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Microprocessor
Lecture 2
February 22, 2013

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Microprocessor based System Microprocessor based System

• A Microprocessor-based systems consists of central processing • There are three main components of
unit (CPU), memories, I/O Devices and other peripherals. microprocessor based system or computer
– Central Processing Unit (CPU)
• CPU takes input from Address Bus
I/O devices such as
Memory
– Memory Unit
keyboards
• CPU processes data Control
– I/O Devices
in internal registers Bus • Microprocessor Buses
• CPU sends output to CPU
Data Bus • A bus is a communication pathway connecting
I/O devices such as (µ
µP)
monitors, speakers two or more devices
• Microprocessor
(CPU) stores data I/O – Data Bus
and code in Memory Devices – Address Bus
– Control Bus

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Microprocessor based System Microprocessor based System
• Central Processing Unit (CPU) • Memory Unit (Main memory)
– Brain of the computer, coordinating all the – Provides storage of information – data and
activities between different components to program instruction
process data – Microprocessor may have a unified memory
– CPU processes program instructions one by for program & data or separate program and
one and operates synchronously on a clock data memories
– Clock frequency determines how fast the CPU – External memories are used for storage of
can process data large program and data files. e.g. Hard disk,
CDs, flash memories
• I/O Devices – Types of memories:
– Input Devices (Keyboards, mouse) » Random Access Memory (RAM): Volatile,
data will be lost when power is off
– Output Devices (Monitor, speakers)
» Read-Only Memory (ROM): Non-Volatile
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Components of a Microprocessor (CPU) Microprocessor Buses

• Main components of central processing unit are • Address Bus
– Register File – Addresses are placed over address bus to
» CPU processes data in internal registers access memory & I/O devices
» Different Processors have variable number of
internal registers – Each memory element and I/O device has a
» Size of registers can be 8-bit, 16-bit, 32-bit, 64-bit, unique address
depending on the CPU – Given the address bus size n, the addressing
– ALU (Arithmetic and Logic Unit) capability of µP is 2n
» Processing of data is done in ALU depending upon
program instruction • Control Bus
– PC (Program Counter) – Control signals between the CPU, Memory
» Also know as instruction pointer (IP), points to the and I/O Devices are exchanged using control
address of the next instruction to be executed bus
– Instruction decoder ( Controller ) – e.g . Memory Read,Memory Write, interrupt
» Decodes instruction fetched into the CPU signals, acknowledge
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Microprocessor Buses Components of a Computer
• Data Bus • Components of computer are CPU, main memory and I/O
Devices
– Data bus is used for transfer of data and • Components of CPU are Program counter (PC), ALU , Register
program code between CPU and memory , I/O File , Instruction decoder/controller
devices
CPU Address Bus
– Data buses are bi-directional Main
PC Memory
– Control signals determine direction of data
Control
transfer Register File Bus
(R0 - R15)
– Speed of data transfer between CPU and
Data Bus
memory , I/O devices depends upon width of Instruction
data bus .i.e. A 16 bit data bus will transfer Decoder
data faster as compared to an 8 bit data bus
I/O
ALU Devices
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Microprocessor Interfacing Microprocessor Interfacing

• To perform useful tasks microprocessor • Interfacing of a µP to Memory, I/O Devices
needs to be connected to other electronic
devices such as memory disks,
keyboards, displays , sensors
• Microprocessor interfacing is how
microprocessor is connected with other
devices and how it interacts with
peripherals such as keyboards, memory,
displays

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 Von Neumann vs. Harvard
Types of Computer Architectures
Architecture
• Computer Architectures can be divided into • Von Neumann Architecture
many categories • In Von Neuman architecture there is single unified
memory for program code & data
• Reduced Instruction Set Computers (RISC) Unified address
• Complex Instruction Set Computers (CISC) Memory
data CPU
(Program,
• Type of Architectures Data
– Von Neumann Architecture
– Harvard Architecture
• Harvard Architecture
• In harvard architecture we have separate program and
• Type of Processors data memory and associated buses
– General Purpose Processors (GPPs) • In harvard architecture program and data can be
simultaneously accessed
– Embedded Processors address
Program
data
» Microcontrollers Memory
» Digital Signal processors (DSPs) address CPU
Data
data
Memory
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RISC vs. CISC Architectures General Purpose Processor (GPPs)

RISC (Reduced Instruction Set Computer) • General Purpose Processors are based
– Single Cycle Simple Instructions (small set) on Von-Neumann Architecture
– Fixed Instruction Size, Single Format • GPPs are the most flexible processors
– Multiple Registers or Register Sets with support of floating point
– Large Code density arithmetic as well
– e.g. MIPS Cores, ARM Cores, PIC µCs • GPPs are CISCs with large instruction
set, high clock frequencies and large

CISC (Complex Instruction Set Computer) Cache and main memories
– Support of Multiple Addressing Modes • GPPs are used for software
– Multiple cycle Complex Instructions development, office applications, web
– Variable Instruction Size, Multiple Formats servers, media storage and playback
– Single Register Set , Fewer Registers and ecommerce
– Small Code density • GPPs are often costly and power
– e.g Intel x86 processors, AMD processors hungry large devices

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Embedded Processors
• An Embedded Processors is simply a RISC
µProcessor that has been embedded into a
device
• Embedded Processors are programmable,
operate at low clock frequencies, consume less
power and have limited memories
• Embedded Processors perform both control
tasks and computationally intensive tasks but
their performance capabilities are never better
then general purpose processors (GPPs)
• An embedded Processor may exist as :
– Microcontroller
– Digital Signal Processor (DSP)
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Digital Signal Processor (DSP)
• Digital Signal processors are a special class of
embedded processors for DSP applications such
as audio, video codecs,
• DSP processors are based on Harvard
architecture with separate program and data
memory and buses
• DSP processors have large register files &
special addressing mode and instructions
• Devices such as mobile phones often have a
microcontroller and a DSP integrated on a single
board
• TI and Analog Devices are two main vendors of
DSPs
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Microcontrollers ( µC )
• Microcontrollers integrate all the necessary
components (control, memory, I/O) of a computer
system into one integrated circuit
• Microcontrollers are single chip solutions for systems
requiring low to moderate processing power
• e.g. Intel 8051, PIC µC, ATMEGA32 etc
Microcontroller
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Microprocessor Performance : MIPS
• Microprocessor performance is often measured in
million instructions per second (MIPS)
Processsor Clock
MIPS =
Cycles per Instructio n (CPI) x 10 6
• If every microprocessor instruction executes in one
clock cycle then
• CPI = 1
• MIPS = Processor clock in MHz
• MIPS figure is used to compare performance of
different processors for a given algorithm
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 Fueling the Innovation : Moor’s Law Evolution of Intel Architectures
• A common way to categorize processors is the
100000000
number of bits their ALU can process
• In 1965 , Gordon Moore
,Intel cofounder said : • An n-bit µP mean, its ALU , its register file and
10000000
• No. of transistors on a most of its instructions are designed to work
Moore’s Law Pentium chip will become with n-bits
i80486
double every 2 years
1000000
• Intel microprocessors can be categorized as :
i80386
i80286
• Related trends – 4-bit Processors
100000
– Processor
performance – 8-bit Processors
i8086 Twice as fast after – 16-bit Processors
10000
~18 months
i4004
i8080
– Memory capacity – 32-bit Processors
Twice as much in
1000
<2 years • Evolution of Intel processors started in 1971 with
1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000
the 4-bit processor 4004
Year

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Evolution of Intel Architecture Evolution of Intel Architecture

Intel 4004 (1971): First Intel Processor Intel 80286: (1982)
• 4 bit microprocessor. 4004 was used in • 16-bit microprocessor
• 4KB main memory , 45 instructions Calculators. • 16MB main memory, 1,34,000 transistors, Clock : 6 MHz
• 2300 transistors , Clock : 108 KHz • 80286 supported multitasking
Intel 8008: (1972) • 80286 modes : real mode , protected mode
• 8-bit microprocessor. Intel 8008 was twice as Intel 80386: (1985)
• 16KB main memory , 48 instructions. powerful as Intel 4004 • 32-bit microprocessor.
• Clock : 500-800 KHz • 4GB main memory, 2,75,000 transistors, Clock : 12-33MHz.
Intel 8080: (1974) • Variations: DX, EX, SL, SLC (cache) and SX.
Altair8800 Computer
• 8-bit microprocessor. was based on Intel 8080
Intel 80486: (1989) Intel 32-bit Processors are
• 64KB main memory, 4500 Transistors • 32-bit microprocessor collectively known as
• Clock : 2 MHz • 4GB main memory, Clock : 20-50MHz. IA-32 Architectures

Intel 8086: (1978), Intel 8088 (1979) • Introduction of floating point math coprocessor and an 8K byte cache on
Intel 8088 was selected in one package.
• 16-bit microprocessors
power IBM PC in 1981 • Variations: SX, DX2, DX4 (DX2 : Double clocked version)
• 1MB main memory , Clock : 5 MHz
• 4/6-byte instruction cache.
• Segment Registers and memory Segmentation 23 2/23/2013 24
 Evolution of Intel Processors Evolution of Intel Architecture
Intel Pentium: (1993)
Transistor Clock Data Address
• 32-bit microprocessor Intel µP Year Count Speed Bus Bus
• Super-scaler architecture
• 4GB main memory, Clock : 60, 66, 90MHz
• 16KB L1 cache (split instruction/data Cache: 8KB each). 4004 1971 2 250 0.108 MHz 4-bit 12-bit
• Introduction of MMX instructions 8080 1974 6 000 2 MHz 8-bit 16-bit
Intel Pentium I , II , III 8085 1976 6 500 3-8 MHz 8-bit 16-bit
8086 1978 29 000 5 MHz 16-bit 20-bit
Intel Pentium IV: (2000)
8088 1979 29 000 5 MHz 8-bit 20-bit
• 32-bit microprocessor
• Clock : 1.5 GHz, 42 million transistors
80286 1982 134 000 8 MHz 16-bit 24-bit
• Hyper-Threading technology 80386DX 1985 275 000 16 MHz 32-bit 32-bit
• 1MB/512KB/256KB L2 cache. 80486DX 1989 1.2 million 25 MHz 32-bit 32-bit
• Introduction of Specialized streaming (SSE , SSE 2 instructions) Pentium 1993 3.1 million 60 MHz 32-bit 32-bit
Pentium Pro1995 5.5 million 150 MHz 32-bit 36-bit
Itanium Processors: (2001)
Pentium II 1997 7.5 million 233 MHz 32-bit --
• 64-bit microprocessor (IA-64 Architecture)
• Itanium processors are used in server machines
Pentium III 1999 28.1 million 450 MHz 32-bit --
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Evolution of Intel Processors

Number of transistors Minimum transistor sizes (µm)

100,000,000 7
Pentium P III 8080
10,000,000 P4 6
1,000,000 80386 P II 5
100,000 8088 80486
4
80286
10,000 8088
3
1,000 8080
2 80386
100
Pentium
10 1 80286 P II P III P 4
0
80486
1
1974 1979 1982 1985 1989 1993 1997 1999 2000 1974 1979 1982 1985 1989 1993 1997 1999 2000

Clock frequencies (MHz) MIPS

10000 10000
P4
1000 P III P4
1000
P II Pentium
Pentium P III 100 P II
100
80386 10 80386 80486
10 8088 80486
8080 1 8080 8088
80286 80286
1 0.1
1974 1979 1982 1985 1989 1993 1997 1999 2000 1974 1979 1982 1985 1989 1993 1997 1999 2000

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