2 x 2 - ( 3a 2 + 4ax + x 2 ) + 4a 2 + x 2 + 4ax
1 + cosq
= a (1 + cosq )
dx
y5
- =
×
(1 + cos q ) a (1 + cos q ) dq
1
= -
2
y5
2 x 2 a 2 -2a 2 x 2
- =
=
y5 y5
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1. Quadratic Equations eLearn.Punjab 1. Quadratic Equations eLearn.Punjab
2. Diferentiation eLearn.Punjab 2. Diferentiation eLearn.Punjab
a 2 ( -ay ) =
dx 2
= a y ⇒ 3 =
dx 2
2
a 2 -=
d3y dy
dx dx dx
Find the irst four derivatives of cos ( ax + b ) .
a3 y
dx dx
Example 5:
= y cos ( ax + b ) , then + a3 y =
d3y
Solution: Let Thus 3
0
dx
y1 = cos ( ax +
- b ) =+sin ( ax b ) . + ( ax b )
that y2 -x ( a 2 )
d d
-3
= -1
=
- sin ( ax + b ) × ( a + 0 ) =
- a sin ( ax + b )
dx dx x
=
2
Example 7: If y Sin , then show x 2
a
y2 =
-a sin ( ax + b ) =
( -a ) cos ( ax + b ) × ( a + 0 )
dx
d
Solution: y = sin -1
x
- a+2 cos ( ax b )
=
, so
a
y3 =
- a2
d
(
cos ( ax + b ) = - a 2 ) - sin ( ax + b ) × ( a + 0 )
d x d x
= = = Sin -1 ×
dy 1
dx a dx a
dx
= a 3 sin ( ax + b ) x
y1
1-
dx 2
a
sin ( ax+ b ) = a 3× cos ( ax+ b ) × a= a 4 cos ( ax+ b )
(a x2 )
y4 = a 3
d
= = . = .-
1 1 a 1 -1/2
a2 - x2 a a2 - x2 a
dx 2
y2 = ( a 2 - x 2 ) =- ( a 2 - x 2 ) × ( -2 x ) =x ( a 2 - x 2 )
= 6: =
If y e - ax +, then show that
d3y a2
Example a3 y -1/2 -3/2 -3/2
0
dx
3
dx d 1
( e )= e - ax . ( - ax )= e - ax . ( - a )
2
Solution: As y= e - ax , so =
dy d - ax d
dx dx dx
That is
dy
dx
= -ay ( e - ax
= y)
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1. Quadratic Equations eLearn.Punjab 1. Quadratic Equations eLearn.Punjab
2. Diferentiation eLearn.Punjab 2. Diferentiation eLearn.Punjab
f '' ( 0 ) f ''' ( 0 ) f( ( 0)
4)
2. Find y2 if
= ( 0 ) , a1 f=
a0 f= ( 0 ) , a2
= =
2x + 3
So we have
y = x 2 . e- x y = ln
'
, a3 , a4
3x + 2 f n ( 0)
2! 3! 4!
(i) (ii)
Following the above pattern, we can write an =
n!
3. Find y2 if
(i) x2 + y 2 =
a2 (ii) x3 - y 3 =
a =
(iii) cosq , y a sin q
x a= Thus substituting these values in the power series, we have
y ln ( x 2 - 9 )
4. Find y4 if 2! 3! 4! n!
(i) y = sin 3 x (ii) y = cos3 x (iii) = This expansion of f ( x ) is called the Maclaurin series expansion.
f '' ( 0 ) 2 f ''' ( 0 ) 3 f ( ) ( 0 ) 4 f n ( 0) n
= If y = - x, show
+ that f ( x=
) f (0) + f ( 0) x + x + x + x + .... + x + ....
4
d2y dy
6. e sin x
2 2y 0 '
( a 2 b2 ) y
2
dx dx 2! 3! 4! n!
= -= + that
+
d2y dy
Note that a function f can be expanded in the Maclaurin series if the function is deined
( ) ( )
7. If y e ax sin bx, show 2a 0
in the interval containing 0 and its derivatives exist at x = 0 .
2
dx dx
= If y= - -1 x -,prove- that 1 x 2 y2 xy1 2 0
2
8. Cos
The expansion is only valid if it is convergent.
If y = a cos (ln x) + b sin (ln x), prove that x 2 d y2 + x dy + y =
2
9. 0.
Expand f ( x ) = 1
dx dx
1+ x
Example 1: in the Maclaurin series.
f '' ( x ) =
( -1)( -2 ) (1 + x ) and f '' ( 0 ) (=- 1) 2
1,
-3
We determine the coeicient a0 , a1 , a2 , ..., an , ... to specify power series by inding 2
successive derivatives of the power series and evaluating them at x = 0 . That is, f ''' ( x ) =
( -1)( -2 ) ( -3)(1 + x ) and f ''' ( 0 ) (=- 1)
-4 3
3
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1. Quadratic Equations eLearn.Punjab 1. Quadratic Equations eLearn.Punjab
2. Diferentiation eLearn.Punjab 2. Diferentiation eLearn.Punjab
f(
4)
( x) =
( -1)( -2 ) ( -3)( -4 )(1 + x ) and f (
4)
( 0 ) (=-
1)
f '' ( 0 ) 2 f ''' ( 0 ) 3 f ( ) ( 0 ) 4 f ( ) ( 0 )
-5
f ( x) =f ( 0) + f ( 0) x +
4
4
x + x + x + + ...,we have
4 5
'
f '' ( 0 ) 2 f ''' ( 0 ) 3 f ( ) ( 0 ) 4 f ( ) ( 0) x
3 5 7
f ( x) =
f ( 0) + f ( 0) x + x + x + + x = ... +
4 n
'
x ,...
2 3 4 n
Example 3: Expand ax in the Maclaurin series.
+
f(
n)
( 0 ) x x + ,... we have Solution: Let f ( x ) = a x , then
=
=
=f ' ( x ) a x ln a, f '' ( x ) a x ( ln a ) , f ''' ( x ) a x ( ln a )
n
x + ... + f ( ) ( x ) a x( ln a ) , ..., f ( ( x ) a x ( ln a )( ) .
n
=
=
n)
1 2 2 2 3 3 4 4 4
1+ x
4 4 n
Thus, the Maclaurin series for 1 is the geometric series with the irst term 1 and
1+ x
common ratio -x. f ( 0=
) a=0 1, f ' ( 0=) a 0 ln =
a ln a, f '' ( 0=
) ( ln a ) , f ''' ( 0 ) ( ln a )
2 3
=
=f ( ) ( 0 ) ( ln a ) , ... , f ( ( 0 ) ( ln a )
4 4 n) n
.
= 1 , we have
a
1- r
Note: Applying the formula S Substituting these values in the formula
f '' ( 0 ) 2 f ''' ( 0 ) 3 f ( ) ( 0) n
1 - x + x2 - x=
3 + ... = f ( x=
) f ( 0) + f ( 0) x + x + x + ... + x + ..., we have
1 - (-x) 1 + x
n
1 1 '
( ln a ) ( ln a ) ( ln a )
2 3 n
=1 + ( ln a ) .x + + + ... + x n + ...
2 3 n
x 2 3
a x x
2 3 n
Example 2: Find the Maclaurin series for sin x
Note: If we put a = e in the above expansion, we get
( x ) sin x. Then
Solution: Let f = = f (=
0 ) sin 0 0.
e x =1 + x + + + ... + + . .. ( In e = 1)
f ' ( x) =
cos x and f ' ( 0 ) - 1 ; f '' (-x )= x and f '' ( 0 )
x 2 x3 xn
= cos 0 = =
f ''' ( x ) =- cos x and f ''' ( 0 ) =-cos 0 =-1 ; f ( ( x ) =-( -sin x )
sin sin 0 0; 2 3 n
=-sin x
4)
( 0 ) sin ( 0 ) 0.
Replacing x by 1, we have
and f = = ( 4)
e =1+1 + + + ... +
f ( ) = ( x ) = cos x and f ( ( 0 )= cos 0= 1, f ( ( x )= - sin x
5) 6)
1 1 1
5
f ( ) ( 0) = ( 0-)
2 3 n
and= 0; f( ) cos x and f ( =-
6 7 7)
1
Putting these values in the formula
version: 1.1 version: 1.1
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1. Quadratic Equations eLearn.Punjab 1. Quadratic Equations eLearn.Punjab
2. Diferentiation eLearn.Punjab 2. Diferentiation eLearn.Punjab
f ' ( x) = 2 ( x +a )
+ a1 2a- 3a-3 ( x +a ) 4(x +
4a- a ) + ... na-
n (x a+)
n -1
Example 4: Expand (1 + x)n in the Maclaurin series. 2 3
Solution: Let f ( x =
) (1 + x ) , then + ...
2 n-2
f ' (=
x ) n (1 + x ) f '' ( x ) = n ( n - 1) (1 + x )
n -1 n-2
Putting x = 0 , we get
f ( 0 ) =(1 + 0 ) = ( 0 ) =n (1 + 0 ) =n , f ''' ( a )
2
n -1
⇒ a3 =
n '
f '' ( 0 ) = n ( n - 1)(1 + 0 ) = n ( n - 1)
1, f
n-2
3
f ''' ( 0 ) = n ( n - 1) ( n - 2 )(1 + 0 ) = n ( n - 1)( n - 2 ) ,
n -3
f(
4)
( 0 ) = n ( n - 1)( n - 2 )( n - 3)(1 + 0 )
n-4
= n ( n - 1)( n - 3) Following the above pattern , we have
f( )
(a)
n ( n - 1) 2 n ( n - 1)( n - 2 ) 3
2 3
(1 + x )
2 3
(a)
+
= 1 n+. x +x x + ...
f(
n)
( x - a)
n
+ + ...
2 3 n
2.17 TAILOR SERIES EXPANSIONS This expansion is the Taylor series for f at x = a . The expansionisonly valid if it is
OF FUNCTIONS: convergent .
If a = 0, then the above expansion becomes
f '' ( 0 ) 2 f '' ( 0 ) 3 f ( ) ( 0) n
f ( x=
) f ( 0) + f ' ( 0) x +
If f is deined in the interval containing ' a' and its derivatives of all orders exist at
x = a , then we can expand f ( x ) as x + x + ... + x + ...
n
2 3 n
f ( x )= f ( a ) + f ' ( a )( x - a ) +
(a) (a)
( x - a) + ( x - a) which is the Maclaurin series for f at x = a .
'' '''
f f
Replacing x by x + h and a by x , the expansion in (A) can be written as
2 3
(a) (a)
2 3
f(
4)
f(
n)
+ ( x - a) + ... + ( x - a) + ...
f '' ( x ) 2 f ''' ( x ) 3 f ( ) ( x) n
f ( x + h=
) f ( x) + f ' ( x) h +
4 n
f ( x ) = a0 + a1 ( x - a ) + a2 ( x - a ) + a3 ( x - a ) + a4 ( x - a ) + ...
2 3 n
2 3 4
Let
+ an ( x - a ) + ...
The expansions in (B) is termed as Taylor’s Theorem and can be stated as: If x and h
are two independent quantities and f ( x + h ) can be expanded in ascending power of h as
n
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1. Quadratic Equations eLearn.Punjab 1. Quadratic Equations eLearn.Punjab
2. Diferentiation eLearn.Punjab 2. Diferentiation eLearn.Punjab
f '' ( x ) 2 f ''' ( x ) 3 f ( ) ( x) n Now taking the successive derivative of sin x and evaluating them at p , we have
f ( x + h=
) f ( x) + f ' ( x) h + h + h + ... + h + ...
n
6
p p
( x)
2 3 n
= cos x f '= =
cos
3
6
'
f and
6 2
f '' ( x ) = - sin x p p -1
Example 1: Find the Taylor series expansion of In (1 + x) at x = 2.
and f '' - -
= =
6
sin
Solution: Let f ( x ) = ln (1 + x ) , then f ( 2 )= ln (1 + 2 )= ln 3
6 2
p p
Finding he successive derivatives of ln (1 + x ) and evaluating them at x = 2 ( x) = -cos x and f ''' - -==
3
6
'''
f cos
6 2
f ' ( x) = ( 2) 4 p p 1
and f '= = f(
4)
( x ) =- ( - sin x ) =sin x and f ( ) = =
1 1 1
1+ x 1+ 2 3 sin
6
f '' ( x-) =
( 1+) (1 x ) and f '' ( 2 ) =- (1 + 2 ) =
6 2
-
-2
p -2 p - 2 p
27
f ( x=
) f (a) + f (a) .( x - a) + ( x - a) + ( x - a ) + ...... For x =-
310 , x
' 2 3
6
x - 2 ( x - 2) ( x - 2 ) - ( x - 2 ) + .... x
3 2 3 4
Prove that e x += e 1 + h + +
h2 h3
+ ....
- +
2 3 4
Example 3: h
= ln 3 + 2 2 3
1.3 2.3 3.33 4.34
Example 2: Use the Taylor series expansion to ind the value of sin 310. =
Solution: Let f ( x=
+ h ) e x + h , then f ( x ) e x ...(i)
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1. Quadratic Equations eLearn.Punjab 1. Quadratic Equations eLearn.Punjab
2. Diferentiation eLearn.Punjab 2. Diferentiation eLearn.Punjab
Let P ( x, f ( x ) ) and Q ( x + d x. f ( x + d x ) )
x+h
=
e +h e + e + e + ...
x h 2 x h3 x
x
e
2 3 be two
= e x 1 + h + + + ...
h 2 h3 neighbouring points on the arc AB where x ,
2 3 x + d x ∈ Df .
The line PQ is secant of the curve and it makes
∠XSQ with the positive direction of the x -axis. (See
EXERCISE 2.8 the igure 2.21.1)
Drawing the ordinates PM , QN and
1. Apply the Maclaurin series expansion to prove that: perpendicular PR to NQ , we have
ln (1 + x ) = x - + - + ......
RQ = NQ - NR = NQ - MP = f ( x + d x) - f ( x)
x 2 x3 x 4
(i)
and PR = MN = ON - OM = x + d x - x = d x
2 2 2
=1 - + - + ......
x2 x4 x6
Thus tan m ∠XSQ = tan m ∠RPQ
(ii) cos x
f ( x + d x) - f ( x)
2 4 6
1+ x = 1+ - + + ...... = =
x x 2 x3
dx
(iii) RQ
2 8 16 PR
=1 + x + + + ......
x 2 x3
PQ1 , PQ2 , PQ3 ,... are shown in the igure 2.21.2. Points Qi ( i = 1,2,3,...) are getting closer and
Revolving the secant line PQ about P towards P, some of its successive positions
(iv) ex
2 3
=+
1 2x + + + ...... closer to the point P and PRi i.e; d xi (i = 1, 2, 3, ...) are approaching to zero.
2 3
4 x 8x
(v) e2 x
2 3 In other words we can say that the
revolving secant line approaches the tangent
line PT as its limiting position at P while d x
2. Show that:
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1. Quadratic Equations eLearn.Punjab 1. Quadratic Equations eLearn.Punjab
2. Diferentiation eLearn.Punjab 2. Diferentiation eLearn.Punjab
f (=
0 ) |=
Solution: Let
-6 ± 36 + 64 -6 ± 100 -6 ± 10
= =
f (0 + d x) =
0 | 0 and, or y = , that is ,
| 0 + d x |=
| d x |, -6 + 10 4
2 2 2
-6 - 10 -16
y= = = 2
f ( 0 + d x ) - f ( 0) =
or y = = = -8
so |d x | - 0 2 2 2 2
f ( 0 + d x ) - f ( 0) | d x |
Thus the points are (4, 2) and (4, - 8).
=
dx dx
and Diferentiating (i) w.r.t. ‘ x ’ we have
dx
Thus f ' ( 0 ) = lim 2x - 2 y -6 = ⇒ 2 ( y + 3) = ⇒ =
dx
dy dy dy dy x
d x →0
dx y + 3
0 2x
dx dx dx
Because d x = d x when d x > 0 = =
4 4
d x = - d x when d x < 0 2+3 5
The slope of the tangent to (i) at (4, 2) = .
and
Therefore, the equation of the tangent to (i) at (4, 2) is
y-2 = ( x - 4) ⇒ 5 y - 10 = 4 x - 16
so we consider one-sided limits 4
dx dx 5=
y 4x - 6
5
= =
d x d x →0 d x
Lim Lim 1 or
d x →0 + +
dx -d x
= Lim- = - 1
d x d x →0 d x = -
4 4
-8 + 3
and Lim-
d x →0 The slope of the tangent to (i) at (4, - 8) =
5
Therefore the equation of the tangent to (i) at (4, - 8) is
dx
dx y - ( -8 ) =-
( x - 4)
The right hand and left hand limits are not equal, therefore, the Lim does not
d x →0 4
exist.
This means that f ' ( 0 ) ,the derivative of f at x = 0 does not exist and there is no tangent 5 y + 40 =
-4 x + 16 ⇒ 4 x + 5 y + 24 =
5
0
line to the graph of f and x = 0
(see the igure 2.21.3).
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1. Quadratic Equations eLearn.Punjab 1. Quadratic Equations eLearn.Punjab
2. Diferentiation eLearn.Punjab 2. Diferentiation eLearn.Punjab
⇒ f ( x2 ) > f ( x1 )
(ii) f is decreasing on the interval (a, b) if f(x2) < f(x1) whenever x2 > x1
f ' ( x1=
) 0 ⇒ f is neither increasing nor decreasing at x1
1.
at all points (x, f(x)) where xd(a, b) have positive slopes, that is,
2.
f ' ( x1 ) > 0 ⇒ f is increasing at x1
and f is decreasing on (a, b) if tangent lines to its graph at all points ( x, f ( x ) ) where
f ’ (x) > 0 for all x such that a < x < b
3.
x ∈ ( a, b ) , have negative slopes, that is, f ' ( x ) < 0 for all x such that a < x < b
Now we illustrate the ideas discussed so far considering the function f deined as
f ( x=
) 4 x - x2
Now we state the above observation in the following theorem.
(I)
To draw the graph of f, we form a table of some ordered pairs which belongs to f
-1
Theorem:
y = f ( x)
x 0 1 2 3 4 5
-5 -5
Let f be a diferentiable function on the open interval (a,b). Then
f is increasing on (a,b) if f ' ( x ) > 0 for each x ∈ ( a,b )
0 3 4 3 0
Let f ( x ) = x 2 , then
f ( x2 ) - f ( x1 ) = x2 2 - x12 = ( x2 - x1 )( x2 + x1 )
If x1 ,x2 ∈ ( -∞ , 0 ) and x2 > x1 ,, then
version: 1.1 version: 1.1
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1. Quadratic Equations eLearn.Punjab 1. Quadratic Equations eLearn.Punjab
2. Diferentiation eLearn.Punjab 2. Diferentiation eLearn.Punjab
The graph of f is shown in the igure 2.22.1. i.e. 4 - 2 x > 0 ⇒ -2 x > - 4 ⇒x<2
Thus it is increasing in the interval ( -∞ , 2 ) . Similarly we can show that it is decreasing,
in the interval ( 2, ∞ ) .
f ( x + d x) - f ( x)
> 0
dx
or
The above diference quotient becomes one-sided limit
f ( x + d x) - f ( x)
dx
lim+
From the graph of f, it is obvious that y rises from 0 to 4 as x increases from 0 to 2 and d x →0
y falls from 4 to 0 as x increases from 2 to 4. As f is diferentiable, so f ‘ (x) exists and one sided limit must equal to f ‘ (x).
In other words, we can say that the function f deined as in (I) is increasing in the
interval 0 < x < 2 and is decreasing in the interval 2 < x < 4.
Thus f ‘ (x) > 0
The slope of the tangent to the graph of f at any point in the interval 0 < x < 2 , in which
Example 1: Determine the values of x for which f deined as f ( x ) = x 2 + 2 x - 3 is
the function f is increasing is positive because it makes an acute angle with the positive
(i) increasing (ii) decreasing.
direction of x-axis. (See the tangent line to the graph of f at (1, 3)).
(iii) ind the point where the function is neither increasing nor decreasing.
But the slope of the tangent line to the graph of f at any pointin the interval
2 < x < 4 in which the function f is decreasing is negative as it makes an obtuse angle with the
Solution: The table of some ordered pairs satisfying f ( x ) = x 2 + 2 x - 3 is given below:
As we know that the slope of the tangent line to the graph of f at ( x, f ( x ) ) is f ' ( x ) , so
positive direction of x-axis. (See the tangent line to the graph of f at (3, 3)).
-4 -3 -2 -1
the derivative of the function f i.e., f ' ( x ) , is positive in the interval in which f is increasing and
x 0 1 2
-3 -4 -3
f ' ( x ) , is negative in the interval in which f is decreasing.
y = f(x) 5 0 0 5
The function f under consideration is actually increasing at each x for which f ' ( x ) > 0 .
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1. Quadratic Equations eLearn.Punjab 1. Quadratic Equations eLearn.Punjab
2. Diferentiation eLearn.Punjab 2. Diferentiation eLearn.Punjab
(ii) And the condition f ' ( x ) < 0 ⇒ 2 x + 2 < 0 Let ( c - d x, c + d x ) ⊆ D f , , (domain of a function f), where
d x is small positive number.
⇒ 2 x < -2
If f ( c ) ≥ f ( x ) for all x ∈ ( c - d x, c + d x ) then the function
which gives x < - 1 , so the function f under
f is said to have a relative maxima at x = c .
Similarly if f ( c ) ≤ f ( x ) for all x ∈ ( c - d x, c + d x ) , then
consideration in the example I is decreasing in the
interval ( -∞ ,-1) .
the function f has relative minima at x = c .
(iii) The function is neither increasing nor decreasing where f ' ( x ) = 0 , that is, Both relative maximum and relative minimum are
2x + 2 = ⇒x= -1.
- 1 then f ( -1) =-
( 1) + 2 ( -1) - 3 =-4 . Thus f is neither increasing nor deceasing at
0 called in general relative extrema.
If x = The graph of a function is shown in the adjoining igure.
It has relative maxima at x = b and x = d . But at x = a and
2
f ' ( x ) = 3 x 2 -12 x + 9
If c ∈ Df and f ' ( c ) =
0 or f ' ( c ) does not exist, then the number c is called a critical value
= 3 ( x 2 - 4 x + 3)
Solution.
for f while the point (c. f(c)) on the graph of f is named as a critical point.
=3 ( x - 1)( x - 3) Note: There are functions which have extrema (maxima or minima) at the points
where their derivatives do not exist. For example, the derivatives of the function f and f
f ' ( x) > 0
deined as.
⇒ x2 - 4 x + 3 > 0
⇒ ( x - 1)( x - 3) > 0
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1. Quadratic Equations eLearn.Punjab 1. Quadratic Equations eLearn.Punjab
2. Diferentiation eLearn.Punjab 2. Diferentiation eLearn.Punjab
f ' ( 2 - e )= 3 ( 2 - e )( 2 - e - 2 ) ' ( x ) 3 x ( x - 2 )
f =
= 3 ( 2 - e )( -e )
Now we discuss relative maxima and relative
Now diferentiating (i) w.r.t. ' x' we get It is obvious from the graph that it has relative minima at x = 2 .
f ' ( x ) = 3x 2 - 6 x = 3x ( x - 2 ) = at x c if f ' ( x ) < 0 before
f ' ( x) = 0 ⇒ 3x ( x - 2 ) = c, f ' ( x) = c and>f ' ( x ) 0 =
Thus we conclude that a function has relative minima
⇒
= x 0 or= x= =
Now we consider an interval ( -d x , d x ) in the neighbourhood of x = 0 . Let 0 - e is a
0 x 2 0 at x after x c.
f ' ( 0 - e ) = 3 ( -e ) ( -e - 2 ) ( f =
' ( x) 3x ( x - 2 ) )
= 3e ( e + 2 ) > 0 ( e > 0, e + 2 > 0 ) If f ' ( x ) changes sign from positive to negative as x increases through c, then
f ( c ) the relative maxima of f.
1.
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f ' ( x ) = 3 x 2 - 12 x + 9
a minimum point.
= 3 ( x 2 - 4 x + 3) = 3 ( x - 1)( x - 3)
2. If f ‘ (x) > 0 before the point x = a, f ‘ (x) = 0 at x = 0 and f ‘ (x) > 0 after x = 0, Solution:
then f does not has a relative maxima.
1 e , we have +
( x - 1)( x - 3) =(1 + e - 1)(1 + e - 3) =(e )( -2 + e ) =-e ( 2 - e ) < 0
The function f is increasing before x = 0 and also
it is increasing after x = 0.
Such a point of the function is called the That is, f ' ( x ) < 0 after x =
As f ' ( x ) > 0 before x = 1, f ' ( x ) =at x 1 and f ' ( x ) <0 after
1
0= =x 1
point of inlexion.
For x = 3 + e
That is f ‘(x) < 0 before x = 3.
positive to negative at the point where f has relative maxima, that is, f ‘ is a decreasing
But f ' ( x ) of a function f changes its sign from negative to positive at the point where f
x 3. and f (=
Thus f has relative minima at= 3) 3 ( 3) - 12 ( 3) +=
2
=1 - 6 + 9 = 4
f has relative maxima at c if f '' ( c ) < 0 .
f '' ( 3) =6 ( 3 - 2 ) =6 > 0 , therefore f has relative minima at x = 3 and f ( 3) = 27 - 54 + 27 = 0
f has relative minima at c if f '' ( c ) > 0 .
1.
2.
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2. Diferentiation eLearn.Punjab 2. Diferentiation eLearn.Punjab
f ' ( x) = 0
2
3p 3p
⇒ 3x 2 = ⇒x= and f '' =- sin - 2 cos 3p =- ( -1) - 2 ( -1) =1 + 2 > 0
f '' ( x ) = 6 x ( 0 ) 6=
( 0) 0
0 0
and f ''= 2 2
p 3p
Thus f ( x ) has minimum values
= =
The second derivative does not help in determining the extreme values.
f ' ( 0 - e ) = 3 ( 0 - e ) = 3e >0
2 2
for x and x
2 2
f ' ( 0 + e ) = 3 ( 0 + e ) = 3e 2 > 0 p
As f '' - = sin-
p
- =-
p 1
-= 2<. 0
1
2
As the irst derivative does not change sign at x = 0 , therefore (0, 0) is a point 4
2 cos 0
4 2 2 2
3p 3p 3p
of inlexion. and f '' - = sin - - =- -= 2<. 0
1 1
4
2 cos 0
( x ) sin x +
4 2 2 2
Example 3: Discuss the function deined as f =
1
cos 2 x for extreme values in
the interval ( 0 , 2p ) . p 3p
Thus f ( x ) has minimum values
= =
2 2
for x and x
( x ) sin x +
4 4
Solution: Given that f =
1
cos 2 x
2 2
EXERCISE 2.9
( )
cos x 2 sin x cos x
2 (i) ;
= cos x 1 - 2 sin x
-p p
f ( x ) = cos x x ∈ ,
2 2
( )
;
f ( x )= 4 - x 2 x ∈ ( -2 ,2 )
(ii)
p 3p
(iv) ;
⇒ cos x =
0 ⇒ x=,
p 3p
2 2
Find the extreme values for the following functions deined as:
f ( x ) = 1 - x3 f ( x) =
2.
1 - 2 sin x = ⇒ sin x = ⇒ x=, x2 - x - 2
1
or 0
f ( x ) = 5x2 - 6 x + 2 f ( x ) = 3x 2
4 4 (i) (ii)
2
f ( x ) = 3x 2 - 4 x + 5 f ( x ) = 2 x 3 - 2 x 2 - 36 x + 3
(iii) (iv)
Diferentiating (i) w.r.t. ‘ x ’ , we have
(v) (vi)
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f ( x=
) x4 - 4 x2 f ( x) =( x - 2 ) ( x - 1)
2
= 3[ 2 x - 12] = 6 ( x - 6 )
f ( x ) = 5 + 3x - x3
(vii) (viii)
f '' ( 3) =6 (3 - 6) =6 ( -3) =
(ix)
As -18 which is negative.
Find the maximum and minimum values of the function deined by the following Thus f ( x ) gives the maximum value if x = 3 , so the other positive integer is 6 because
equation occurring in the interval [ 0 ,2p ]
3.
9 - 3 = 6.
( x ) sin x + cos x.
f=
Example 2: What are the dimensions of a box of a square base having largest
Show that y = has maximum value at x = e .
ln x volume if the sum of one side of the base and its height is 12 cm.
4.
x
Show that y = x x has a minimum value at x = . Solution: Let the length of one side of the base (in cm) be x and the height of the box (in
1
5.
e cm) be h, then V=x 2 h
It is given that x + h = ⇒ h = 12 - x
Thus V=x 2 (12 - x ) and
Application of Maxima and Minima 12
Now we apply the concept of maxima and minima to the practical problems. We irst
= 2 x (12 - x ) + x 2 ( -1)= 24 x - 3 x 2= 3 x ( 8 - x )
form the functional relation of the form y = f(x) from the given information and ind the
dV
maximum or minimum value of f as required. Here we solve some examples
dx
f (=
x) x ( 9 - x ) . Then
2
Let
f ' (=
x ) 1 . ( 9 - x ) + x . 2 ( 9 - x ) × ( -1)
Example 3: The perimeter of a triangle is 20 centimetres. If one side is of length 8
2 centimetres, what are lengths of the other two sides for maximum area of the triangle?
= ( 9 - x ) [9 - x - 2 x ] = ( 9 - x )( 9 - 3 x ) = 3 ( 9 - x )( 3 - x )
f ' ( x ) = 0 ⇒ 3 ( 9 - x )( 3 - x ) = 0 ⇒ x = 9 or x = 3
Solution: Let the length of one unknown side (in cm) be x , then the length of the other
unknown side (in cm) will be 20 - x - 8 = 12 - x .
In this case x = 9 is not possible because Let y denote the square of the area of the triangle, then we have
9 - x = 9 - 9 = 0 which is not positive integer.
y 10 (10 - 8 )(10 - x )(10 - 12 + x )
=
=
s = 10 and area of the triangle s ( s - a )( s - b )( s - c ) )
f '' ( x ) = 3 ( -1)( 3 - x ) + ( 9 - x ) × ( -1) = 3[ -3 + x - 9 + x ]
= 10.2 (10 - x )( x - 2 ) = 20 ( - x 2 + 12 x - 20 )
20
2
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is -ve,so x = 6 gives the maximum area of the triangle. Find the point on the graph of the curve y = 4 - x2 which is closest to
d2y
As Example 5:
The length of other unknown side = 12 - 6 = 6 ( cm )
dx 2
the point (3, 4).
Solution: Let l be distance between a point ( x, y ) on the curve y= 4 - x 2 and the point (3 ,
Thus the lengths of the other two sides are 6 cm and 6 cm.
( x - 3) + ( 4 - x2 - 4) ( ( x, y ) is on the curve y= 4 - x2 )
cardboard by cutting out square sheets of equal size from each corner and bending the
=
2 2
sides. Find the dimensions of corner squares to obtain a box having largest possible
= ( x - 3) + x4
volume. 2
Solution: Let x (in cm) be the length of a side of each square sheet to be cut of from each
comer of the cardboard. Then the length and breadth of the resulting box (in cm) will be
45 - 2 x and 24 - 2 x respectively. Obviously the height of the box (in cm) will be x . Thus the
volume V of the box (in cubic cm) will be given by
V = x ( 24 - 2 x )( 45 - 2 x ) = 2 x (12 - x )( 45 - 2 x )
= 2 x ( 540 - 69 x + 2 x 2 )
= 2 1.( 2 x 2 - 69 x + 540 ) + x ( 4 x - 69 )
dV
( )
and
= 2 6 x 2 - 138 x + 540
dx
= 12 x 2 - 23 x + 90 = 12 ( x - 5 )( x - 18 )
=0 ⇒ 12 ( x - 5 )( x - 18 ) = =
⇒ x 5 or
=
dV Now we ind x for which l is minimum.
0 x 18
. ( 2 ( x 3) 4 x 3 )
dx
.2 ( 2 x3 + x - 3)
V is negative which is not possible]
=
12 ( 2 x - 23)
1
=
2
d y 2l
dx 2
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= ( 2 x 3 + x - 3)
1 6. Find the lengths of the sides of a variable rectangle having area 36 cm 2 when its
perimeter is minimum.
= ( x - 1) ( 2 x 2 + x - 3)
l
1
A box with a square base and open top is to have a volume of 4 cubic dm. Find the
= 0 ⇒ ( x - 1) ( 2 x 2 + 2 x + 3) =
l 7.
0 =
⇒ x - 1 0 or 2x 2 +
= 2x + 3 0
dl 1 dimensions of the box which will require the least material.
1 ( 2 x 2 + 2 x + 3 = 0)
dx l
⇒x=
8. Find the dimensions of a rectangular garden having perimeter 80 metres if its area
l is positive for 1 - e and 1+e where e is very very small positive real number.
is to be maximum.
9. An open tank of square base of side x and vertical sides is to be constructed to
1 5 1 5
contain a given quantity of water. Find the depth in terms of x if the expense of lining
Also 2 x + 2 x + 3 = 2 x 2 + x + + = 2 x + + is positive,for x =1 -e
2
4 2 2 2
2
the inside of the tank with lead will be least.
and x = 1 + e
10. Find the dimensions of the rectangle of maximum area which its inside the
Find the point on the curve y = x2 - 1that is closest to the point (3, -1).
Hence the required point on the curve is (1, 3).
11.
EXERCISE 2.10
12. Find the point on the curve y = x2 + 1 that is closest to the point (18, 1).
1. Find two positive integers whose sum is 30 and their product will be maximum.
2. Divide 20 into two parts so that the sum of their squares will be minimum.
3. Find two positive integers whose sum is 12 and the product of one with the square
of the other will be maximum.
4. The perimeter of a triangle is 16 centimetres. If one side is of length 6 cm, what are
length of the other sides for maximum area of the triangle?
5. Find the dimensions of a rectangle of largest area having perimeter 120 centimetres.
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102 103
version: 1.1
CHAPTER
3 Integration
When the derived function (or diferential coeicient) of a function is known, then The tangent line is drawn to
the aim to ind the function itself can be achieved. The technique or method to ind such the graph of y = f(x) at P(x, f(x) and
a function whose derivative is given involves the inverse process of diferentiation, called MP is the ordinate of P, that is,
anti-derivation or integration. We use diferentials of variables while applying method MP = f(x). (see Fig. 3.1)
of substitution in integrating process. Before the further study of anti-derivation, we irst Let dx be small number, then the
discuss the diferentials of variables. point N is located at x + dx’on the x-axis.
Let the vertical line through N cut the
tangent line at T and the graph of f at Q.
Then the point Q is (x + dx, f(x + dx)), so
3.1.1 Differentials of Variables
Let f be a diferentiable function in the interval a < x < b, deined as y = f(x), then dx = dx = PR
= d y f (x + d x) - f ( x) and dy = RQ = RT + TQ
dy f (x + d x) - f (x) RT
=
= f ′(x), that is = tan jdx + TQ tanj =
d x →0 d x dx PR
and lim lim
d x →0
= f ′( x ) where j is the angle which the tangent PT makes with the positive direction of the x-axis.
dy
d y = f ′ ( x )d x + e d x
the value of dy gets closer and closer to that of dy, so for small values of dx,
The term f ' ( x ) d x being more important than the term e dx, is called the diferential of
dy = dy
or (i)
Note. Instead of dy, we can write df, that is, df = f ‘ (x) dx where f ‘ (x) being coeicient of
diferential is called diferential coeicient.
version: 1.1 version: 1.1
2 3
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3. Integration eLearn.Punjab 3. Integration eLearn.Punjab
Also dy = f ‘ (x) dx Use of diferentials for approximation is explained in the following examples.
= 2(2) x (0.01) = 0.04 (a f ‘ (x) = 2x, x = 2 and dx = 0.01)
Thus dy - dy = 0.0401 - 0.04 = 0.0001.
Example 1: Use diferentials to approximate the value of 17 .
Solution: Finding diferentials of both sides of the given equation, we get c f(x) + f ‘ (x) dx. we have
1
d - lnx = d [ lnc ]= 0 f (16 + 1) ≈ f (16 ) + ( )
y × (1) =
1
x 2 x
f ' x
2 16
≈ 4 + = 4 + = 4.125
1 1
2× 4
using d(f ± g) = df ± dg, we have
8
d - d ( ln x⇒
)=
y d 1 17 ≈ 4.125
y.- =
dx x
1
x
0 . dx 0 Hence
x
Example 2: Use diferentials to approximate the value of 3
8.6
Using d(fg) = fdg + gdf, we get
1 1
yd + dy - dx =
1 Solution: Let f (x) = 3
x then
x x
0
4 5
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As the nearest perfect cube root to 8.6 is 8, so we take x = 8 Solution: Let x be the side and V be the volume of the cube, then
and dx = 0.6, then V = x3 and dV = (3x2) dx
Taking x = 20 (cm) and dx = 0.12 (cm), we get
f (=
8) = 2 = (8)
f '= =2
dV = [3(20)2] (0.12) = 1200 x (0.12) = 144 (cubic cm)
3(8) 3
1 1 1
3× 4
3
8 and ,
12 The error 144 cubic cm in volume calculation of a cube is either positive or negative.
f ( 8 + 0.6 ) = f ( 8 ) + 0.05
1.
(i) y = x2 - 1 when x changes from 3 to 3.02
+=
2 0.=
05 2.05 (ii) y = x2 + 2x when x changes from 2 to 1.8
But using calculator, we ind that 3
8.6 is approximately equal to 2.0488. (iii) y= x when x changes from 4 to 4.41
dy dx
Example 3: Using diferentials, ind the approximate value of sin 460 2. Using diferentials ind and in the following equations
dx dy
p
3. Use diferentials to approximate the values of
We take x = 450 = and dx = 10 =0.01745 (i) 4
17 (ii) (31)1/5
4
( sin x ) = cos x
d
(iii) cos 290 (iv) sin 610
dx
Hence dy = cos x dx 4. Find the approximate increase in the volume of a cube if the length of its each edge
changes from 5 to 5.02.
c 0.7071 (0.01745)
3.2 INTEGRATION AS ANTI - DERIVATIVE
c 0.01234
(INVERSE OF DERIVATIVE)
Using f (x + dx) c f(x) + dy we have
In chapter 2, we have been inding the derived function (diferential
sin (460) c sin 45° + dy c 0.7071 + 0.01234 = 0.71944
coeicient) of a given function. Now we consider the reverse (or inverse) process
c 0.7194
i.e. we ind a function when its derivative is known. In other words we can say that if
f’(x) = f(x), then f(x) is called an anti-derivative or an integral of f(x). For example, an
Using calculator, we ind sin 460 is approximately equal to 0.71934.
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The inverse process of diferentiation i.e. the process of inding such a function whose
derivative is given is called anti-diferentiation or integration. ∫ cosec 2 ( ax + b ) dx = - cot ( ax + b ) + c ∫ cosec 2 xdx
- =+ x c
1
5.
While inding the derivatives of the expressions such as x2 + x, x2 + x + 5, x2 + x - 3
cot
a
∫ sec ( ax + b ) tan ( ax + b=
) dx sec ( ax + b ) + c ∫ sec xtan xdx =
+ sec x c
etc., we see that the derivative of each of them is 2x + 1, that is, 1
6.
a
(x + x - 3) = 2x + 1 7. ∫ cosec ( ax + b ) cot ( ax + b ) dx =
- cosec ( ax + b ) + c ∫ cosecx cot -x dx =
+
d 2 d 2 d 2 1
(x + x) = (x + x + 5) = cosec x c
∫ eλ x + µ dx = × eλ x + µ + c ( λ ≠ 0 ) ∫ e dx=
a
dx dx dx
ex + c
λ
1
8. x
Now if f(x) = 2x + 1 (i)
Then f(x) = x + x
∫ a=
λ x+ µ
.a λ x + µ + c.( a〉 0 ,a ≠ 1,λ ≠ 0 ) .a + c.( a〉 0 ,a ≠ 1)
2
∫ a x dx
=
λ ln a
1
9.
1 x
dx
is not only anti-derivative of (i). But all anti-derivatives of f(x) = 2x + 1 are included in ln a
∫ ax + b dx = ∫ (ax + b) ∫ dx = ln x + c,x ≠ 0
x + x + c where c is the arbitrary constant which can be found if further information is given.
2
-1
As c is not deinite, so f(x) + c is called the indeinite integral of f(x) , that is,
1 1
10. dx
∫ f (x) dx = Φ (x) + c
x
= ln ax + b + c,( ax + b ≠ 0 )
(ii) 1
a
∫ tan ( ax =
+ b ) dx ln sec ( ax + b ) + c ∫ tan xdx= ln sec ( x ) + c
In (ii), f(x) is called integrand and c is named as the constant of integration.
∫ sin ( ax + b ) dx = - cos ( ax + b ) + c
1
∫ sin xdx
- =+ x c ∫ x dx =
x5+1
5 +1
+c=
x6
+c
d 1 6 1
dx =x
6 6
= ( x6 ) =
1 6-1
2. cos 1. 5
dx .6 x x5
a 6 6
∫ ∫=
d -2 1
= -2 dx ( x ) 2
- +1
3
=
a -
dx
∫ sec 2 ( ax + b= ) dx tan ( ax + b ) + c
3
1 x 2 d
∫ sec 2 xdx = +x c x
2.
- +1
2
1 dx x dx
4. tan x3 3
a 2
version: 1.1 version: 1.1
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3. Integration eLearn.Punjab 3. Integration eLearn.Punjab
x2 + a2 + x 1
× =
1 - 2 -1 x 2 + a 2
-
1
-3
x + x2 + a2 x2 + a2
1
= + c =- +c =
-2. - x =
= 1
2 1
x 2
- 2
x2
1 x x3
d
(+2 x 3) dx
2 3.2.2 Theorems on Anti-Derivatives
∫ dx∫ = -
-4
( 2 x + 3) dx 6 ( 2 x + 3)3
1 1
3.
( )
4
( 2 x + 3)= ( 2 x + 3)
I. The integral of the product of a constant and a function is equal to the product of the
( 2 x 3)
-4+1 -3
= +c -
+c =
+
2 ( -4 + 1)
1 d -3 constant and the integral of the function.
-6 In symbols,
∫ af ( x ) dx=
6 dx
a ∫ f ( x ) dx
- =
+ - ( -3)( 2 x + 3) ( 2 ) =
=
-3-1
6 ( 2 x + 3) ( 2 x + 3)
1 1 1 where a is a constant.
3
c 4
6
d 1
dx 2 sin 2 x = 2 dx ( sin 2 x )
1 d
∫ cos 2 xdx
= =
+c sin 2 x + c
sin 2 x 1 II. The integral of the sum (or diference) of two functions is equal to the sum (or diference)
4. of their integrals.
2 2
= ( cos 2= x ) × 2 cos 2 x
In symbols,
∫ f ( x ) ± f ( x ) dx ∫ f ( x ) dx ± ∫ f ( x ) dx
1
2 =
- cos 3 x d 1
( cos 3x )
1 2 1 2
f ( x )
d sec 5 x 1
∫ sec 5 xtan 5 xdx =
+ = = ×( sec 5 xtan 5 x ) 5 sec 5 xtan 5 x
∫ f
n +1
( x )= f ' ( x ) dx +
dx
7. sec 5 x
5 5 (n ≠ -1)
c
n +1
n
5 Prove that: (i)
( a ) e ax +b
c,
d e ax +b 1 ax +b
∫ f ( x ) f '= ( x ) dx ln f ( x ) + c,
e ax +b
∫e dx = +c = e ×=
-1
ax +b
8. (ii) (f(x) > 0)
a dx a a
( 3λ x ( ln 3) λ ) 3λ x
3λ x d 3λ x
∫ 3 dx =
λx
+c = =
λ ln 3 dx λ ln 3 λ ln 3
1 Proof:
9.
d
(i) Since ([f(x)n+1) = (n + 1) [f(x)]n f ‘ (x)
(+ax b ) dx
d 1
( )
1 ∴ by deinition, ∫ ( n + 1) f ( x ) f ' =
( x ) dx f ( x ) + c1
dx
n +1
∫ dx∫ = = + =
-1
ax + b
n
1 1 1
ax + b dx a a ax + b
10.
( n + 1) ∫ f ( x ) f ' ( x ) dx =
+ f ( x )
ln ax b . .a
n +1
= ln ( ax + b ) + c,( ax + b > 0 )
n
1 c1 (by theorem I)
or ∫ [ f ( x)] f ' =
( )
[ f ( x)]n +1
(( ))
+c = ≠ -1 (n
a
c
d n +1 n +1
n
∫ dx = ln x + x 2 + a 2 + c
( x)dx where c 1)
ln x + =
x2 + a2 1 + × 2x
11. 1
x2 + a2
1 1
dx x+ x +a 2 x +a
2 2 2 2
10 11
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d 1
(ii) Since [In f(x)] = . f ‘ (x)
x 0+1
= x - x 2 - 3x + c ∫1 dx
∫ =x 0= + c2
dx f(x) 1 3
dx
∫x x - 1 dx = ∫ ( x - 1) x dx
3 1
By deinition, we have 1
(>f ( x ) 0)
(ii)
∫
2 2
. f ' ( x ) dx =
ln+f ( x ) c
2
f ( x)
∫ 2 f ' ( x ) dx
( ) i (If×( f )( x=
1
= ) x 2 - 1. =
1
or ∫ [ f ( x)]-1 f '=
f x
( x)dx I n f ( x) + c.
= ∫ f ( x ) 2 f ' ( x ) then f ' ( x )= 2 x⇒ x= f ' ( x) )
1
1 1
Thus we can prove that 2 2
∫=
x n+1
+ c, (n ≠ -1)
1 f ( x ) 2
( x + 1) 2 + c.
n +1
(i) n
x dx 3
= +=
3
( ax + b )
1 2
∫ ( ax + b ) =
c
n +1
+ c, (a ≠ 0, n ≠ -1)
3
a ( n + 1)
2 3
(ii)
n
dx 2
x+2-2
( x > -2 )
∫ x dx ln x + c
∫ dx = ∫
=
x
x+2 x+2
1 (iii) dx,
(iii)
∫ x + 2 dx = ∫ dx - 2 ∫ ( x + 2 ) .1 dx = x - 2 ln ( x + 2 ) + c
2
∫ ax + b= ln ax + b + c, (a ≠ 0) = -
1 1 -1
(iv) dx 1
a
(x 0)
( )
∫ dx = ∫ >
1 1 1
x +1 x +1
Examples: Evaluate (iv) . dx
∫ ( x + 1)( x - 3) dx ∫x x - 1 dx
x x
∫ f ( x )
.2 f ' ( x ) dx =
f ' ( x) =if f ( +x )
(i) (ii)
=
2
-1 1
x 1
= 2 ∫ f ( x ) f ' ( x ) dx
2 f ' ( x )
x 1
x x +1 =
(iii) (iv) dx, -1 1
( )
or
∫ ∫ cos2 x sin x dx
sinx + cos3 x
( x > 0) = 2 ln f ( x ) + c = 2 ln
x
x +1 + c
dx
x +1 - x
(v) , (vi)
∫ 1 + cos 2 x dx,
3 - cos 2 x
(vii) ( cos 2 x ≠ -1) ∫
dx
( x > 0)
x +1 - x
(v) ,
∫ ( x + 1)( x - 3) dx= ∫ ( x - 2 x - 3) dx
Solution: Rationalizing the denominator, we have
(i) 2
=∫ x dx - 2 ∫ x dx - 3∫1 dx ∫ =∫
x +1 + x
( )( )
dx
x +1 - x x +1 - x x +1 + x
2
(By theorems I and II) dx
x n+1
= - 2. - 3.x + c ∫ x dx = + c1 and
x3 x2
n +1
n
3 2
version: 1.1 version: 1.1
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1. Quadratic Equations eLearn.Punjab 1. Quadratic Equations eLearn.Punjab
3. Integration eLearn.Punjab 3. Integration eLearn.Punjab
EXERCISE 3.2
∫ ∫
x +1 + x
= dx= ( + )+ dx
1 1
x +1- x
2
x 1 2 x
1. Evaluate the following indeinite integrals
∫+( x 1) dx ∫x
∫ ( 3x - 2 x + 1) dx
= +
∫
1
( x > 0)
1 1
x + dx,
2 2
dx
x
(i) (ii)
∫ x( )
( x + 1)
2
+ c= ( x + 1) + x + c ( x > 0) ∫ ( 2x + 3) dx
3
= +
3
x + 1 dx,
2 x 2
2 3
2 23 1
2 (iii) (iv) 2
∫( )
3 3 3 3
∫ x -
1
( x > 0) ( x > 0)
2 2
x + 1 dx,
∫ cos 2 x sin x dx
sin x + cos 3 x
2
2
x
(v) dx, (vi)
y ( y + 1)
(vi)
∫ x dx, ∫
3x + 2
(vii) ( x > 0) (viii) dy, ( y > 0 )
( ) (1 - )
sin x cos 3 x
Solution: ∫ dx +∫
sin x + cos 3 x
y
= dx q -1
cos x sin x cos 2 x sin x
∫ dq , (q > 0 ) ∫ ( x > 0)
2 2
x
q
cos 2 x sin x 2
(ix) (x)
= ∫
dx,
1 cos x
+ dx
x
∫ e x dx
e + ex
= ∫ sec x dx + ∫ cot x dx
2x
2
cos x sin x (xi)
2
=
tan+ x ln sin+x c 2. Evaluate
Solution: ∫ = =
4 - (1 + cos 2 x ) ∫ , ( x > 0 ,a > 0 ) ∫(a - 2 x ) dx
∫ 1 + cos- 2 x dx ∫ 1 + cos 2 x 1 dx
3 - cos 2 x
3
dx
x +a +
(iii) (iv) 2
(1 + e )
4
1 + cos 2 x
x
4 2 (v) dx (vi)
dx ex
= 2 tan x - x + c
∫ 1 - cos 2 x dx, (1 - cos 2 x > 0 ) ∫ ( ln x ) × dx , ( x > 0 )
2 cos 2 x
1
(vii) (viii)
x
p p
∫ sin x dx ∫ 1 + cos x dx, - < x <
1
2 2
(ix) 2
(x)
∫ ax ∫ cos3x sin2 x dx
ax + b
+ 2bx + c
(xi) 2
dx (xii)
(xiii) ∫ ∫ tan
cos 2 x - 1
dx, (1 + cos 2 x ≠ 0 ) (xiv)
1 + cos 2 x
2
x dx
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3. Integration eLearn.Punjab 3. Integration eLearn.Punjab
a c
Solution: Let at + b = u. Then 15 15
= ( x - a ) 2 ( 2a + 3 x ) + c
3
a dt = du 2
Thus ∫ = ∫2 u 2∫
15
1 -21
=
adt du
∫ x dx ,
2 at + b
( x > 0) .
u du
cot x
Example 4: Evaluate
- 1 +1 1
1 u 2 1 u2 x = z,
= 1 + c = + c = + c = at + b + c
1
Solution: Put
( x)
2 - +1 2 1
2
u
2 2 =
⇒dz
1
=
∫
then d dx dz
x 2 x
4 + x2 dx = 2dz
Example 2: Evaluate dx. 1
or
x
∫ ∫ t 2 = 2∫
( z > 0 as x > 0 )
1 1
dz
1 -21
= = + . = 2 ln sin z + c,
x 1 t 1/ 2 sin z
4 + x2
dx dt t dt c
= +2 ln sin x
2 1/ 2
= t + c = 4 + x2 + c
c
version: 1.1 version: 1.1
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3. Integration eLearn.Punjab 3. Integration eLearn.Punjab
∫ cosec x dx ∫ sec x dx p p
∫ 1 + sin x dx , - < x <
Example 5: Evaluate (i) (ii)
cos ex x - cot x
t, then ( cosec x cot cosec 2 x )=
dx
∫
dt
=
cosec x ( cosec x - cot x )
cos x
1 - sin x
so ∫ ∫ t=
dx
= ln t + c
( cosec x - cot x )
1
dx dt
Put sin x = t, then cos x dx = dt, therefore
= +c = -2 1 -t +c
1
dx
sec x =
+ tan x t, then sec xtan x + sec
=
+ 1 ( - 1)
1
-
sec x ( sec x + tan x ) dx =
2
Put x dx dt
or dt 2
-=2- 1 + x
sec x ( sec x tan x )
∫ ( sec x tan x ) = ∫ t=
sin c
ln t + c
∫ x ( ln 2 x ) ( x > 0)
so
Thus ∫ sec x dx = ln sec x + tan x + c
dx dt
( t = sec x + tan x )
dx
Example 8: Find 3
,
dx = dt
1 1
1
.2 dx = dt or
Put= = 2 sin x .cos x dx
2x x
∫ ( ln 2 x ) ∫ t3 ∫t
Solution: sin x t, then dt
t -2
=
= sin x t . = = =
-3
+ c
1 1 1
-2
or 2t dt cos x dx Thus dx .dt dt
= =
3
x
Putting t and cos x dx 2t dt in the integral, we have,
∫ (1 - t ) . t × 2t dt, ( cos- ) =- + c =- + c
sin x
∫ cos 2 ( ln 2 x )
1 1
x sin x cos x dx = x =
1=
- sin x
= 2 ∫ ( t 2 - t 6 ) dt = 2 ∫ t 2 dt - 2 ∫ t 6 dt
2 4 2 2 4 2
1 t 2t 2
Find ∫ a x x dx , ( a > 0, a ≠ 1)
2
Example 9:
= - 2 + c
3 7
t t
x 2 = t, then x dx =
2. 1
3 7 Solution: Put dt
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2∫
3.4 SOME USEFUL SUBSTITUTIONS
= = += + c
2
1 t 1 at ax
a dt c
2 ln a 2 ln a
We list below suitable substitutions for certain expressions to be integrated.
Example 10: Evaluate Expression Involving Suitable Substitution
a2 - x2 x = a sin q
∫ (- a < x < a) ∫x dx, ( x > a or x < - a )
(i)
x2 - a2 x = a sec q
1 1
a - x x - a
(i) dx, (ii) (ii)
x = a tan q
2 2 2 2
(iii) a2 + x2
where a is positive.
(iv) x + a (or x - a) x + a = t (or x-a =
t)
Solution: (i) Let x = a Sin q, that is, (v) 2ax - x 2 a sin q
x - a =
p p 2ax + x 2 a sec q
x + a =
x = a Sinq for - <q < then dx =a cosq dq
(vi)
,
∫ ( a > 0)
2 2
a cos q dq
∫ ∫
1
= a + x
dx Example 1. Evaluate dx
a2 - x2 a 2 - a 2 sin 2 q
Thus 2 2
a cos q dq a cos q dq
=∫
= ∫ a cosq = a tan q for -
p
<q <
p
a 1 - sin q
Solution: Let x . Then
∫1 dq=
2
q + c
2 2
= dx = a sec2 q dq
x x
Thus
=
Sin + = Sin q
-1
a a a sec 2 q dq
∫ ∫ ∫a
c
= × a sec q =
dq
1 1
a2 + x2 a 2 + a 2 tan 2 q 1 + tan 2 q
2
dx
p p
Put x = a Sec q i.e., x = a sec q for 0 < q < <q <p. a sec 2 q dq
=∫
= ∫ secq dq
(ii) or
Then dx = a sec q tan q dq a secq
2 2
(
dx c1
x2 - a2 a 2sec 2q - a 2
Thus
a ( sec q 1)
a secq tanq d q a2 + x2 x
-∫
a2 + x2
=ln + +c1 sec q 1=+
tan q 1=+ 2 = 2
a secq .a tanq
x2
a
)
i.e.,
2 2 2 2
∫
a a a
= 1 dq= .q + c = a 2 tan 2 = a tanq a 2 + x 2 + x+ + + a2 + x2
1 1
==ln = + = + c1secq c1secq q as secq is
a a
a a
( (
= Sec -1+ q
Sec=
a a
p p p p
1 x
a
< << q< q
c.
==ln x + +a 2 + x+2 - -for
a a
2
c positive
1 1
2
version: 1.1 version: 1.1
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3. Integration eLearn.Punjab 3. Integration eLearn.Punjab
( ( ) + c+wh ) + c=where- c =c
Evaluate the following integrals:
=ln x + =a 2 + x+2 - ln a
∫ ∫ (1 + x ) Tan ∫
1
(1 + x )
dx 1 1+x
x + a 2 + x 2 is always positive for real values of a.
-1
1 - x
9. 3
10. dx 11. dx
Note:
2
2 2 x
∫ (x> 0) sin q
∫ 1 + cos2 q dq ∫ ∫
dx
Example 2. Evaluate , ax dx
a2 - x4 7 - 6 x - x2
2x+ x 2 12. 13. 14.
p ∫ 4 + 2 x + x2 ∫ x 4 + 2 x 2 + 5 dx
x dx x
x + 1 = sec q . Then < q <
17. 18.
Let 0
2
∫ cos ∫
x 1 x + 2
dx = sec q tan q dq x - × - 1 dx
2 x x + 3
19. 20. dx
( ) +c
Thus = =
2 dx
+ cos x
2
21. dx 22.
+ ln ( secq + tan q ) + c = ln x + 1 + 2 x
sin x +
3
2 cos x
x 1 2 2
EXERCISE 3.3
3.5 INTEGRATION BY PARTS
Evaluate the following integrals:
We know that for any two functions f and g.
∫ ∫ x + 4x +13 ∫ 4 + x 2 dx
- 2x
( x ) g ( x ) +f ′ ( x ) g ( x ) f ( x ) g ′ ( x )
2
dx x
4 - x2 f=
1. dx 2. 3.
dx
2 d
∫ x ln x dx ∫ e x + 3 dx f ( x ) g′( x ) f ( x ) g ( x ) f ′( x ) g ( x )
1 ex
= -
4.
dx
5. d
or
∫ ∫
x + b sec 2 x
(x + 2bx + c )
6. 1
dx 7. dx Integrating both the sides with respect to x, we get,
tan x
( f ( x ) g ( x ))
( )+c ∫ ∫ dx
( ) ( ) d
f ′ ( x ) g ( x ) dx
2
= ′ -
∫ x - a2 = ln x + x2 - a2
dx f x g x dx
8.
= -∫ ∫ f ′ ( x ) g ( x ) dx
(a) Show that
f ( x ) g ( x ) dx
d
2
∫ a - x= Sin 1 + a - x + c dx
2 2 a x x 2 2
(b) show that dx
a a
version: 1.1 version: 1.1
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3. Integration eLearn.Punjab 3. Integration eLearn.Punjab
∫ f ( x ) g′( x ) ∫ g ( x ) f ′ ( x+) dx
x dx
f ( x ) g-( x )
=
= -∫ x sec ∫ x dx
or (i)
∫ u dv =-uv ∫ v du
1 x2
2
+
c2 c1
2
∫ x cos x dx.
Example 4. Evaluate ∫x
5
∫x ∫ ( ln x ) x
ln x dx
ln x dx =
Example 1. Find
5 5
Solution: dx
=( ln x ) ∫ 6 . x dx =6 ln x - 6 ∫ x dx
f(x) = x and g ‘ (x) = cos x,
-
Solution: If
x6 x6 1 x6 1
f ’(x) = 1 and g(x) = sin x
5
= - -
c x 6
x 6
c1
∫x e
ln x + c where c =
( )
6 36 6
Evaluate ∫ ln x +
x
Example 2. Find dx
Example 5. x 2 + 1 dx
( )
Solution: Let
u=x and dv = e dx, x
Let f ( x ) = ln x + x 2 + 1 and g ′ ( x ) =
then du = 1 .dx and v = ex
Solution: 1. Then
Applying the formula for integration by parts, we have
∫x e x e x ∫ e x x 1 dx -= x e x
dx = -
f ′( x )
= × +
+
1 (x 1) 2 . 2 x
-1
x
ex + c 1 1 2 1
x + x2 + 1 2
= + . 1
1 x
x + x2 + 1 x2 + 1
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3. Integration eLearn.Punjab 3. Integration eLearn.Punjab
Find ∫ e ax cos bx dx .
x2 + 1 + x
and g ( x ) = x
Example 7.
= × =
x 2 + 1
1 1
x + x2 + 1 x2 + 1 Solution: Let f(x) = eax and g ’ (x) = cos bx
(x + )
sin bx
then a . e ax
∫ ln ∫x .
b
(x + )
dx
b b
e ax ax
x + 1 x - ∫ ( x + 1) 2 ( 2 x ) dx
2
∫ ln
b∫
-
= - e ax sin bx
1
2 1 2 1 a ax
1 ( x + 1) 2
2
2
b
1
= x ln (x + x + 1) - + c1
∫ e sin bx dx = - ∫ -
cos bx cos bx
2
2 e ax × - × (ae ) dx + c1
1
b b
( )
ax ax
2
=x ln x + x2 + 1 - x 2 + 1 + c1 , where c =- c1 = - ∫ e ax cos+bx dx c1 (II) +
1 1 ax a
e cos bx
2 b b
∫e ∫e
a 1
= e sin bx - - e ax cos bx + + bx dx c1
1 ax a
b b
ax ax
Solution: If we put f(x) = x2 and g ’ (x) = a eax, then cos bx dx
b b
cos
∫ f ( x)=
g ′ ( x ) dx f ( x ) g ( x ) - ∫ g ( x ) f ′ ( x ) dx, we get
1 ax a ax a2 a
.c1
Using the formula b b b b
a 2 ax
or 1 2 ∫ e cos bx dx = e ax sin bx + 2 e ax cos bx -
∫ x . ax = x 2 e ax - ∫ e ax .( 2 x ) dx
1 a a
b
2
dx
ax .c1
x 2e ax - 2 ∫ x e ax dx
b b b
= i.e. ∫ e ax=
b 2 1 ax
+ e sin bx
-e cos bx ×
a 2 + b 2 b 2
a ax b2 a
a 2 + b2
cos bx dx 2
. c1
b b
e ax e ax
∫ x e dx = x a - ∫ a × 1 . dx [b sin bx + a cos bx-] + c,
b ( a 2 + b2 )
But = where c =
ax
e ax ab
a 2 + b2
c1
1 e ax
= xe ax - ∫ e dx =a x e - a . a + c1 a = r cos q b = r sin q;
1 1 1
ax ax
If we put and
then a 2 + b 2 = r 2 ⇒ r = a 2 + b 2
a a
∫x a e
1
dx =x 2e ax - 2 .x e ax - 2 e ax + c1
1
a r sin q
Thus 2 ax
= = tan q ⇒ q= tan -1
a
r cosq
b b
=x 2e ax - .xe ax + 2 e ax + c1
2 2 a a
where c = 2c1
a a
version: 1.1 version: 1.1
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1. Quadratic Equations eLearn.Punjab 1. Quadratic Equations eLearn.Punjab
3. Integration eLearn.Punjab 3. Integration eLearn.Punjab
= -∫ ∫
1 - cos 2 x
b b
=
+ a - bx q
, = tan -1
-1 dx sin 2 x cos 2 x dx (I)
∫ e cos
b
2
= e ax cos bx - tan -1 + c
1
a 2 - b2 a
× ( - sin x ) dx
ax
bx dx
sin x
∫ 3
sin 3 x
= - cos x
3
[ If f (x) = cos x and
∫
3
( )
Example 8. Evaluate a 2 + x 2 dx g' (x) = sin 2 x cos x.
∫ sin -∫ ∫
1 cos 2 x 1
x dx = - dx +
∫ ∫ 3
1
= x a +x - a + x dx + 2 2
4 3 4
a2 cos x sin x sin x dx
a + x
2 2 2 2
dx 3
∫ 2∫ ∫
2 2
= -1 dx cos 2-x - 3x
2 ∫ a 2 + x 2 dx= ∫
1 1 1 1
a2 + x2 + a2.
dx cos x sin sin 4 x dx
( )
1
a2 + x2
x dx 2 3 3
or 1 + ∫ sin 4 x dx=
1 1 sin 2 x
= x a 2 + x 2 + a 2 ln x + a2 + x2 + c1 × - + c-1
1 1
3 2 2
cos x sin 3 x
2 3
∫ sin x=
3 1
× - - cos x +sin 3 x c
( )
(See Example 1 Article 3.4) 1 1
4 2
4
dx sin 2 x
∫ a + x dx = 2 a + x + 2 ln x + a + x + c, where c = 2
4 3
=
- x - 2x cos x + =
2 2 x 2 2 a2 2 2 a 2c1 3 3 1 3
sin 3 x
e x (1 + sin x )
8 16 4 4
Evaluate ∫ sin 4 x dx .
1 + cos x
x
Example 9.
e x 1 + 2 sin cos
e x (1 + sin x )
∫ 1 + cos x dx -∫
x
2
-∫ sin 2 x (1 cos 2 x ) dx
=
∫= ∫ sin x . sin
dx 1 + cosx = 1 + 2cos 2 1
Solution: 2 x
sin x dx =
2 x 2
Solution: 4 2 2
x dx 2cos
2
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3. Integration eLearn.Punjab 3. Integration eLearn.Punjab
e (1 + sin x )
∫ 1 + cos x ∫ 2
EXERCISE 3.4
x1 x
= + dx
x
2 x
2
i.e. dx e sec tan
1. Evaluate the following integrals by parts add a word representing all the
= + ∫ e x sec 2 dx ∫ e tan 2 dx
2
1 x x x
(I) functions are deined.
2 2
∫ tan ∫e ∫ x sin x dx ∫ ln x dx ∫ x ln x dx
x x x x 2 x 1
But . e dx =
tan -
.e sec .+ dx c, (Integrating by parts)
2 2 2 2
(i) (ii) (iii)
x
∫ e tan
x
dx =
e x-tan
x 1
∫ e sec+
x (iv) ∫ x ln x dx (v) ∫ x ln x dx (vi) ∫ x ln x dx
2 3 4
e x (1 + sin x )
∫ Sin x dx ∫ x Sin x dx
2
∫ 1 + cos x = ∫ ∫
-1 -1
e sec + dx e x tan
- e sec += +
dx c e x tan
1 x 2x x 1 x 2x x (xiii) (xiv)
∫ x cos x dx ∫ x sin x dx
Show that ∫ e ax a f ( x ) + f ' ( x ) dx = e ax f ( c ) + c .
(xvii) 2
(xviii) 2
∫e ∫ e . a f ( x ) dx + ∫ e . f ′ ( x ) dx ...(i)
a f ( x ) + f ′ ( x ) =
In the second integral, let j ( x ) = e ax and g ′ ( x ) = f ′ ( x ) ,
∫
Solution: ax
dx ax ax
x Sin-1 x
1 -x
(xxi) dx
( eax ) × a and g ( x ) = f ( x )
2
′( x )
j=
∫ e . f ′ ( x ) dx =e × f ( x ) - ∫ f ( x ) × ( ae ) dx + c
2. Evaluate the following integral.
∫ tan x dx ∫ sec x dx ∫e
then
so ax ax ax
(i) 4
(ii) 4
(iii) x
∫ tan x sec x dx ∫ x e dx
sin 2 x cos x dx
=-e ax f ( x ) ∫ a e f ( x+) dx c ∫e
-x
(iv) 3
(v) 3 5x
(vi)
∫ e cos3x dx ∫ cosec x dx
ax
sin 2 x dx
thus ∫ e ax a f ( x ) + f ′ ( x ) dx
= ∫ ae ax f ( x ) dx + ∫ e ax f ′ ( x ) dx + c (vii) (viii)
2x 3
= ∫ a e f ( x ) dx + e ax f ( x ) - ∫ a e ax f ( x ) dx + c
Show that ∫ e ax=
b
- e ax sin bx + Tan -1
ax
e f ( x ) + c.
1
a 2 + b2 a
3.
=
sin bx dx c.
ax
(i) ∫ a 2 - x 2 dx (ii) ∫ x -a
2 2
dx
(iii) ∫ 4 - 5x 2 dx (iv) ∫ 3 - 4x
2
dx
(v) ∫ x 2 + 4 dx (vi) ∫ x e dx
2 ax
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1. Quadratic Equations eLearn.Punjab 1. Quadratic Equations eLearn.Punjab
3. Integration eLearn.Punjab 3. Integration eLearn.Punjab
∫e ∫ e ( cos x
1
+ sin x ) dx
∫ 2x
-x + 6
+ ln x dx
x
( x > 2)
- 7x + 6
(i) x
(ii) x
Example 1: Evaluate 2
dx ,
∫e
3 sin x - cos x
∫e a Sec x + dx dx
The denomicator 2x2 - 7x + 6 = (x - 2) (2x - 3),
-1 1
(iii) (iv)
-
ax 3x
Solution:
2 sin 2 x
-x + 6
x x 1
∫ e [ - sin x + 2cos x ] dx ∫ (1 + x ) =
( x - 2 )( 2 x - 3)
+
A B
x - 2 2x - 3
x ex Let
(v) 2x
(vi) 2
dx
e x (1 + x )
1 x
∫ 1 - sin x dx ∫ (2 + x) A( 0) + B - 2
3
2x
(ix) (x)
= , we get - + 6=
dx
2 3 3
2
and Putting
∫ 1 -
1 - sin x x
x
e dx
2 2
cos x 1
(xi)
=B - ⇒ B =- 9
9
2
or
2
∫ (x dx = ∫
-x + 6 4 -9
+
- 2 )( 2 x - 3)
dx
x - 2 2x - 3
3.5 INTEGRATION INVOLVING Thus
=4 ∫ ( x - 2 ) 1 . dx -
2 ∫
( 2 x - 3) . 2dx
PARTIAL FRACTIONS -1
-1 9
If P(x), Q(x) are polynomial functions and the denominator Q(x)( ≠ 0), in the rational
= 4 ln ( x - 2 ) - ln ( 2 x - 3) + c, ( x > 2 )
9
P(x) 2
function ,can be factorized into linear and quadratic (irreducible) factors, then the rational
Q(x)
Evaluate ∫
2 x3 - 9 x 2 + 12 x
( x > 2)
function is written as a sum of simpler rational functions, each of which can be integrated by
2 x2 - 7 x + 6
methods already known to us. Example 2: dx,
Here we will give examples of the following three cases when the denominator Q(x)
contains Solution: After performing the division by the denominator, we get
∫ 2 x2 - 7 x + 6 ∫
2 x 3 - 9 x 2 + 12 x -x + 6
- + dx
2x - 7x + 6
Case I. Non-repeated linear factors. dx = x 1 2
∫ x dx - ∫1 dx + ∫ (x ∫ 2x
-9
Case II. Repeated and non-repeated linear factors.
= dx +
- 2)
4
- 3
Case III. Linear and non-repeated irreducible quadratic factors or non repeated dx, (See the Example 1)
irreducible quadratic factors.
= - x + 4 ln (x - 2) - ( 2 x - 3 ) + c, ( x > 2)
x2 9
2 2
version: 1.1 version: 1.1
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1. Quadratic Equations eLearn.Punjab 1. Quadratic Equations eLearn.Punjab
3. Integration eLearn.Punjab 3. Integration eLearn.Punjab
∫x ( x > a) ( x - 1)-1
2 ln ( x - 1) - ln ( x + 1) + 3
2a
- a2 = +
Example 3: Evaluate (i) dx ,
-
2
∫ a 2 - x 2 dx, ( x < a)
c
1
x - 1
2a
= - + c
(ii)
2 ln
3
+ -
Solution: (i) The denominator x2 - a2 = (x - a)(x + a),
x 1 x 1
e x ( x 2 + 1)
( x - a )( x + a ) x - a
+
∫ (x + 1)
2a A B
x + a
Let = Example 5: Evaluate dx
2
= - e x ( x 2 + 1)
∫ (x dx = ∫ e x 1 -
1 1
x - a x + a + 2
(Applying the method of partial fractions)
( x + 1)
,
+ 1) ( x + 1)
Solution: 2 2
e x ( x 2 + 1)
dx, (By Partial Fractions)
∫ (x ∫ x ∫( x a ) -.1 dx + (x a)
2
1
= - dx -=
- a )( x + a )
-1 -1
∫ (x dx = ∫ e dx - 2 ∫ ∫ (x
2a 1
- a x + a
Thus
⇒ dx + 2
dx . 1 dx
+ 1) + 1)
ex ex
x + 1
x
x - a
( x > a)
dx (I)
= ln x - a - ln x + a + = + c,
2 2
x + a
c ln
We integrate by parts the last integral on the right side of (I).
(ii) It is left as an exercise.
(x + 1) ( x + 1)-1 x
∫ e ( x + 1) - ∫
-1
. e dx
-2
-1 -
x x
EXAMPLES OF CASE II dx = e .
1
∫(x (x 1) ∫ ( x + 1)2 - =+ ∫ x + 1 dx
ex ex ex
- 1) ( x + 1) x + 1
7 1
Example 4: Evaluate dx or dx (II)
e x ( x 2 + 1)
∫ ( x - 1)2 ( x + 1) dx = x - 1 +
7x - 1
(x - 1)
+ ∫ (x + 1)
dx = ∫ e dx - 2 ∫ dx + 2 - + ∫ x + 1 dx
A B C ex ex ex
x + 1 x + 1 +
x
2 2
x 1
= ( e + c ) - 2∫ + 2∫
Applying the method
= + - of Partial Fractions dx -
(x - 1)
ex 2e x ex
x + 1 x + 1 x + 1
2 3 2
x - 1 x + 1
x
dx
e x ( x - 1)
2
2 xe x + e x - 2e x
∫ ( x - 1)2 ( x + 1) ∫ x - 1 +
7x - 1 = e - + c = + c = + c.
2e x
- dx x + 1 x + 1 x + 1
(x - 1)
Thus
x
3 2
x + 1
dx = 2
= 2 ∫ ( x - 1) .1 dx + 3∫ ( x - 1) .1 dx - 2 ∫ ( x + 1) .1 dx
∫ x 3 - 1 dx
-1 -2 -1
(x - 1)
1
Example 6: Evaluate
2 ln ( x - 1) + - 2 ln ( x + 1) + c ( x > 1)
-2+1
=
-2 + 1 x3 - 1 = (x - 1 )(x2 + x + 1),
3
Solution: The denominator
version: 1.1 version: 1.1
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1. Quadratic Equations eLearn.Punjab 1. Quadratic Equations eLearn.Punjab
3. Integration eLearn.Punjab 3. Integration eLearn.Punjab
ln x 2 - 1 - ln ( x 4 + x 2 + 1) -
Bx + C 2 x2 + 1
( x - 1) ( x 2 + x + 1) x - 1 x 2 + x + 1
+ = Tan -1 +
1 A 1 1 1
Let = c
3 6 3 3
1
- x -
∫ x( x - 1)
dx , x ≠ 0, x ≠ - 1
2
3 , ( Applying the method of partial fractions )
1
= +
3
Example 8: Evaluate
x - 1 x + x + 1
3 3 3
2
= - .
Cx + D
1 1 1 x+2
3 x - 1 3 x + x + 1
( )
=
+ +
. 2 ,
3 A B
Solution: Let x x3 - 1 x - 1 x + x + 1
∫
1 2x + 4
( x - 1) ( x 2 + x + 1)
x
- dx -3 2x + 1
1 1 1
3 x - 1 6 x + x + 1
Thus
=+ +
dx = . . 1
x - 1 x + x + 1
2
(By the method of partial fractions)
∫ 3 .
1 2x + 1
2
x
∫ x ( x - 1) x 2 + x + 1 ∫ x x - 1 x 2 + x + 1 dx
= 1.dx - - dx -3 2x + 1
( )
+ +
1 1 1 3
x - 1 6 x + x + 1 6 x + x + 1
. 2 . 2 3 1
Let dx =
= ∫ ( x - 1) dx - ∫(x + x + 1) ( 2 x + 1) dx - ∫
∫(x + x + 1)
-1 -1
=- 3∫ ( x ) 1 . dx + ∫(x - 1) 1 . dx + ( 2x + 1) dx
1 1 1 1
1 3
2
dx
-1 -1 -1
x+ +
2
3 6 2 2
(x + 1)
2
2
2
= - 3ln x + ln x - 1 + ln + x + c
1
= - 3ln x + ln x - 1 ( x 2 + x + 1) + c
2
+
ln x - 1 - ln ( x 2 + x + 1) -
= Tan -1 +2
1 1 1 1 x
3
. c
= - 3ln x + ln x3 - 1 + c
3 6 2 3
2
ln ( x 2 + x + 1) -
2
2x + 1
Evaluate ∫ 2
= ln x - 1 - + 2 x2 + 6 x
( x + 1) ( x + 2 x + 3 )
Tan -1
1 1 1
3
c Example 9: dx
3 6 3
Solution: We write
Note: x2+ x + 1 is positive for real values of x.
2 x2 + 6 x Ax + B Cx + D
Evaluate ∫ 6
( x2 + 1)( x2 + 2 x + 3) x2 + 1 x2 + 2 x + 3
+
2x
x - 1
Example 7: dx Let =
2x + 1 2x + 3
Put x2 = t, then 2x dx = dt and - 2
x + 1 x + 2x + 3
Solution: = (Applying the method of partial fractions)
2
∫x dx = ∫ 3 ∫ (t - 1) ( t + t + 1) Thus ∫ ( x 2 + 1)( x 2 + 2 x + 3) ∫ x
2 x2 + 6 x 2x + 1 2x + 3
- 2 dx
2x 1 1
- 1 t - 1
+ 1 x + 2x + 3
6
dt = dx =
ln t - 1 - ln ( t 2 + t + 1) -
2
2
2t + 1
= +
∫x ∫x ∫x ∫x
Tan -1 2x + 2
1 1 1
3 = dx + - dx -
c 2x 1 1
+ 1 + 1 + 2x + 3 + 2x + 3
3 6 3 dx
(See the example 6)
2 2 2 2
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1. Quadratic Equations eLearn.Punjab 1. Quadratic Equations eLearn.Punjab
3. Integration eLearn.Punjab 3. Integration eLearn.Punjab
∫ ( x - 3) ( x 2 + 4 ) dx ∫
1 + 4x
∫ ( x + 1) ( 2 x ) dx + ∫ x2 + 1 dx - ∫ ( x + 2 x + 3) ( 2 x + 2 ) dx - ∫
( )
=
-1 -1
12
(x + 1) +
2 1 1 21. 22. dx
2
dx +8
2
ln ( x + 1) + Tan x - ln (x + 2 x + 3) - ∫ x3 - 8 dx
9x + 6
∫ (x
2
x + 1 2 x 2 + 5x + 3
- 1) ( x 2 + 4 )
= -1
Tan -1 + 24.
2 2 1 23. dx
c 2
2 2
∫ ( x + 2) ( x ∫ ( 4 x 2 + 1)( x 2 - x + 1) dx
2 x2 - x - 7 3x + 1
+ x + 1)
EXERCISE 3.5 25. 2 2
dx 26.
∫ ( x 2 + 4 )( x 2 + 4x + 5) dx ∫ ( x 2 + a 2 )( x 2 + 4a 2 ) dx
Evaluate the following integrals. 4x + 1 6a 2
27. 28.
∫x ∫ ( x + 3 ) ( 2x
3x + 1 5x + 8
∫ ( x 4 + x 2 + 1) dx
2 x2 - 2
∫ (x
3x - 8
- 1)
- x + 2 )( x 2 + x + 2 )
- x - 6
1. dx 2. dx 29. 30. dx
(a- b) x
2
∫ x 2 + 2x - 15 dx
2
∫ ( x - a )( x - b ) dx,
x 2 + 3 x - 34
(a > b)
∫ ( x 2 + x + 1)( x 2 + 2x + 3) dx
3. 4. 3x3 + 4 x 2 + 9x + 5
31.
∫ 1 - x - 6 x 2 dx ∫ x 2 - a 2 dx
3 - x 2x
5. 6.
∫ 6 x 2 + 5 x - 4 dx ∫ 2 x 2 - 3x - 2 dx
1 2 x3 - 3x 2 - x - 7
7. 8. 3.6 THE DEFINITE INTEGRALS
∫ ( x - 1) ( x - 2 ) ( x - 3) dx ∫ x ( x - 1)( x - 3) dx
3 x 2 - 12 x + 11 2x - 1 We have already discussed in section 3.2 about the indeinite integral that is, if f‘ (x) =
9. 10.
f(x), then
∫ ( x 2 - 1) ( 2 x + 3) dx
5 x 2 + 9x + 6
∫ (1 + x ) ( 2
4 + 7x
∫ f ( x=
) dx f ( x ) + c, where c is an arbitrary constant
+ 3x )
11. 12. 2
dx
If ∫ f ( x=
) dx f ( x ) + c, then the integral of f from a to b is denoted by ∫ f ( x ) dx
∫ (x ∫ (x
b
- 1) ( x + 1) - 1)( x + 1)
2 x2 1 (read as
13. 2
dx 14. 2
dx
intergral from a to b of f of x, dx) and is evaluated as: a
∫ x3 - 3x 2 + 4 dx ∫ ( x + 1) ( x
x3 - 6 x 2 + 25
- 2) ∫ f ( x ) dx = ∫ f ′ ( x ) dx ( if f ( x ) = f′( x ))
x + 4
15. 16. 2 2
dx b b
∫
x3 + 22 x 2 + 14 x - 17
∫ ( x + 1) ( x 2 + 1) dx
x - 2
f ( x ) + c a = f ( b ) + c - f ( a ) + c = f ( b ) - f ( a )
(x - 3)( x + 2 )
=
a a
17. 3
dx 18. b
∫ (x ∫ ( x + 3) ( x 2 + 1) dx
9x - 7
- 1) ( x 2 + 1) ∫ f ( x ) dx has a deinite value f(b) - f(a), so it is called the deinite integral of f from a to b.
x b
19. dx 20.
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1. Quadratic Equations eLearn.Punjab 1. Quadratic Equations eLearn.Punjab
3. Integration eLearn.Punjab 3. Integration eLearn.Punjab
The interval [a, b] is called the range of integration while a and b are known as the To explain the idea mentioned above, we irst
∫ f ( x=
) dx ∫ f ( =
t ) dt f (b) - f ( a ) =
3 -1
=
b b
1
i.e. .
a a 4 2
Note: If the lower limit is a constant and the upper limit is a variable, then the integral is As the subintervals are
[x0, x1], [x1, x2], [x2, x3], [x3, x4], so
∫ f ( t ) dt = f (=
t) a f ( x) - f (a)
x
x0 = 1, x1 = 1.5, x2 = 2, x3 = 2.5, x4 = 3
In the igure MA = f(x0), NB = f(x1) and MN = dx, so it
x
a function of the upper limit, that is,
a
is obvious that the area of the rectangle AMNC < the area of the shaded region AMNB < area
∫
of the rectangle DMNB, that is,
3t 2 dt = t 3 =
x3 - a3
x
x
For Example, f(x0).dx < area of the shaded region AMNB < f(x1).dx
a
a
The relation f’ (x) = f(x) shows that f(x) gives the rate of change of f(x), so the total
* * * *
Let x 1 , x 2 , x 3 , x 4 be the mid point of four sub-
change in f(x) from a to b as f(b) - f(a) shows the connection between anti-derivatives and intervals mentioned above.
* *
∫ f ( x ) dx .
b
Then the value of f at x 1 , is f ( x 1 ) , so the area of the
rectangle FMNE = f ( x 1 ) dx
deinite integral *
a
(See the rectangle FMNE shown in the igure)
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1. Quadratic Equations eLearn.Punjab 1. Quadratic Equations eLearn.Punjab
3. Integration eLearn.Punjab 3. Integration eLearn.Punjab
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
We deine the function A(x) as the area above the
x-axis and under the curve y = f(x) from a to x. Let dx
2 2
1 1 + 1.5 1.5 + 2 2 + 2.5 2.5 + 3 be a small positive number and x + dx be any number
= + + +
2 2 2 2
If we go on increasing the number of intervals, then the sum of areas of small rectangles the rectangle SMNQ, i.e.,
approaches closer to the number 4.3. f(x) dx < A(x + dx) - A(x) < f(x + dx) dx
*
Dividing the inequality by dx, we have
If we divide the interval [1, 3] into n intervals and take x i the coordinate of any point
of the ith interval and dx i = x i - x i - 1, i = 1, 2, 3, ..., n, then the sum of areas of n rectangles is A ( x + d x ) - A( x)
f ( x) < < f ( x + d x)
∑
(I)
*
x i d x which tends to the number 4.3 when n gT and each dxig0. lim f ( x ) = f ( x ) lim f ( x + d x ) =
f ( x)
n dx
f and
i =1 d x →0 d x →0
∑ f (x ) d x
∗ Since the limits of the extremes in (I) are equal, so
A( x + d x ) - A( x )
n
Thus lim = 4.3 and we conclude that
→ f ( x ) when d x → 0.
n→∞
i =1
i i
d xi →0
dx
A( x + d x ) - A( x )
= f ( x ).
∑ f (x ) d x ∫2 x
∗
= dx
n 3
1 Thus lim
d x →0
2
lim dx.
n→∞
i =1
i i
d i x →0 1
Thus the area above the x-axis and under the curve y = f(x) from a to b is the deinite or A ‘ (x) = f(x)
∫ f ( x=
) dx A( x) + c
∫
b
that is, A(x) is an antiderivative of f, so
integral
∫ f (=
x ) dx A (=
x ) a A( x ) - A( a )
f ( x) dx.
x
x
and
a
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1. Quadratic Equations eLearn.Punjab 1. Quadratic Equations eLearn.Punjab
3. Integration eLearn.Punjab 3. Integration eLearn.Punjab
Since A(x) is deined as the area under the curve y = f(x) from a to x, so A(a) = 0
A(b ) = ∫ f ( x ) dx
b of Deinite Integrals
∫ f ( x ) dx
a b
which shows that the area A of the region, above the x-axis and under the curve y = f (x) from The Deinite integral
a to b is given by
a
gives the area under the curve y = f(x) from x = a to x = b and the x-axis (proof is given
a a
each product f ( xi ) d xi , is also negative, so in such a case, the deinite integral is negative. f(x) is any anti-derivative of f on [a, b], then
∗
∫ f ( x=
) dx f (b) - f ( a )
Thus the area, bounded in this case by the curve y = f(x), the x-axis and the lines b
= a= b is - ∫ f ( x ) dx.
b
a
Note that the diference f(b) - f(a) is independent of the choice of anti-derivative of the
x ,x
a
function f.
For example, sin x is negative for - p < x < 0
and is positive for 0 < x < p.
∫ f ( x ) dx = - ∫ f ( x ) dx
b a
(c)
Therefore the area bounded by the x-axis
(d) ∫ f ( x ) dx ∫ f<( x ) <dx + ∫ f ( x ) dx,
and graph of sin function from -p to p is given by
a b
=
b c b
a c b
a a c
- ∫ sin x dx + ∫ sin x dx = ∫ sin x dx + ∫ sin x dx ∫a ( ) ∫b ( )
p -p p
= -
0 b a
f x dx f x dx Proof of (c) and (d):
-p
(c) If f‘ (x) = f(x), that is, if f is an anti-derivative of f, then using the Fundamental Theorem
= [ - cos x ]0 + [ - cos x ]0 = - cos ( -p ) - cos0 + - ( cos p - cos0 )
0 0 0
-p p
of Calculus, we get
= - ( -1) - 1 - ( -1) -1 = 2 + 2 = 4
∫ f ( x ) dx = f ( b ) - f ( a ) = - f ( a ) - f ( b ) = - ∫ f ( x ) dx
b a
a b
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1. Quadratic Equations eLearn.Punjab 1. Quadratic Equations eLearn.Punjab
3. Integration eLearn.Punjab 3. Integration eLearn.Punjab
(d) If f’ (x) = f(x), that is, if f(x) is an anti-derivative of f(x), then applying the Fundamental
x2
2 - [ x ]1 + 2 ln ( x + 1) 1
Theorem of Calculus, we have
=
2
2
1
2
∫ f ( x ) dx f (c)
= f ( a ) and ∫ f-( x ) dx f (b) f (c) = - ( 2 )2 (1)
c b
= - - [ 2 - 1] + 2 ln ( 2 + 1) - ln (1 + 1)
2
∫ f ( x ) dx + ∫ f ( x ) dx = f ( c ) - f ( a ) + f (b) - f (c )
a c
c b 2 2
- 1 + 2 [ ln 3 - ln 2]
1
= -
Thus
2
2
= f (b) - f (c ) = ∫ f ( x ) dx
a c
b
= + 2ln
1 3
a
2 2
Other properties of deinite integrals can easily be proved by applying the Fundamental p
x2 + 9
Example 2: Evaluate (i) dx (ii)
Now we evaluate some deinite integrals in the following examples. 0 0
∫(x + 3 x 2 ) dx ∫
x2 + 1
2
3
Solution:
x + 1
3
x3 + 9 x 1
∫ ∫0 x 2 + 9 + x 2 + 9 dx
Example 1: Evaluate (i) (ii)
x3 + 9 x + 1
dx
-1 1 3 3
x2 + 9
(i) dx =
x ( x2 + 9)
Solution: 0
1
∫(x ) dx = ∫ 2 ∫0
1
+ 3x = ∫x dx + ∫ 3x + 2 dx = + dx
3 3
+ + x2 + 9
3 3 3
0
(i) 3 2 3 2
dx x 9 x 9
x
-1 -1 -1
( 3)4 ( -+1) ∫ x dx ∫x
x4
( ) (
= 4 + x -1 = - 4 - 3 - 1) = +
3 3 3
4 1
+ 9
3 3 dx
-1 4
3 3
2
0 0
x2
3 0 ∫ x 2 + ( 3)
81 - 1 1 -1 x
+ 27 - ( -1)= + ( 27 + 1)
81 1 =
+ c +
3
3
-1 x
3
= -
1 1
4 4 2 0
Tan dx = Tan
( )
2
3 3
4
3 2 2
= 20 + 28 = 48
= -
( 0) 1
+ Tan -1 - Tan -1
0
2 2
3
3 3
∫ ∫1 x + 1 dx
x2 + 1 x2 - 1 + 2
3
dx =
2 2
x +1 1
(ii)
3
= - 0 + Tan -1 - Tan -1 0
1
x2 - 1 2 2 3
∫ ∫ x
1
2
= + dx= - 1 + dx
2 2
3
x + 1 x + 1 x + 1 3 1p 3 p p
= + - 0 = + Tan -1 = and Tan -1 0= 0
1
2 3 6 2 18
∫ x dx ∫ 1 dx ∫
1 1
= - + 2
2 2 2 3 6
1
x + 1
dx
1 1 1
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1. Quadratic Equations eLearn.Punjab 1. Quadratic Equations eLearn.Punjab
3. Integration eLearn.Punjab 3. Integration eLearn.Punjab
∫ ∫ ∫
∫ ( sec x + sec x tan x ) dx
p p
x2 4 0
= 2 = 2 - = 4
0 0
p p
2
= +∫ sec x dx ∫ sec x 2 0 2 2
4 4
2
tan x dx
p p
[ tan x ]0 -+ [sec x ]0+ = tan -
0 0
∫
p p
4 4
3x
( )
x +9
Example 5: Evaluate dx
= (1 - 0 ) +
4 4 2
2 - 1 =
0
∫ ∫ ∫ (x
3
p
= dx = +
(2 x)
Evaluate ∫
-
1
3x 3
x +9 x +9
4 2 dx 2
9)
2
(2 x) dx
1
-
Example 3: dx 2 2 2
= ∫ [ f ( x)] f ( x) dx
0
1 sin x -
1
3
p p
4
1 4
1 + sin x 2
-
dx = - + 1
1
= = 3 [ f ( x)] + c = 3( x + 9) + c
2 1 1
0
1 sin x 3 [ f ( x)] 2
2 - 1 +1
2 2
p p
∫ ∫
1 + sin x 1 + sin x
=
4 4
1 - sin 2 x
dx = dx 2
2
∫
2
cos 2 x
dx = 3( x + 9) = 3 (7 + 9) - (0 + 9)
7
0 0 7 1 1 1
3x
1 sin x
2
Thus
= + + 2x
4 4
2
0
=
2
3
2 (See the solution of example 2(ii))
∫
Sin -1 x
3
x ≠ - 1, 1
∫ (x
2
Example 6: Evaluate
+ x ) dx 1 - x
2 dx ,
Example 4: Evaluate
2
1
-1
p p
2
∫ ( x + x ) dx = ∫ ( x + x ) dx + ∫ ( x + x ) dx
Solution: Let x = sin t
2 0 2 2 2
p p
Solution:
1 - sin 2 t dt - ≤ ≤
(by property (d))
2
-1 -1 and
-x = x if x < 0
dx = cos t dt = cos t is +ve for t
= ∫ [ x + (- x)] dx + ∫ ( x + ( x)] dx
0
2
0 2
-1 0 = x if x > 0 = 1 - x 2 dt
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1. Quadratic Equations eLearn.Punjab 1. Quadratic Equations eLearn.Punjab
3. Integration eLearn.Punjab 3. Integration eLearn.Punjab
p p p
(x ≠ -1, 1) = sin + cos - (0 sin 0 + cos 0)
1
1 - x2 6 6
or dx = dt
6
1 p p p
x = , then = ⇒t = Sin -1 = - (0+1) = - 1
1 1 1 3 3
if S in t = . + +
2 2 2 6 6 2 2 12 2
⇒ t = Sin -1 =
∫ x In x dx
3ð 3 3
and if x = , then = Sin t e
2 2 2 3 Example 8: Evaluate
∫ ∫ (Sin
Sin -1 x
3 3 1
-1
2 2
1
1 - x2 1 - x2
Thus dx = x) . dx Applying the formula
∫ f ( x) f ' ( x) dx ∫ f ( x)
Solution:
= f ( x) f ( x) -
1 1
2 2
f ' ( x) dx, we have
p
∫
x2 1
= t=
dt ⇒ ( x = Sin t Sin -1 x ∫ (In x) x dx = (In x) . - ∫ .
3
x2
t) dx
p 2 2 x
1 x2
= x In x - ∫ x In x- +
p
6
t2 3 1 p p 1 p2 p2
1 2 1 1 2
= = - - 2 2
x dx = c
2 2
2 p 2 3 6 2 9 36
= 2 2 2
1 2 x2
∫1
= - 2 x In x 4 1
e e
1 4p 2 - p 2 3p 2 p2
6
Thus x In x dx
= =
2 1 2 e 1 2 (1) 2
=
= e In e - - (1) In 1 -
36 72 24
2 4 2 4
p
e2 e2 1 1
∫ x cos x dx
= .1 - - . 0 - ( In e = 1 and In 1 = 0)
2 4
6
2 4
Example 7: Evaluate
0
+
e2 1
Applying the formula =
∫ f ( x) f ' (x) dx ∫ f ( x) f
Solution:
= f (x) f ( x) -
4 4
∫ f ( x ) dx ∫ [2 f ( x ) + 3 g (x )] dx
3 1
p
∫ 3 f ( x ) dx ∫ 2 g ( x ) dx
6
Thus
-
0 1 1
0
(iii)
-2 -2
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1. Quadratic Equations eLearn.Punjab 1. Quadratic Equations eLearn.Punjab
3. Integration eLearn.Punjab 3. Integration eLearn.Punjab
∫ f ( x) dx ∫ f ( x) dx ∫
p p p
sec q
∫ cos q ∫ (1 + cos ∫ sin q + cos q
+
3 1 3
sin q dq q ) tan q dq dq
Solution: (i) = f (x) dx = 5 + 3 = 8 3
2
4
2 2
4
-2 -2
19. 20. 21.
∫ [2 f ( x) + 3g ( x)] dx = ∫ 2 f ( x) dx ∫ 3 g (x) dx
1
+
0 0 0
1 1 1
13
(ii)
+
2
-2 -2 -2
∫ x-3 ∫1/8 23 dx ∫1 x + 1 dx
x2 - 2
∫ f ( x) dx ∫
x 2
= 2
5 1 3
1 1
+3 g (x) dx 22. dx 23. 24.
-1
-2 -2
= 2(5) + 3(4) = 10 + 12 = 22
x
p p
∫0 cos2 x ∫0 1 + sin x dx
sin x - 1
∫2 ( x - 1)( x 2 + 1) dx
3x - 2 x + 1
3 2 4 4
1
26.
∫ 3 f ( x) dx ∫ 2 g ( x) dx = 3 ∫ f ( x) dx ∫ g (x) dx
25. 27.
- - 2
1 1 1 1
(iii)
-2 -2 -2 -2 p p
EXERCISE 3.6 6
∫ (x + 1) dx ∫ (x + 1) dx ∫ (2 x
2 1 0
1
- 1) 2
Here we shall give some examples involving area bounded by the curve and the x-axis.
2 1/3
1. 2. 3. dx
-1 -2
∫ ∫ ∫
1
∫1 x 2 + 2 dx ∫2 x - x dx ∫ x + 2
2
1 1
x 2 + x + 1 dx
2 3 2 1
x
7. 8. 9.
-1
Solution: We irst ind the points where
the curve cuts the x-axis. Putting y = 0,
p
∫ ∫p cos t dt ∫1 x 1 - x 2 dx
1 2 1 we have
+
1
4 - x2 = 0 ⇒ x = ± 2.
3 3 2
dx
x + 9
10. 2
11. 12. x
0
p So the curve cuts the x-axis at (-2, 0) and (2, 0)
cos q + sin q The area above the x-axis and under the curve y = 4 - x2 is
∫ In x dx ∫ ∫
6
e - e dx dq
-
2 2 x x 4
2cos 2 q
14.
2 2
13. 15.
1 0 0
shown in the igure as shaded region..
∫
p p p
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3. Integration eLearn.Punjab 3. Integration eLearn.Punjab
= 8 - - -8 +
2
3 3 -2
-16 x2 x4
= - = ∫
- = - 4 - =
0
2x
0 0
16 32 x4
3 2 -2 4 -2
3 2
(x 4 x ) dx =
-2
3 3 4
(-2) 4 16
Example 2. Find the area bounded by the curve y = x3 + 3x2 and the x-axis. = 0 - - 2(-2) 2 = 0 - - 8 = - (4 - 8) = 4
4 4
Solution: Putting y = 0 , we have
x3 + 3x2 = 0
⇒ x2 (x + 3) = 0 ⇒ x = 0, x = -3 f(x) 7 0 for 0 7 x 7 2, that is, the area in the interval [0, 2 ] is below the x-axis and is
x4
equal to - ∫ ( x - 4) dx -= - 2x
2 2
-= - 4 - 0
∫ (x
2(4)
= + 3 x 2 ) dx
0
= - [ -4 - 8] = - (-4) = 4
Thus the required area 3
-3
x4 3
= +
Thus the area of the shaded region = 4 + 4 = 8
4
0
-3
x
Find the area bounded by the curve f(x) = x3 - 2x2 + 1 and the x-axis in
0 (-3) 4
Example 4:
= + 0 - + (-3)3
4 4
the 1st quadrant.
81 81 - 108 27
= 0 - - 27 = - = -- = Solution: As f(1) = 1 - 2 + 1 = 0, so x - 1 is factor of x3 - 2x2 + 1. By long division, we ind that
27
4 4 4
x2 - x - 1 is also a factor of x3 - 2x2 + 1.
4
Example 3. Find the area bounded by y = x(x2 - 4) and the x-axis. Solving x2 - x - 1 = 0, we get
1 ± 1 + 4 1 ± 5
Solution: Putting y = 0, we have =
x(x2 - 4 ) ⇒ x = 0, x = ±2
x =
2 2
The curve cuts the x-axis at (-2, 0), (0, 0) and (2, 0). The graph of f is shown in the igure and 1+ 5 1- 5
Thus the curve cuts the x-axis at x = 1, and
we have to calculate the area of the shaded region. 2 2
f(x) = x(x2 - 4),
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3. Integration eLearn.Punjab 3. Integration eLearn.Punjab
p p
3 2
= - + 1 - 0 = =
2 7 7. Find the area bounded by the curve y = x3 + 1, the x-axis and line x = 2.
4 3 12 12 8. Find the area bounded by the curve y = x3 - 4x and the x-axis.
9. Find the area between the curve y = x(x - 1)(x + 1) and the x-axis.
10. Find the area above the x-axis, bounded by the curve y2 = 3 - x from x = -1 to x = 2
Find the area between the x-axis and the curve y2 = 4 - x in the irst
= the curve y - cos p to p
Example 5: 1
11. Find the area between the x-axis and x from x =
quadrant from x = 0 to x = 3.
p
2
12. Find the area between the x-axis and the curve y = sin 2x from x = 0 to x =
= 2ax - x 2 when a > 0.
Solution: The branch of the curve above the x-axis is 3
= 4 - x
13. Find the area between the x-axis and the curve y
y
The area to be determined is shaded in the adjoining igure.
3.8 DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
= ∫ 4 - x dx
3
Thus the required area
0 An equation containing at least one derivative of a dependent, variable with respect to
Let 4 - x = t (i), then -dx = dt ⇒ dx = -dt an independent variable such as
Putting x = 0 and x = 3 (i). we get t = 4 and t = 1
+ 2x =
dy
y 0 (i)
+ - 2x =
2 2
x d2y dy
4 4 or 0 (ii)
∫ t dt
dx 2 dx
= =
4 1 4
2
t 3/2 is called a diferential equation.
3/ 21 Derivatives may be of irst or higher orders. A diferential equation containing only
2 32
[-8 =1]
1
= = (4)- (1)=
2 3/2 4 3
2 14 derivative of irst order can be written in terms of diferentials. So we can write the equation
3
2
t (square units)
3 1 3 3 (i) as y dy + 2x dx = 0 but the equation (ii) cannot be written in terms of diferentials.
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Order: The order of a diferential equation is the order of the highest derivative in All solutions obtained from (iii) by putting diferent values of A, are called particular
the equation. As the order of the equation (i) is one so it is called a irst order diferential solutions of (v) while the solution (iii) itself is called the general solution of (v).
equation. But equation (ii) contains the second order derivative and is called a second order A solution of diferential equation is a relation between the variables (not involving
diferential equation. derivatives) which satisies the diferential equation.
Here we shall solve diferential equations of irst order with variables separable in the
3.8.1 Solution of a Differential Equation of irst order: forms
dy f ( x) dy g ( y)
Consider the equation = or =
dx g ( y) dx f ( x)
y = Ax2 + 4 (iii)
where A is a real constant
Diferentiating (iii) with respect to x gives Example 1: Solve the diferential equation (x - 1) dx + y dy = 0
dy
= 2Ax (iv) Solution: Variables in the given equation are in separable form, so integrating either terms,
y - 4
dx
we have
∫ (x - 1) dx + ∫ y dy = c ,
From (iii) A = , so putting the value of A in (iv), we get
x2 where c1 is a constant
y - 4
1
= 2 x x2
dy
x or - x + =
2 y2
dx c1 , which gives
⇒ = 2y - 8 which is free of constant A
2 2
Thus the required general solution is x2 + y2 - 2x = c,
dy
x
dx where c = 2c1
⇒ 2y - x
dy
=8 Example 2: Solve diferential equation
dx
Substituting the value of y and its derivative in x 2 (2 y + 1) - 1=0
dy
(v), we see that it is satisied, that is. dx
2(Ax2 + 4) - x(2Ax) = 2Ax2 + 8 - 2Ax2 = 8 Solution: The given diferential equation can be written as
which shows that (iii) is asolution of (v)
Giving a particular value to A. say A = -1. we get x 2 (2 y + 1)
dy
y = -x2 + 4
=1 (i)
dx
Dividing by x2, we have (2 y + 1) (x ≠ 0)
dy 1
We see that (v) is satisied if we put y = -x2 + 4 and = -2x, so y = -x2 + 4 is also a solution
dy = 2, (ii)
dx x
dx
of (v). Multiplying both sides of (i) by dx, we get
For diferent values of A, (iii) represents diferent parabolas with vertex at (0, 4) and the
dy
axis along the y-axis. We have drawn two members of the family of parabolas. (2y + 1) dx = 2 dx
1
y = Ax2 + 4 for A = -1, 1 dx x
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dy
(2 y + 1) dy = dx =
dy
p
1
dx
or dx
x2
0< y<
Integrating either side gives
Solve 2e tan y dx + (1 - e ) sec y dy = 0 3p
2
or p < y <
∫ (2 y + 1) dy = ∫ x 2 dx
x x 2
Example 5:
1 2
Solution: Given that: 2ex tan y dx + (1 - ex) sec2 y dy = 0 (i)
∫x Dividing either term of (i) by tan y (1 - ex), we get
x -1
y +y= - + c
-2
dx = + c
1
-1
2
or
x
Thus y + y = c -
2e x sec 2 y
1 - ex
1
2
is the general solution of the given diferential equation. dx +
tan y
dy = 0
-2e x
x
dx +
sec 2 y
ex - 1
or dy = 0
Example 3: Solve the diferential equation tan y
Integrating, we have
- 2y = x ≠ 0, y > 0
1 dy
0
ex sec 2 y
∫ -2 e x - 1 dx + ∫ tan y dy = c1 (e x - 1 > 0)
x dx
x
Solution: Multiplying the both sides of the given equation by dx, gives
y
1 dy dy -2 In (ex - 1) + In (tan y) = c1
dx =- 2 x dx= = 2 x dx dy
or
⇒ In (ex - 1)-2 + In (tan y) = In c,
1
y dx dx
0 or dy dx
where c1 = In c
In [(ex - 1)-2 tan y] = In c
y
Now integrating either side gives In y = x + c1
2
where c1 is a constant or
=
or y =
e x +c1
2 2
e x . ec1 ⇒ (ex - 1)-2 tan y = c ⇒ tan y = c{ex - 1)2.
Thus y = ce x where
2
ec1 = c Example 6: Solve (sin y + y cos y) dy = [x (2 Inx + 1)] dx
is the required general solution of the given diferential equation.
Solution: (sin y + y cos y) dy = (2x In x + x) dx (i)
2
dy y + 1
Example 4: Solve
e- x
= 1
dx or (1. sin y + y cos y ) dy = (2 x In x + x 2 . ) dx
x
d d
⇒ ( y sin y ) dy = ( x 2 In x) dx ( ( y sin y ) = +
Solution: Separating the variables, we have d
1. sin y y cos y and
dy dx dy
1 1
y + 1
dy = - x dx = e x dx d 1
2
e ( x 2 In x ) 2x In x + x 2 . )
dx x
Now integrating either side gives Integrating, we have
Tan-1 y = ex + c, where c is a constant,
∫ = ( y sin y ) dy +∫
d d
( x 2 In x) dx
or y = Tan (ex + c)
which is the general solution of the given diferential equation. dy dx
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3. Integration eLearn.Punjab 3. Integration eLearn.Punjab
⇒ y sin y = x2 In x + c Note: The general solution represents a system of parabolas which are vertically above
(or below) each other.
3.8.2 Initial Conditions
x + x - 3, if y = 0 when x = 2
dy 3 2
Example 2: Solve =
Diferential equations occur in numerous practical problems concerning to physical, dx 4
biological and social sciences etc.
Solution: Given that
The arbitrary constants involving in the solution of diferent equations can be determined
= x + x - 3
by the given conditions. Such conditions are called initial value conditions. dy 3 3
(i)
The general solution of diferential equation in variable separable form contains only dx 4
one variable. Here we shall consider those diferential equations which have only one initial Separating variables, we have
value condition.
3 2
Note that the general solution of diferential equation of order n contains n arbitrary = x + x - 3 dx
4
dy (ii)
constants which can be determined by n initial value conditions.
Integrating either side of (ii) gives
∫= ∫ 4 x
3
Example 1: The slope of the tangent at any point of the curve is given by
+ x - 3 dx
2
dy
= 2 x - 2, ind the equation of the curve if y = 0 when x = -1.
dy
3 x3
= + - 3x + c
dx x2
4 3
or y
2
Solution: Given that = 2x - 2 ⇒ y= x + x 2 - 3x + c
dy 1 3 1
(i) (iii)
dx 4 2
Now applying the initial value condition, we have
Equation (i) can be written as
dy = (2x - 2) dx
0 = (8) + (4) - 3(2) + c
(ii) 1 1
Integrating either side of (ii) gives
⇒ c=6-2-2=2
4 2
∫ dy = ∫ (2 x - 2) dx
y = x2 - 2x + c
Thus (iii) becomes
or (iii)
Applying the given condition, we have y = x + x 2 - 3x + 2
1 3 1
0 = (-1)2 - 2(-1) + c ⇒ c = -3
⇒ 4y = x + 2x - 12x + 8
4 2
3
Thus (iii) becomes
2
y = x2 - 2x - 3
which represents a parabola as shown in the Example 3: A particle is moving in a straight line and its acceleration is given by
adjoining igure. a = 2t - 7,
For c = 0, (iii) becomes y = x2 - 2x. (i) ind v (velocity) in terms of t if v = 10 m/sec, when t = 0
The graph of y = x2 - 2x is also shown in the igure. (ii) ind s (distance) in terms of t if s = 0, when t = 0.
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3. Integration eLearn.Punjab 3. Integration eLearn.Punjab
dv dp = ⇒ ln p =kt + c1
1
- = 7 = a
dv or k dt
dt
2t p
⇒ p= e kt +c1 =
⇒ dv = (2t - 7) dt
dt
e kt . ec1
Integrating, we have =
=or p ce kt (i) (where ec1 c)
∫ dv
= ∫ (2t - 7) dt
Applying the given condition, that is p = 100 when t = 0, we have
100 = ce(0)k = c (a e0 = 1)
⇒ v = t2 - 7t + c1 (1) Putting c = 100, (i) becomes p = 100 ekt (ii)
Applying the irst initial value condition, we get p will be 200 when t = 2(hours), so (ii) gives
10 = 0 - 0 + c1 ⇒ c1 = 10 200 = 100 e2k ⇒ e2k = 2
The equation (1) becomes
v = t2 - 7t + 10 which is the solution of (i) = =
⇒k
1
or 2k ln 2 ln 2
2
ds
= t 2 - 7t + 10 =
ds
dt
Now v Subsituting = ln 2 in (ii), we get
dt
1
=
= 100 =
ln 2 t
⇒ ds = (t2 - 7t + 10) dt
2
1 1
ln 2
ln(2 2 )
(2)
2
p e 100e 100e
p = 100 (2 )
Integrating both sides of (2), we get
1
∫ ds ∫ (t
2
= - 7t + 10) dt
If t = 4 (hours), then =p 100 (2 =) 100× =4
2
4
2
400.
⇒ s = - 7 + 10t + c2
3 2
t t
(3)
3 2 Example 5: A ball is thrown vertically upward with a velocity of 1470 cm/sec
Applying the second initial value condition, gives Neglecting air resistance, ind
0 = 0 - 0 + 0 + c2 ⇒ c2 = 0 (i) velocity of ball at any time t
(ii) distance traveled in any time t
s = t - t + 10t
1 3 7 2
Thus is the solution of (ii) (iii) maximum height attained by the ball.
3 2
Example 4: In a culture, bacteria increases at the rate proportional to the number Solution.
of bacteria present. If bacteria are 100 initially and are doubled in 2 hours, ind the (i) Let v be the velocity of the ball at any time t, then by Newton’s law of motion, we have
number of bacteria present four hours later.
-=g⇒ -=
dv
dv g dt (i)
∫ dv= ∫ - g dt
dt
Solution: Let p be the number of bacteria present at time t, then
or (integrating either side of (i))
= >kp,
dp
(k 0) v = -gt + c1 (ii)
dt Given that v = 1470 (cm/sec) when t = 0, so
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3. Integration eLearn.Punjab 3. Integration eLearn.Punjab
x dy + y ( x - 1) dx =
dx dx y
dh 5.= (y > 0) = 1
dy y dy
= 1470 - 980 t v =
6.
dh , sin y cosec x 7. 0
dt
x2
(1 + y2 )
dx dx
x2 + 1
= > , ( x, y 0) = 2 x2 y = x2 - 1
dt
dh = (1470 - 980 t) dt
x dy 1 dy 1 dy
y +1
8. . 9. 10.
(x - yx 2 )
or y dx x dx 2 dx
+ = + y 2 + xy 2 =
dy 2 xy dy
h = 1470 t - 980 + c2 = 1470 t - 490 t 2 + c2 2y + 1
2
t 2 11. x 12. 0
dx dx
(iii)
dy 2 dy
sec 2 x tan y dx + sec 2 y tan x dy = y - x =2 y +
2
14.
dx dx
13. 0
h = 0 when t = 0, so we have
0 = 1470 x 0 - 490(0)2 + c2 ⇒ dy
1 + cos x tan y = y - x = 3 1 + x
c2 = 0 dy dy
16.
dx
15. 0
( e x + e- x ) dy
Putting c2 = 0 in (iii), we have dx dx
h = 1470 t - 4 9 0 t2 17. sec x + tan y
dy
=0 18. -= ex e- x
dx dx
(iii) The maximum height will be attained when v = 0, that is
- x =
dy
19. Find the general solution of the equation xy 2 Also ind the particular solution
1470 - 980 t = 0 ⇒ t=
dx
1470 3
= (sec) if y = 1 when x = 0.
980 2
= 2 x given that x = 4 when t = 0.
3 3
dx
20. Solve the diferential equation
Thus the maximum height attained in (cms) = 1470 × - 490 ×
2
dt
2 2 21. Solve the diferential equation
ds
+ 2 st = 0 . Also ind the particular solution if s = 4e,
2205 - 1102.5 = 1102.5
dt
= when t = 0.
22. In, a culture, bacteria increases at the rate proportional to the number of bacteria
EXERCISE 3.8 present. If bacteria are 200 initially and are doubled in 2 hours, ind the number of
bacteria present four hours later.
1. Check that each of the following equations written against the diferential 23. A ball is thrown vertically upward with a velocity of 2450 cm/sec. Neglecting air
equation is its solution. resistance, ind
(i) velocity of ball at any time t
= 1 + y = cx - 1
dy
(i) x , y
dx (ii) distance traveled in any time t
x 2 ( 2 y + 1) - 1 =0 y2 + y = c - (iii) maximum height attained by the ball.
dy 1
(ii) ,
dx x
- e2 x = y 2 = e2 x + 2 x + c
dy
(iii) y 1 ,
dx
- 2y = y = ce x
1 dy
(iv) ,
2
0
tan ( e x + c )
x dx
y2 + 1
= =
dy
(v) ,
e- x
y
dx
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version: 1.1
CHAPTER
4 Introduction to
Analytic Geometry
that P has coordinates (x, y). It may be noted that x and y are the directed distances of P from
4.1 INTRODUCTION the y-axis and the x-axis respectively. The reverse of this technique also provides method for
associating exactly one point in the plane with any ordered pair (x, y) of real numbers. This
Geometry is one of the most ancient branches of mathematics. The Greeks
method of pairing of in a one-to-one fashion the points in a plane with ordered pairs of real
systematically studied it about four centuries B.C. Most of the geometry taught in schools is
numbers is called the two dimensional rectangular (or Cartesian) coordinate system.
due to Euclid who expounded thirteen books on the subject (300 B.C.). A French philosopher
and m athematician Rene Descartes (1596-1650 A.D.) introduced algebraic methods in
If (x, y) are the coordinates of a point P, then the irst member (component) of the
ordered pair is called the x - coordinate or abscissa of P and the second member of the
geometry which gave birth to analytical geometry (or coordinate geometry). Our aim is to
ordered pair is called the y - coordinate or ordinate of P. Note that abscissa is always irst
present fundamentals of the subject in this book.
The ordered pair (x, y) gives us enough information to locate the point P. Thus, with
every point P in the plane, we can associate an ordered pair of real numbers (x, y) and we say
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1. Quadratic Equations eLearn.Punjab 1. Quadratic Equations eLearn.Punjab
4. Introduction to Analytic Geometry eLearn.Punjab 4. Introduction to Analytic Geometry eLearn.Punjab
a= BC= (2 - 7) + ( -6 - 5 ) =
4.1.1 The Distance Formula 2 2
146
Let A (x1 , y1) and B (x2 , y2) be two points in the plane. We can ind the b= CA= 2 - ( - 1) 2 + ( -6 - 2 ) =
2
73
Note that :
distance d = AB from the right triangle AQB by using the Pythagorean Clearly: a=2 b 2 + c 2 .
AB stands for
= = AQ + QB 2
d AB (1) Example 2: The point C (-5, 3) is the centre of a circle and
= RS
AQ = RO + OS P (7, -2) lies on the circle. What is the radius of the circle?
-=OR
+ OS
= x2 - x1 Solution: The radius of the circle is the distance from C to P.
QB = SB - SQ = OM - ON
By the distance formula, we have
( x2 - x1 ) + ( y2 - y1 )
4.1.2 Point Dividing the Join of Two Points in a given Ratio
d = AB =
2 2
or (2)
which is the formula for the distance d. The distance is always taken to be positive and Theorem: Let A (x1 , y1) and B (x2 , y2) be the two given points in a plane. The coordinates of
it is not a directed distance from A to B when A and B do not lie on the same horizontal or the point dividing the line segment AB in the ratio k1 : k2 are
k1 x2 + k2 x1 k1 y2 + k2 y1
vertical line.
1 2 + k1 + k2
,
If A and B lie on a line parallel to one of the coordinate axes, then by the formula (2), k k
( 7 - ( -1) ) + ( 5 - 2 )
k1 x2 - k1 x = k2 x - k2 x1
c= AB= =
( k1 + k2 ) x =k1 x2 + k2 x1
2 2 or
73
or
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1. Quadratic Equations eLearn.Punjab 1. Quadratic Equations eLearn.Punjab
4. Introduction to Analytic Geometry eLearn.Punjab 4. Introduction to Analytic Geometry eLearn.Punjab
k1 x2 + k2 x1 -8
x= Coordinates of the required point are ,1
k1 + k2 5
or
(ii) In this case
2 × 5 - 3 × ( -6 ) 2(-2) - 3(3)
Similarly, by drawing perpendiculars from A , B and P to the y-axis and
= x= - 13 =
k y +k y 2-3 2-3
y= 1 2 2 1
28 and y=
k1 + k2
proceeding as before, we can show that
Thus the required point has coordinates (-28, 13)
Theorem:
The centroid of a ∆ABC is a point that divides each median in the ratio 2 : 1. Using this
Note:
(i) If the directed distances AP and PB have the same sign, then their ratio is positive and P
is said to divide AB internally. show that medians of a triangle are concurrent.
(ii) If the directed distances AP and PB have opposite signs i.e, P is beyond AB. then their Proof: Let the vertices of a ∆ABC have coordinates as shown in the igure.
ratio is negative and P is said to divide AB externally.
= = - 1 x + x y + y3
Midpoint of BC is D 2 3 , 2 .
AP k1 AP k
or
BP k2 PB k2 2 2
( )
Proceeding as before, we can show in this case that
k x -k x k y -k y Let G x, y be the centroid of the ∆ .
= =
k1 - k2 k1 - k2
x 1 2 2 1 y 1 2 2 1
Then G divides AD in the ratio 2 : 1. Therefore
x2 + x3
+ 1.x1 x + x + x
Thus P is said to divide the line segment AB in ratio k1 : k2 , internally or externally according
=
=
as P lies between AB or beyond AB. 2.
(iii) If k= k= 2 +1
x 2 1 2 3
1:1, then P becomes midpoint of AB and coordinates of P are :
y + y2 + y3
1 2 3
x1 + x2 y1 - y2 Similarly, y = 1
=
=
.
x , y 3
2 2
In the same way. we can show that coordinate of the point that divides BE and CF each
(iv) The above theorem is valid in whichever quadrant A and B lie.
x + x + x y + y2 + y3
in the ratio 2 : 1 are 1 2 3 , 1 .
Example 1: Find the coordinates of the point that divides the join of A (-6, 3) and B (5,
-2) in the ratio 2 : 3.
3 3
(i) internally (ii) externally Thus ( x, y ) lies on each median and so the medians of the ∆ABC are concurrent.
2 × 5 + 3 × ( -6 ) 2 ( -2 ) + 3 ( 3)
Proof: Let the coordinates of the vertices of a triangle be as shown in the igure.
-8 Suppose = BC a=, CA b and=
=
=
==
2+3 2+3
AB c
Let the bisector of ∠A meet BC at D. Then D divides BC in the ratio c : b. Therefore
x and y 1
5
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=
=
Now
BD c
DC b
or
DC
BD
b
c
(c)
1
(
A - 5, - ; B -3 5,5
3
)
DC + BD b + c
=
3. Which of the following points are at a distance of 15 units from the origin?
( )
or
15 15
BD c
b+c (10, -10) ,
=
= 2 2
a ac (a) 176,7 (b) (c) (1, 15 ) (d)
b+c
or or BD
BD c
( )
4. Show that
,
( )
of the vertices of the triangle.
ax1 + bx2 + cx3 ay1 + by2 + cy3 3, - 1 , B (0, 2) and C (h, -2) are vertices of a right
6. Find h such that the points A
+ + a+b+c
i.e., ,
a b c
triangle with right angle at the vertex A.
The symmetry of these coordinates shows that the bisector
of ∠C will also pass through this point.
7. Find h such that A (-1, h ), B (3, 2) and C (7, 3) are collinear.
8. The points A (-5, -2) and B (5, -4) are ends of a diameter of a circle. Find the centre
Thus the angle bisectors of a triangle are concurrent.
and radius of the circle.
9. Find h such that the points A ( h , 1), B (2, 7) and C (-6, -7) are vertices of a right triangle
EXERCISE 4.1
with right angle at the vertex A.
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11. Find h such that the quadrilateral with vertices A (-3, 0), B (1, -2), C (5, 0) and D (1, h ) Draw PM and O’ N perpendiculars to Ox .
is parallelogram. Is it a square? From the igure, we have
12. If two vertices of an equilateral triangle are A (-3, 0) and B (3, 0), ind the third OM= x, MP= y, ON= h, NO =' k= MM '
vertex. How many of these triangles are possible? Now X =O'M' = NM = OM - OM - ON =- x h
13. Find the points trisecting the join of A (-1, 4) and B (6, 2). Similarly, Y = M 'P = MP - MM ' = y k
14. Find the point three-ifth of the way along the line segment from A (-5, 8) to B (5, 3). Thus the coordinates of P referred to XY-system are ( x - h, y - k )
15. Find the point P on the join of A (1, 4) and B (5, 6) that is twice as far from A as B is i.e. X= x - h
from A and lies Y= y - k
(i) on the same side of A as B does. Moreover, x =+ X h, + y =Y k.
The points (4, -2), (-2, 4) and (5, 5) are the vertices of a triangle. Find in-centre of
Solution. Here h- = 3,=
17.
k 2
Find the points that divide the line segment joining A ( x1 , y1 ) and B ( x2 , y2 ) into
the triangle.
Coordinates of P referred to the new axes are (X, Y) given by
18. X = -6 - (-3) = -3 and Y = 9 - 2 = 7
four equal parts. Thus P (X, Y) = P (-3 ,7).
4.2 TRANSLATION AND ROTATION OF AXES Example 2: The xy -coordinate axes are translated through the point O’ (4, 6). The
coordinates of the point P are (2, -3) referred to the new axes. Find the coordinates of P
Translation of Axes referred to the original axes.
Let xy-coordinate system be given and
O ' (h, k ) be any point in the plane. Through Solution: Here X = -2, Y =
= 3, h=4, k 6 .
O’ draw two mutually perpendicular lines We have x =X + h =4 + 2 =6
O’X , O’Y such that O’X is parallel to Ox . The y =Y + k =-3 + 6 =3
new axes O’X and O’Y are called translation
of the Ox - and Oy - axes through the point
Thus required coordinates are P (6, 3).
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coordinates. Suppose P has coordinates (X, Y) referred to the XY-coordinate system. We have
to ind X, Y in terms of the given coordinates x, y. Let a be measure of the angle that OP 5 3 + 7 -5 + 7 3
makes with O. i.e., (X, Y)
2 2
From P, draw PM perpendicular to Ox and PM’ perpendicular to OX. Let OP = r , From the are the required coordinates.
right triangle OPM ', we have
OM=' X= r cos (a - q ) 4
M ' P= Y= r sin (a - q )
Example 4: The xy-axes are rotated about the origin through an angle of arctan
lying
(1) 3
in the irst quadrant. The coordinates of a point P referred to the new axes OX and OY
Also from the ∆ OPM , we have are P (-1, -7). Find the coordinates of P referred to the xy-coordinate system.
x = r cos a , y = r sin a
System of equations (1) may be re-written as: Solution. Let P(x, y) be the coordinates of P referred to the xy-coordinate system.
=X +r cos a cosq r sin a sin q Angle of rotation is given by arctan q = . Therefore, sin q = , cosq = .
4 4 3
=Y -r sin a cosq r cos a sin q
(2) 3 5 5
From equations (3) above, we have
Substituting from (2) into the above equations, we have X= x cos q + y sin q- and +Y =
x sin q y cosq
=X x cos q + y sin q
-1 = x + y and - 7 =- x + y
Y y cosq - x sin q
3 4 4 3
=
(3) or
3 x + 4 y +=
5 0 and - 4 x + 3 y +=
5 5 5 5
i.e., ( X , Y ) =
( x+cosq ysin q , x+sin q y cosq )
or 35 0
Solving these equations, we have
are the coordinates of P referred to the new axes OX and OY.
= = ⇒ x= 5, y = -5
x y 1
125 -125 25
Thus coordinates of P referred to the xy-system are (5, -5).
Example 3: The xy-coordinate axes are rotated about the origin through an angle of
300. If the xy-coordinates of a point are (5, 7), ind its XY-coordinates, where OX and OY are
the axes obtained after rotation.
EXERCISE 4.2
Solution. Let (X, Y) be the coordinates of P referred to the XY-axes. Here q = 300.
1. The two points P and O’ are given in xy-coordinate system. Find the XY-coordinates
From equations (3) above, we have
X=
5cos 30 + 7sin-30 and +Y =
of P refered to the translated axes O’X and O’Y.
P ( 3, 2 ) ; O ' (1, 3) P ( -2, 6 ) ; O ' ( -3, 2 )
5sin 30 7cos30
(i) (ii)
-5
+X = + =
P ( -6, - 8 ) ; O' ( -4, - 6 )
3 5 1 7
5 3 7 7 3
P , ; O ' - ,
or and Y
2 2 2 2
2 2 2 2 (iii) (iv)
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2. The xy-coordinate axes are translated through the point whose coordinates are Note: (i) If l is parallel to x-axis , then a = 0°
given in xy-coordinate system. The coordinates of P are given in the XY-coordinate (ii) If l is parallel to y-axis , then a = 90°
system. Find the coordinates of P in xy-coordinate system.
(i) P (8, 10); O’ (3, 4) (ii) P (-5, -3) ; O’ (-2 ,-6) Slope or gradient of a line: When we walk on
3 7 1 1
P - , - ; O ' , -
an inclined plane, we cover horizontal distance
4 6 4 6
(iii) (iv) P (4, -3); 0‘ (-2, 3) (run) as well as vertical distance (rise) at the same
time.
3. The xy-coordinate axes are rotated about the origin through the indicated angle. It is harder to climb a steeper inclined plane. The
The new axes are OX and OY. Find the XY-coordinates of the point P with the given measure of steepness (ratio of rise to the run) is
xy-coordinates.
P (5, 3 ); q = 450 (ii) P (3, -7); q = 300
termed as slope or gradient of the inclined path
(i) and is denoted by m .
( )
Find the xy-coordinates of P with the given XY-coordinates. If l is horizontal its slope is zero and if l is vertical then its slope is undeined.
(i) P(-5, 3); q = 300 (ii) P -7 2, 5 2 ; q =
45ο If 0 < a < 900, m is positive and if 900 < a < 1800, then m is negative
y2 - y1
Observe that the angle a in the diferent positions of the line l is a, 0 and 90 The slope or gradient of l is deined as: m = tan a =
x2 - x1
0 0 .
respectively.
version: 1.1 version: 1.1
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p
When 0 < a <
Theorem: The two lines l1 and l2 with respective Remember that:
Case (i). slopes m1 and m2 are
2 The symbol
In the right triangle PRQ , we have (i) stands for “parallel”.
(i) parallel if m1 = m2
y2 - y1
(ii) stands for “not parallel”.
= = a (iii) ⊥ stands for “perpendicular”.
x2 - x1 -1
perpendicular if m1 =
m tan
(ii)
m2
m1m2 + 1 =
p
<a <p
or 0
Case (ii) When
2
In the right triangle PRQ Example 1: Show that the points A(-3, 6), B(3, 2) and C(6, 0) are collinear.
y2 - y1
tan (p - a ) =
Solution: We know that the points A, B and C are collinear if Notice that:
x1 - x2 the line AB and BC have the same slopes. Here Slope of Slope of AB = slope of AC
y2 - y1
- tan a = 2-6 -4 -4 -2 0 - 2 -2
x1 - x2 = = = = and slope of=
BC =
3 - ( -3) 3 + 3 6
or
6-3 3
AB
y2 - y1 y2 - y1
3
tan a = m=
x2 - x1 x2 - x1
or or
a Slope of AB = Slope of BC
Thus if P ( x1 , y1 ) and Q ( x2 , y2 ) are two points on a line, then slope of PQ is given by:
Thus A, B and C are collinear.
Show that the triangle with vertices A (1, 1), B (4, 5) and C (12, -1) is a right
y2 - y1 y1 - y2
Example 2:
x2 - x1 x1 - x2
m or m triangle.
5 -1 4
= m= =
4 -1 3
Solution: Slope of AB 1
y2 - y1 y - y2 -1 - 5 -6 -3
m≠ and m ≠ 1 = m= = =
x1 - x2 x2 - x1 12 - 4 8
Note: (i) and Slope of BC 2
l is horizontal, if m = 0 (a a = 00)
4
4 3
Since m1m2 =
-- =1, therefore, AB ⊥ BC
(ii)
(iii) l is vertical, if m is not deined (a a = 900) 3 4
So ∆ABC is a right triangle.
(iv) If slope of AB = slope of BC, then the points A, B and C are collinear.
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4.3.2 Equation of a Straight Line Parallel to the x-axis Proof: Let P (x, y) be an arbitrary point of the straight line l with slope m and y-intercept
(or perpendicular to the y-axis) c. As C (0, c) and P (x, y) lie on the line, so the slope of the line is:
y-c
m= or y - c = mx and y = mx + c
x-0
is an equation of l .
The equation of the line for which
c = 0 is
y = mc
In this case the line passes through the origin.
( x+) =
• If a line intersects y-axis at (0, b), then b is called
+y =
1 4
y-intercept of the line. Thus or 6y x 8
6 3
1. Slope-Intercept form of Equation of a Straight Line: is the required equation.
Theorem: Equation of a non-vertical straight line with slope m and y-intercept c is 2. Point-slope Form of Equation of a Straight Line:
given by:
=
y mx + c
Theorem: Equation of a non-vertical straight line l with slope m and passing through a
point Q (x1 , y1) is
version: 1.1 version: 1.1
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y - y1= m ( x - x1 )
4. Two-point Form of Equation of a Straight Line:
y2 - y1 y2 - y1
( x - x1 ) or y= ( x - x2 )
the line is
y - y1 =
y - y1 - y2
m= or y - y1= m ( x - x1 ) x2 - x1 x2 - x1
x - x1
3. Symmetric Form of Equation of a Straight Line: Proof: Let P (x, y) be an arbitrary point of the line passing through Q (x1 , y1) and
y - y1
R (x2 , y2). So
= tan a , where a is the inclination of the line.
x - x1 y - y1 y - y2 y2 - y1
We have
= =
x - x1 x - x2 x2 - x1
(P, Q and R are collinear points)
x - x1 y - y1
or = = r ( say )
cos a sin a We take
y - y1 y2 - y1
=
This is called symmetric form of equation of the line.
x - x1 x2 - x1
y2 - y1
=
y - y1 ( x - x1 ) the required equation of the line PQ .
Example 2: Write down an equation of the straight line passing through (5, 1) and
parallel to a line passing through the points (0,-1), (7, -15).
x2 - x1
or
or ( y2 - y1 ) x - ( x2 - x1 ) y + ( x1 y2 - x2 y1 ) =
0
Solution: Let m be the slope of the required straight line, then
-15 - ( -1)
m=
x y 1
7-0 y1 1 = 0
(a Slopes of parallel lines are equal)
We may write this equation in determinant form as: x1
= -2 x2 y2 1
As the point (5, 1) lies on the required line having slope -2 so, by point-slope form of Note: (i) If x1 - x2, then the slope becomes undeined. So, the line is vertical.
equation of the straight line, we have
y2 - y1
y - (1) = -2(x - 5) (ii) y=
- y2 ( x - x2 ) can be derived similarly.
or y = -2x + 11 x2 - x1
or 2x + y - 11 = 0
is an equation of the required line.
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Example 3: Find an equation of line through the points (-2, 1) and (6, -4).
= + =1 - or
+
x y
2 -4
2x y 4 0
Solution: Using two-points form of the equation of straight line, the required equation is
which is the required equation.
-4 - 1
=
y -1 x - ( -2 )
6 - ( -2 ) Example 5: Find an equation of the line through the point
-5
( x + 2 ) or 5 x + 8 y +=
P(2, 3) which forms an isosceles triangle with the coordinate
or y=
-1 2 0 axes in the irst quadrant.
8
5. Intercept Form of Equation of a Straight Line: Solution: Let OAB be an isosceles triangle so
that the line AB passes through A = (a, 0) and
Theorem: Equation of a line whose non-zero x and B(0, a), where a is some positive real number.
a-0
y-intercepts are a and b respectively is
Slope of AB = = - 1 . But AB passes through P (2, 3).
+ =
x y 0-a
Equation of the line through P(2, 3) with slope -1 is
1
a b a
b-0
y=
-0 ( x - a) x cos a + y sin a =
0-a
(P, A and B are collinear) p
or -ay = b ( x - a )
or bx + ay = ab Proof: Let the line l meet the x-axis and y-axis at the
+ =
x y points A and B respectively. Let P (x, y) be an arbitrary
or 1 (dividing by ab) point of AB and let OR be perpendicular to the line l .
Then OR = p .
a b
Hence the result.
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[∴cos(90 - a ) =
sin a )]
Proof: Here a and b cannot be both zero. So the following cases arise:
Case I: a≠0 , b= 0
As OA and OB are the x and y-intercepts of the line AB, so equation of AB is
In this case equation (1) takes the form: Remember that:
+ = ax + c =0 or x =-
The equation (I) represents
p / cos a p / sin a
x y c
1 (Two-intercept form)
Solution. Here p = 5, a = 1200. In this case equation (1) takes the form:
bx + c = y=-
Equation of the line in normal form is c
x cos120 + y sin120 =
0 or
b
-c
5
⇒ - x+ y=
1 3 which is an equation of the straight line parallel to x-axis at a directed distance
5 b
from the x-axis.
⇒
2 2
x - 3 y + 10 =
0 (1) Case III: a≠0 , b≠0
In this case equation (1) takes the form:
To ind the slope of the line, we re-write (1) as:= +
x 10
-a
y
by =
- ax - c or y = x - =mx + c
3 3 c
which is slope-intercept form of the equation.
b b
Here=m =
1
and c
10 -a -c
3 3 which is the slope-intercept form of the straight line with slope and y-intercept
b b
.
4.3.5 A Linear Equation in two Variables Represents Thus the equation ax + by + c =0 , always represents a straight line.
a Straight Line
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-a -a -c
5. Intercept Form.
by =
- ax - c or y = x - =mx + c, where m = , c =
c
ax + by =
-c + = + 1 =
ax by x y
-c -c -c / a -c / b
b b b b or 1 i.e
2. Point - Slope Form
which is an equation in two intercepts form.
-a
We note from (1) above that slope o f the line ax + by + c =0 is . A point on the
b
-c
6. Normal Form.
line is ,0
a The equation: ax + by + c =0 (1)
-a c
= +
can be written in the normal form as:
b a
Equation of the line becomes y x
ax + by -c
=
which is in the point-slope form.
± a +b ± a +b
(2)
2 2 2 2
3. Symmetric Form
-a
The sign of the radical to be such that the right hand side of (2) is positive.
= = a == a , cos a
a b
± a 2 + b2 ± a 2 + b2
m tan . sin Proof. We know that an equation of a line in normal form is
x cos a + y sin a =
b
-c
A point on ax + by + c = 0 is ,0
p (3)
a If (1) and (3) are identical, we must have
Equation in the symmetric form becomes
-c
c = =
cos a sin a
a b
x --
a y-0
p
= = p cos a sin a cos 2 a + sin 2 a
b / ± a 2 + b2 a / ± a 2 + b2 = = = =
r 1
-c ± a 2 + b2 ± a 2 + b2
i.e.,
is the required transformed equation. Sign of the radical to be properly chosen. a b
=
= cos a sin a
a b
± a +b ± a 2 + b2
4. Two -Point Form Hence, and
-c -c ax + by -c
,0 and 0, . Equation of the line through these points is =
a b ± a 2 + b2 ± a 2 + b2
Thus (1) can be reduced to the form (2) by dividing it by ± a 2 + b 2 . The sign of the
x+
y-0 -a c
c
= =- y 0 + x
radical to be chosen so that the right hand side of (2) is positive.
b a
a
0+ - -0
i.e.,
c c
b a
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Example 1: Transform the equation 5x - 12y + 39 = 0 into Example 2: Sketch the line
(i) Slope intercept form. (ii) Two-intercept form. 3 x + 2 y + 6 =.
0 (1)
(iii) Normal form. (iv) Point-slope form.
(v) Two-point form. (vi) Symmetric form. Solution: To sketch the graph of (1), we ind two points on it.
If y = 0, x = -2 and if x = 0 , y = -3 .
Solution: Thus x intercept = -2
y intercept = -3
We have 12 y = +5 x 39 or = +x = , y-intercept c = The points A(-2, 0), B(0, -3) are on (1). Plot these points in the
5 39 5 39
(i) y ,m
12 12 12 12
5 x - 12-y =39 or + = 1 or + = 1 is the required equation.
5 x 12 y x y plane and draw the straight line through A and B. It is the graph
-39 39 -39 / 5 39 / 12
(ii) of (1).
(iii) 5 x - 12-y =39 . Divide both sides by ± 52 + 12±2 =13 . Since R.H.S is to be Example 3: Find the distance between the parallel lines
positive, we have to take negative sign. 2x + y + 2 =0 (1)
6x + 3y - 8 =
+ =
and 0 (2)
5 x 12 y
-13 13
Hence = 3 is the normal form of the equation. Sketch the lines. Also ind an equation of the line parallel to the given lines and lying midway
-39
between them.
A point on the line is ,0 and its slope is
5
(iv) .
5 12
5 39
Solution: We irst convert both the lines into normal form. (1) can be written as
Equation can be written as: y -= x+ 2x + y =-2
12 5
0
Dividing both sides by - 4 + 1 , we have
39 -39 39
Another point on the line is 0, . Line through ,0 and 0, is
12 5 12 -2 -y
(v)
x+ =
2
(3)
x+
y-0
39 5 5 5
=
39 -39
5 which is normal form of (1). Normal form of (2) is
0- -0
+ =
12 5 6x 3y 8
-39
We have tan a
= = m, sin a
= ,cos a
=
45 45 45
. A point of the line is ,0 .
5 5 12
5 + =
(vi) 2x y 8
12 13 13 i.e., (4)
5 5 3 5
Equation of the line in symmetric form is
x + 39 / 5 y - 0
= = r (say)
Length of the perpendicular from (0, 0) to the line (1) is [ From (3)]
12 / 13 5 / 13
8
Similarly, length of the perpendicular from (0, 0) to the line (2) is [From (4)]
3 5
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y1 - y′ > 0
opposite sides of the origin, so the distance between them
equals the sum of the two perpendicular lengths.
a c
y1 - - x1 - > 0
+ = b b
2 8 14 i.e.
i.e., Required distance =
⇒⇒ ax1 + by1 + c > 0
5 3 5 3 5
ax1 + by1 + c =
5 5 3 5
Corollary 1. The point P is above or below l respectively if ax1 + by1 + c and b have the
4.3.7 Position of a point with respect to a line
same sign or have opposite signs.
Consider a non-vertical line l
l : ax + by + c = ax1 + by1 + c
Proof. If P is above l , then y1 - y′ > 0 >0
0
i.e.,
in the xy-plane. Obviously, each point of the plane is either above b
Thus ax1 + by1 + c and b have the same sign.
the line or below the line or on the line.
ax1 + by1 + c
Theorem:
l y1 - y′ < 0 <0
l : ax + by + c =
i.e.,
b
Thus ax1 + by1 + c and b have opposite signs.
0 (1)
y′ =
- - x1
a c
b b
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1. Quadratic Equations eLearn.Punjab 1. Quadratic Equations eLearn.Punjab
4. Introduction to Analytic Geometry eLearn.Punjab 4. Introduction to Analytic Geometry eLearn.Punjab
⇔ - =- 2
a1 a
Solution: Here b = 5 is positive. Also b1 b2
4 (-2) + 5(4) - 3 = -8 + 20 - 3 = 9 > 0
⇔ - =- 2 ⇔ a1b2 - b1a2 =0
(2) a1 a
The coeicient of y in (1) and the expression (2) have the same sign and so the point b1 b2
l1 ⊥ l2 ⇔ m1m2 =-1
(-2, 4) lies above (1).
(ii)
Check whether the origin and the point P (5, -8) lie on the same side or on a a
⇔ - 1 - 2 =-1 ⇔ a1a2 + b1b2 =0
Example 2:
b1 b2
the opposite sides of the line:
3 x + 7 y + 15 =
0 (1)
(iii) If l1 and l2 are not related as in (i) and (ii), then there is no simple relation of the
Solution: above forms.
Here c = 15
For P (5, -8), 4.4.1 The Point of Intersection of two Straight Lines
3(5) + 7(-8) + 15 = -26 < 0
Let l1 : a1 x + b1 y + c1 =
(2)
0 (1)
and l2 : a2 x + b2 y + c2 =
But c = 15 >0
c and the expression (2) have opposite signs. Thus O (0, 0) and P (5, -8) are on the opposite 0 (2)
sides of (1). be two non-parallel lines. Then a1b2 - b1a2 ≠ 0
Let P( x1 , y1 ) be the point of intersection of l1 and l2 . Then
Note: To check whether a point P(x1 , y1) lies above or below the line a1 x1 + b1 y1 + c1 =
0 (3) Recall that:
ax + by + c = 0 a2 x1 + b2 y1 + c2 =0 (4) Two non-parallel lines
we make the co-eicient of y positive by multiplying the equation by (-1) if needed. Solving (3) and (4) simultaneously, we have intersect each other at
one and only one point.
= =
x1 y1 1
4.4 TWO AND THREE STRAIGHT LINES b1c2 - b2c1 a2c1 - a1c2 a1b2 - a2b1
b1c2 - b2c1 a2c1 - a1c2
=
=
a1b2 - a2b1 a1b2 - a2b1
For any two distinct lines l1 , l2 . x1 and y1
l1 : a1=
x + b1 y + c 0 and l2 : a2 x=+ b2 y + c 0 , one and only one of the
is the required point of intersection.
following holds: Recall that:
(i) l1 l2 (ii) l1 ⊥ l2 (iii) l1 and l2 are not related as (i) or (ii). Two non-parallel lines
intersect each other at Note: a1b2 - a2b1 ≠ 0, otherwise l1 l2 .
- m-1 =
=
a1 a2
The slopes of l1 and l2 are , m2 one and only one point.
b1 b2
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Examples 1: Find the point of intersection of the lines An easier way to write the above equation is in the following determinant form:
5x + 7 y =
35 (i)
3x - 7 y =
a1 b1 c1
21 (ii) a2 b2 c2 = 0
a3 b3 c3
Solution: We note that the lines are not parallel and so they Remember that:
This is a necessary and suicient condition of concurrency of the given three lines.
must intersect at a point. Adding (i) and (ii), we have * If the lines are parallel,
4.4.2 Condition of Concurrency of Three Straight Lines Solution. The determinant of the coeicients of the given equations is
-4 - 3 18 32
1 ,by R1 + 3R2
3 0
1 = 5
Three non-parallel lines
l1 : a1 x + b1 y + c1 = 5 12 12
- 17 117 208
(1)
0 and R3 + 17 R2
0
l2 : a2 x + b2 y + c2 =
0 (2) 32 4
l3 : a3 x + b3 y + c3 =
=
-1 - ( 208 × 18 - 117 × 32 ) =
=
0 (3) 18 32
0
117 208
a1 b1 c1 Thus the lines are concurrent.
are concurrent if a2 b2 c2 = 0 The point of intersection of any two lines is the required point
a3 b3 c3 of concurrency. From (1) and (2), we have
= =
x y 1
-4 + 36 -15 - 3 36 + 20
P ( x1 , y1 ) say. As l1 l2 , so their point of intersection ( x, y ) is
Proof: If the lines are concurrent then they have a common point of intersection
-18 -9 4 -9
=x = and = = i.e. ,
32 4
b1c2 - b2c1 a2c1 - a1c2 7 28
y
=
=
56 7 56 28
a1b2 - a2b1 a1b2 - a2b1
x and y is the point of intersection.
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l1 : a1 x + b1 y + c1 =
3+ k -2
Do you remember?
- = or 9 + 3k = - 8 + 4k i.e., k = 17
Let 0 (1)
and l2 : a2 x + b2 y + c2 =
0 (2) An ininite number of
- 4 + 2k
Substituting k = 17 into (3), equation of the member of the family is
3
lines can pass through
a1 x + b1 y + c1 + h ( a2 x + b2 y + c2 ) =
For a non-zero real h, consider the equation
20 x + 30 y - 180 = 0 i.e., 2 x + 3 y - 18 =
a point
0 (3) 0
This, being a linear equation, represents a straight line. For diferent values of h, (3) (ii) Slope of 3 x - 4 y + 1 =0 (4)
represents diferent lines. Thus (3) is a family of lines.
. Since (3) is to be perpendicular to (4), we have - 3 + k × 3 =- 1
3
- 4 + 2k
is
or 9 + 3k =- 16 + 8k k =5
If ( x1 , y1 ) is any point lying on both (1) and (2), then it is their point of intersection. Since 4 4
or
Inserting this value of k into (3), we get 4 x + 3 y - 30 =
(x1 , y1) lies on both (1) and (2), we have
a1 x= + b1 y + c1 0=
+ and+ a2 x b2 y c2 0 0 which is required equation of
From the above two equations, we note that ( x1 , y1 ) also lies on (3). the line.
Thus (3) is the required family of lines through the point of intersection of (1) and (2).
Since h can assume an ininite number of values, (3) represents an ininite number of lines. Theorem: Altitudes of a triangle are concurrent.
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x2 - x3 y2 - y3 - ( y2 2 - y32 ) - ( x2 2 - x32 )
Adding 2nd and 3rd rows to the 1st row of the determihant, we have 1 1
2 2
x3 - x1 y3 - y1 - ( y32 - y12 ) - ( x32 - x12 )
1 1
0 0 0 = 0
x3 - x1 y3 - y1 - x2 ( x3 - x1 ) - y2 ( y3 - y1 ) =
2 2
x1 - x2 y1 - y2 - ( y12 - y2 2 ) - ( x12 - x2 2 )
0
x1 - x2 y1 - y2 - x3 ( x1 - x2 ) - y3 ( y1 - y2 )
1 1
2 2
Thus the altitudes of a triangle are concurrent.
Adding 2nd and 3rd rows to 1st row of the determinant, we have
x2 + x3 y2 + y3
Thus the right bisectors of a triangle are concurrent.
2 2
,
y - y3 x -x
, the slope of the right bisector DO of BC is - 2 3
Note: If equations of sides of the triangle are given, then intersection of any two lines
x2 - x3 y2 - y3
Since the slope of BC is 2 gives a vertex of the triangle.
ax1 + by1 + c
2 2
is given by d =
a 2 + b2
By symmetry, equations of the other two right bisectors EO and FO are respectively:
The lines (1), (2) and (3) will be concurrent if and only if Let the ordinate of Q be y2 so that
coordinates of Q are ( x1 , y2 ) . Since Q lies on
l , we have ax1 + by2 + c =0
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4. Introduction to Analytic Geometry eLearn.Punjab 4. Introduction to Analytic Geometry eLearn.Punjab
Solution: First ind any point on one of the lines, say l1 . If x = 1 Challenge!
-ax1 - c
or y2 = lies on l1 , then Check the answer by
PM = d= PQ cos a= y1 - y2 cos a
29
Thus
-ax1 - c
= y1 -
b 4.4.6 Area of a Triangular Region Whose Vertices are Given
a 2 + b2
.
b
by1 + ax1 + c ax1 + by1 + c To ind the area of a triangular region whose vertices are:
=
=
b a 2 + b2 a 2 + b2
.b P ( x1 , y1 ) , Q( x2 , y2 ) and R ( x3 , y3 ) .
( )( ) ( )( ) ( )( )
b
-c ax1 + c
==
Similarly, if the line is vertical and has equation: x then d 1
=
PL + RM LM +
1
RM + QN MN -
1
PL + QN LN
a a 2 2 2
= [( y1 + y3 )( x3 - x1 )+ ( y3+ y2 )( x2- x3 )- ( y1+ y2 )( x2- x1 )]
Note:
If the point P( x1 , y1 ) lies on l , then the distance d is zero, sinceP ( x1 , y1 ) satisies the 1
equation i.e., ax1 + by1 + c = 0 2
= ( x3 y1 + x3 y3 - x1 y1 + x1 y3 + x2 y3 + x2 y2 - x3 y3 - x2 y1 - x2 y2 + x1 y1 + x1 y2 )
1
= ( x3 y1 - x1 y3 + x2 y3 - x3 y2 - x2 y1 + x1 y2 )
2
4.4.5 Distance Between two Parallel Lines 1
Have you observed that:
2
Thus required area A is given by: x1 y1 1
∆ = x2 y2 1
The distance between two parallel lines is the distance from any point on one of the 1
=∆ [ x1 ( y2 - y3 ) + x2 ( y3 - y1 ) + x3 ( y1 - y2 )]
lines to the other line. 2
1
x3 y3 1
2
Example: Find the distance between the parallel lines
l :2 x - 5 y + 13 =0 and Corollary: If the points P,Q and R are collinear, then
l2 :2 x - 5 y + 6 =0 ∆ =0
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4. Introduction to Analytic Geometry eLearn.Punjab 4. Introduction to Analytic Geometry eLearn.Punjab
Note: In numerical problems, if sign of the area is negative, then it is to be omitted. EXERCISE 4.3
Example 1: Find the area of the region bounded by the triangle with vertices (a,b + c ) , 1. Find the slope and inclination o f the line joining the points:
(a , b - c) and (-a , c). (3, -2) ; (2, 7)
Solution: Required area ∆ is
(i) (-2, 4) ; (5, 11) (ii) (iii) (4, 6) ; (4, 8)
a b+c 1
Sketch each line in the plane.
In the triangle A (8, 6) B (-4, 2), C (-2 , -6) , ind the slope of
=∆ a b-c 1
1 Trapezium: 2.
-a
2 A quadrilateral having two parallel and two (i) each side of the triangle
c 1
a b+c 1
non-parallel sides. (ii) each median of the triangle
- = -0 ,by R2
Area of trapezoidal region:
1 (iii) each altitude of the triangle.
0 2c R1
-a c
2 1
1 (sum of sides) (distance between sides) 3. By means of slopes, show that the following points lie on the same line:
(a) (-1, -3) ; (1, 5) ; (2, 9)
2
(b) (4 ,-5) ; (7, 5) ; (10, 15)
= [-2c(a + a )] , expanding by the second row (d) (a, 2b): (c, a + b); (2c - a, 2a)
1
(c) (-4, 6) ; (3, 8) ; (10, 10)
= -2ca Find k so that the line joining A (7, 3); B (k, -6) and the line joining C (-4, 5) ; D (-6, 4)
2
Thus ∆ = 2ca
4.
are (i) parallel (ii) perpendicular.
5. Using slopes, show that the triangle with its vertices A (6, 1), B (2, 7) and C (-6, -7) is a
Example 2: By considering the area of the region bounded by the triangle with vertices
right triangle.
A (1, 4), B (2, - 3) and C (3, - 10)
check whether the three points are collinear or not. 6. The three points A (7, -1), B (-2, 2) and C (1, 4) are consecutive vertices of a
parallelogram. Find the fourth vertex.
Solution: Area ∆ of the region bounded by the triangle ABC is
7. The points A (-1, 2), B (3, -1) and C (6, 3) are consecutive vertices
1 4 1 1 4 1 of a rhombus. Find the fourth vertex and show that the diagonals of the rhombus
=
∆ 2 - 3 1= 1 - 7 0 by R2 - R1 and R3 - R1
1 1 are perpendicular to each other.
3 - 10 1 3 - 14 0
2 2 8. Two pairs of points are given. Find whether the two lines determined by these points
are :
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(c) the line bisecting the irst and third quadrants. 18. A house was purchased for Rs.1 million in 1980. It is worth Rs. 4 million in 1996.
(d) the line bisecting the second and fourth quadrants. Assuming that the value increased by the same amount each year, ind an equation
that gives the value of the house after t years of the date of purchase. What was its
10. Find an equation of the line
value in 1990?
(a) through A (-6, 5) having slope 7
through (8, -3) having slope 0
19. Plot the Celsius (C) and Fahrenheit (F) temperature scales on the horizontal axis
(b) and the vertical axis respectively. Draw the line joining the freezing point and the
(c) through (-8 , 5) having slope undeined boiling point of water. Find an equation giving F temperature in terms of C.
(d) through (-5, -3) and (9, -1)
(e) y-intercept: -7 and slope: -5 20. The average entry test score of engineering candidates was 592 in the year 1998
11. Find an equation of the perpendicular bisector of the segment joining the points 21. Convert each of the following equation into
A (3 ,5) and B (9, 8). (i) Slope intercept form (ii) two intercept form (iii) normal form
12. Find equations of the sides, altitudes and medians of the triangle whose vertices are (a) 2 x - 4 y + 11 =
0 (b) 4 x + 7 y - 2 =0 (c) 15 y - 8 x + 13 =
0
A (-3, 2), B (5, 4) and C (3, -8). Also ind the length of the perpendicular from (0, 0) to each line.
13. Find an equation of the line through (-4, -6) and perpendicular to a line having
-3
22. In each of the following check whether the two lines are
slope (i) parallel
2
Find an equation of the line through (11, -5) and parallel to a line with slope -24.
(ii) perpendicular
14.
The points A (-1, 2), B (6, 3) and C (2, -4) are vertices of a triangle.
(iii) neither parallel nor perpendicular
=
2x + y - 3 0 4=
x + 2y + 5 0
15.
(a) ;
3y = 2x + 5 3 x+ 2 y- 8= 0
Show that the line joining the midpoint D of AB and the midpoint E of AC is parallel
(b) ;
to BC and DE =
1 (c) 4 y=+ 2x - 1 0 ; x= - 2y - 7 0
=
4x - y + 2=
0- ;+ 12 x 3 y 1 0
BC .
2 (d)
12 x + 35=
y-7 0 ; 105 x - 36=
y + 11 0
16. A milkman can sell 560 litres of milk at Rs. 12.50 per litre and 700 litres of milk at Rs.
(e)
12.00 per litre. Assuming the graph of the sale price and the milk sold to be a straight
line, ind the number of litres of milk that the milkman can sell at Rs. 12.25 per litre.
23. Find the distance between the given parallel lines. Sketch the lines. Also ind an
17. The population of Pakistan to the nearest million was 60 million in 1961 and
equation of the parallel line lying midway between them.
3x =
- 4y + 3 0 3x -
= 4y + 7 0
95 million in 1981. Using t as the number of years after 1961, ind an equation of
(a) ;
12 x=
+ 5y - 6 0 12 x +=
5 y + 13 0
the line that gives the population in terms of t. Use this equation to ind the
(b) ;
(c) =
x + 2y=
-5 0+ ;
population in (a) 1947 (b) 1997.
2x 4 y 1
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24. Find an equation of the line through (-4, 7) and parallel to the line 2 x - 7 y + 4 =.
0 Theorem: Let l1 and l2 be two non-vertical lines such that they are not perpendicular
25. Find an equation of the line through (5, -8) and perpendicular to the join of A (-15, -8), to each other. If m1 and m2 are the slopes of l1 and l2 respectively: the angle q from l1 to l2 is
B (10, 7). given by;
26. Find equations of two parallel lines perpendicular to 2 x - y + 3 = 0 such that the
m2 - m1
tan q =
product of the x-and y-intercepts of each is 3.
27. One vertex of a parallelogram is (1, 4); the diagonals intersect at (2, 1) and the sides 1 + m1m2
-1
have slopes 1 and . Find the other three vertices. Proof: From the igure, we have
7
a= a1 + q
q= a 2 - a1
28. Find whether the given point lies above or below the given line 2
(a) (5, 8) ; 2 x - 3 y + 6 = 0 or
(b) (-7, 6) ; 4 x + 3 y - 9 =0
29. Check whether the given points are on the same or opposite sides of the given line.
(a) (0, 0) and (-4, 7) ; 6 x - 7 y + 70 =
tan a 2 - tan a1 m2 - m1
∴ tan q = tan(a 2 - a1 ) = =
0
(b) (2, 3) and (-2, 3) ; 3 x - 5 y + 8 =
1 + tan a1 tan a 2 1 + m1m2
0
30. Find the distance from the point P(6, -1) to the line 6x - 4y + 9 = 0.
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5 -7
-
4.5.1 Equation of a Straight Line in Matrix form
2 3
tan q = = = -1
5 -7 -29
29
1+
2 3
It is easy to solve two or three simultaneous linear equations by elementary methods.
If the number of equations and variables become large, the solution of the equations by
Thus q = 135
ordinary method becomes very diicult. In such a case, given equations are written in matrix
form and solved.
[ ax + by ] =
[ -c ]
in two variables x and y has its matrix form as:
Solution: Let the slopes of the sides AB, BC and CA
x
[ a b] = [ -c ]
be denoted by mc , ma , mb respectively. Then
4 + 1 -5 -5 + 1 -4 -5 - 4 -3
= = = = = = y
or
-5 + 2 3 7+2 7+5
mc , ma , mb
9 4
or AX= C
Now angle A is measured from AB to AC.
-3 5 x
mb - mc
+ A= [ a b] , X = and C = [ -c ]
=
tan A == = y
where
-3 -5
11
1 + mb mc
4 3 22.2
1 +
or m A
27
4 3
A System of Two Linear Equations:
The angle B is measured from BC to BA
-5 4
+
A system of two linear equations
mc - ma -33
∴ tan B = = = or m B = 144.9 l1 : a1 x + b1 y + c =0
1 + mc ma -5 -4
3 9
1 +
l : a2 x + b2 y + c = 0
47
3 9
(2)
The angle C is measured from CA to CB. in two variables x and y can be written in matrix form as:
-4 3
+ a1 x + b1 y -c1
ma - mb
∴ tan A = = = or m C = 12.9 a x + b y = -c
-4 -3
11
1 + ma mb 2 2 2
9 4
1 +
48
9 4 a1 b1 x -c1
a y = -c
2 2 2
or (3)
b
or AX=C
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a1 b1 x -c1 3 4 - 7 x 0
== 2 - 5 8 y = 0
A
a2 b2 y
-c
2
where , X and C =
l1 : a1 x + b1 y + c1 =
0
1
l2 : a2 x + b2 y + c2 =0
l3 : a3 x + b3 y + c3 =0
(5) As A is non-singular, so the lines are not concurrent.
in two variables y and y takes the matrix form as Example 2: Find a system of linear equations corresponding to the matrix form
a1 x + b1 y + c1 0
a x + b y + c = 0 1 5 x 0
2 2 3 1 y = 0
2
a3 x + b3 y + c3 0
2
5
4 6 1 0
(1)
7
a1 c1 x 0
a c2 y = 0
b1
Are the lines represented by the system concurrent?
or 2 b2
a3 b3 c3 1 0 Solution: Multiplying the matrices on the L.H.S. of (1), we have
x + 2 y + 5 0
3 x + 5 y + 1 = 0
If the matrix
a1 b1 c1
a c2 is singular, then the lines (5) are concurrent
(2)
2 b2 4 x + 7 y + 6 0
a3 b3 c3 and so the system (5) has a unique solution. By using the deinition of equality of two matrices, we have from (2),
x + 2y + 5 = 0
3x + 5 y + 1 =0
Example 1: Express the system
3x + 4 y - 7 =0 4x + 7 y + 6 =0
2x - 5 y + 8 =0
x+ y -3= 0
as the required system of equations. The coeicient matrix A of the system is such that
1 2 5 1 2 5
in matrix form and check whether the three lines are concurrent det A = 3 5 1 = 0 - 1 - 14 = 0
4 7 6 0 - 1 - 14
Solution. The matrix form of the system is
Thus the lines of the system are concurrent.
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9. Find the coordinates of the vertices of the triangle formed by the lines
x - 2y - 6 = 3x - y + 3 = 2x + y - 4 =
EXERCISE 4.4
0; 0; 0
1. Find the point of intersection of the lines Also ind measures of the angles of the triangle.
(i) = x - 2 y=
+ 1 0- +and 2x y 2 0 10. Find the angle measured from the line l1 to the line l2 where
=
3 x + y + 12=
0+ and
-
l1 : Joining ( 2 , 7 ) and ( 7 , 10 )
(ii) x 2y 1 0
(iii) =
x + 4 y - 12 =
0 - and
+
l2 : Joining (1, 1) and ( -5, 3)
x 3y 3 0 (a)
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Let y = m1 x and y = m2 x be two lines passing through the origin. Their joint equation is:
16. Express the given system of equations in matrix form. Find in each case whether
( y - m1 x )( y - m2 x ) =
the lines are concurrent.
x + 3y - 2 = 2x - y + 4 = x - 11 y + 14 =
y 2 - ( m1 + m2 ) xy + m1m2 x
0
=
(a) 0; 0; 0
2x + 3y + 4 = x - 2y - 3 = 3x + y - 8 =
or 2
0 (5)
(b) 0; 0; 0
3x - 4 y - 2 = x + 2y - 4 = 3x - 2 y + 5 =
Equation (5) is a special type of a second degree homogeneous equation.
(c) 0; 0; 0.
17. Find a system of linear equations corresponding to the given matrix form. Check
whether the lines represented by the system are concurrent. 4.6.1 Homogeneous Equation
1 0 - 1 x 0 1 2 x 0 Let f ( x, y ) = 0 (1)
2 0 1 y = 0 2 4 - 3 y = 0
1
(a) (b) be any equation in the variables x and y. Equation (1) is called a homogeneous equation
0 - 1 6 1 0 3 6 - 5 1 0 of degree n (a positive integer) if
f ( kx,ky ) = k n f ( x, y )
4.6 HOMOGENEOUS EQUATION OF THE for some real number k.
SECOND DEGREE IN TWO VARIABLES For example, in equation (5) above if we replace x and y by kx and ky respectively, we
have
k 2 y 2 - k 2 ( m1 + m2 ) xy + k 2 m1m2 x 2 =
We have already seen that if a graph is a straight line, then its equation is a linear
k 2 y 2 - ( m1 + m=
2 ) xy = k 2 f ( x, y ) 0
0
+ m1m2 x 2 0 i.e.,
equation in the variables x and y. Conversely, the graph of any linear equation in x and y is a
or
straight line.
Suppose we have two straight lines represented by Thus (5) is a homogeneous equation of degree 2.
a1 x + b1 y + c1 =
0 (1) ax 2 + 2hxy + by 2 =
0
a2 x + b2 y + c2 =
A general second degree homogeneous equation can be written as:
and 0 (2)
ax 2 + 2hxy + by 2 =
0
( a1x + b1 y + c1 )( a2 x + b2 y + c2 ) =
Multiplying equations (1) and (2), we have
provided a, h and b are not simultaneously zero.
0 (3)
It is a second degree equation in x and y.
Theorem: Every homogenous second degree equation
ax 2 + 2hxy + by 2 =
Equation (3) is called joint equation of the pair of lines (1) and (2). On the other hand,
given an equation of the second degree in x and y, say 0 (1)
ax 2 + 2hxy + by 2 + 2 gx + 2 fy + c =
represents a pair of lines through the origin. The lines are
real and distinct, if h 2 > ab
0 (4)
where a ≠ 0 , represents equations of a pair of lines if (4) can be resolved into two linear
(i) (ii) real and coincident, if h ab
factors. In this section, we shall study special joint equations of pairs of lines which pass (iii) imaginary, if h 2 < ab
through the origin.
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Proof: Multiplying (1) by b and re-arranging the terms, we have 4.6.2 To ind measure of the angle between the lines
b 2 y 2 + 2bhxy + abx 2 =
0 represented by
b 2 y 2 + 2bhxy + h 2 x 2 - h 2 x 2 + abx 2 =
- x 2 ( h 2 - ab ) =
ax 2 + 2hxy + by 2 =
or 0
( by + hx )
0 (1)
(by + hx + x )( ) ( )
2
or 0 We have already seen that the lines represented by (1) are
h 2 - ab by + hx - x h 2 - ab = by + x h + h 2 - ab =
by + x ( h - h - ab ) =
or 0 0 (2)
( )
Thus (1) represents a pair of lines whose equations are: 2
and 0 (3)
by + x h + h 2 - ab =
by + x ( h - h - ab ) = ( ), ( )
0 (2) Now slopes of (2) and (3) are respectively given by:
- h + h 2 - ab - h - h 2 - ab
=
=
2
and 0 (3)
m1 and m2
Clearly, the lines (2) and (3) are b b
(i) real and distinct if h 2 > ab . (ii) real and coincident, if h 2 = ab . -2h
= = , m1 + m2
a
(iii) imaginary, if h 2 < ab .
Therefore and m1m2
b b
It is interesting to note that even in case the lines are imaginary, they intersect in a real If q is measure of the angle between the lines (2) and (3), then
point viz (0, 0) since this point lies on their joint equation (1).
m1 - m2 ( m1 + m2 ) - 4m1m2 -
2 h 2 - ab
4h 2 4a
tanq =
Example: Find an equation of each of the lines represented by
20 x 2 + 17 xy - 24 y 2 = = = =
2
2
y y
is the condition for the lines to be coincident.
24 - 17 - 20 = If the lines are orthogonal, then q = 90 , so that tan q is not deined. This implies
2
x x
0
y 17 ± 289 + 1920 17 ± 47 4 -5
a + b = 0. Hence the condition for (1) to represent a pair of orthogonal (perpendicular)
⇒ = = = , lines is that sum of the coeicients of x2 and y2 is 0.
x 48 48 3 8
-5
⇒ y= y=
4 Example 1: Find measure of the angle between the lines represented by
x 2 - xy - 6 y 2 =
x and x
⇒ 4x - 3y = 5x + 8 y =
3 8 0
0 and 0
Solution. Here a- ==
1-, h= , b
1
6
2
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+6
2 h - ab
1
tanq = = =-1 ⇒ q =135
2
x 2 + 2 xy sec a + y 2 =
2
a+b -5
4
6. 0
Acute angle between the lines =180° - q = 180° - 135° = 45°
7. Find a joint equation of the lines through the origin and perpendicular to
Example2: Find a joint equation of the straight lines through the origin perpendicular the lines:
to the lines represented by x 2 - 2 xy tan a - y 2 =
0
x 2 + xy - 6 y 2 =
0 (1)
8. Find a joint equation of the lines through the origin and perpendicular to the
lines:
( x - 2 y )( x + 3 y ) =
Solution: (1) may be written as
0 ax 2 + 2hxy + by 2 =
0
Thus the lines represented by (1) are
x - 2y =0 (2) 9. Find the area of the region bounded by:
and x + 3y =0 (3) 10 x 2 - xy=
- 21 y 2 0 and =
x + y +1 0
The line through (0, 0) and perpendicular to (2) is
y-=2 x or +y 2=x 0 (4)
Similarly, the line through (0, 0) and perpendicular to (3) is
= =y 3 x - or y 3x 0 (5)
( y + 2 x=
)( y - 3x )
Joint equation of the lines (4) and (5) is
0 or y2 -
= xy - 6 x 2 0
EXERCISE 4.5
Find the lines represented by each of the following and also ind measure of the,
angle between them (Problems 1-6):
1. 10 x 2 - 23 xy - 5 y 2 =
0
2. 3 x 2 + 7 xy + 2 y 2 =
0
3. 9 x 2 + 24 xy + 16 y 2 =
0
4. 2 x 2 + 3 xy - 5 y 2 =
0
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CHAPTER
5.1 INTRODUCTION
Fig. 5.21
Many real life problems involve linear inequalities. Here we shall consider those We conclude that the solution set of an inequality consists of all solutions of the
problems (relating to trade, industry and agriculture etc.) which involve systems of linear inequality.
inequalities in two variables. Linear inequalities in such problems are used to prescribe
limitations or restrictions on allocation of available resources (material, capital, machine 5.2.1 Graphing of A Linear Inequality in Two Variables
capacities, labour hours, land etc.). In this chapter, our main goal will be to optimize
(maximize or minimize) a quantity under consideration subject to certain restrictions. Generally a linear inequality in two variables x and y can be one of the following forms:
The method under our discussion is called the linear programming method and it ax + by < c ; ax + by > c ; ax + by 7 c ; ax + by 8 c
involves solutions of certain linear inequalities. where a, b, c are constants and a, b are not both zero.
We know that the graph of linear equation of the form
5.2 LINEAR INEQUALITIES ax + by = c is a line which divides the plane into two disjoint regions as stated below:
(1) The set of ordered pairs (x, y) such that ax + by < c
Inequalities are expressed by the following four symbols; (2) The set of ordered pairs (x, y) such that ax + by > c
> (greater than); < (less than); 8 (greater than or equal to); 7 (less than or equal to) The regions (1) and (2) are called half planes and the line
For example (i) ax < b (ii) ax + b 8 c (iii) ax + by > c (iv) ax + by 7 c are ax + by = c is called the boundary of each half plane.
inequalities. Inequalities (i) and (ii) are in one variable while inequalities (iii) and (iv) are in Note that a vertical line divides the plane into left and right half planes while a non-
two variables. vertical line divides the plane into upper and lower half planes.
The following operations will not afect the order (or sense) of inequality while changing A solution of a linear inequality in x and y is an ordered pair of numbers which satisies
it to simpler equivalent form: the inequality.
(i) Adding or subtracting a constant to each side of it. For example, the ordered pair (1, 1) is a solution of the inequality x + 2y < 6 because
(ii) Multiplying or dividing each side of it by a positive constant. 1 + 2(1) = 3 < 6 which is true.
Note that the order (or sense) of an inequality is changed by multiplying or dividing its There are ininitely many ordered pairs that satisfy the inequality x + 2y < 6, so its graph
each side by a negative constant. will be a half plane.
Note that the linear equation ax + by = c is called “associated or corresponding
Now for revision we consider inequality, x <
3
(A) equation” of each of the above mentioned inequalities.
2
All real numbers <
3
are in the solution set of (A). Procedure for Graphing a linear Inequality in two Variables
2
3
(i) The corresponding equation of the inequality is irst graphed by using ‘dashes’ if the
Thus the interval - ∞, or - ∞ < x <
3
2
is the solution set of the inequality involves the symbols > or < and a solid line is drawn if the inequality involves
2
the symbols 8 or 7.
inequality (A) which is shown in the igure 5.21 (ii) A test point (not on the graph of the corresponding equation) is chosen which
determines that the half plane is on which side of the boundary line.
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Example 2. Graph the solution region for the following system of inequalities: Example 3. Graph the following systems of inequalities.
x - 2y 7 6, 2x + y > 2, x + 2y 8 1 0
(i) 2x + y 8 2 (ii) 2x + y 8 2 (iii) 2x + y 8 2
x + 2y 7 10 x + 2y 7 10 x + 2y 7 10
Solution: The graph of the inequalities x - 2y 7 6 and y80 x80 x 8 0, y 8 0
2x + y 8 2 have already drawn in igure 5.31(a) and
5.31(b) and their intersection is partially shown as a Solution:
shaded region in igure 5.31(c) of the example 1 Art (i) The corresponding equations of the inequalities
(5.3). Following the procedure of the example 1 of Art 2x + y 8 2 and x + 2y 7 10 are
(5.3) the graph of the inequality x + 2y 7 10 is shown 2x + y = 2 (I) and x + 2y = 10 (II)
partially in the igure 5.32(a). For the partial graph of 2x + y 8 2 see igure 5.31(b) of the example 1 and the graph of
the inequality x + 2y 7 10 is partially shown in igure 5.32(a) of the example 2.
The intersection of three graphs is the required The solution region of the inequalities
solution region which is the shaded triangular region 2x + y 8 2 and x + 2y 7 10 is the intersection of their
PQR (including its sides) shown partially in the igure individual graphs. The common region of the graphs
5.32(b). of inequalities is partially shown as a shaded region in
igure 5.33(a).
Now we deine a corner point of a solution region.
DEFINITION:
A point of a solution region where two of its boundary lines intersect, is called a
corner point or vertex of the solution region.
The graph of y 8 0 is the upper half plane
Such points play a useful role while solving linear programming problems. In example
including the graph of the corresponding line y = 0
2, the following three corner points are obtained by corresponding equations (of linear
(the x-axis) of the linear inequality y 8 0. The graph of
inequalities given in the example 2) in pairs.
y 8 0 is partially displayed in igure 5.33(b).
Corresponding lines of inequalities: Corner Points
x - 2y = 6, 2x + y = 2 P(2, -2)
x - 2y = 6, x + 2y = 10 Q(8, 1)
2x + y = 2, x + 2y = 10 R(-2, 6)
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The solution region of the system of (iii) The graphs of the system of inequalities in (iii)
inequalities in (i) is the intersection of the graphs are drawn in the solution of (i) and (ii). The solution
shown in igure 5.33(a) and 5.33(b). This solution region in this case, is shown as shaded region ABCD
region is displayed in igure 5.33(c). in igure 5.34. (c).
(ii) See igure 5.33(a) for the graphs of the inequalities 2x + y 8 2 and x + 2y 7 10.
EXERCISE 5.1
1. Graph the solution set of each of the following linear inequality in xy-plane:
(i) 2x + y 7 6 (ii) 3x + 7y 8 21 (iii) 3x - 2y 8 6
The graph of x 8 0 consists of the open (iv) 5x - 4y 7 20 (v) 2x + 1 8 0 (vi) 3y - 4 7 0
half-plane to the right of the corresponding line 2. Indicate the solution set of the following systems of linear inequalities
x = 0 (y-axis) of the inequality x 8 0 and its graph. by shading:
See igure 5.34(a). (i) 2x - 3y 7 6 (ii) x + y 8 5 (iii) 3x + 7y 8 21
2x + 3y 7 12 -y + x 7 1 x-y72
(iv) 4x - 3y 7 12 (v) 3x + 7y 8 21
x ≥ -
3
y74
2
3. Indicate the solution region of the following systems of linear inequalities
Thus the solution region of the inequalities in by shading:
(ii) is partially shown in igure 5.34(b). This region (i) 2x - 3y 7 6 (ii) x + y 7 5 (iii) x + y 8 5
is the intersection of graphs in igure 5.33(a) and 2x + 3y 7 12 y - 2x 7 2 x-y81
5.34(a). y80 x80 y80
(iv) 3x + 7y 7 21 (v) 3x + 7y 7 21 (vi) 3x + 7y 7 21
x-y72 x-y72 2x - y 8 -3
x80 y80 x80
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4. Graph the solution region of the following system of linear inequalities and It is the polygonal region ABCDE (including its sides)
ind the corner points in each case. as shown in the igure 5.51.
(i) 2x - 3y 7 6 (ii) x + y 7 5 (iii) 3x + 7y 7 21
2x + 3y 7 12 -2x + y 7 2 2x - y 7 -3 Such a region (which is restricted to the irst
x80 y80 y80 quadrant) is referred to as a feasible region for the set
(iv) 3x + 2y 8 6 (v) 5x + 7y 7 35 (vi) 5x + 7y 7 35 of given constraints. Each point of the feasible region
x + 3y 7 6 -x + 3y 7 3 x - 2y 7 2 is called a feasible solution of the system of linear
y80 x80 x80 inequalities (or for the set of a given constraints). A set
5. Graph the solution region of the following system of linear inequalities consisting of all the feasible solutions of the system of
by shading. linear inequalities is called a feasible solution set.
(i) 3x - 4y 7 12 (ii) 3x - 4y 7 12 (iii) 2x + y 7 4
3x + 2y 8 3 x + 2y 7 6 2x - 3y 8 12 Example 1. Graph the feasible region and ind the corner points for the following
x + 2y 7 9 x+y81 x + 2y 7 6 system of inequalities (or subject to the following constraints).
(iv) 2x + y 7 10 (v) 2x + 3y 7 18 (vi) 3x - 2y 8 3 x-y73
x+y77 2x + y 7 10 x + 4y 7 12 x + 2y 7 6 , x 8 0, y80
-2x + y 7 4 -2x + y 7 2 3x + y 7 12
Solution: The associated equations for the inequalities
5.4 PROBLEM CONSTRAINTS x - y 7 3 (i) and x + 2y 7 6 (ii)
are x - y = 3 (1) and x + 2y = 6 (2)
As the point (3, 0) and (0, -3) are on the line (1),
so the graph of x - y = 3 is drawn by joining the points
In the beginning we described that linear inequalities prescribe limitations and
5.5 Feasible solution set so both the ciosed half-planes are on the origin
sides of the lines (1) and (2). The intersection of these
We see that solution region of the inequalities in example 2 of Art 5.3 is not within the closed half-planes is partially displayed as shaded
irst quadrant. If the nonnegative constraints x 8 0 and y 8 0 are included with the system of region in igure 5.52(a).
inequalities given in the example 2, then the solution region is restricted to the irst quadrant.
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Example 2. A manufacturer wants to make two types of concrete. Each bag of Agrade
concrete contains 8 kilograms of gravel (small pebbles with coarse sand) and 4 kilograms of
cement while each bag of B-grade concrete contains 12 kilograms of gravel and two kilograms
For the graph of y 8 0, see igure 5.33(b) of cement. If there are 1920 kilograms of gravel and 480 kilograms of cement, then graph
of the example 3 of art 5.3. the feasible region under the given restrictions and ind corner points of the feasible region.
The intersection of graphs shown in Solution: Let x be the number of bags of A-grade concrete produced and y denote the
igures 5.52(a) and 5.33(b) is partially graphed number of bags of B-grade concrete produced, then 8x kilograms of gravel will be used
as shaded region in igure 5.52(b). for A-grade concrete and 12y kilograms of gravel will be required for B-grade concretes so
8x + 12y should not exceed 1920, that is,
8x + 12y 7 1920
Similarly, the linear constraint for cement will be
4x + 2y 7 480
Now we have to graph the feasible region for the
linear constraints
8x + 12y 7 1920
The graph of x 8 0 is drawn in igure
4x + 2y 7 480, x 8 0, y 8 0
5.34(a). The intersection of the graphs shown
in igures 5.52(a) and 5.34(a) is graphed in
Taking the one unit along x-axis and y-axis
igure 5.52(c).
equal to 40 we draw the graph of the feasible region
required.
The shaded region of igure 5.53(a) shows the
graph of 8x + 12y 7 1920 including the nonnegative
constraints x 8 0 and y 8 0
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is the intersection of the graphs shown in igures 2. Graph the feasible region of the following system of linear inequalities and
5.54(c) and 5.54(d). It is the shaded region indicated ind the corner points in each case.
in the igure 5.54(e). (i) 2x + y 7 10 (ii) 2x + 3y 7 18 (iii) 2x + 3y 7 18
x + 4y 7 12 2x + y 7 10 x + 4y 7 12
Note: The corner points of feasible region x + 2y 7 10 x + 4y 7 12 3x + y 7 12
the set of constraints in (a) are (1, 0), (3, 0) and x 8 0, y 8 0 x80,y80 x 8 0, y 8 0
(0, 2) while the corner points of the feasible (iv) x + 2y 7 14 (v) x + 3y 7 15 (vi) 2x + y 7 20
region for the set of constraints in (b) are (1, 0), 3x + 4y 7 36 2x + y 7 12 8x+15y 7120
2x + y 7 10 4x + 3y 7 24 x + y 7 11
36 10
(3, 0), , , (0, 4) and (0, 2)
7 7
x 8 0, y 8 0 x 8 0, y 8 0 x 8 0, y 8 0
We see that the feasible solution regions in example 3(a) and 3(b) are of diferent types. 5.6 LINEAR PROGRAMMING
The feasible region in example 3(a) is unbounded as it cannot be enclosed in any circle how
large it may be while the feasible region in example 3(b) can easily be enclosed within a A function which is to be maximized or minimized is called an objective function.
circle, so it is bounded. If the line segment obtained by joining any two points of a region lies Note that there are ininitely many feasible solutions in the feasible region. The feasible
entirely within the region, then the region is called convex. solution which maximizes or minimizes the objective function is called the optimal solution.
The theorem of linear programming states that the maximum and minimum values of the
Both the feasible regions of example 3(a)
objective function occur at corner points of the feasible region.
and 3(b) are convex but the regions such
as shown in the adjoining igures are not Procedure for determining optimal solution:
convex. (i) Graph the solution set of linear inequality constraints to determine feasible region.
(ii) Find the corner points of the feasible region.
(iii) Evaluate the objective function at each corner point to ind the optimal solution.
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including the non-negative constraints x 8 0 is Solution. The graphs of 2x - 3y 7 6, 2x + y 8 2, are displayed in the example 3 of
partially displayed as shaded region in the igure 5.61. Art. 5.5. Joining the points (6. 0) and (0, 4), we obtain the graph of the line 2x + 3y = 12. As
The graph of 2x - y 7 6 consists of the graph of the line 2(0) + 3(0) = 0 < 12, so the graph of 2x + 3y < 12 is the half plane below the line 2x + 3y = 12.
2x - y = 6 and the half plane on the origin side of the line Thus the graph of 2x + 3y 7 12 consists of the graph of the line 2x + 3y = 12 and the half plane
2x - y=6. A portion of the solution region of the given below the line 2x + 3y = 12. The solution region of 2x - 3y 7 6, 2x + y 8 2 and 2x + 3y 7 12 is the
system of inequalities is shaded in the igure 5.62. triangular region PQR shown in igure 5.63. The non-negative constraints x 8 0,
We see that feasible region is unbounded upwards y 80 indicated the irst quadrant. Thus the feasible region satisfying all the constrains is
and its corner points are A(0, 4), B(3, 1) and C(4, 2). shaded in the igure 5.63 and its corner points are (1, 0) (0, 2), (0, 4),
9
Note that the point at which the lines x + y = 4 and
2x - y = 6 intersect is not a corner point of the feasible , 1 and (3, 0).
2
region.
It is obvious that the expression 2x + 3y does not We ind values of f at the corner points.
posses a maximum value in the feasible region because Corner
f(x, y) = 4x + 5y
its value can be made larger than any number by point
(1, 0) f (1, 0) = 4 x 1 + 5.0 = 4
increasing x and y. We calculate the values of f at the
(0, 2) f (0, 2) = 4 x 0 + 5.2 = 10
corner points to ind its minimum value:
(0, 4) f (0, 4) = 4 x 0 + 5.4 = 20
f (0, 4) = 2(0) + 3 x 4 = 12
(9/2, 1) f (9/2, 1) = 4 x 9/2 + 5.1 = 23
f (3, 1) = 2x3+3x1 = 6+3=9
(3, 0) f (3, 0) = 4 x 3 + 50 x 0 = 12
f (4, 2) = 2x4+3x2 = 8 + 6 = 14
From the above table, it follows that the minimum value of f is 4 at the corner point
Thus the minimum value of 2x + 3y is 9 at the corner point (3, 1).
9
(1, 0) and maximum value of f is 23 at the corner point , 1 . The values of f at the corner
Note: lf f(x , y) = 2x + 2y, then f (0 , 4) = 2 x 0 + 2 x 4 = 8, f (3, 1) = 2 x 3 + 2 x 1 = 6 + 2 = 8 2
points are given below in tabular form.
and f(4, 2) = 2 x 4 + 2 x 2 = 8 + 4 =12. The minimum value of 2x + 2y is the same at two corner points
f(x, y) = 4x + 5y
(0, 4) and (3, 1).
Corner point
f (1, 0) = 4.1 + 6.0 = 4
We observe that the minimum value of 2x + 2y at each point of the line segment AB is
(1, 0)
8 as: f (0, 2) = 4.0 + 6.2 = 12
f(x, y) = 2x + 2(4 - x) (a x + y = 4 ⇒ y = 4 - x)
(0, 2)
(0, 4) f (0, 4) = 4.0 + 6.4 = 24
= 2x + 8 - 2x = 8 (9/2, 1) f (9/2, 1) = 4 . 9/2 + 6.1 = 24
(3, 0) f (3, 0) = 4 x 3 + 6.0 = 12
Example 2. Find the minimum and maximum values of f and f deined as: The minimum value of f is 4 at the point (1, 0) and maximum value of f is 24 at the
f(x, y) = 4x + 5y, f (x, y) = 4x + 6y
9
corner points (0, 4) and , 1 . As observed in the above example, it follows that the
2
under the constraints
2x - 3y 7 6
function f has maximum value at all the points of the line segment between the points
2x + y 8 2 2x + 3y 7 12 x 8 0, y 8 0
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Now the problem is to maximize the proit function P under the given constraints.
9
(0, 4) and , 1 .
Graphing the inequalities, we obtain the feasible region which is shaded in the igure 5.71.
2 Solving the equations x + y = 100 and 3x + 2y = 240 gives x = 240 - 2(x + y) = 240 - 200 = 40
and y = 100 - 40 = 60, that is; their point of intersection is (40, 60). The corner points of the
Note 1. Some times it may happen that each point of constraint line gives the optimal
feasible region are (0, 0),(0, 100), (40, 60) and (80, 0).
value of the objective function.
Now we ind the values of P at the corner points.
Corner point P(x, y) = 20x + 15y
Note 2. For diferent value of k, the equation 4x + 5y = k represents lines parallel to the
(0, 0) P(0, 0) = 2 0 x 0 + 15 x 0 = 0
line 4x + 5y = 0. For a certain admissible value of k, the intersection of 4x + 5y = k with the
(0, 100) P(0, 100) = 20 x 0 + 15 x 100 = 1500
feasible region gives feasible solutions for which the proit is k.
(40, 60) P(40, 60) = 20 x 40 + 15 x 60 = 1700
(80, 0) P(80, 0) = 20 x 80 + 15 x 0 = 1600
5.7 LINEAR PROGRAMMING PROBLEMS From the above table, it follows that the maximum proit is Rs. 1700 at the corner point
(40, 60). Thus the farmer will get the maximum proit if he cultivates 40 canals of corn and
Convert a linear programming problem to a mathematical form by using variables,
60 canals of wheat.
then follow the procedure given in Art 5.6.
Exam ple 2. A factory produces bicycles and motorcycles by using two machines A and
Example 1: A farmer possesses 100 canals of land and wants to grow corn and wheat.
B. Machine A has at most 120 hours available and machine B has a maximum of 144 hours
Cultivation of corn requires 3 hours per canal while cultivation of wheat requires 2 hours per
available. Manufacturing a bicycle requires 5 hours in machine A and 4 hours in machine B
canal. Working hours cannot exceed 240. If he gets a proit of Rs. 20 per canal for corn and
while manufacturing of a motorcycle requires 4 hours in machine A and 8 hours in machine
Rs. 15/- per canal for wheat, how many canals of each he should cultivate to maximize his
B. If he gets proit of Rs. 40 per bicycle and proit of Rs. 50 per motorcycle, how many bicycles
proit?
and motorcycles should be manufactured to get maximum proit?
Solution: Suppose that he cultivates x canals of corn
and y canals of wheat. Then constraints can be written Solution: Let the number of bicycles to be
as: manufactured be x and the number of motor cycles to
x + y 7 100 be manufactured be y.
3x + 2y 7 240
Then the time required to use machine A for x
Non-negative constraints are x 8 0, y 8 0. Let P(x, y) bicycles and y motorcycles is 5x + 4y (hours) and the time
be the proit function, then required to use machine B for x bicycles and y motorcycles
P(x, y) = 20x + 15y in 4x + 8y (hours). Thus the problem constraints are
5x + 4y 7 120
And 4x + 8y 7 144
⇒ 2x + 4y 7 72 .
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EXERCISE 5.3
1. Maximize f(x, y) = 2x + 5y
subject to the constraints
2y - x 7 8; x - y 7 4; x 0 8 0; y80
2. Maximize f(x , y) = x + 3y
subject to the constraints
2x + 5y 7 30; 5x + 4y 7 20; x 8 0; y80
3. Maximize z = 2x + 3y; subject to the constraints:
3x + 4y 7 12; 2x + y 7 4: 4x - y 7 4; x 8 0; y 8 0
4. Minimize z = 2x + y: subject to the constraints:
x + y 8 3; 7x + 5y 7 35; x 8 0; y80
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CHAPTER
6 Conic Sections
The theory of conics plays an important role in modern space mechanics, occeangraphy
6.1 INTRODUCTION and many other branches of science and technology.
We irst study the properties of a Circle. Other conics will be taken up later.
Conic sections or simply conics, are the curves obtained by cutting a (double)
right circular cone by a plane. Let RS be a line through the centre C of a given circle and
6.1.1 Equation of a Circle
perpendicular to its plane. Let A be a ixed point on RS. All lines through A and points on the
circle generate a right circular cone. The lines are called rulings or generators of the cone.
The set of all points in the plane that are equally distant from a ixed point is called a
The surface generated consists of two parts, called nappes, meeting at the ixed point A,
circle. The ixed point is called the centre of the circle and the distance from the center of
called the vertex or apex of the cone. The line RS is called axis of the cone.
the circle to any point on the circle is called the radius of the circle.
If the cone is cut by a plane perpendicular to the axis of the cone, then the section is a
If C(h,k) is centre of a circle, r its radius and P(x, y) any point on the circle, then the circle,
circle.
{ }
denoted S(C ; r) in set notation is
S ( C ; r ) P ( x, y ): CP
=
= r
By the distance formula, we get
CP = ( x - h) + ( y - k ) = r
2 2
( x - h) + ( y - k ) =
2 2
or r2 (1)
is an equation of the circle in standard form.
If the centre of the circle is the origin, then (1) reduces to
x2 + y2 = r2 (2)
If r = 0, the circle is called a point circle which consists
of the centre only.
The size of the circle depends on how near the plane is to the vertex of the cone. If the Let P(x, y) be any point on the circle (2) and let the
plane passes through the vertex A, the intersection is just a single point or a point circle. If inclination of OP be q as shown in the igure. It is clear that
x = r cos q
the cutting plane is slightly tilted and cuts only one nappe of the cone, the resulting section
y = r sinq
is an ellipse. If the intersecting plane is parallel to a generator of the cone, but intersects
(3)
its one nappe only , the curve of intersection is a parabola. If the cutting plane is parallel
The point P(r cosq, r sin q) lies on (2) for all values of
to the axis of the cone and intersects both of its nappes, then the curve of intersection is a
2 3
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(x + 3)2 + (y - 5)2 = 72
-12 -18
Thus centre of the circle =( - g ,- f ) =
x2 + y2 + 6x - 10y - 15 = 0
or
5 5
,
= =
Theorem: The equation 418 418
x2 + y2 +2gx + 2fy + c = 0 (1) 25 5
represents a circle g, f and c being constants.
Equation (1) can be written as:
(x2 + 2gx + g2) + (y2 + 2fy + f2) = g2+ f2 - c
6.1.2 Equations of Circles Determined by Given Conditions
(
x - ( - g ) + y - ( - f )=
)
g + f -c
2 2 2 2
2 The general equation of a circle x2 + y2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0 contains three independent
or
which is standard form of an equation of a circle with centre (-g, - f) and radius
constants g, f and c, which can be found if the equation satisies three given conditions. We
discuss diferent cases in the following paragraphs.
g2 + f 2 - c .
The equation (1) is called general form of an equation of a circle. 1. A Circle Passing Through Three Non-collincar Points.
If three non-collinear points, through which a circle passes, are known, then we can
Note: ind the three independent constants f, g and c occurring in the general equation of a circle.
1. (1) is a second degree equation in which coeicient of each of x2 and y2 is 1.
2. (1) contains no term involving the product xy. Example 3: Find an equation of the circle which passes through the points A(5,10), B(6,9)
and C(-2,3).
Thus a second degree equation in which coeicients of x2 and y2 are equal and there is
no product term xy represents a circle. Solution: Suppose equation of the required circle is
If three non-collinear points through which a circle passes are known, then we can ind x2 + y2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0 (1)
the three constants f, g and c in (1). Since the three given points lie on the circle, they all satisfy (1). Substituting the three
points into (1), we get
Example 2: Show that the equation: 25 + 100 + 10g + 20f + c = 0
5x2 + 5y2 + 24x + 36y + 10 = 0 ⇒ 10g + 20f + c + 125 = 0 (2)
represents a circle. Also ind its centre and radius. 36 + 81 +12g + 18f + c + 117 = 0
Solution: The given equation can be written as: ⇒ 12g + 18f + c + 117 = 0 (3)
4 + 9 - 4g + 6f + c = 0
x2 + y 2 +
x+ y+2= -4g + 6f + c + 13 = 0
24 36
0 (4)
5 5
which is an equation of a circle in the general form. Here Now we solve the equations (2), (3) and (4).
= = =
Subtracting (3) from (2), we have
-2g + 2f + 8 = 0
12 18
g ,f ,c 2
5 5
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or g-f-4=0 (5) 3. A circle passing through two points and equation of tangent at one of these
Subtracting (4) from (2), we have. points is known.
14g + 14f + 112 = 0 (6)
or g+f+8=0 Example 5: Find an equation of the circle passing through the point (-2, -5) and touching
From (5) and (6), we have, the line 3x + 4y - 24 = 0 at the point (4, 3).
f = -6 and g = -2.
Inserting the values of f and g into (2), we get c = 15 Solution: Let the circle be
Thus equation of the circle is: x2 + y2 - 4x - 12y + 15 = 0 x2 + y2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0 (1)
The points (-2, -5 ) and (4, 3) lie on it. Therefore
2. A circle passing through two points and having its centre on a given line. -4g - 10f + c + 29 = 0 (2)
8g + 6f + c + 25 = 0 (3)
Example 4: Find an equation of the circle having the join of A (x1, y1) and B (x2, y2) as a The line
diameter. 3x + 4y - 24 = 0 (4)
Touches the circle at (4, 3).
Solution: Since AB is a diameter of the circle, its A line through (4, 3) and perpendicular to (4) is
y - 3= ( x - 4) or 4 x - 3 y - 7= 0
midpoint is the centre of the circle. The radius of the
4
circle is known and standard form of an equation of the
3
This line being a normal through (4, 3) passes through the centre (-g, -f) of the
circle may be easily written. However, a more elegant
procedure is to make use of the plane geometry. If
circle (1). Therefore
-4 g + 3f - 7 = 0
P(x, y) is any point on the circle, then m∠APB = 900
(5)
From (2) - (3), we get
Thus the lines AP and BP are perpendicular to each
-12g - 16f + 4 = 0
other.
y - y1 y - y2 3g + 4f - 1 = 0
=
=
or (6)
x - x1 x - x2 Solving (5) and (6), we have g = -1, f = 1. Inserting these values of g and f into (3),
Slope of AP and Slope of BP
y - y1 y - y2
× - =
x - x1 x - x2
1
4. A circle passing through two points and touching a given line.
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= OB
= radius of the circle.
2. Find the centre and radius of the circle with the given equation
OA (a) x2 + y2 +12x - 10y = 0
i.e., (h - 1)2 + (k - 2)2 = (h - 1)2 + (k + 2)2 (b) 5x2 + 5y2 + 14x + 12y - 10 = 0
(c) x2 + y2 - 6x + 4y + 13 = 0
(d) 4x2 + 4y2 - 8x +12y - 25 = 0
or 8k = 0 i.e., k = 0
Hence OA = OB
( h - 1)
3. Write an equation of the circle that passes through the given points
= +4 (a) A(4, 5), B(-4, -3 ), C(8, -3)
2
Now length of perpendicular from (h, k) i.e., (h, 0) to the line (b) A(-7, 7), B(5, -1), C(10, 0)
(c) A(a, 0), B(0, b), C(0, 0)
(d) A(5, 6), B(-3, 2), C(3, -4)
x + 2y + 5 = 0 equals the radius of the circle and is given by
h+5 4. In each of the following, ind an equation of the circle passing through
5 (a) A(3, -1), B(0, 1) and having centre at 4x - 3y - 3 = 0
(b) A(-3, 1) with radius 2 and centre at 2x - 3y + 3 = 0
h+5
= OA = ( h - 1) +4 A(5,1) and tangent to the line 2x - y - 10 = 0 at B(3, -4)
2
Therefore, (c)
(d) A(1, 4), B(-1, 8) and tangent to the line x + 3y - 3 = 0
5
( h + 5) =( h - 1) + 4 or 4h 2 - 20h =0
5. Find an equation of a circle of radius a and lying in the second quadrant such that it
h =0 ,5
2
2
is tangent to both the axes.
Show that the lines 3x - 2y = 0 and 2x + 3y - 13 = 0 are tangents to the circle
or i.e.,
5 6.
Thus centres of the two circles are at (0, 0) and (5, 0). x2 + y2 + 6x - 4y = 0
Radius of the irst circle = 5 ; Radius of the second circle = 20 7. Show that the circles
Equations of the circles are x2 + y2 + 2x - 2y - 7 = 0 and x2 + y2 - 6x + 4y + 9 = 0 touch externally.
(x - 5)2 + y2 = 20 8. Show that the circles
x2 + y2 + 2x - 8 = 0 and x2 + y2 - 6x + 6y - 46 = 0 touch internally.
x2 + y2 = 5 and
i.e., x2 + y 2 = 5 and x2 + y2 - 10x + 5 = 0
9. Find equations of the circles of radius 2 and tangent to the line
EXERCISE 6.1 x - y - 4 = 0 at A(1, -3).
1. In each of the following, ind an equation of the circle with 6.2 TANGENTS AND NORMALS
(a) centre at (5, -2) and radius 4
( )
A tangent to a curve is a line that touches the curve without cutting through it.
(b) centre at 2 ,-3 3 and radius 2 2 We know that for any curve whose equation is given by y = f(x) or f(x, y) = 0, the derivative
ends of a diameter at (-3, 2) and (5, -6).
dy
(c) is slope of the tangent at any point P(x, y) to the curve. The equation of the tangent to
dx
the curve can easily be written by the pointslope formula. The normal to the curve at P is
the line through P perpendicular to the tangent to the curve at P. This method can be very
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conveniently employed to ind equations of tangent and normal to the circle Theorem: The point P(x1, y1) lies outside, on or inside the circle
x2 + y2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0 at the point P(x1, y1). x2 + y2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0 according as
>
Here f(x, y) = x2 + y2 +2gx + 2fy + c = 0 (1)
x12 + y12 + 2 gx1 + 2 fy1 + c =0
Diferentiating (1) w.r.t. x, we get <
x+g
2x + 2 y + 2g + 2 f =
0 or - =
dy dy dy Proof. Radius r of the given circle is
y+ f
r= g 2 + f 2 - c.
dx dx dx
dy x +g
= - 1
y1 + f
The point P(x1, y1) lies outside, on or inside the circle, according as:
dx ( x1 ,y1 )
= Slope of the tangent at (x1 , y1 )
>
m CP = r
}
<
Equation of the Tangent at P is given by
x1 + g >
y - y1 =
- ( x - x1 ) ( x1 + g ) 2 + ( y1 + f ) 2 =< g2 + f 2 - c
}
y1 + f
(Point-slope form) i.e., according as:
>
y ( y1 + f ) - y12 - y1 f =
- x ( x1 + g ) + x12 + x1 g x12 + 2 gx1 + g 2 + y12 + f 2 + 2 fy1 <
= g2 + f 2 - c
}
or or according as :
or xx1 + yy1 + gx + fy + gx1 + fy1 + c = x12 + y12 + gx1 + fy1 + gx1 + fy1 + c
Example 1: Determine whether the point P(-5, 6) lies outside, on or inside the circle:
(adding gx1 + fy1 + c to both sides) x2 + y2 + 4x - 6y - 12 = 0
or xx1 + yy1 + g(x + x1) + f(y + y1) + c = 0
since (x1, y1) lies on (1) and so Solution: Putting x = -5 and y = 6 in the left hand member of the equation of the circle,
x12 + y12 + 2 gx1 + 2 fy1 + c =0 we get
25 + 36 - 20 - 36 - 1 2 = -7 < 0
Thus xx1 + yy1 + g(x + x1) + f(y + y1) + c = 0 , is the required equation of the tangent.
Thus the point P(-5, 6) lies inside the circle.
To ind an equation of the normal at P, we note that slope of the normal is
y1 + f
Theorem: The line y = mx + c intersects the circle x2 + y2 = a2
x1 + g
(negative reciprocal of slope of the tangent) in at the most two points.
Proof: It is known from plane geometry that a line can meet a
Equation of the normal at P(x1, y1) is circle in at the most two points.
y1 + f
y=- y1 (x - x1 )
To prove it analytically, we note that the coordinates of the
x1 + g points where the line
(y - y1)(x1 + g) = (x - x1)(y1 + f), is an equation of the normal at (x1, y1).
y = mx + c (1)
or
intersects the circle
x 2 + y2 = a2 (2)
are the simultaneous solutions of the equations (1) and (2).
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Substituting the value of y from equation (1) into equation (2), we get
8 9
Thus the points of intersection are P(2,1) and Q ,
x2 + (mx + c)2 = a2
or x2(1 + m2) + 2mcx + c2 - a2 = 0 (3) 5 5
Length of the chord intercepted
This being quadratic in x, gives two values of x say x1 and x2. Thus the line intersects
8 9
= PQ = - 2 + - 1 = + =
2 2
the circle in at the most two points. For nature of the points we examine the discriminant 4 16 2
of (3). 5 5 25 25 5
The discriminant of (3) is (2mc)2 - 4(1 + m2) (c2 - a2)
= 4m2 c2 - 4(1 + m2)(c2 - a2)
Theorem: Two tangents can be drawn to a circle from any point P(x1, y1). The tangents
}
as the roots of (2) are real and distinct, coincident or imaginary
>
i.e., according as x12 y12 - ( x12 - a 2 )( y12 - a 2 ) <
=
Solution: From 2x + y = 5, we have
} }
y = (5 - 2x). 0
Inserting this value of y into the equation of the circle, we get
x12 a 2 + y1= > 0
a + a4 < x12 += > 0
y12 - a 2 <
x2 + (5 - 2x)2 + 2x - 9 = 0
2 2
or or
or 5x2 - 18x + 16 = 0 i.e., according as the point P(x1, y1) lies outside, on or inside the circle x2 + y2 - a2 = 0
18 ± 324 - 320 18 ± 2
⇒ x= = =
8 Example 3: Write equations of two tangents from (2, 3) to the circle x2 + y2 = 9.
2,
10 10 5
When x = 2, y = 5 - 4 = 1 Solution. Any tangent to the circle is
y =mx + 3 1 + m 2
When x = , y =5 - =
8 16 9
5 5 5 If it passes through (2, 3), then
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3 = 2m + 3 1 + m
Example 5: Find a joint equation to the pair of tangents drawn from (5, 0) to the circle:
2
(1)
(3 - 2m)2 = 9(1 + m2)
x2 + y2 = 9 (1)
or
or 9 - 12m + 4m2 = 9 + 9m2 Solution: Let P(h,k) be any point on either of the two tangents drawn from A(5,0) to the
-12
5m 2 += =
given circle (1). Equation of PA is
k -0
or 12m 0 i.e., m 0,
y=
-0 ( x - 5) or kx - (h - 5) y =
- 5k 0
5
h-5
Inserting these values of m into (1), we have equations of the tangents from (2,3) to (2)
the circle as : Since (2) is tangent to the circle (1), the perpendicular distance of (2) from the centre of the
For m = 0 : y = 0. x + 3 1 + 0
circle equals the radius of the circle.
or y = 3 -5k
=3
-12 -12 -12 k + (h - 5)
i.e.,
m= : y= x + 3 1+ = x+
2 2
144 39
25k 2= 9[k 2 + (h - 5) 2 ] or 16k 2 - 9(h - 5) 2 = 0
For
5 5 25 5 5 or
5 y + 12 x - 39 = Thus (h,k) lies on
9(x - 5)2 - 16y2 = 0
or 0.
(3)
Example 4: Write equations of the tangents to the circle But (h,k) is any point of either of the two tangents.
x + y - 4x + 6y + 9 = 0
2 2
(1) Hence (3) is the joint equations of the two tangents.
at the points on the circle whose ordinate is -2.
6.2.1 Length of the tangent to a circle
Solution: Substituting y = -2 into (1), we get (Tangential Distance)
x2 - 4x + 1 = 0
4 ± 16 - 4
Let P(x1, y1) be a point outside the circle
or =
x = ±2 3 x2 + y2 +2gx + 2fy + c = 0 (1)
2
The points on the circle with ordinate -2 are
We know that two real and distinct tangents can be drawn to the circle from an external
(2 + 3, -2),(2 - 3, -2)
point P. If the points of contact of these tangents with the circle are S and T, then each of
the length PS and PT is called length of the tangent or tangential distance from P to the
Equations of the tangents to (1) at these points are circle (1).
(2 + 3) x - 2 y - 2( x + 2 + 3) + 3( y - 2) + 9 =0 The centre of the circle has coordinates
and (2 - 3) x - 2 y - 2( x + 2 - 3) + 3( y - 2) + 9 =0 (-g, -f). Join PO and OT. From the right triangle OPT
3 x + y - 2 3 - 1 =0
we have,
i.e.,
and - 3 x + y + 2 3 - 1 =0 length of the tangent ==
PT OP 2 - OT 2
= ( x1 + g ) 2 + ( y1 + f ) 2 - ( g 2 + f 2 - c)
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For m =-2 : -2 x - y =0 or 2 x + y =
= x12 + y12 + 2 gx1 + 2 fy1 + c
0
(2)
For= : x - y += 0 or x - 2 y = +5 0
It is easy to see that length of the second tangent PS also equals (2). 1 1 5
m
2 2 2
Example 6: Find the length of the tangent from the point P(-5, 10) to the circle Tangential distance = 1 + 4 - 4 + 4= 5
5x2 + 5y2 + 14x + 12y - 10 = 0
Example 8: Tangents are drawn from (-3,4) to the circle x2 + y2 = 21. Find an equation
Solution: Equation of the given circle in standard form is of the line joining the points of contact (The line is called the chord of contact).
x2 + y 2 + x+ y-2=
14 12
0 (2) Solution: Let the points of contact of the two tangents be P(x1, y1) and Q(x2, y2)
5 5
An equation of the tangent at P is
Square of the length of the tangent from P(-5,10) to the circle (1) is obtained by
substituting -5 for x and 10 for y in the left hand member of (1)
xx1 + yy1 = 21 (1)
An equation of the tangent at Q is
∴ Required length = (-5) 2 + (10) 2 - 14 + 24 - 2 =133 xx2 + yy2 = 21 (2)
Since (1) and (2) pass through (-3 ,4 ), so
-3x1 +4y1 = 21 (3)
and -3x2 + 4y2 =21
Example 7: Write equations of the tangent lines to the circle x2 + y2 + 4x + 2y = 0
drawn from P(-1,2). Also ind the tangential distance. (4)
(3) and (4) show that both the points P(x1, y1) , Q(x2, y2) lie on -3x + 4y = 21 and so it is
Solution: An equation of the line through P(-1,2) having slope m is the required equation of the chord of contact.
y - 2 = m(x + 1) or mx - y + m + 2 = 0. (1)
Centre of the circle is C(-2,-l). EXERCISE 6.2
Radius = 4 + 1 = 5
1. Write down equations of the tangent and normal to the circle
x2 + y2 = 25 at (4 , 3) and at (5 cos q, 5 sin q)
If (1) is tangent to the circle, then its distance from the centre of the circle equals the
radius of the circle. Therefore (i)
-2m + 1 + m + 2 10
3 x 2 + 3 y 2 + 5 x - 13 y + 2 =0 at 1,
= 5 3
(ii)
m2 + 1
2. Write down equations of the tangent and normal to the circle
4x2 + 4y2 - 16x + 24y - 117 = 0
or (-m + 3)2 = 5(m2 +1)
4m2 + 6m - 4 = 0 or 2m2+ 3m - 2 = 0
at the points on the circle whose abscissa is -4.
or
-3 ± 9 + 16 -3 ± 5
m= = = - 2,
1 3. Check the position of the point (5 , 6) with respect to the circle
4 4 2 (i) x2 + y2 = 81 (ii) 2x2 + 2y2 + 12x - 8y + 1 = 0
Equations of the tangents are from equation (1) 4. Find the length of the tangent drawn from the point (-5 , 4) to the circle
5x2 + 5y2 - 10x + 15y - 131 = 0
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5. Find the length of the chord cut of from the line 2x + 3y = 13 by the circle
x=
+ 2 x a2 or x 2 (=
x12 + y12 ) a 2 x12
x2 + y2 = 26 2y12 2
6. Find the coordinates of the points of intersection of the line x + 2y = 6 with the circle: x1
x2 + y2 - 2x - 2y - 39 = 0 or a 2 x 2 = a 2 x12 ( x12 + y12 =
x2 )
x = ± x1
7. Find equations of the tangents to the circle x2 + y2 = 2
parallel to the line x - 2y + 1 = 0
i.e.,
(i)
y1
= x x= then y y1=
y .x
(ii) perpendicular to the line 3x + 2y = 6
x1
If 1,
8. Find equations of the tangents drawn from
Theorem 2: Perpendicular dropped from the centre of a circle on a chord bisects the
6.3 ANALYTIC PROOFS OF IMPORTANT chord.
PROPERTIES OF A CIRCLE
Proof: Let x2 + y2 = a2 be a circle, in which AB is a chord with
A line segment whose end points lie on a circle is called a chord of the circle. A diameter end points A(x1 , y1), B(x2 , y2) on the circle and OM is perpendicular
of a circle is a chord containing the centre of the circle. from the centre to the chord. We need to show that OM bisects
the chord AB.
y2 - y1
Theorem: Length of a diameter of the circle x2 + y2 = a2 is 2a.
Slop of AB =
Proof: Let AOB be a diameter of the circle x2 - x1
-( x2 - x1 ) x1 - x2
x2 + y2 = a2 (1)
Slop of perpendicular= = = m (say)
y2 - y1 y2 - y1
O(0,0) is center of (1). to AB
Let the coordinates of A be (x1, y1).
Equation of AOB is So equation of OM with slope m and point O(0,0) on it, is given by
( x1 - x2 )
y= =
y-0 ( x - 0)
( y2 - y1 )
y1 (point - slope form)
x (2)
x1
x -x
y = 1 2 x
y2 - y1
Substituting the value of y from (2) into (1), we have or (1)
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(1) is the equation of the perpendicular OM from centre to the chord. We will show that it Theorem 3:
bisects the chord i.e., intersection of OM and AB is the midpoint of AB. The perpendicular bisector of any chord of a circle passes through the centre of the
Equation of AB is circle.
y1 - y2
y=
- y1 ( x - x1 )
x1 - x2
(2) Proof: Let x2 + y2 = a2 be a circle and A(x1 , y1),
B(x2 , y2) be the end points of a chord of this circle. Let M be the mid point of AB, i.e.
x + x y + y2
The foot of the perpendicular OM is the point of intersection of (1) and (2). Inserting the
M 1 2, 1
2 2
value of y from (1) into (2), we have
x1 - x2 y1 - y2
- =
x - y1 ( x - x1 ) y2 - y1
y1 - y2 x1 - x2 The slop of AB =
x2 - x1
y - y2 x1 - x2 x1 ( y1 - y2 )
x 1 + = - y1
x1 - x2 y1 - y2 x1 - x2
or The slope of perpendicular bisector of AB is
x y1 + y2 - 2 y1 y2 + x1 + x2 - 2 x1 x2 x y - x y x -x
= 2 1 1 2 - 2 1
2 2 2 2
( x1 - x2 ) ( y1 - y2 ) x1 - x2 y2 - y1
or
x +x y1 + y2 -( x2 - x1 ) x1 + x2
x= 1 2 0- = 0 -
or ( y2 - y1 ) 2
( x1 + x2 )
2
x +x y + y2
2
x = 1 2 into (1) , we get - 1 ( y2 - y1 ) = ( x2 - x1 )
2
Putting or
2 2
( x1 - x2 ) ( x1 + x2 ) x1 - x2 - ( y2 - y1 ) = x2 - x1 or x1 + y1 = x2 + y2
==
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
y2 - y1 2( y2 - y1 )
or
a2 = a2
y .
2 or which is true
x12 + y12 =
y -y ( y2 - y1 )( y2 + y1 ) 2
2
a Hence the perpendicular bisector of any chord passes through the centre of the circle.
= = x2 + y2 =
2 2
2( y2 - y1 ) 2( y2 - y1 )
2 1
2
or y 2
a
2
y + y2 ⇒ x1 - x2 = y1 - y2
Theorem 4:
y= 1
2 2 2
or The line joining the centre of a circle to the midpoint of a chord is perpendicular to the
2
x1 + x2 y1 + y2
chord.
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x + x y + y2 y + y2 x +x y1 + y2 + x1 + x2 + 2 x1 x2 + 2 y1 y2
is centre of the circle and M 1 2 , 1 is the midpoint of ∴ OM= 1 - 0 + 1 2 - 0=
2 2 2 2 2 2
2 2 2 2
2
4
( x + y1 ) + ( x2 + y2 ) + 2 x1 x2 + 2 y1 y2
= 1
AB. Join the centre O with the mid point M. We need to show 2 2 2 2
x2 - x1 x2 + x1 x2 + x1
2 2
-0
Slope of AB 1 ; Slope OM m2
4
a + x1 x2 + y1 y2
=
2 2
(1)
y2 - y1 y2 + y1 y2 - y1
2
∴= .= a + x3 x4 + y3 y4
2 2
2 (2)
We know that AB = CD
2 2
As A and B lie on the circle, so ( chords are congruent)
=
x1 + y1 a and =
x2 + y2 a or ( x2 - x1 ) + ( y2 - y1 ) = ( x4 - x3 ) + ( y4 - y3 )
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
or x1 x2 + y1 y2 = x3 x4 + y3 y4
Challenge!
( x2 - x1 )
(3)
- m1-m2 = =
2 2
State and prove the
( x2 - x1 ) OM = ON
1 2 2
2 2
or converse of this Theorem.
So OM is perpendicular to AB.
Theorem 6: Show that measure of the central angle of a
Theorem 5: Congruent chords of a circle are equidistant from the centre. minor arc is double the measure of the angle subtended in the
corresponding major arc.
Proof: Let x2 + y2 = a2 be the circle in which AB and CD are
two congruent chords i.e., AB = CD and the coordinates of Proof: Let the circle be x2 + y2 = a2.
A, B, C and D be as in the igure. Also let OM and ON be the A(a cosq1 , a sinq1) and B(a cosq2 , a sinq2) be end points of a
perpendicular distances of the chords from the centre (0, 0) minor arc AB. Let P (a cosq , a sinq) be a point on the major arc.
of the circle. Central angle subtended by the minor arc AB is ∠ AOB = q2 - q1.
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y - y2
q + q1 q - q1 m1m2 = 12
2 2
a (sin q - sin q1 ) x1 - x2
=
==
2
a ( cosq - cosq1 )
2cos sin (1)
q + q1 q - q1
2 2
-2sin
m1 slope of AP
sin Since A( x1 , y1 ) and P ( x2 , y2 ) lie on the circle, we have
q + q1 p q + q1 x1 + y1 = a ⇒ x1 = a - y1
2 2
= + - =
2 2 2 2 2 2
cot tan
2 2 2 x2 + y2 = a ⇒ x2 = a - y2
2 2 2 2 2 2
(2)
tan ∠APB
= =
90
1 + m1m2 p q + q1 p q + q2
1 + tan + .tan +
2 2 2 2
p q + q 2 p q + q1 q -q
= tan + - - =
Theorem 8: The tangent to a circle at any point of the circle is perpendicular to the
tan 2 1
2 2 2
2 2 radial segment at that point.
Hence m∠APB = (q 2 - q1 )
1
Proof: Let PT be the tangent to the circle x2 + y2 = a2 at any point P(x1 , y1) lying on it.
We have to show that the radial segment OP ⊥ PT.
2
2 x + 2 y. =
0 ⇒- =
dy dy x
Proof: Let x2 + y2 = a2 be a circle, with centre O. Let AOB be any diameter of the circle and dx dx y
- x1
Slope of the tangent at= =
P(x2 , y2) be any point on the circle.
dy
We have to show that m∠APB= 900. P
dx P y1
y1 - 0 y1
Slope of = =
Suppose the coordinates of A are (x1 , y1).
x1 - 0 x1
Then B has coordinates OP
(-x1 , -y1). (Theorem 1)
- x1 y1
. = -1
y1 - y2
Product of slopes of OP and PT =
= = m1 , say
y1 x1
x1 - x2 Thus OP ⊥ PT.
Slope of AP
y1 + y2
= = m2 , say
x1 + x2
Slope of BP Challenge!
State and prove the
converse of this Theorem.
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Theorem 9: The perpendicular at the outer end of a radial segment is tangent to the
Suppose PM denotes the distance of a point P(x, y) from the line L. The set of all points
circle.
P in the plane such that
= e. (a positive constant)
PF
Proof: Let PT be the perpendicular to the outer end of the radial segment OP of the circle
PM
x2 + y2 = a2. We have to show that PT is tangent to the circle at P. Suppose the coordinates of
is called a conic section.
P are (x1 , y1).
(i) If e = 1, then the conic is a parabola.
Since PT is perpendicular to OP so
-1 -1 - x1
= = =
(ii) If 0 < e < 1, then the conic is an ellipse.
Slope of PT (iii) If e > 1, then the conic is a hyperbola.
slope of OP y1 y1
The ixed line L is called a directrix and the ixed point F is called a focus of the conic.
- x1
x1
Equation of PT is y - = ( x - x1 )
The number e is called the eccentricity of the conic.
y1
y1
or yy1 - y =- xx1 + x1 6.4 PARABOLA
2 2
or yy1 + xx1 - a =
2
We have already stated that a conic section is a parabola if e = 1.
0
We shall irst derive an equation of a parabola in the standard form and study its
Distance of PT from O (centre of the circle)
y1 (0) + x1 (0) - a
important properties.
= = = =
2 2
a a
2
If we take the focus of the parabola as F (a, 0), a > 0 and its directrix as line L whose
x +y equation is x = -a, then its equation becomes very simple.
a (radius of the circle)
2 2
a
2 a
Let P(x, y) be a point on the parabola. So, by deinition
Thus PT is tangent to the circle at P(x1 , y1).
=
= 1. or
PF
PF PM
EXERCISE 6.3 PM
1. Prove that normal lines of a circle pass through the centre of the circle. Now PM = x + a (1)
2. Prove that the straight line drawn from the centre of a circle perpendicular to a
tangent passes through the point of tangency. and PF = ( x - a ) + ( y - 0)
2 2
3. Prove that the mid point of the hypotenuse of a right triangle is the circumcentre of Substituting into (1), we get
( x - a ) + y =x + a
the triangle. 2 2
( x - a) + y = ( x + a)
4. Prove that the perpendicular dropped from a point of a circle on a diameter is a mean
or 2 2 2
proportional between the segments into which it divides the diameter.
y = ( x + a ) - ( x - a ) = 4ax or y = 4ax
2 2 2 2
or (2)
In the following pages we shall study the remaining three conics. which is standard equation of the parabola.
Let L be a ixed line in a plane and F be a ixed point not on the line L.
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Deinitions with either a = 0 or b = 0 but not both zero, represents a parabola. The equation can be
(i) The line through the focus and perpendicular to the directrix is called axis of the analyzed by completing the square.
parabola. In case of (2), the axis is y = 0.
(ii) The point where the axis meets the parabola is called vertex of the parabola. Clearly 6.4.2 Other Standard parabolas
the equation (2) has vertex A(0,0). The line through A and perpendicular to the axis
of the parabola has equation x = 0. It meets the parabola at coincident points and so There are other choices for the focus and directrix which also give standard equations
it is a tangent to the curve at A. of parabolas.
(i) If the focus lies on the y-axis with coordinates F(0,a) and directrix of the parabola is
y = -a, then equation of the parabola is
(iii) A line joining two distinct points on a parabola is called a chord of the parabola.
A chord passing through the focus of a parabola is called a focal chord of the
parabola. The focal chord perpendicular to the axis of the parabola (1) is called x2 = 4ay (3)
The equation can be derived by diinition.
(ii) If the focus is F(0, -a) and directrix is the line y = a, then equation of the parabola is
latusrectum of the parabola. It has an equation x = a and it intersects the curve at
x2 = -4ay
the points where
y = 4a y = ± 2a (4)
2 2
or
Thus coordinates of the end points L and L’ of the latusrectum are Opening of the parabola is upward in case of (3) and downward in case of (4). Both the
L ( a, 2a ) and L′(a, -2a ). curves are symmetric with respect to the y-axis.
The length of the latusrectum is LL′ = 4a. The graphs of (3) and (4) are shown below.
(iv) The point (at2 , 2at) lies on the parabola y2 = 4ax for any real t.
x = at2 , y = 2at
are called parametric equations of the parabola y2 = 4ax.
Let F(h,k) be the focus and the line lx + my + n =0 be the directrix of a parabola. An
equation of the parabola can be derived by the deinition of the parabola . Let P(x , y) be a
point on the parabola. Length of the perpendicular PM from P(x , y) to the directix is given by; (iii) If the focus of the parabola is F(-a, 0), and its directrix is the line x = a, then equation
of the parabola is
lx + my + n y2 = -4ax
PM =
l +m
( lx + my + n )
2 2
By definition, (x - h) + (y - k ) =
2 The curve is symmetric with respect to the x-axis
l +m
2 2
2 2 and lies in the second and third quadrants only. Opening of
the parabola is to the left as shown in the igure
is an equation of the required parabola.
A second degree equation of the form
ax2 + by2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0
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=
=
Sr.No. 1 2 3 4
x = -4ay
By deinition, PF PM
2 2
2 2 2 2 or PF PM
Equation y = 4ax y =-4ax x = 4ay
(0, -a) (3 x - 4 y + 5)
( x + 3) + ( y - 4) =
Focus (a, 0) (-a, 0) (0, a)
x = -a y = -a
2
2 2
Directrix x=a y=a or
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-3
which is a parabola whose focus lies on X = 0 and whose directix is Y =
Since y can take up only non-negative values, PF is minimum when y = 0. Thus P
4 coincides with A so that of all points on the parabola, its vertex A is closest to the focus.
Thus coordinates of the focus of (3) are
-3
= X 0= ,Y Example 4. A comet has a parabolic orbit with the sun at the focus. When the comet is
4 100 million km from the sun, the line joining the sun and the comet makes an angle of 600
i.e.,==
x - 2 0 - and with the axis of the parabola. How close will the comet get to the sun?
3
y 3
4
=
x 2,=
15 Solution. Let the sun S be the origin . If the vertex of the parabola has coordinates (-a,0)
or y
4 then directrix of the parabola is
Thus coordinates of the focus of the parabola x = -2a, (a >0)
15
if the comet is at P(x, y), then
(1) are 2, by deinition PS = PM
4
Axis of (3) is X = 0 or x - 2 = 0 is the axis of (1) .
i,e., x2 + y2 = (x + 2a)2
or y2 = 4ax + 4a2 is orbit of the comet
Veitex of (3) has coordinates
= x +y
2 2
X = 0, Y = 0 Now PS
or x - 2 = 0, y - 3 = 0 = x + 2a = 100,000,000
i.e., x = 2, y = 3 are coordinates of the vertex of (1). The comet is closest to the sun when it is at A.
Equation of the directrix of (3) is Now x = PS cos 600
-3 -3 PS x + 2a
= i.e. =
y -3 = = =
9
Y or y is an equation of the directrix of (1). x
4 4 4
x + 2a 2 x + 2a
2 2
= or 2= =
2- 2=
Magnitude of the latusrectum of the parabola (3) and also of (1) is 3.
or ,( x a a)
The graph of (1) can easily be sketched and is as shown in the above igure. x 1 2a
=2
100,000,000
Theorem: The point of a parabola which is closest to the focus is the vertex of the or
a = 25,000,000
2a
parabola. or
Proof: Let the parabola be Thus the comet is closest to the sun when it is 25,000,000 km from the sun.
x2 = 4ay , a > 0
with focus at F(0, a) and P(x, y) be any point on the Relecting Property of the parabola.
parabola. A frequently used property of a parabola is its relecting property. If a light source is
PF = x + ( y - a)
2 2 placed at the focus of a parabolic relecting surface then a light ray travelling from F to a point
P on the parabola will be relected in the direction PR parallel to the axis of the parabola.
= 4ay + ( y - a ) The designs of searchlights, relecting telescopes and microwave antenas are based
2
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9. Show that tangent at any point P of a parabola makes equal angles with the line
1. Find the focus, vertex and directrix of the parabola. Sketch its graph.
(ii) x2 = -16y
PF and the line through P parallel to the axis of the parabola, F being focus.
(i) y2 = 8x (iii) x2 = 5y
(iv) y2 = -12x (v) x2 = 4 (y - 1) (vi) y2 = -8(x - 3)
(These angles are called respectively angle of incidence and angle of relection).
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+ 2 =
We have already stated that a conic section is an ellipse if e < 1. x
2
y
2
a (1 - e )
Let 0 < e < 1 and F be a ixed point and L be a ixed line not containing F. Let P(x, y) be or 2 2
1 (1)
a
a point in the plane and PM be the perpendicular distance of P from L. If we write b2 = a2 (1 - e2), then (1) takes the form
The set of all points P such that
+ 2 =
2 2
x y
=e
1 (2)
PF a
2
b
PM
which is an equation of the ellipse in the standard form.
is called an ellipse.
Moreover, eccertricity of the ellipse is e = .
The number e is eccentricity of the ellipse, F a focus and L a directrix. c
We have b2 = a2 (1 - e2)
a
6.5.1 Standard Form of an Ellipse (i) From the relation b2 = a2 (1 - e2), we note that b < a
-a
be the directix of an ellipse with eccentricity e, e
directrix is x =
2
e
.
(0 < e < 1). Let P(x, y) be any point on the ellipse and suppose that PM is the perpendicular e
distance of P from the directrix. Then
If we take the point (ae, 0) as focus and the line x =
a
(iii) as directrix, it can be
PM = x +
c e
e
2 seen easily that we again obtain equation (2). Thus the ellipse (2) has two foci
(iv) The point (acosq, bsinq) lies on (2) for all real q. x = acosq, y = bsinq are
c
( x + c) + y = e x + 2
2 called parametric equations of the ellipse (2).
e
2 2 2
(v) If in (2), b = a then it becomes
x 2 + y2 = a2
which is a circle. In this case b2 = a2(1 - e2) = a2 and so e = 0. Thus circle is a special case
of an ellipse with eccenctricty 0 and foci tending to the centre.
Deinitions: Let F ’ and F be two foci of the ellipse
x + 2cx + c + y = e x + 2cx + 2 - e +) y= - e )
2 2
c c
+ 2 =
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
or or x (1 2
(1 x
2
y
2
e e 2
1 (1)
a b
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+ =
x2 y 2
1
a 2 b2
Since only even powers of both x and y occur in (1), the curve is symmetric with respect
to both the axes.
From (1), we note that
≤ 1 and 2 ≤ 1
x2 y2
a2 b
x ≤ a and y 2 ≤ b 2
(i) The midpoint C of FF ’ is called the centre of the ellipse. In case of (1) coordinates of
2 2
i.e.,
-a ≤ x ≤ a -b≤ y ≤b
C are (0,0).
(ii) The intersection of (1) with the line joining the foci are obtained by setting y = 0 or and
into (1). These are the points A’(-a, 0) and A(a, 0). The points A and A’ are called Thus all points of the ellipse lie on or within the rectangle (2). The curve meets the
vertices of the ellipse. x-axis at A(-a, 0) and A’ (a, 0) and it meets the y-axis at B(0,-b), B’ (0, b). The graph of the ellipse
(iii) The line segment AA’ = 2a is called the major axis of the ellipse. The line through can easily be drawn as shown in the following igure.
the centre of (1) and perpendicular to themajor axis has its equation as x = 0. It
meets (1) at points B’ (0, b) and B (0,-b). The line segment BB’=2b is called the
minor axis of the ellipse and B’, B are some-times called thecovertices of the
ellipse. Since b2 = a2(1 - e2) and e < 1, the length of the major axis is greater than
the length of the minor axis. (See igure)
(iv) Foci of an ellipse always lie on the major axis.
(v) Each of the focal chords LFL‘ and NF'N' perpendicular to the major axis of an
ellipse is called a latusrectum of the ellipse. Thus there are two laterarecta of an
2
2b
ellipse. It is an easy exercise to ind that length of each latusrectum is
a
{See problem 5}.
(vi) If the foci lie on the y-axis with coordinates (0,-ae) and (0,ae), then equation of the The graph of the ellipse
ellipse is
+ = 1, a > b
x2 y 2
+ 2 = 1. a > b.
2 2
x y
2 b2 a 2
b a
can be sketched as in the case of (1). Its shape is shown in above igure (ii).
The reader is urged to derive this equation.
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Summary of standard Ellipses Example 1. Find an equation of the ellipse having centre at (0,0), focus at (0,-3) and one
vertex at (0,4). Sketch its graph.
+ = 1, a > b + = 1, a > b
x2 y 2 x2 y 2
Solution. The second vertex has coordinates (0, -4).
Equation
a 2 b2 b2 a 2
c2 = a2 - b2 c2 = a2 - b2 Length of the semi-major axis is
Foci (±c, 0) (0, ±c) a=4
x= ± y= ±
c c Also c=3
From b2 = a2 - c2,
Directrices
e2 e2 we have
Major axis y=0 x=0 b2 = 16 - 9 = 7
Vertices (±a, 0) (0, ±a) b = 7 which is length of
Convertices (0, ±b) (±b, 0) the semi-minor axis.
Centre (0, 0) (0, 0) Since the foci lie on the y-axis;
e= <1 e= <1
c c equation of the ellipse is
Eccentricity
a a
+ =
y 2 x2
1
16 7
The graph is as shown above.
+ =
x2 y 2
1
9 4
which is standard form of an ellipse.
Semi-major axis a = 3
Semi-minor axis b = 2
From b2 = a2 - c2 , we have
Note: In each ellipse
c2 = b2 - a2 = 9 - 4 = 5
Length of major axis = 2a, Length of minor axis = 2b
2b 2 or c= ± 5
, Foci lie on the major axis
F (- 5,0), F ′( 5,0); A(-3,0), A′(3,0)
Length of Latusrectum =
a Foci: Vertices:
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=
or (1,-4) and (1,2)
Directrices: x =
± 2= ± =
±
c 5 9 2b 2 4
; Length of latusrectum = are the vertices of (1).
e 5 5 a 3
9 Covertices of (2) are
The graph is as shown above. X = ± 2, Y = 0
i.e., x - 1 = ±2, y + 1 = 0
Example 3. Show that the equation (-1, -1) (3, -1)
9x2 - 18x + 4y2 + 8y - 23 = 0
or and
(1) are the covertices of (1).
represents an ellipse. Find its elements and sketch its graph. The graph of (1) is as shown.
( x - 1) 2 ( y + 1) 2
Solution: Let the x-axis be along the base of the arch and the y-axis pass through its centre.
or + =
1 (2) An equation of the ellipse representing the arch is
4 9
If we set x - 1 = X, y + 1 = Y into (2), it becomes x2
+
y2
=
1 (1)
202 152
+ =
X2 Y2
1 (3) Let the height of an arch at a distance of 10 m from the centre be y. Then the points
22 32
which is an ellipse with major axis along X = 0 i.e., along the line, x - l = 0
(10, y) lies on (1)
For x = 10, we have
(i.e. a line parallel to the y-axis)
1 3
Semi-major axis = 3, Semi-minor axis = 2
= - = ,
2
y2
4 2
1
c = 9 - 4 = 5 , Eccentricity =
152
so that y =
. 15 3
Centre of (2) is X = 0, Y = 0
x - 1, y = -1 i.e., (1, -1) is centre of (1)
2
or 15 3
The foci of (2) are Required height = m.
2
X = 0, Y = ± 5
i.e., x - 1 =0, y + 1 =± 5
i.e., (1, -1 + 5) and (1, - 1 - 5) are foci of (1).
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EXERCISE 6.5 6. The major axis of an ellipse in standard form lies along the x-axis and has length
4 2 . The distance between the foci equals the length of the minor axis. Write an
1. Find an equation of the ellipse with given data and sketch its graph: equation of the ellipse.
(i) Foci (±3,0) and minor axis of length 10 7. An astroid has elliptic orbit with the sun at one focus. Its distance from the sun
(ii) Foci (0,-1) and (0,-5) and major axis of length 6. ranges from 17 million miles to 183 million miles. Write an equation of the orbit
(iii) Foci (-3 3,0) and vertices (±6,0) of the astroid.
(iv) Vertices (-1,1), (5,1); foci (4,1) and (0,1) 8. An arch in the shape of a semi-ellipse is 90m wide at the base and 30m high at the
centre. At what distance from the centre is the arch 20 2 m high?
3
Foci (± 5,0) and passing through the point , 3
2
(v) 9. The moon orbits the earth in an elliptic path with earth at one focus. The major and
minor axes of the orbit are 768,806 km and 767,746 km respectively. Find the
3 greatest and least distances (in Astronomy called the apogee and perigee
(vi) Vertices (0, ±5), eccentricity .
5
(vii) Centre (0,0), focus (0, -3), vertex (0,4)
respectively) of the moon from the earth.
(viii) Centre (2, 2), major axis parallel to y-axis and of length 8 units, minor axis
6.6 HYPERBOLA AND ITS ELEMENTS
parallel to x-axis and of length 6 units.
(ix) Centre (0, 0), symmetric with respect to both the axes and passing through
We have already stated that a conic section is a hyperbola if e > 1. Let e > 1 and F be
the points (2, 3) and (6, 1).
a ixed point and L be a line not containing F. Also let P(x, y) be a point in the plane and
(x) Centre (0, 0), major axis horizontal, the points (3, 1), (4, 0) lie on the graph.
PM be the perpendicular distance of P from L.
2. Find the centre, foci, eccentricity, vertices and directrices of the
The set of all points P(x, y) such that
ellipse, whose equation is given:
= e >1
(i) x2 + 4y2 = 16 (ii) 9x2 + y2 = 18 PF
(2 x - 1) ( y + 2)
(1)
+ =
2 2 PM
(iii) 25x2 + 9y2 = 225 (iv) 1
3. Let a be a positive number and 0 < c < a. Let F(-c, 0) and F ’(c, 0) be two given points. 6.6.1 Standard Equation of Hyperbola
Prove that the locus of points P(x, y) such that
PF + PF ′ = Let F(c, 0) be the focus with c > 0 and x =
c
2a , is an ellipse. be the directrix of the hyperbola.
e2
4. Use problem 3 to ind equation of the ellipse as locus of points P(x, y) such that the
Also let P(x, y) be a point on the hyperbola, then by deinition
sum of the distances from P to the points (0, 0) and (1, 1) is 2.
=e
5. Prove that the lactusrectum of the ellipse. PF
+ =
PM
x2 y 2 2b 2
1 is
a 2 b2 a
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meets the x-axis at points with y = 0 and x = ±a. The points A(-a, 0 and A’(a, 0) are called
c
i.e. (x - c) + y = e x - 2 x-2 2cx
+ c+2 y= 2 e2 x-2 2cx
+
2
c2 vertices of the hyperbola. The line segament AA’ = 2a is called the transverse (or focal)
e
2 2 2
or
e2 axis of the hyperbola (3). The equation (3) does not meet the y-axis in real points. However
1 c2 2 the line segment joining the points B(0, -b) and B’(0, b) is called the conjugate axis of
x (e - 1) - y = c 1 - 2 = 2 (e - 1)
e e
2 2 2 2
or (2) the hyperbola. The midpoint (0,0) of AA’ is called the centre of the hyperbola.
In case of hyperbola (3), we have
Let us set a = , so that (2) becomes
c
b2 = a2(e2 - 1) = c2 - a2. The eccentricity e=
>1
c
e
a
x (e - 1) - y =
- a (e - 1) 0 =
- or
x2 y2
a 2 (e 2 - 1)
2 2 2 2 2
1 so that, unlike the ellipse, we may have b > a or b < a or b = a
a2
The point (a sec q, b tan q) lies on the hyperbola 2 - 2 = 1 for all real values of q.
x2 y 2
- =
x2 y 2 (ii)
The equations x = a sec q, y = b tan q are called parametric equations of the hyperbola.
or 1 (3) a b
a 2 b2
where b2 = a2(e2 - 1) = c2 - a2 a c = ae
Since y =
± x - a 2 , when | x | ,so that x 2 a-2 →,
(3) is standard equation of the hyperbola. b 2
(iii) x 2 we have
a
It is clear that the curve is symmetric with respect to both the axes.
y±= x - =
If we take the point (-c, 0) as focus b x2 y 2
i.e. 0 (2)
-c
a a 2 b2
and the line x = as directrix, then it The lines (2) do not meet the curve but distance of any point on the curve from any of
e2
is easy to see that the set of all points the two lines approaches zero. Such lines are called asymptotes of a curve. Joint equation
P(x, y) such that of the asymptotes of (3) is obtained by writing 0 instead of 1 on the right hand side of the
PF = e PM standard form (3). Asymptotes are very helpful in graphing a hyperbola.
is hyperbola with (3) as its equation. The ellipse and hyperbola are called central conics because each has a centre of
Thus a hyperbola has two foci and two symmetry.
directrices.
If the foci lie on the y-axis, then roles of x and y are interchanged in (3) and the equation 6.6.2 Graph of the hyperbola
- =
of the hyperbola becomes x2 y 2
1 (1)
- =
y 2 x2 a 2 b2
1.
a 2 b2 The curve is symmetric with respect to both the axes. We rewrite (1) as
= - y a2 )=
Deinition: The hyperbola y 2 x2 2 b2 2
1 or (x
b2 a 2 a2
- = or ± y = - x a
x2 y 2 b 2 2
1 (1) (2)
a 2 b2 a
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If x < a , then y is imaginary so that no portion of the curve lies between -a < x < a. For Centre (0, 0) (0, 0)
x ≥ a, = x - a2 ≤ x
b 2 b
y
a a
so that points on the curve lie below the corresponding points on the line y = x in
b Graph
a
irst quadrant.
-b
y-= -x 2 a≥2 x if ≥x a
b
-b
a a
and in this case the points on the curve lie above the line y =
Example 1. Find an equation of the hyperbola whose foci are (±4, 0) and vertices (±2, 0).
x in fourth quadrant.
a Sketch its graph.
If x 7 a, then by similar arguments,
-b 2
a Therefore, the equation is
= x - a 2 , then points on the curve lie
- =
If y x2 y 2
a 1.
above the correspondent point on y = x in
b 4 12
a The graph of the curve is as shown.
third quadrant. Thus there are two branches of
the curve. Moreover, from (2) we see that as x → ∞, y → ∞ so that the two branches extend Example 2. Discuss and sketch the graph of the equation
to ininity 25x2 - 16y2 = 400 (1)
Solution: The given equation is
= -= 1 - or
Summary of Standard Hyperbolas x2 y 2 x2 y2
- = - =
1
x2 y 2 y 2 x2 16 25 42 52
Equation 1 1
a 2 b2 a 2 b2 which is an equation of the hyperbola with
Foci (±c, 0) (0, ±c) transverse axis along the x-axis.
x= ± y= ±
c c Here a = 4, b = 5
b2 = c2 - a2 , we have
Directrices
e2 e2 From
Transverse axis y=0 x=0 c 2 = 34 or c = ± 34
Vertices (±a, 0) (0, ±a) Foci of the hyperbola are: (± 34,0)
e= >1 e= >1
c c Vertices: (±4, 0)
Eccentricity
a a Ends of the conjugate axes are the points (0, ±5)
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Eccentricity: e= =
- 2 =
c 34
X2 Y2
a 4 1 (3)
12
so that it is a hyperbola with centre at X = 0, Y = 0 i.e., the centre of (1) is (1, -1).
2
± y± = =
b 5
The curve is below the lines x x x
a 4 The transverse axis of (3) is Y = 0 i.e., y + 1 = 0 is the transverse axis of (1). Vertices of
which are its asymptotes. The sketch of the curve is as shown. (3) are: X = ±1, y = 0
i.e. x - 1 = ±1, y + 1 = 0 or (0, -1) and (2, -1)
Example 3. Find the eccentricity, the coordinates of the vertices and foci of the Here a = 1 and b = 2 so that, we have c = a 2 + b2 = 5
asymptotes of the hyperbola
- = Eccentricity e= =
y 2 x2 c
1 (1) 5
16 49 a
±X ==
Also sketch its graph.
Foci of (3) are: 5 ,Y 0
Solution. The transverse axis of (1) lies along the y-axis. Coordinates of the vertices are i.e., x=
1 5 and ±y 1 =-
(0,±4). i.e., (1 + 5, -1) and (1 - 5, -1)
Here a = 4, b = 7 so that from c2 = a2 + b2, we get are foci of (1).
c2 = 16 + 49 or c = 65
Foci are: (0, ± 65)
Ends of the conjugate axis are (±7, 0)
Equations of the directrices of (3) are: X =
± 2=± =
±
c 5 1
Eccentricity= =
c 65 e 5 5
x -1 = ± x =1+ x =1-
a 4 1 1 1
x = ±7, y = ±4 or or and
5 5 5
The graph of the curve is as shown. The sketch of the curve is as shown.
Example 4. Discuss and sketch the graph of the equation EXERCISE 6.6
4x2 - 8x - y2 - 2y - 1 = 0 (1)
1. Find an equation of the hyperbola with the given data. Sketch the graph of each.
Solution: Completing the squares in x and y in the given equation, we have (i) Centre (0, 0), focus (6, 0), vertex (4, 0)
4(x2 - 2x +1) - (y2 + 2y +1) = 4 (ii) Foci (±5, 0), vertex (3, 0)
4(x - 1)2 - (y + 1)2 = 4
Foci (2 ± 5 2, -7) , length of the transverse axis 10.
or
(iii)
( x - 1) 2 (y + 1) 2
- =
(iv) Foci (0, ±6), e = 2.
or 1 (2)
12 22 (v) Foci (0, ±9), directrices y = ±4
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(vi) Centre (2, 2), horizontal transverse axis of length 6 and eccentricity e = 2 conic at some point on the conic, we shall irst ind the slope of the tangent at the given
(vii) Vertices (2, ±3), (0, 5) lies on the curve.
(viii) Foci (5, -2), (5,4) and one vertex (5, 3)
dy
point by calculating from the equation of the conic at that point and then using the
point - slope form of a line, it will be quite simple to write an equation of the tangent.
dx
2. Find the centre, foci, eccentricity, vertices and equations of directrices of each of
the following: Since the normal to a curve at a point on the curve is perpendicular to the tangent through
x -y =9 - =
x2 y 2 the point of tangency, its equation can be easily written.
2 2
(i) (ii) 1
4 9
- = - x2 =
y 2 x2 Example 1. Find equations of the tangent and normal to
y2
(iii) 1 (iv) 1 (i) y2 = 4ax (1)
16 9 4
( x - 1) 2 ( y - 1) 2 ( y + 2) 2 ( x - 2) 2
(v) - = 1 (vi) - = 1 (ii) +
x2 y 2
=1 (2)
2 9 9 16
9 x 2 - 12 x - y 2 - 2 y + 2 = (viii) 4 y 2 + 12 y - x 2 + 4 x + 1 =
a 2 b2
- =
(vii) 0 0 x2 y 2
(ix) x 2 - y 2 + 8 x - 2 y - 10 = (x) 9 x 2 - y 2 - 36 x - 6 y + 18 =
(iii) 1 (3)
0 0 a 2 b2
3. Let 0 < a < c and F ’ (-c, 0), F(c, 0) be two ixed points. Show that the set of points at the point (x1, y1).
P(x, y) such that
±′ =
PF - PF - =
x2 y2 Solution: (i). Diferentiating (1) w.r.t. x, we get
a2 c2 - a2
2a, is the hyperbola 1
=
=
dy dy
(F, F ’ are foci of the hyperbola) 2y 4a or 2a
Using Problem 3, ind an equation of the hyperbola with foci (-5, -5) and (5, 5),
dx dx
dy
=
4.
vertices (-3 2, -3 2) and (3 2,3 2) .
2a
dx ( x1 , y1 ) y1
Slope of the tangent at (x1, y1)
5. For any point on a hyperbola the diference of its distances from the points (2, 2) and
(10, 2) is 6. Find an equation of the hyperbola. Equation of the tangent to (1) at (x1, y1) is
Two listening posts hear the sound of an enemy gun. The diference in time is one
y - y1 = ( x - x1 ) or yy1 - y12 = 2ax - 2ax1 or yy1 - 2ax = y12 - 2ax1
6. 2a
second. If the listening posts are 1400 feet apart, write an equation of the hyperbola y1
Adding -2ax, to both sides of the above equation, we obtain
passing through the position of the enemy gum. (Sound travels at 1080 ft/sec).
- y1
dy
Slope of the normal =
of a curve y = f(x) or f(x, y) = 0 that represents the slope of the tangent line to
dx (negative reciprocal of slope of the tangent)
the curve at the point (x, y). In order to ind an equation of the tangent to a given 2a
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- y1 + 2 =1 and + =a 2 + b 2 , respectively.
a 2 x b2 y
y -= ( x - x1 )
xx1 yy1
y1 a 2
b x1 y1
2a
+ =
x2 y 2 Remarks
(ii) 1
a 2 b2 An equation of the tangent at the point (x1, y1) of any conic can be written by making
Diferentiating the above equation, w.r.t. x, we have
replacements in the equation of the conic as under:
+ =
0 - or =
2 x 2 y dy dy b2 x Replace x2 by xx1
a 2 b 2 dx dx a2 y y2 by yy1
dy -b 2 x1
= ( x + x1 )
dx ( x1 , y1 ) a 2 y1
or 1
x by
2
( y + y1 )
Equation of the tangent to (2), at (x1, y1) is 1
y by
-b 2 x1
2
y=
- y1 ( x - x1 )
a 2 y1
yy1 y12 - xx1 x12
Example 1. Write equations of the tangent and normal to the parabola x2 = 16y at the
- = 2 + 2 + = +
xx1 yy1 x 2 y12 point whose abscissa is 8.
or or
b2 b2 a a a 2 b2 a 2 a 2
- =a 2 - b 2 , as an equation of the normal. Write equations of the tangent and normal to the conic x + y =
a 2 x b2 y 2 2
Example 2. 1 at the
x1 y1 8 9
(iii) Proceeding as in (ii), it is easy to see that equations of the tangent and normal point 8 ,1 .
to (3) at (x1, y1) are 3
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Solution: The given equation is ordinates of the points of intersection. Thus the line (1) cuts the parabola (2) in two points.
9x2 +8y2 - 72 = 0 (1) In order that (1) is a tangent to (2), the points of intersection of a line and the parabola must
Diferentiating (1) w.r.t. x, we have be conicident. In this case, the roots of (3) should be real and equal.
8
This means that the discriminant of (3) is zero. Thus
This is slope of the tangent to (1) at ,1 . 4(mc - 2a)2 - 4m2c2 = 0 i.e., -4mca + 4a2 = 0
3
c=
Equation of the tangent at this point is a
or , is. the required condition for (1) to be a tangent to (2). Hence
8
y - 1 =-3 . x - =-3 x + 8 or 3x + y - 9 =0 .
m
3 =
y mx + , is a tangent to y2 = 4ax for all nonzero values of m.
a
m
8
(ii) To determine the points of intersection of
The normal at ,1 has the slope .
1
3
y = mx + c (1)
3
+ =
x2 y 2
Equation of the normal is and 1 (2)
a 2 b2
1 8
y -1 = x - or 3y - 3 = x - or 3 x - 9 y + 1 = 0
8 we solve (1) and (2) simultaneously. Putting the value of y from
3 3 3 (1) into (2), we have
x 2 (mx + c) 2
+ =
1
Theorem: To show that a straight line cuts a conic, in general, in two points and to ind the a2 b2
condition that the line be a tangent to the conic. or (a2m2 + b2)x2 + 2mca2 x + a2c2 - a2b2 = 0 (3)
Let a line y = mx + c cut the conics which is a quardratic in x and it gives the abscissas of the two points where (1) and (2)
intersect. The corresponding values of y are obtained by setting the values of x
+ = - =
x2 y 2 x2 y 2 obtained from (3) into (1). Thus (1) and (2) intersect in two points. Now (1) is a
(i) y = 4ax (ii) 1 (iii) 1
a 2 b2 a 2 b2 tangent to (2) if the point of intersection is a single point.
This requires (3) to have equal roots. Hence (1) is a tangent to (2) if
(2mca2)2 - 4(a2m2 + b2)(a2c2 - a2b2) = 0
We shall discuss each case separately.
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(iii) We replace b2 by -b2 in (ii) and the line y = mx + c is a tangent to Example 5. Find equations of the tangents to the ellipse
- 2 =
1 if± c =-a 2 m 2 b 2 + =
x2 y 2 x2 y 2
2
1 (1)
a b 128 18
which are parallel to the line 3x + 8y + 1 = 0. Also ind the points of contact.
Thus y =±mx a -m are tangents to the hyperbola: 2 - 2 =
x2 y 2
-3
2 2 2
b 1 for all non-zero
a b Solution: The slope of the required tangents is . Equations of the tangents are
values of m.
8
-6 -3
We solve (1) and (3) simultaneously to ind the point of contact. Inserting the value of
=
a= y from (3) into (1), we get
4 2
-3
x + 6 x + 36 - x
Equation of the tangent is
2
+ = 1 or
9 2 9
y=
mx + = -2 x + + 64 2 = 1
2 2
a 3 x 8 x
128 18 128 18
i.e., 8x + 4y - 3 = 0
m 4
+= +2- = 1 - or+
(2) x2 x2 x x2 x
or 1 0
-8 x + 3
Inserting the value of y from (2) viz y =
128 128 4 64 4
x -3
=- 1 0 i.e.,
= x 8 = + so
into (1), we have 2
8
4 or and x 6 3
-8 x + 3
8
= -6 x
2
Thus (8, 3) is the point of tangency of (3).
4 It can be seen in a similar manner that point of contact of (2) is (-8, -3).
or 64x - 48x + 9 = -96x
2
or 64x2 +48x + 9 = 0
-3
Example 6. Show that the product of the distances from the foci to any tangent to the
or (8x + 3)2 = 0 i.e., x= hyperbola
8
Putting this value of x into (2), we get
- =
x2 y 2
-3
-8 + 3
1 (1)
a 2 b2
=
=y 8 3 is constant.
4 2
-3 3
The point of tangency is , .
Solution: The line
8 2 y=
+mx a 2-m 2 b 2 (2)
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But (-2,5) does not satisfy (2). 2. Write equation of the tangent to the given conic at the indicated point
Thus (0,1) and (2,5) are the points of (i) 3x2 = -16y at the points whose ordinate is -3.
intersections of (1) and (2). y = 1 + x2 is a parabola (ii) 3x2 - 7y2 = 20 at the points where y = -1.
with vertex at (0,1) and opening upward, (iii) 3x2 - 7y2 + 2x - y - 48 = 0 at the point where x = 4.
y = 1 + 4x - x2 may be written as y - 5 = -(x - 2)2 which 3. Find equations of the tangents to each of the following through the given point:
is a parabola with vertex. (2,5) and opening downward (i) x2 + y2 = 25 through (7 ,-1)
(ii) y2 = 12x through (1, 4)
(iii) x2 - 2y2 = 2 through (1, -2)
Example 9. Find equations of the common tangents to the two conics 4. Find equations of the normals to the parabola y2 = 8x which are parallel to the line
2x + 3y = 10.
= += 1 + and
x2 y 2 x2 y2
+ y2 =
1
16 25 25 9 x2
5. Find equations of the tangents to the ellipse 1 which are parallel to the line
2x - 4y + 5 = 0.
4
m= ±
4 8. Find the points of intersection of the given conics
or 9m = 16 or
3
+ = - =
Using these values of m, equations of the four common tangents are: x2 y 2 x2 y 2
(i) 1 and 1
x2 - y2 = 1
18 8 3 3
y± =± x
4 (ii) x2 + y2 = 8 and
3x2 - 4y2 = 12 3y2 - 2x2 = 7
481
3 (iii) and
(iv) 3x2 + 5y2 = 60 and 9x2 + y2 = 124
EXERCISE 6.7 (v) 4x2 + y2 = 16 and x2 + y2 + y + 8 = 0
1. Find equations of the tangent and normal to each of the following at the indicated
6.8 TRANSLATION AND ROTATION OF AXES
point:
(i) y2 = 4ax at (a t2, 2a t)
Translation of Axes
+ = (a cos q, b sin q)
x2 y 2 In order to facilitate the investigation of properties of a curve
(ii) 1 at with a given equation, it is sometimes necessary to shift the origin
a 2 b2
- = (a sec q, b tan q)
x2 y 2 O(0, 0) to some other point O’ (h, k). The axes O‘X , O’Y drawn through O’ remain parallel to
(iii) 1 at the original axes Ox and Oy. The process is called translation of axes.
a 2 b2
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These are called equations of transformation. Putting h = 2, k = -1 into (2), the transformed equation is X2 + 4Y2 - 4 = 0.
From (1), we have
Rotation of Axes
X= x - h To ind equations for a rotation of axes about the origin through an angle q(0 < q < 900).
Y= y - k
(2)
(origin remaining unaltered).
Let the axes be rotated about the origin
through an angle q. The new axes OX, OY are as
(1) and (2) will be used to transform an equation in one system into the other system.
The axes Ox and Oy are referred to as the original (or old) axes and O‘X, O’Y are called
shown in the igure.
the translated axes (or new axes).
Let P be any point in the plane with
X = OQ = r cos a, Y = QP = r sin a
y=Y+1
(1)
and x = r cos(q + a), y = r sin (q + a)
Substituting these values of x, y into (1), we have
(X - 3)2 + 6(X - 3 ) - 8 (Y + 1) + 17 = 0
X2 - 6X + 9 + 6X - 18 - 8Y - 8 + 17 = 0 = x -r cosq cos a r sin q sin a
or
or X2 - 8Y = 0 is the required transformed equation. =
or
y r sin q cos a + r cosq sin a
(2)
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Substituting the values of r cos a, r sin a from (1) into (2), we get Since this equation is to be free from the product term XY, the coeicient of XY
is zero, i.e. -10sinq cosq +2 3(cos 2q - sin 2q )+14sinq cosq = 0
=x X cosq - Y sin q
2sin 2q +2 3cos 2q = 0
=y X sin q + y cosq
or
-2 3
as the required equations of transformation for a rotation of axes through an angle q. or tan 2q = = tan 1200 or q = 600
2
Example 3: Find an equation of 5x2 - 6xy + 5y2 - 8 = 0 with Thus axes be rotated through an angle of 600 so that XY term is removed from
respect to new axes obtained by rotation of axes about the origin through an angle of 1350. the transformed equation.
Setting q = 600 into (1), the transformed equation is (after simpliication)
Solution. Here q = 135. Equations of transformation are 8X2 + 4Y2 - 16 = 0 or 2X2 + Y2 - 4 = 0
-X -1
x = X cos1350 - Y sin1350 = - = (X + Y)
Y
EXERCISE 6.8
2 2 2
x = X sin1350 + Y cos1350 = - = (X -Y)
X Y 1
1. Find an equation of each of the following with respect to new parallel axes obtained
2 2 2
Substituting these expressions for x, y into the given equation, we have by shifting the origin to the indicated point:
(i) x2 + 16y - 16 = 0, O’ (0, 1)
X +Y X +Y X -Y X -Y (ii) 4x2 + y2 + 16x - 10y + 37
5 - - 6 - + 5 -8 =
2 2
= 0, O’ (2, 5)
2 2 2 (iii) 9x2 + 4x2 + 18x - 16y - 11 = 0, O’ (-1, 2)
. 0
2
(iv) x2 - y2 + 4x + 8y - 11 = 0, O’ (-2, 4)
( X + 2 XY + Y 2 ) + 3( X 2 - Y 2 ) + ( X 2 - 2 XY + Y 2 ) - 8 = (v) 9x2 - 4y2 + 36x + 8y - 4
5 2 5
or 0 = 0, O’ (2, 1)
8X2 + 2Y2 - 8 = 0
2 2
2. Find coordinates of the new origin (axes remaining parallel) so that irst degree
or or 4X2 + Y2 = 4
terms are removed from the transformed equation of each of the following. Also ind
is the required transformed equation.
the transformed equation:
(i) 3x2 - 2y2 + 24x + 12y + 24 = 0
(ii) 25x2 + 9y2 + 50x - 36y - 164 = 0
Example 4: Find the angle through which the axes be rotated about the origin so that
the product term XY is removed from the transformed equation of 5x 2 + 2 3 xy + 7x 2 - 16 = 0 .
(iii) x2 - y2 - 6x + 2y + 7 = 0
Also ind the transformed equation.
3. In each of the following, ind an equation referred to the new axes obtained by
Solution. Let the axes be rotated through an angle q. Equations of transformation are
rotation of axes about the origin through the given angle:
q = 450
x = X cos q - Y sin q y = X sin q + Y cos q
(i) xy = 1,
(ii) 7x2 - 8xy + y2 - 9 = 0, q = arctan 2
;
Substituting into the given equation, we get
5(Xcosq - Ysinq ) 2 +2 3(Xcosq - Ysinq )(Xsinq +Ycosq ) 9 x 2 + 12 xy + 4 y 2 - x -= q arctan
y 0, =
2
(iii)
+ 7(X sin q + y cos q)2 - 16 = 0
3
x 2 - 2 xy + y 2 - 2 2 x - 2 2 y + 2 = 0, q = 45°
(1)
(iv)
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4. Find measure of the angle through which the axes be rotated so that the product we can write (1) as
term XY is removed from the transformed equation. Also ind the transformed equation:
2x2 + 6xy + 10y2 - 11 = 0 xy + 4x - 3y - 10 = 0 2 G G2 2 F F 2 G2 F 2
(i) A x + x + ′
- B y - ′ y + ′2 = - - C = M (say)
4 B 4 A 4 B′
(ii)
(iii) 5x - 6xy + 5y - 8 4 A2
or
2 2
=0 A B
G
′ F
A x + - - =
2 2
2A 2 B′
or B y M
6.9 THE GENERAL EQUATION OF
AX 2 - B′Y 2 =M , where+X = =
-, Y
2 B′
G F
SECOND DEGREE or x y
2A
( ) ( )
- =
Standard equations of conic sections, namely circle, parabola, ellipse and hyperbola X2 Y2
M B′
have already been studied in the previous sections. Now we shall take up the general equation or 2 2
1
M A
of second degree viz.
Ax2 + By2 + Gx + Fy + C = 0 (1) and this is standard equation of a hyperbola in XY-coordinates system.
(iv) If A = 0 or B = 0 (both cannot be zero since in that case the equation (1)
reduces to a linear equation). Assume A ≠ 0 and B = 0.
The nature of the curve represented by (1) can be determined by examining the
coeicients A, B in the above equation. The following cases arise:
(i) If A = B ≠ 0, equation (1) may be written as The equation (1) becomes Ax2 + Gx + Fy + C = 0
G2
A( x 2 + y 2 ) + Gx =
+ Fy + C 0 or x2 + y 2 + x += y+ A x2 + x + =- - +
G2
G F C G
4 A2
0 or Fy C
A A A A 4A
G F G C G2
which represents a circle with centre at - ,- + - . A x +
and radius = -F y + -
G2 F 2 C 2
2A 2A 2A F 4 AF
4 A2 4 A A or
2A 2B 4 A 4B
or (2) (i)
(ii) an ellipse if A ≠ B and both are of the same sign
If we write X+= x += (iii) a hyperbola if A ≠ B and both are of opposite signs
G F
,Y y , then (2) can be written as
4A 2B
(iv) a parabola if either A = 0 or B = 0.
AX + BY = + - C = K (say) or + =
2 2G2 F 2 X2 Y2
1
4 A 4B ( K A )2 ( K B )2
6.9.1 Classiication of Conics by the Discriminant
which is standard equation of an ellipse in XY-coordinate system.
(iii) If A ≠ B and both have opposite signs (say A is positive and B is negative), The most general equation of the second degree
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-6 3
= 2q = 3 °or q =30
The equation (1) can be transformed to the form
7 - 13
tan
AX2 + BY2 + 2GX + 2Fy + C = 0 (2)
if the axes are rotated about the origin through an angle q, (0 < q < 90°) where q is given by Equations of transformation are
3X - Y
= x X cos30° - Y sin
= 30°
tan 2q =
2h
a -b
X + 3Y
2 (2)
= y X sin 30° + Y cos30
= °
If a = b or a = 0 = b, then the axes are to be rotated through an angle of 450.
2
Equations of transformation (as already found) are Substituting these expressions in to the equation (1), we get
= x X cosq - Y sin q
3X - Y 3 X - Y X + 3Y X + 3Y
= y X sin q + Y cosq 7 - 6 3 + 13 =
2 2
(3)
16
2 2 2 2
Substitution of these values of x, y into (1) will result in an equation of the form (2) in
which product term XY will be missing. Nature of the conic (2) has already been discussed in which simpliies to
the last article.
=
4 X + 16
=Y 16 + or
X2 Y2
Solving equations (3) for X, Y we ind 2 2
1 (3)
4 1
=X x cosq + y sin q
This is an ellipse.
-Y =x+sin q y cosq
(4) Solving equations (2) for X and Y, (or as already found in (4) of 7.7.1, we have
3x + y -x + 3y
=
=
These equations will be useful in numerical problems.
X , Y
2 2
Note: Under certain conditions equation (1) may not represent any conic. In such a case
Centre of the ellipse (3) is X = 0, Y = 0
i.e., = 3 x + y= 0 - + and
we say (1) represents a degenerate conic.
One such degenerate conic is a pair of straight lines represented by (1) if x 3y 0
giving x = 0, y = 0. Thus centre of (1) is (0, 0)
Length of the major axis = 4, length of minor axis = 2
a h g
f = 0.
Vertices of (3) are: X = ±2, Y = 0
h b
3x + y -x + 3y
= ± =
g f c
i.e., 2 and 0
2 2
The proofs of the above observations are beyond our scope and are omitted.
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x+ y
Solution: Equation of the conic is =± 2 2 and -x +y =
xy - 4 = 0
i.e., 0
(1) 2
Here a = 0 = b, so we rotate the axes through an angle of 450. Equations of Solving these equations, we have the foci of (1) as
(2 2, 2 2) and (-2 2, - 2 2)
X -Y
transformation are
= x X cos 45° - Y sin
= 45° ± (3): X =
2=
2
Vertices of 2, Y 0
x+ y
X +Y = ±2 2 - x + y =0
(2)
= y X sin 45° - Y cos
= 45°
2
and
2
Substituting into (1), we have Solving these equations, we have
X - Y X + Y (2, 2) , (-2, -2) as vertices of (1).
-4 =
2 2 Asymptotes of the hyperbola (3) are given by X2 - Y2 = 0
0
x+ y -x + y x+ y -x + y
-
X2 Y2
=1 (3) i.e., - = 0 and - =0
8 8 2 2 2 2
which is a hyperbola. i.e., x = 0 and y = 0 are equations of the asymptotes of (1).
Solving equations (2) for X, Y, we have
x+ y -x + y
Example 3: By a rotation of axes, eliminate the xy-term in the equation
=
= X , Y 9x2 + 12xy + 4y2 + 2x - 3y = 0 (1)
2 2
Identify the conic and ind its elements.
Centre of the hyperbola (3) is
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Solution: Here a = 9, b = 4, 2h = 12. The angle q through which axes be rotated to given by
13 X= - 13 =
q
1
tan 2= =
2
12 12 or Y 0 or X2 Y
9-4
13
5 which is a parabola.
2 tan q
= 3x + 2 y -2 x + 3 y
1 - tan q Solving equation (2) for X, Y, we have X = ,Y =
12
or 2
5 tan q 6 - 6tan2 q
5
13 13
or = Elements of the parabola are:
or 6 tan2 q + 5 tan q - 6 = 0
= X 0,=
1
-5 ± 25 + 144 -5 ± 13 2 -3
Focus: Y
tan q = =
=
4 13
3x + 2 y -2 x + 3 y
=
=
,
12 12 3 2 1
i.e., 0 and
Since q lies in the irst quadrant, tan q = - is not admissible.
2 13 13 4 13
3
1 3
tan q =⇒ q
sin= cos=q Solving these equations, we have- x == , y - i.e., Focus
= ,
2 2 3 1 3
52
,
3 13 13 26 52 26
(9 X 2 - 12 XY + 9Y 2 ) + (6 X 2 + 5 XY - 6Y 2 ) 2 -
9 12 1 5
or
13 13 a h g 2 2
+ (4 X 2 + 12 XY - 9Y 2 ) - 13Y = h b -f = - 0
4 1
0 1
13 2
81 72 16 2 108 60 48 -1 2
g f c
+ + X +- + + XY
5
13 13 13 13 13 13
or 2
36 72 36 2 1 5 5
+ - + Y - 13Y = = -1 + + 1 -2 +
13 13 13 2 2 4
0
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y - 5 ± ( y - 5) 2 - 8(-2 y + 2)
=0
or x= since the point (x1, y1) lies on (1).
4
y - 5 ± y 2 - 10 y + 25 + 16 y - 16
Hence an equation of the tangent to (1) at (x1, y1) is
= axx1 + h(xy1 + yx1) + byy1 + g(x + x1) + f(y + y1) + c = 0
y - 5 ± ( y + 3)
4
= Note: An equation of the tangent to the general equation of the second degree at the
2y - 2
4
point (x1, y1) may be obtained by replacing
= , -2 x2 by xx1
4
y2 by yy1
Equations of the lines are 2x - y + 1 = 0 and x + 2 = 0.
2xy by xy1 + yx1
2x by x + x1
Tangent
2y by y + y1
Find an equation of the tangent to the conic
in the equation of the conic.
ax2 + 2hxy + by2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0 (1)
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2 x - ( 2 x + 2 y) + 2 y - 2 =
1
0
2
or 2 x+ 2 y-4=0
EXERCISE 6.9
(v) 7 x 2 - 6 3 xy + 13 y 2 - 16 =
0
(vi) 4x2 - 4xy + 7y2 + 12x + 6y - 9 = 0
(vii) xy - 4x - 2y = 0
(viii) x2 + 4xy - 2y2 - 6 = 0
(ix) x2 - 4xy - 2y2 + 10x + 4y = 0
3. Find an equation of the tangent to each of the given conics at the indicated point.
(i) 3x2 - 7y2 + 2x - y - 48 = 0 at (4, 1)
(ii) x2 + 5xy - 4y2 + 4 = 0 at y = -1
(iii) x2 + 4xy - 3y2 - 5x - 9y + 6 = 0 at x = 3.
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CHAPTER
7 Vectors
7.1 INTRODUCTION (iii) If terminal point B of a vector AB coincides with its initial point A, then magnitude
AB = 0 and AB = 0 , which is called zero or null vector.
In physics, mathematics and engineering, we encounter with two important quantities,
(iv) Two vectors are said to be negative of each other if they have same magnitude but
known as “Scalars and Vectors”.
opposite direction.
BA = - AB = - v
A scalar quantity, or simply a scalar, is one that possesses only magnitude. It can
If AB = v , then
be speciied by a number alongwith unit. In Physics, the quantities like mass, time, density,
and BA = - AB
temperature, length, volume, speed and work are examples of scalars.
A vector quantity, or simply a vector, is one that possesses
both magnitude and direction. In Physics, the quantities like displacement, velocity, 7.1.2 Multiplication of Vector by a Scalar
acceleration, weight, force, momentum, electric and magnetic ields are examples of vectors.
In this section, we introduce vectors and their fundamental operations we begin with We use the word scalar to mean a real number. Multiplication of a vector v by a scalar
a geometric interpretation of vector in the plane and in space. ‘k’ is a vector whose magnitude is k times that of v. It is denoted by kv .
(i) If k is +ve, then v and kv are in the same direction.
(ii) If k is -ve, then v and kv are in the opposite direction
i.e., AB = CD
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For the vector u = [x, y], x and y are called the components of u. 7.1.6 Properties of Magnitude of a Vector
Note: The vector [x, y] is an ordered pair of numbers, not a point (x, y) in the plane.
Let v be a vector in the plane or in space and let c be a real number, then
(a) Negative of a Vector (i) v ≥ 0, and v =
0 if and only if v = 0
In scalar multiplication (ii), if a = -1 and u = [x, y] then (ii) cv = c v
au = (-1) [x, y] = [-x, -y]
which is denoted by -u and is called the additive inverse of u or negative vector of u. Proof: (i) We write vector v in component form as v = [x, y], then
v= x 2 + y 2 ≥ 0 for all x and y.
(b) Diference of two Vectors
We deine u - v as u + (-v) Further v = x 2 + y 2 = 0 if and only if x = 0, y = 0
=
= u [ x, y ] and v [ x' , y′], then
In this case v = [0,0] = 0
( cx ) + ( cy )=
If
u - v = u + (-v) cv= cx, cy= c 2 x 2 + y=
2 2
= xi + y j
For any point P(x, y) in R2, a vector u = [x, y] is represented by a directed line segment
OP , whose initial point is at origin. Such vectors are called position vectors because
Thus each vector [x, y] in R2 can be uniquely represented by
xi + y j .
they provide a unique correspondence between the points (positions) and vectors.
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7.1.8 A unit vector in the direction of another given vector. Example 3: Find a unit vector in the direction of the vector
(i) v= 2i + 6 j (ii) v =[-2,4]
A vector u is called a unit vector, if u = 1
Now we ind a unit vector u in the direction of any other given vector v. Solution: (i) v= 2i + 6 j
We can do by the use of property (ii) of magnitude of vector, as follows: v= ( 2) + (6) = 4 + 36 =
2 2
40
v = [3, -4] = 3i - 4 j
Equating horizontal and vertical components, we have
Solution: -x = 3 ⇒ x = -3
v= 32 + (-4)=
2
25= 5 and -5 - y = 7 ⇒ y = -12
= = [3, -4]
Hence coordinates of D are (-3, 12).
1 1
Now u v (u is unit vector in the direction of v)
v 5
3 -4
7.1.9 The Ratio Formula
= ,
5 5
Let A and B be two points whose position vectors (p.v.) are a and b respectively. If a
3 -4
Veriication: u = + = + = 1
2 2
9 16 point P divides AB in the ratio p : q, then the position vector of P is given by
5 5 25 25
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qa + pb Now 2OC= a + b
r=
p+q ⇒ OC + OC = OA + OB
⇒ OC - OA = OB - OC
Proof: Given a and b are position vectors of the points A and B respectively. Let r be
⇒ OC + AO = OB + CO
the position vector of the point P which divides the line segment AB in the ratio p : q. That is
m AP : mPB = p : q
⇒ AO + OC = CO + OB
= ∴ AC =
m AP p
( ) ( )
So CB
Thus m AC = mCB
mPB q
⇒ q m AP = ⇒
( ) ( )
p mPB
C is equidistant from A and B, but A, B, C are collinear.
Thus q AP = p PB
Hence C is the mid point of AB.
⇒ q (r - a ) = p (b - r )
⇒ qr - qa = pb - pr Example 6: Use vectors, to prove that the diagonals of a parallelogram bisect each
⇒ pr + qr = qa + pb
other.
⇒ r ( p + q ) = qa + pb
qa + pb
Solution: Let the vertices of the parallelogram be A, B, C and D (see igure)
⇒ r= = AB + AD , the vector from A to the mid point of diagonal AC is
q+ p
Since AC
( )
2
w= AD + AB - AD
1
2
= AD + AB - AD
7.1.10 Vector Geometry 1 1
( )
2 2
= AB + AD
Let us now use the concepts of vectors discussed so far in proving Geometrical 1
Theorems. A few examples are being solved here to illustrate the method. 2
=v
Since v = w , these mid points of the diagonals AC and DB are the same.
Example 5: If a and b be the p.vs of A and B respectively w.r.t. origin O, and C be a point
a+b
on AB such that OC =
Thus the diagonals of a parallelogram bisect each other.
, then show that C is the mid-point of AB.
2
= a = b and OC
= ( a + b)
1
Solution: OA , OB
2
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EXERCISE 7.1 (i) Point C with position vector 2i - 3 j and point D with position vector 3i + 2 j in
the ratio 4 : 3
Write the vector PQ in the form xi + y j . (ii) Point E with position vector 5 j and point F with position vector 4i + j in ratio 2 : 5
1.
(i) P(2,3), Q(6, -2) (ii) P(0,5), Q(-1, -6) 13. Prove that the line segment joining the mid points of two sides of a triangle is
2. Find the magnitude of the vector u: parallel to the third side and half as long.
(i) u= 2i - 7 j (ii) u= i + j (iii) u = [3, - 4] 14. Prove that the line segments joining the mid points of the sides of a quadrilateral
3. If u =2i - 7 j , v =i - 6 j and w =-i + j . Find the following vectors: taken in order form a parallelogram.
u+v-w 2u - 3v + 4w u+ v+ w
1 1 1
(i) (ii) (iii)
2 2 2
7.2 INTRODUCTION OF VECTOR IN SPACE
Find the sum of the vectors AB and CD , given the four points A(1, -1), B(2 ,0 ),
4. In space, a rectangular coordinate system is constructed
C(-1, 3) and D(-2, 2). using three mutually orthogonal (perpendicular) axes, which
Find the vector from the point A to the origin where AB= 4i - 2 j and B is the point
5. have orgin as their common point of intersection. When
(-2, 5). sketching igures, we follow the convention that the positive
6. Find a unit vector in the direction of the vector given below: x-axis points towards the reader, the positive y-axis to the
right and the positive z-axis points upwards.
v= 2i - j = i+ -v =- i
1 3 3 1
(i) (ii) v j (iii) j
2 2 2 2
7. If A, B and C are respectively the points (2, -4), (4, 0) and (1, 6). Use vector method
to ind the coordinates of the point D if: These axis are also labeled in accordance with the right
(i) ABCD is a parallelogram (ii) ADBC is a parallelogram hand rule. If ingers of the right hand, pointing in the direction
8. If B, C and D are respectively (4, 1), (-2, 3) and (-8, 0). Use vector method to ind of positive x-axis, are curled toward the positive y-axis,
the coordinates of the point: then the thumb will point in the direction of positive z-axis,
(i) A if ABCD is a parallelogram. (ii) E if AEBD is a parallelogram. perpendicular to the xy-plane. The broken lines in the igure
If O is the origin and OP = AB , ind the point P when A and B are (-3, 7) and (1, 0)
represent the negative axes.
9.
respectively.
10. Use vectors, to show that ABCD is a parallelogram, when the points A, B, C and D
are respectively (0, 0), (a, 0), (b, c) and (b - a, c).
A point P in space has three coordinates, one along
If AB = CD , ind the coordinates of the point A when points B, C, D are (1, 2), (-2, 5),
x-axis, the second along y-axis and the third along z-axis. If the
11.
distances along x-axis, y-axis and z-axis respectively are a, b,
(4, 11) respectively.
and c, then the point P is written with a unique triple of real
12. Find the position vectors of the point of division of the line segments joining the
numbers as P = (a, b, c) (see igure).
following pair of points, in the given ratio:
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7.2.1 Concept of a vector in space f) Magnitude of a vector: We deine the magnitude or norm or length of a vector u
in space by the distance of the point P(x, y, z) from the origin O.
∴ OP = u = x 2 + y 2 + z 2
The set R3 = {(x, y, z) : x, y, z d R} is called the
3-dimensional space. An element (x, y, z) of R3 represents
a point P(x, y, z), which is uniquely determined by its Example 1: For the vectors, v = [2,1,3] and w = [-1,4,0], we have the following
coordinates x, y and z. Given a vector u in space, there (i) v + w = [2 - 1, 1 + 4, 3 + 0]= [l,5,3]
exists a unique point P(x, y, z) in space such that the
(ii) v - w = [2 + 1,1 - 4, 3 - 0]= [3, -3, 3]
vector OP is equal to u (see igure). (iii) 2w =2[-1, 4, 0] = [-2, 8, 0]
v - 2w = [ 2 + 2,1 - 8,3 - 0] = [ 4, -7,3] = ( 4) + ( -7 ) + ( 3) = 16 + 49 + 9 =
Now each element (x, y, z ) d P3 is associated to 2 2 2
(iv) 74
a unique ordered triple [x, y, z], which represents the
vector u = OP = [x, y, z].
We deine addition and scalar multiplication in R3 7.2.2 Properties of Vectors
Addition: For any two vectors u = [x, y, z] and v = [ x′, y′, z′] , we have
by:
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(ii) Since for any three real numbers a, b, c, 7.2.4 Distance Between two Points in Space
(a + b) + c = a + (b + c) , it follows that
=
for any three vectors, u [ x= , y ], v [ x′, y′] and w [ x′′, y′′] in R 2 , we have
=
(u + v) + w = [ x + x′, y + y′] + [ x′′, y′′]
P1 ( x1 , y1 , z1 ) and P2 ( x2 , y2 , z2 )
If OP1 and OP2 are the position vectors of the points
= [ x, y ] + [ x′ + x′′, y′ + y′′]
The vector PP1 2 , is given by
1 2 = OP2 - OP1 = [ x2 - x1 , y2 - y1 , z2 - z1 ]
=u + (v + w)
PP
= ( x2 - x1 ) 2 + ( y2 - y1 ) 2 + ( z2 - z1 ) 2
The proofs of the other parts are left as an exercise for the students.
7.2.3 Another notation for representing vectors in space This is called distance formula between two points P1 and P2 in R3,
As magnitude of i = 12 + 02 + 02 = 1
(b) Show that u, v, and w are parallel to each other.
magnitude of j = 02 + 12 + 02= 1
Solution: (a)
(i) u + 2v = 2i + 3 j + k + 2(4i + 6 j + 2k )
= 2i + 3 j + k + 8i + 12 j + 4k
=10i + 15 j + 5k
and magnitude of k = 02 + 02 + 12 = 1 So i, j and k are called unit vectors along
(ii) u - v - w
= (2i + 3 j + k ) - (4i + 6 j + 2k ) - (-6i - 9 j - 3k )
= (2 - 4 + 6)i + (3 - 6 + 9) j + (1 - 2 + 3)k
x-axis, along y-axis and along z-axis respectively. Using the deinition of addition and scalar
= 4i + 6 j + 2k
multiplication, the vector [x, y, z] can be written as
u = [ x, y , z ] = [ x,0,0] + [0, y,0] + [0,0, z ]
= x[1,0,0] + y[0,1,0] + z[0,0,,1] (b) v = 4i + 6 j + 2k = 2(2i + 3 j + k )
=xi + y j + zk ∴ v= 2u
⇒
Thus each vector [x, y, z] in R3 can be uniquely represented by xi + y j + zk .
u and v are parallel vectors, and have same direction
Again w=-6i - 9 j - 3k
= -3(2i + 3 j + k )
u [ x, y, z ] and v [ x′, y′, z′] is written as
In terms of unit vector i , j and k , , the sum u + v of two vectors
=
=
∴ w= -3u
u+v= [ x + x′, y + y′, z + z′] ⇒
= ( x + x′ ) i + ( y + y′ ) j + ( z + z′ ) k
u and w are parallel vectors and have opposite direction.
Hence u, v and w are parallel to each other.
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r =[ x, y, z ] =xi + y j + zk
Solution:
(ii) magnitude is 2 and is parallel to -i + j + k
If u = 2i + 3 j + 4k , , v =-i + 3 j - k and w =+
i 6 j + zk represent the sides of a triangle.
Let
∴ r= x +y +z =
8.
2 2 2
r Find the value of z.
The position vectors of the points A, B, C and D are 2i - j + k , 3i + j ,
x y z
= , , is the unit vector in the direction of the vector r = OP .
9.
2i + 4 j - 2k -i - 2 j + k
r
r r r
then
r and respectively. Show that AB is parallel
It can be visualized that the triangle OAP is a right triangle with ∠A = 900.
to CD .
10. We say that two vectors v and w in space are parallel if there is a scalar c such that
Therefore in right triangle OAP,
v = cw. The vectors point in the same direction if c > 0, and the vectors point in the
= a
=
OA x opposite direction if c < 0
Find two vectors of length 2 parallel to the vector v =2i - 4 j + 4k .
cos , similarly
OP r (a)
= cos b =
y
, cos g
z (b) Find the constant a so that the vectors v =-
i 3 j + 4k and w = ai + 9 j - 12k are
r r parallel.
The numbers cos a = , , cos b = and cos g = Find a vector of length 5 in the direction opposite that of v =-
i 2 j + 3k .
x y z
are called (c)
Find a and b so that the vectors 3i - j + 4k and ai + b j - 2k are parallel.
r r r
(d)
the direction cosines of OP .
x2 y 2 z 2 x2 + y 2 + z 2 r 2
∴ cos a + cos b + cos g = 2 + 2 + 2 =
2 2 2
= 2 =1
r r r r2 r
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11. Find the direction cosines for the given vector: 7.3.1 Deductions of the Important Results
(i) v = 3i - j + 2k (ii) 6i - 2 j + k
(iii) =
=
PQ , where P (2, 1, 5) and Q (1, 3, 1) . By Applying the deinition of dot product to unit vectors i, j , k , we have,
=
= =
=
12. Which of the following triples can be the direction angles of a single vector:
(a) i.i i i cos 0 1 (b) i. j i j cos 90 0
=
= =
=
(i) 450, 450, 600 (ii) 300, 450, 600 (iii) 450, 600, 600
j. j j j cos 0 1 j.k j k cos 90 0
7.3 THE SCALAR PRODUCT OF TWO VECTORS =
=k .k k k cos 0 1 =
=k .i k i cos 90 0
(c) u.v = u v cosq
We shall now consider products of two vectors that originated in the study of Physics = v u cos( - q )
= v u cosq
and Engineering. The concept of angle between two vectors is expressed in terms of a scalar
⇒ u.v =
product of two vectors.
v.u
Deinition 1:
Let two non-zero vectors u and v, in the plane or in space, have same initial point. The ∴ Dot product of two vectors is commutative.
dot product of u and v, written as u.v, is deined by
u.v = u v cosq
Deinition: Two non-zero vectors u and v are perpendicular if and only if u.v = 0.
p p
Since angle between u and v is and cos =0
p
2 2
where q is the angle between u and v and 0767p so u.v = u v cos
2
∴
Deinition 2:
(a) If+ u = a1 i b+1 j =
u.v = 0
and v a2 i b2 j .
are two non-zero vectors in the plane. The dot product u.v is deined by Note: As 0 . b = 0, for every vector b. So the zero vector is regarded to be perpendicular
u.v = a1a2 +b1b2
(b) If u = a1 i + b1 j + c1 k and v = a2 i + b2 j + c2 k .
to every vector.
are two non-zero vectors in space. The dot product u.v is deined by 7.3.3 Properties of Dot Product
u.v = a1a2 + b1b2 + c1c2
Let u, v and w be vectors and let c be a real number, then
u.v = 0 ⇒ u = 0 or v = 0
Note: The dot product is also referred to the scalar product or the inner product.
(i)
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[ x1 - x2 , y1 - y2 ]
if
v-w=
The proofs of the properties are left as an exercise for the students.
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⇒ (2i + a j + 5k ) . (3i + j + a k ) =
a1a2 + b1b2 + c1c2
0
∴ cosq = ⇒ 6 + a + 5a =
a12 + b12 + c12 a2 2 + b2 2 + c2 2 ∴ -a =
0
1
Corollaries:
If q = 0 or p, the vectors u and v are collinear.
Example 6:
Show that the vectors 2i - j + k , i - 3 j - 5k and 3i - 4 j - 4k form the sides of a right
(i)
p
(ii) If q = , cosq =0 ⇒ u.v =0. triangle.
2 Solution:
Let AB =2i - j + k and BC =i - 3 j - 5k
The vectors u and v are perpendicular or orthogonal.
Now AB + BC = (2i - j + k ) + (i - 3 j - 5k )
Example 4: Find the angle between the vectors
u =2i - j + k and v =-i + j =3i - 4 j - 4k =AC
(third side)
∴ AB , BC and AC form a triangle ABC.
Solution: u . v= (2i - j + k ) . (-i + j + 0k )
=(2)(-1) + (-1)(1) + (1)(0) =-3 Further we prove that rABC is a right triangle
5p
6 2 2
∴q=
7.3.6 Projection of one Vector upon another Vector:
6
In many physical applications, it is required to know
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∴ Projection of v along u =
u.v (ii) a + b + c = 0
u ⇒ a = -b - c
= - ab cos(p - C) - ac cos(p - B)
v
Let OA and OB be the unit vectors in the xy-plane making angles a and b
⇒ OA OB cos(a=
- b ) cos a cos b + sin a sin b
i, j and k respectively.
∴ cos(a=
- b ) cos a cos b + sin a sin b ( )
∴ OA = OB = 1
Example 8: Prove that in any triangle ABC
(i) a2 = b2 + c2 - 2bc cos A (Cosine Law)
(ii) a = b cosC + c cosB (Projection Law)
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[ 3,=
5] , v [ 6, - 2] [ 2, 3, 1=
] , v [ 2, 4, 1]
(i)
(iii) - u = (iv) u -=
2. Calculate the projection of a along b and projection of b along a when:
(i) a-=i k+=
, b j k (ii) a =3i + j - k , b =-2i - j + k
3. Find a real number a so that the vectors u and v are perpendicular.
(i) u =2a i + j - k , v =i + a j + 4k
(ii) u= a i + 2a j + 3k , v= i + a j + 3k
4. Find the number z so that the triangle with vertices A(1, -1, 0), B(-2, 2, 1) and C(0, 2, z)
is a right triangle with right angle at C.
5. If v is a vector for which
=v.i 0,=
v. j 0,=
v.k 0, find v. .
6. (i) Show that the vectors 3i - 2 j + k , i - 3 j + 5k and 2i + j - 4k form a right angle. Right hand rule
(ii) Show that the set of points P = (1,3,2), Q = (4,1,4) and P = (6,5,5) form a right triangle. (i) If the ingers of the right hand point along the vector u and then curl towards the
7. Show that mid point of hypotenuse a right triangle is equidistant from its vertices. vector v, then the thumb will give the direction of n̂ which is u x v. It is shown in the igure (a).
8. Prove that perpendicular bisectors of the sides of a triangle are concurrent. (ii) In igure (b), the right hand rule shows the direction of v x u.
9. Prove that the altitudes of a triangle are concurrent.
10. Prove that the angle in a semi circle is a right angle. 7.4.1 Derivation of useful results of cross products
11. Prove that cos(a + b) = cos a cos b - sin a sin b (a) By applying the deinition of cross product to unit vectors i, j and k , we have:
12. Prove that in any triangle ABC. (a)=i × i i i=
sin 0 nˆ 0
=j× j j =
(i) b = c cos A + a cos C (ii) c = a cos B + b cos A
(iii) b2 = c2 + a2 - 2ca cos B (iv) c2 = a2 + b2 - 2ab cos C.
j sin 0 nˆ 0
=
k × k k k=
sin 0 nˆ 0
7.4 THE CROSS PRODUCT OR VECTOR =
(b) i × j i j=
sin 90 k k
PRODUCT OF TWO VECTORS =j×k j k=
sin 90 i i
=k ×i k =
i sin 90 j j
The vector product of two vectors is widely used in Physics, particularly, Mechanics and
Electricity. It Is only deined for vectors in space. (c) u × v =u v sin q nˆ =v u sin(-q ) nˆ =- v u sin q nˆ
Let u and v be two non-zero vectors. The cross or vector product of u and v, written as ⇒ u × v =-v × u
u x v, is deined by (d)=
u × u u u=
sin 0 nˆ 0
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i j k
a1 b1 c1 = (b1c2 - c1b2 )i - (a1c2 - c1a2 ) j + (a1b2 - b1a2 )k
a2 b2 c2
Note: The cross product of i, j and k are written in the cyclic pattern. The
given igure is helpful in remembering this pattern. The terms on R.H.S of equation (i) are the same as the terms in the expansion of the above
determinant
i j k
Hence u × v =a1 b1 c1 (ii)
7.4.2 Properties of Cross product a2 b2 c2
⇒ u ×=
v (b1c2 - c1b2 )i - (a1c2 - c1a2 ) j + (a1b2 - b1a2 )k (i)
Example 1: Find a vector perpendicular to each of the vectors
a = 2i + j + k and b = 4i + 2 j - k
The expansion of 3 x 3 determinant
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∴ a × b =2 -1 1 =-i + 6 j + 8k
and OB = cos(- b )i + sin(- b ) j
2 -1
= cos b i - sin b j
4
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=
a c
(iii)
sin A sin C i j k
AB × AC = 1 - 2 = (2 + 4)i - (1 - 4) j + (2 + 4)k = 6i + 3 j + 6k
= =
a b c Now 2
-2
From (ii) and (iii), we get
sin A sin B sin C 2 1
7.4.5 Area of Parallelogram The area of the parallelogram with adjacent sides AB and AC is given by
AB × AC = 6i + 3 j + 6k = 36 + 9 + 36 = 81 = 9
If u and v are two non-zero vectors and q is the angle between
∴ Area of triangle = AB × AC = 6i + 3 j + 6k =
u and v, then u and v represent the lengths of the adjacent sides of a parallelogram, (see 1 1 9
2 2 2
igure)
AB × AC 1
A unit vector ⊥ to the plane ABC = = (6i + 3 j + 6k= (2i + j + 2k )
1
AB × AC 9
We know that: )
3
Area of parallelogram = base x height
= (base) (h) = u v sin q
∴ Area of parallelogram = u × v Example 6: Find area of the parallelogram whose vertices are P(0, 0, 0), Q(-1, 2, 4),
R(2, -1, 4) and S(1, 1, 8).
= 144 + 144 + 9
Not all pairs of vertices give a
Also ind a unit vector perpendicular to the plane ABC.
side e.g. PS is not a side, it is
= 297 diagonal since PQ + PR =
Solution: AB = (2 - 1)i + (1 + 1) j + (-1 - 1)k = i + 2 j - 2k
PS
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u = a1 i + b1 j + c1 k , v = a2 i + b2 j + c2 k and w = a3 i + b3 j + c3 k
(i) P(0, 0, 0) ; Q(2, 3, 2) ; R (-1, 1, 4)
(ii) P(1, -1, -1) ; Q(2, 0, -1) ; R (0, 2, 1) Let
4. ind the area of parallelogram, whose vertices are:
i j k
v×w =
(i) A(0, 0, 0) ; B (1, 2, 3) ; C (2, -1, 1) ; D (3, 1, 4)
(ii) A(1, 2, -1) ; B (4, 2, - 3) ; C (6, - 5, 2) ; D (9, - 5, 0) Now a2 b2 c2
(iii) A(-1, 1, 1) ; B (-1, 2, 2) ; C (-3, 4, - 5) ; D(-3, 5, - 4) a3 b3 c3
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⇒ v × w= (b2c3 - b3c2 )i - (a2c3 - a3c2 ) j + (a2b3 - a3b2 )k Note: (i) The value of the triple scalar product depends upon the cycle order of the
∴ u.(v × w
=) a1 (b2c3 - b3c2 ) - b1 (a2c3 - a3c2 ) + c1 (a2b3 - a3b2 )
vectors, but is independent of the position of the dot and cross. So the dot and cross, may
be interchanged without altering the value i.e;
(ii) (u × v) . w= u . (v × w)= [u v w]
(v × w) . =u v . ( w × u=
a1 b1 c1
⇒ u.(v × w) = ) [v w u ]
( w × u ) .=
v w . (u × v=
a2 b2 c2
a3 b3 c3 ) [ w u v]
which is called the determinant formula for scalar triple product of u, v and w in (iii) The value of the product changes if the order is non-cyclic.
component form. (iv) u.v.w and u x (v.w) are meaningless.
a1 b1 c1
Now u.(v × w) =
a2 b2 c2 7.5.2 The Volume of the Parallelepiped
a3 b3 c3
The triple scalar product (u x v).w
a2 b2 c2
= - a1
represents the volume of the parallelepiped
b1 c1 Interchanging R1 and R2
having u, v and w as its conterminous edges.
a3 b3 c3
As it is seen from the formula that:
u v w cosq
(u × v).w =×
a2 b2 c2
= a3
Hence (i) u × v = area of the parallelogram
b3 c3 Interchanging R2 and R3
a1 b1 c1
∴ u.(v × w) = v.( w × u )
with two adjacent sides, u and v.
(ii) w cosq = height of the parallelepiped
u v w cosq =
(u × v).w =×
a2 b2 c2
v.( w × u ) =
(Area of parallelogram)(height)
Now a3 b3 c3
= Volume of the parallelepiped
a1 b1 c1
Similarly, by taking the base plane formed by v and w, we have
a3 b3 c3
= - a2
The volume of the parallelepiped = (v x w).u
b2 c2 Interchanging R1 and R2 And by taking the base plane formed by w and u, we have
a1 b1 c1 The volume of the parallelepiped = (w x u).v
a3 b3 c3 So, we have: (u x v).w = (v x w).u = (w x u).v
= a1 b1 c1 Interchanging R2 and R3
a2 b2 c2 7.5.3 The Volume of the Tetrahedron:
∴ v.( w × u )= w.(u × v)
u.(v × w) =v.( w × u )= w.(u × v)
Volume of the tetrahedron ABCD
Hence
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2 -4 5
= . u × v ( h) AB AC AD = 2 - 3 6 = 2(3 + 6) + 4(-2 - 0) + 5(-2 - 0)
1 1
0 -1 -1
3 2
= (Area of parallelogram with AB and AC as adjacent sides) (h)
1
6 = 18 - 8 - 10 = 0
= (V olume of the parallelepiped with u , v, w as edges)
1 As the volume is zero, so the points A, B, C and D are coplaner.
0 - 4 = [ 4(2 - 1) ] = =
Example 1: Find the volume of the parallelepiped determined by
u =i + 2 j - k , v =i - j + 3k , w =i - 7 j - 4k
1 1 1
= 0
1 1 4 2
2 -8
6 6 6 3
1
1 2 -1
Solution: V olume of the parallelepiped = u.v × w = 1 - 2
Example 4: Find the value of a, so that a i + j , i + j + 3k and 2i + j - 2k are coplaner.
3
1 -7 -4
⇒ Volume = 1 (8 + 21) - 2(-4 - 3) -1 (-7 + 2) Solution: Let u = a i + j , v =i + j + 3k and w =2i + j - 2k
= 29+ 14 + 5 = 48 Triple scalar product
a
[ u v w] =
1 0
1 3 = a (-2 - 3) - 1(-2 - 6) + 0(1 - 2)
Example 2: Prove that four points
A(-3, 5, -4), B(-1, 1, 1), C(-1, 2, 2) and D(-3, 4, -5) are coplaner.
1
2 1 -2
Solution: AB =-( 1 + 3)i + (1 - 5) j + (1 + 4)k =2i - 4 j + 5k
= -5a + 8
AC =-( 1 + 3)i + (2 - 5) j + (2 + 4)k =2i - 3 j + 6k
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Example 5: Prove that the points whose position vectors are A(-6i + 3 j + 2k ) ,
In igure, a constant force F acting on a body, displaces it from A to B.
B (3i - 2 j + 4k ) , C (5i + 7 j + 3k ) , D(-13i + 17 j - k ) are coplaner. ∴ Work done = (component of F along AB) (displacement)
== ( F cosq )( AB) F . AB
Solution: Let O be the origin.
∴ OA = -6i + 3 j + 2k ; OB = 3i - 2 j + 4k
∴ OC =+ 5i 7 j + 3k ; OD- = + 13i - 17 j k
Example 6: Find the work done by a constant force F= 2i + 4 j ,, if its points of application
∴ AB= OB - OA= (3i - 2 j + 4k ) - (-6i + 3 j + 2k )
to a body moves it from A(1, 1) to B(4, 6).
∴ =9i - 5 j + 2k (Assume that F is measured in Newton and d in meters.)
AC= OC - OA= (5i + 7 j + 3k ) - (-6i + 3 j + 2k )
Solution: The constant force F= 2i + 4 j ,
∴ = 11i + 4 j + k
The displacement of the body = d = AB
AD = OD - OA = (-13i + 17 j - k ) - (-6i + 3 j + 2k )
= (4 - 1)i + (6 - 1) j = 3i + 5 j
∴ =-7i + 14 j - 3k
-5 ∴ work done = F . d
+
= (2i 4 j )+. (3i 5 j )
9 2
AB.( AC × AD) = 11
⇒ d =2i + 4 j - k
(a) Work done.
∴
If a constant force F, applied to a body, acts at an
angle q to the direction of motion, then the work done
work done = F . d
=(i + 3 j + 5k ) . (2i + 4 j - k )
by F is deined to be the product of the component of
F in the direction of the displacement and the distance =2 + 12 - 5 =9 nt. m
that the body moves.
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2. Verify that
(b)
Moment of Force a . b × c= b . c × a= c . a×b
if a = 3i - j + 5k , b = 4i + 3 j - 2k , and c = 2i + 5 j + k
Let a force F ( PQ) act at a point P as shown in the igure,
then moment of F about O. 3. Prove that the vectors i - 2 j + 3k , - 2i + 3 j - 4k and i - 3 j + 5k are coplanar
= product of force F and perpendicular ON . nˆ 4. Find the constant a such that the vectors are coplanar.
=
= ( PQ)(ON )(nˆ ) ( PQ)(OP )sin q . nˆ (i) i- j+k , i - 2 j - 3k and 3i - a j + 5k .
= OP × PQ =r × F i - 2 a j - k , i - j + 2k ai - j + k
(ii) and
(iv) [i i k ]
5. (a) Find the value of:
2i × 2 j.k 3 j.k × i k i j
(b) Prove that u.( v × w ) + v.( w × u ) + w.( u × v=) 3 u.( v × w )
(i) (ii) (iii)
Example 8: Find the moment about the point M(-2 , 4, -6) of the force represented by
AB , where coordinates of points A and B are (1, 2, -3) and (3, -4, 2) respectively.
6. Find volume of the Tetrahedron with the vertices
(i) (0, 1, 2), (3, 2, 1), (1, 2, 1) and (5, 5, 6)
(ii) (2, 1, 4) and (3, 3, 10) .
AB = (3 - 1)i + (-4 - 2) j + (2 + 3)k = 2i - 6 j + 5k
(2, 1, 8), (3, 2, 9),
Solution: 7. Find the work done, if the point at which the constant force F = 4i + 3 j + 5k is applied
MA = (1 + 2)i + (2 - 4) j + (-3 + 6)k = 3i - 2 j + 3k to an object, moves from P1 (3,1, -2) to P2 (2,4,6) .
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