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Complex Signal Transformations
Complex Signal Transformations
1
CONTENTS 2
Contents
1 Complex 5
1.1 Complex . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.1.1 cos(z) = 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.1.2 cos(z) = 5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1
1.1.3 z n = 1 with nN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1
1.1.4 z n = −1 with nN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1
1.1.5 z n = −i with nN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.1.6 |e−1+3i | . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.1.7 ez = −1 + 2i . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.1.8 z 3 = 8j . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.1.9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.2 integral formula Cauchy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
¸ z3
1.2.1
|z|=2 (z−j+1)4
dz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
¸ 3z 3
1.2.2 4 dz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
¸|z|=2 (z+j−1)
sin(2z)
1.2.3
|z|=2 (z−i)5
dz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
¸ cos(2z)
1.2.4
|z|=2 (z−i)5
dz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
¸ 5(z+1)3
1.2.5
|z|=2 (z−j+1)4
dz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
´ z2 +5z−3
1.2.6 dz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
´C z2 +5z−3
z−j
1.2.7
C 2 dz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
¸ (z−j) sin(z)
1.2.8 2 dz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
¸|z|=2 z +2 sin(z)
1.2.9
|z|=2 (z 2 −1)(z+3)4
dz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.4.7
0 x6 +64
dt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
CONTENTS 3
2 laplace 25
2.1 Unilateral laplace transform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.1.1 x(t) = [t2 exp(−2t)(t)] ∗ [cos(πt)rect(t; 1)] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
´t
2.1.2 x(t) = 0 exp(−5τ − 3)cos(2τ )dτ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
´t
2.1.3 x(t) = 0 exp(−3τ − 3)cos(5τ )dτ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.1.4 x(t) = texp(−2t)cos(2τ + 6)(t + 3) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.1.5 x(t) = [(t − 1)2 exp(−4t)(t − 1)] ∗ [exp(−πt)rect(t; 1)] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.1.6 x(t) = [t2 exp(−2t)(t)] ∗ [exp(πt)rect(t; 1)] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.1.7 x(t) = exp(−3t)cos(t − 1)(t) + cos(πt)[δ(t − 1) + rect(t; 1)] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.2 Inverse Laplace transform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
(s2 +2)exp(−2s)
2.2.1 G(s) = 2
s(s −9)(s+2) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
(s2 +2)exp(−3s)
2.2.2 G(s) = s(s−3)(s+2)2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
(2s+1)exp(−3s)
2.2.3 G(s) = s(s2 +1)(s−2) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
(3s+1)exp(s)
2.2.4 G(s) = s(s2 +4)(s−1) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
(2s+1)exp(s)
2.2.5 G(s) = s(s2 +4)(s−1) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
exp(−5s)
2.2.6 F (s) = (s+3)2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
exp(−3s)
2.2.7 F (s) = (s+2)2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
exp(−3s)
2.2.8 F (s) = (s+2)4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
(3s+1)exp(s)
2.2.9 G(s) = s(s2 −4)(s−1) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
3 fourier 32
´t
3.0.1 x(t) = −∞ sin(ω τ
0τ )
dτ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
1
3.0.2 y (t) = exp (jt) sign (t) π(t−3) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
4 Z-transform 36
x [k] = −k5k ε [−k − 1] ∗ 3−k ε [k − 2] . . . .
4.0.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
4.0.2 x [k] = −k3k ε [−k − 1] + 2δ [k − 1] − π −k ε [k − 1] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
k
4.0.3 x [k] = −k5 ε [−k − 1] +
3δ [k − 1] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
x [k] = −k4k ε [−k] ∗ π −kε [k − 1] . . . . . .
4.0.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
4.0.5 x [k] = −kπ k ε [−k −1] ∗ π −k ε [k − 1] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
1
´π
4.0.6 x [k] = 2π −π
X ejΩ exp (jkΩ) dΩ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
z 3 +2 1
4.1.3 Y (z) = z 2 (2z 2 +3z−2) , 2 < |z| < 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
2
4.1.4 Y (z) = 2z32z+3z+1 2 +z , |z| < 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
2z 2 +2
4.1.5 Y (z) = z(2z−1)(z+4)2 , 12 < |z| < 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
2
4.1.6 Y (z) = z(2zz2 +3z−2)
+3
, 12 < |z| < 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
3
4.1.7 Y (z) = z2 (2zz2 +3z−2)
+4
, 12 < |z| < 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
jΩ
4.2 fouriertransform Y e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
z 3 +2 1
4.2.1 Y (z) = z 2 (2z 2 +3z−2) , 2 < |z| < 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
1 COMPLEX 5
1 Complex
eiθ +e−iθ eiθ −e−iθ
write cos(θ) and sin(θ) as
2 and
2i
iz
write e =w
multiply with w
ll to usable square +25
Make the square.
rewrite ω = eiz √ √
Simplify roots. 24 is equal to 2 6
Multiply with −i = 1i
1.1 Complex
1.1.1 cos(z) = 2
Answer:
eiz + e−iz
cos(z) =
2
eiz + e−iz
=2
2
eiz + e−iz = 4
eiz = w
Rewrite to w
1
w+ =4
w
Multiply with w
1
w2 + w = 4w
w
w2 + 1 = 4w
w2 + 1 − 4w = 0
Add
(w − 2)(w − 2) = w2 − 2w − 2w + 4 = w2 − 4w + 4 = −3
(w − 2)2 = −3
√
w =2+ 3
1 COMPLEX 6
√
w =2− 3
iz
Rewrite to e =w
√
eiz = 2 + 3
√
eiz = 2 − 3
√
iz = ln( 3 + 2) + 2kπ
√
iz = ln( 3 − 2) + 2kπ
Multiply with −i
√
z = −i ∗ ln( 3 + 2) + 2kπ
√
z = −i ∗ ln( 3 − 2) + 2kπ
1.1.2 cos(z) = 5
Answer:
cos(z) = 5
eiz + e−iz
cos(z) =
2
eiz + e−iz
=5
2
eiz + e−iz = 10
eiz + e−iz − 10 = 0
eiz = w
Rewrite to w
1
w+ − 10 = 0
w
Multiply with w
1
w2 + w − 10w = 0
w
1 COMPLEX 7
w2 + 1 − 10w = 0
w2 − 10w = −1
Add +25
w2 − 10w + 25 = 24
Make the square
(w − 5)2 = 24
√
w−5= 24
√
w − 5 = − 24
Rewrite to eiz = w
√
eiz − 5 = 24
√
eiz − 5 = − 24
√
eiz = 5 + 24
√
eiz = 5 − 24
√ √
24 is equal to 2 6
√
iz = ln(5 + 24) + 2kπ
√
iz = ln(5 − 24) + 2kπ
Multiply with−i
√
z = −i ∗ ln(5 + 24) + 2kπ
√
z = −i ∗ ln(5 − 24) + 2kπ
1 COMPLEX 8
1
1.1.3 z n = 1 with nN
Answer:
Write z = reiθ
n1
reiθ =1
1 iθ
rne n = 1
Reel part
1
rn = 1
√
n
r= 1
Complex part
total
θ = 0 + 2kπ
1
1.1.4 z n = −1 with nN
Answer:
Answer:
Write z = reiθ
n1
reiθ = −1
1 iθ
r n e n = −1
Reel part
1
r n = −1
√
n
r= −1
Complex part
total
θ = 0 + 2kπ
1 COMPLEX 9
1
1.1.5 z n = −i with nN
Answer:
Write z = reiθ
n1
reiθ = −i
1 iθ
r n e n = −i
Reel part
1
rn = 1
√
n
r= 1
Complex part
iθ
e n = −1
total
π 3π 7π
..... − , , .....
2 2 2
θ = 0 + 2kπ
-
1
z n = −i with nN
Write z = reiθ
n1 πi
reiθ = e− 2
1 iθ πi
rn = 1 ∧ e n = e− 2
√ iθ πi
e n = e− 2
n
r= 1 ∧
And
π 3π 7π
..... − , , .....
2 2 2
π
θ=− + 2kπ, k = 0, ±1, ±2, ....
2
Or by De Moivre's theorem.
1
z n = −i with nN
1 COMPLEX 10
√
n
r= 1
θ π
= − + 2kπ
n 2
1.1.6 |e−1+3i |
Answer:
|e−1 e3i |
e−1
1
e
1.1.7 ez = −1 + 2i
Answer:
Answer:
Rechts in polaire vorm
p √
(−1)2 + (2)2 = 5
Im(z)
arg(z) = arctan (1)
Re(z)
2
arg(z) = arctan
1
1
ez = e 2 ln(5)+i(π−arctan(2))
1 COMPLEX 11
1
ln(5) + i(π − arctan(2)) + 2kπi(kZ)
2
1.1.8 z 3 = 8j
z = rejθ
3
rejθ = 8J
πj
r3 e3jθ = 8e 2
πj
r3 = 8 ∧ e3jθ = e 2
√ πj
r= 8 ∧ e3jθ = e 2
πj
r=2 ∧ e3jθ = e 2
πj
3jθ = 2 + 2kπj(kZ)
3θ = π2 + 2kπ(kZ)
θ = π6 + 2kπ3 (kZ)
All solutions:
π 5π 9π
z =√2e 6 j ∨ z = 2e
√
6 j ∨ z = 2e 6 j
z = 3+j ∨ z =− 3+j ∨ z = −2j
1.1.9
1 COMPLEX 12
k!
´ f (z)
f k (z0 )= 2πi C (z−z0 )k+1
dz
In the point i − 1.
ˆ ˆ
3! z3 6 z3
f (3) (i − 1) = 3+1 dz = 2πi 4 dz
2πi (z − i − 1) (z − i − 1)
C C
d3 d2 d
3
2
dz z = dz 3z = dz (6z) = 6
2πi (k)
k! f (Z0 )
¸ 3z 3
1.2.2 |z|=2 (z+j−1)4
dz
k!
´ f (z)
f k (z0 )= 2πi C (z−z0 )k+1
dz
d3 d2 d
3
2
dz 3z = dz 9z = dz (18z) = 18
2πi (k)
k! f (Z0 )
¸ sin(2z)
1.2.3 |z|=2 (z−i)5
dz
˛
sin(2z)
5 dz
|z|=2 (z − i)
z−i has one singularity in |z| = 2 which is i.
k!
´ f (z)
f k (z0 )= 2πi C (z−z0 )k+1
dz
ˆ ˆ
4! sin (2z) 24 sin (2z)
f (4) (i) = 4+1 dz = 2πi 4+1 dz
2πi (z − i) (z − i)
C C
d4 d3 d2 d
dz (sin (2z)) = dz (2cos (2z)) = dz (−4sin (2z)) = dz (−8cos (2z)) = 16sin (2z)
2πi (k)
k! f (Z0 )
2πi πj 4πj
= [16sin (2z)]z=i = [16sin (2j)] = sin (2j)
24 12 3
¸ cos(2z)
1.2.4 |z|=2 (z−i)5
dz
˛
cos(2z)
5 dz
|z|=2 (z − i)
z−i has ve singularity's in |z| = 2 on j.
k!
´ f (z)
f k (z0 )= 2πi C (z−z0 )k+1
dz
ˆ ˆ
(4) 4! cos (2z) 24 cos (2z)
f (i) = 4+1 dz = 2πi 4+1 dz
2πi (z − i) (z − i)
C C
d4 d3 d2 d
dz (cos (2z)) = dz (−2sin (2z)) = dz (−4cos (2z)) = dz (8sin (2z)) = 16cos (2z)
2πi (k)
k! f (Z0 )
2πi πj 4πj
= [16cos (2z)]z=i = [16cos (2j)] = cos (2j)
24 12 3
1 COMPLEX 14
¸ 5(z+1)3
1.2.5 |z|=2 (z−j+1)4
dz
˛
5(z + 1)3
4 dz
|z|=2 (z − j + 1)
4
(z − j + 1) has four singularties in j − 1.
k!
´ f (z)
f k (z0 )= 2πi C (z−z0 )k+1
dz
In the point j − 1.
˛ ˆ
5(z + 1)3 3! 5(z + 1)3
dz =⇒ 3+1 dz
|z|=2 (z − j + 1)4 2πi (z − j + 1)
C
ˆ
6 5(z + 1)3
= 4 dz
2πi (z − j + 1)
C
d3 d2 d
3
2
dz 5(z + 1) = dz 15(z + 1) = dz (30(z + 1)) = 30
2πi (k)
k! f (Z0 )
´ z 2 +5z−3
1.2.6 C z−j dz
ˆ
z 2 + 5z − 3
dz when C is |z − 3| = 4
C z−j
One singularity in j.
k!
´ f (z)
f k (z0 )= 2πi C (z−z0 )k+1
dz
1
So(z − j) . z0 = j .
ˆ
1! z 2 + 5z − 3
0+1 dz when C is |z − 3| = 4
2πi C (z − j)
2πi (k)
k! f (Z0 )
f (z) = z 2 + 5z − 3
2πi 2πi 2
f (j) = z + 5z − 3 z=j = 2πi (−1 + 5j − 3) = −10πj − 8πj
0! 1
1 COMPLEX 15
´ z 2 +5z−3
1.2.7 dz
C (z−j)2
ˆ
z 2 + 5z − 3
dz when C is |z − 3| = 4
C z−j
Double singularity in j.
k!
´ f (z)
f k (z0 )= 2πi C (z−z0 )k+1
dz
1
So(z − j) . z0 = j .
ˆ
1! z 2 + 5z − 3
1+1 dz when C is |z − 3| = 4
2πi C (z − j)
d
dz z 2 + 5z − 3 = 2z + 5
2πi (k)
k! f (Z0 )
f (z) = z 2 + 5z − 3
2πi (1) 2πi
f (j) = [2z + 5]z=j = 2πi (2j + 5) = −4π + 10πj
1! 1
¸ sin(z)
1.2.8 |z|=2 z 2 +2
dz
˛
sin(z)
2
dz
|z|=2 z + 2
2
√ √
denominator z + 2 has singularties in |z| = 2, 2i and −i 2.
( √ ) √ √
(z − 2i)sin(z) − 2i)sin(z)
(z sin(i 2)
lim
√ = lim √
√ √ =√ √
z→ 2i (z 2 + 2) z→ 2i (z + 2i) − 2i)
(z 2i + 2i
( √ ) √ √ √
(z + 2i)sin(z) + 2i)sin(z)
(z sin(− 2i) sin(− 2i)
lim
√ = lim√
√ √ = √ √ = √
(z 2 + 2)
+ 2i)(z − 2i) − 2i − 2i −2 2i
z→− 2i z→− 2i (z
˛ √ √ i
sin(z) h
⇒ 2
dz = 2πi Res(z = i 2) + Res(z = −i 2)
|z|=2 z + 2
√ √ !
sin( 2i) sin(− 2i)
= 2πi √ + √
2 2i −2 2i
√ ! √ √ ! √ √ ! √ √ !
sin(i 2) ei 2i e−i 2i e− 2 − e 2 e− 2 − e 2
2πi √ = 2πi √ = 2πi √ = πi √
2i 2i 2i −2 2 2
1 COMPLEX 16
¸ sin(z)
1.2.9 |z|=2 (z 2 −1)(z+3)4
dz
˛
sin(z)
4 dz
|z|=2 (z 2 − 1) (z + 3)
z 2 − 1 (z + 3) has singularties in |z| = 2, −1, −3, and 1.
˛
sin(z)
⇒ 2
dz = 2πi [Res(z = 1) + Res(z = −1)]
|z|=2 z + 2
" ( ) ( )#
(z − 1)sin(z) (z + 1)sin(z)
= 2πi lim 4 + lim 4
z→1 (z 2 − 1) (z + 3) z→−1 (z 2 − 1) (z + 3)
Let op z 2 − 1 = (z − 1)(z + 1)
" ( ) ( )#
(z − 1)sin(z) (z + 1)sin(z)
= 2πi lim 4 + lim 4
z→1 (z − 1)(z + 1) (z + 3) z→−1 (z − 1)(z + 1) (z + 3)
" #
sin(z) sin(z)
= 2πi 4 + 4
(z + 1) (z + 3) (z − 1) (z + 3)
" #
sin(1) sin(−1)
= 2πi 4 + 4
(1 + 1) (1 + 3) (−1 − 1) (−1 + 3)
" #
sin(1) sin(−1)
= 2πi 4 + 4
(2) (4) (−2) (2)
" #
sin(1) sin(1)
= 2πi 4 + 4
(2) (4) (2) (2)
" #
sin(1) sin(1)
= 2πi 4 + 4
(2) (4) (2) (2)
Somehow:
2πisin(1) 1
+ 1
2 44
1 COMPLEX 17
ˆ2π
dw
5 + 4sin(w)
0
ˆ2π ˛ 1
dw izdz
= z− 1
5 + 4sin(w) |z|=1 5+ 4 2iz
0
Multiply with iz
˛ 1 ˛
iz izdz
1 =
dz
4iz
z− 4iz 2
|z|=1 5iz + 4iz 2iz |z|=1 5iz + 2i − z
2i
˛ ˛
dz dz
4i
=
|z|=1 5iz + 2z 2 − 2i |z|=1 2z 2 + 5iz − 2
2
2z + 5iz − 2 has poles (2z + i) (z + 2i)
˛
dz
=
|z|=1 (2z + i)(z + 2i)
i
(2z + i) (z + 2i) has poles −2i and − . Only
2 − 2i falls within the circle |z| = 1.
˛
dz
=
|z|=1 (2z + i)(z + 2i)
i
Calculate the residu. Add (z + 2 ) to the nominator.
" ( )#
(z + 2i )
i 2π
Res = 2πi lim = 2πi − =
z→− 2i (2z + i)(z + 2i) 3 3
1 COMPLEX 18
´ 2π dθ
1.3.2 0 2+cos2 (θ)
ˆ2π ˆ2π
dθ dθ
= 2
2 + cos2 (θ) 2+ 1
(eiθ + e−iθ )
0 0 4
4
Vermenigvuldig met
4.
√ √ √
−10 ± 102 − 4 ∗ 1 ∗ 1 −10 ± 100 − 4 −10 ± 96
= =
2∗1 2 2
√ √
−10 ± 4 ∗ 4 ∗ 6 −10 ± 2 ∗ 2 6 √
= = = −5 ± 2 6
2 2
√
−5 + 2√6 valt binnen de contour |z| = 1
−5 − 2 6 valt buiten de contour |z| = 1
˛
1
4i √ √ dz
|z|=1 z+ 5−2 6 z+ 5+2 6
√
Alleen −5 + 2 6 valt binnen de contour.
√
z + 5 − 2 6 in vullen
1 1 1 1
√ = √ √ = √ √ = √
z+ 5+2 6 −5 + 2 6 + 5 + 2 6 2 6+2 6 4 6
1 8π 2π
2πi ∗ −4i Res → 8π √ = √ =√
4 6 4 6 6
1 COMPLEX 19
´ 2π dθ
1.3.3 0 2+cos2 (θ)
ˆ2π
dθ
2 + cos2 (θ)
0
−iθ
2
eiθ +e dz
write cos2 (θ) as
2 , eiθ = z and dz = deiθ = ieiθ dθ = izdθ thus
iz = dθ
´ 2π dw
1.3.4 0 3−2cos(w)
ˆ2π
dw
3 − 2cos(w)
0
√
2 5π
hp50g = = 2.8099
5
´ 2π dw
1.3.5 0 −3i−4sin(w)
ˆ2π
dw
−3i − 4sin(w)
0
hp50g = 0
´ 2π dθ
1.3.6 0 3+sin2 (θ)
z = eiz .
4
Multiply with
4.
1 COMPLEX 20
˛
4dθ
1
|z|=1 14 − z 2 − z2
dz
and
iz = dθ.
˛
1 4dz
1
j |z|=1 14z − z 3 − z
Multiply with ∗ zz
˛
1 4zdz
1
j |z|=1 14z − z 4 − z
Multiply with ∗ ii
˛
zdz
4j
|z|=1 z 4 − 14z + 1
1
z 4 −14z+1 has singularities in?? Too dicult to calculate??!!...
Next try...... Dierent way..
√
7 − 4√3 = 0.072 outside contour |z| = 1
7+4 3 = 13.929 inside contour |z| = 1
√
(( (
z(−(7(−(
4 3
lim √ ( √
(( (
√
z→7−4 3( −(7(
z( −( 4 3 z− 7+4 3
1 1
√ √ = − √
7−4 3 − 7+4 3 8 3
1 8π π
2πj (−4j) − √ = − √ = −√
8 3 8 3 3
´ 2π dθ
1.3.7 0 5+4cos(θ)
eiθ +e−iθ dz
write cos(θ) as
2 , eiθ = z and dz = deiθ = ieiθ dθ = izdθ thus
iz = dθ
˛ dz ˛ ˛
∗jz dz ∗−j dz
jz = 2
= −j
|z|=1 5+4 eiθ +e−iθ ∗jz |z|=1 5jz + 2jz + 2j ∗ − j |z|=1 2z 2 + 5z + 2
2
z + 21
1 1 1 1
Res , z=− = lim1 hp50 lim =
(2z + 1) (z + 2) 2 z→− 2 (2z + 1) (z + 2) =⇒ z→− 21 2z + 4 3
2π
−j ∗ 2πj ∗ Res =
3
1 COMPLEX 22
´∞ xsin(x)
1.4.2 −∞ x4 +16
dx
√ √ √ √
x4 + 16 has singularties in −(1 + i) 2, (1 + i) 2, −((1 − i) 2) and (1 − i) 2.
´∞ cos(x)
1.4.3 −∞ x2 +1
dx
uitgewerkt in samenvatting complexe functie theorie
ˆ∞
cos(x)
dx
x2 + 1
−∞
2
x +1 has singularties in −i and i.
´∞ x2 +9
1.4.4 −∞ x4 +5x2 +4
dx
uitgewerkt in samenvatting complexe functie theorie
x4 + 5x2 + 4 has singularties in −i, i, −2i and 2i.
We kiezen voor een enkelvoudig gesloten contour met een cirkelboog van ΓR = Reiθ |0 ≤ θ ≤ π ;
(z − i)(z 2 + 9) −
(z i)(z 2 + 9)
Res(f, i) = lim 4 2
= lim
z→i z + 5z + 4 z→i − i) (z + i) (z − 2i) (z + 2i)
(z
(z 2 + 9) 8 4
= lim = =
z→i z 3 + iz 2 + 4z + 4i 6i 3i
(z − 2i)(z 2 + 9) −
(z 2 + 9)
2i)(z
Res(f, 2i) = lim = lim =
z→i z 4 + 5z 2 + 4 (z − i) (z + i) −
(z 2i)
z→2i
(z + 2i)
(z 2 + 9) −5
lim = =
z→2i (z − i) (z + i) (z + 2i) 12i
1 COMPLEX 23
˛
⇒ f (z)dz = 2πi [Res(z = i) + Res(z = 2i)]
CR
˛
4 5 11i 11π
⇒ f (z)dz = 2πi − = 2πi − =
CR 3i 12i 12 6
´∞ xsin(2x)
1.4.5 −∞ x2 +36 dx
2
2iz 6je12j e−12
−
(z 6j)ze 1
Res (f, 6j) = lim = = = 12
x→6j −
(z 6j) (z + 6j)
12j 2 2e
1 πj
2πj = 12
2e12 e
For R>6
Jordan's lemma:
´ ´π
f (z) dz ≤ R
e−Rsin(2θ) Rdθ ≤ πR
→0
|z|=R, Im(z)≥0 R2 +36 0 R2 +36
As R → 0. Thus,
ˆ∞
xsin(2x) πj
2
dx = Im {2πj [Res (f ; 6j)]} = 12
x + 36 e
−∞
´∞ t3 sin(t)
1.4.6 0 t4 +4 dt
ˆ∞ ˆ∞ ˆ∞ 3 −it
t3 eit − e−it
t3 eit t e
dt = dt − dt
2i (t4 + 4) 2i (t4 + 4) 2i (t4 + 4)
0 0 0
ˆ∞ ˆ
−∞
3 0
t3 eit (−t0 ) e−it
= dt + dt
2i (t4 + 4) 2i (t04 + 4)
0 0
1 COMPLEX 24
ˆ∞ ˆ0 3 0 ˆ∞
t3 eit (−t0 ) e−it t3 eit
= dt + dt = dt
2i (t4 + 4) 2i (t04 + 4) 2i (t4 + 4)
0 −∞ −∞
iϕ
t = re
ˆ 3 iϕ ˆ 4 iϕ
reiϕ eire iϕ reiϕ eire
= dre = dr
4 iϕ )4 + 4
Γr
2i (reiϕ ) + 4 Γ
2i (re
r
z3 ´
With λ=1 and g (z) = z 4 +4 ⇒ lim g (z) = 0 ⇒ lim g (z) = Γr
eiλz g (z) dz = 0 .
z→∞ z→∞
ˆ∞
t3 eit X
dt = 2πi residu
2i (t4 + 4)
−∞
´∞ xdx
1.4.7 0 x6 +64 dt
√ √ √ √
x6 + 64 has six poles in −2i, 2i, − i + 3 , i + 3, − −i + 3 and −i + 3
eiz −e−iz
Write sin(z) to
2i
2 LAPLACE 25
2 laplace
q (t) L Q (s) =⇒
←→
1
exp(−2t) L with Re (s) > −2
←→ s +2
´t
2.1.2 x(t) = 0
exp(−5τ − 3)cos(2τ )dτ
ˆ t
x(t) = exp(−5τ − 3)cos(2τ )dτ
0
´t
2.1.3 x(t) = 0
exp(−3τ − 3)cos(5τ )dτ
ˆ t
x(t) = exp(−3τ − 3)cos(5τ )dτ
0
1
exp(−3t) L with Re (s) > −3
←→ s +3
ej(t−1) + e−J(t−1) 1 1
cos(t − 1) = = ejt e−j + e−jt ej
2 2 2
−3t 1 jt −j 1 −jt j 1 1
exp(−3t)cos(t − 1)(t) = e e e + e e (t) = e(j−3)t e−j (t) + e−(j+3)t ej (t)
2 2 2 2
e−j ej
1
F (s) = + , with Re (s) > −3
2 s+3−j s+3+j
cos(πt)[δ(t − 1) + rect(t; 1)] = cos(πt)δ(t − 1) + cos(πt)rect(t; 1)]
= g(t) + h(t)
2 LAPLACE 27
δ(t − 1) L e−s
←→
ˆ ∞ ˆ ∞
ejπt + e−jπt
G (s) = cos(πt)δ(t − 1)e−st dt = e−s e−st dt
−∞ −∞ 2
ˆ ∞ jπt ˆ ˆ
e + e−jπt 1 ∞ jπt −2st 1 ∞ −jπt −2st
−2st
e dt = e e dt + e e dt
−∞ 2 2 −∞ 2 −∞
ˆ ˆ
1 ∞ (jπ−2s)t 1 ∞ −(jπ+2s)t
e dt + e dt
2 −∞ 2 −∞
it −it ´ 12
Write cos(t) = e +e2 and rect (t : 1) =
−1 2
ˆ ∞ ˆ 1
ejπt + e−jπt
2
−st
H (s) = cos(πt)rect(t; 1)e dt = e−st dt
−∞ − 12 2
ˆ 1 ˆ 1 ˆ 1 ˆ 1
1 2
jπt −st 1 2
−jπt −st 1 2 1 2
= e e dt + e e dt = e (jπ−s)t
dt + e−(jπ+s)t dt
2 − 12 2 − 21 2 − 12 2 − 12
s(s2 + 2)e(t−2)s 1
lim 2 =−
s→0 s(s − 9)(s + 2) 9
At s=3 add (s − 3).
(s − 3)(s2 + 2)e(t−2)s −
(z 3)(s2 + 2)e(t−2)s
11 3(t−2)
lim = lim = e
s→3 2
s(s − 9)(s + 2) (z − 3)(s + 3)(s + 2)
s→3 s 90
(s2 − 9) = (s − 3)(s + 3)
At s = −3 add (s + 3).
(z + 3) (s2 + 2)e(t−2)s (z
+3)(s2 + 2)e(t−2)s
11
lim = lim = − e−3(t−2)
s→−3 2
s(s − 9)(s + 2) s→−3 s(s − 3)
(z
+3)(s + 2)
18
2 LAPLACE 28
At s = −2 add (s + 2).
(z
+2)(s2 + 2)e(t−2)s
3
lim = e−2(t−2)
s→−2 2
s(s − 9)(z + 2)
5
(i) Left contour of s = 3, 0, −3, −2. e(t−2)s =⇒ ε (t − 2)
1 11 3(t−2) 11 −3(t−2) 3 −2(t−2)
Re(s) > 3, g(t) = − + e − e + e ε (t − 2)
9 90 18 5
(ii) Left contour: −2 and −3. e(t−2)s =⇒ ε (t − 2). And right contour: 0 and 3. e(−t−2)s =⇒ ε (−t − 2)
−2 < Re(s) < 0, g(t) = [−Res(z = −2) − Res(z = −3)] + [Res(z = 3) + Res(z = 0)]
1 11 3(t−2) 3 −2(t−2) 11 −3(t−2)
−2 < Re(s) < 0, g(t) = + − e ε (−t − 2) + e − e ε (t − 2)
9 90 5 18
(s2 +2)exp(−3s)
2.2.2 G(s) = s(s−3)(s+2)2
(s2 + 2)exp(−3s)
G(s) =
s(s − 3)(s + 2)2
Re(s) > 3
−2 < Re(s) < 0
(2s+1)exp(−3s)
2.2.3 G(s) = s(s2 +1)(s−2)
(2s + 1)exp(−3s)
G(s) =
s(s2 + 1)(s − 2)
Re(s) > 2
0 < Re(s) < 2
(3s+1)exp(s)
2.2.4 G(s) = s(s2 +4)(s−1)
(3s + 1)exp(s)
G(s) =
s(s2 + 4)(s − 1)
Re(s) > 1
2 LAPLACE 29
(2s+1)exp(s)
2.2.5 G(s) = s(s2 +4)(s−1)
(2s + 1)exp(s)
G(s) =
s(s2 + 4)(s − 1)
0 < Re(s) < 1
exp(−5s)
2.2.6 F (s) = (s+3)2
exp(−5s)
F (s) =
(s + 3)2
Re(s) < −3
exp(−3s)
2.2.7 F (s) = (s+2)2
exp(−3s)
F (s) =
(s + 2)2
Re(s) < −2
Dierence between unilateral and bilateral and use of the step function
ˆ ∞ ˆ ∞ ∞
−1 −(s+a)t
X(s) = e−at ε(t)e−st dt = e−(s+a)t dt = e
−∞ 0 s+a 0
−1 −(s+a)∞ −1 −(s+a)0 −1 1 1
e − e = ∗0+ ∗1=
s+a s+a s+a s+a s+a
1
L e−at ε(t) =
; Re {s} > −a (2)
s+a
The system clearly has a pole at s = −a (see section 4.5.2)
1 1
= =∞
−a + a 0
1
L {ε(t)} = ; Re {s} > 0
s
ˆ ∞ ˆ 0 ∞
−at −st −(s+a)t 1 −(s+a)t
X(s) = − e ε(−t)e dt = − e dt = e
−∞ −∞ s+a 0
1 −(s+a)0 1 −(s+a)(−∞) 1 1 1
e − e = ∗1+ ∗0=
s+a s+a s+a s+a s+a
1
L −e−at ε(−t) =
; Re {s} < −a (3)
s+a
ˆ ∞ ˆ ∞ ˆ ∞
X(s) = [e−t ε(t) + e−2t ε(t)]e−st dt = e−t e−st dt + e−2t e−st dt
−∞ 0 0
ˆ ∞ ˆ ∞
1 1
e−(s+1)t dt + e−(s+2)t dt = +
0 0 s+1 s+2
1 1 2s + 3
X(s) = + = 2 ; Re {s} > −1 (4)
s+1 s+2 s + 3s + 2
X(s) has poles:
1
s = −1 where s+1 becomes ∞
1
s = −2 where s+2 becomes ∞
The region of convergence lies right of avertical line trough the mostright pole which is s = −1 .
Concider ∞<t<∞
t<0
Here the left side and the right side t > 0.
exp(−3s)
2.2.8 F (s) = (s+2)4
exp(−3s)
F (s) = , Re(s) < −2
(s + 2)4
tn
1
(t) L (0 < σ < ∞) [113]
n! ←→ sn+1
t3
1
(t) L
3! ←→ s3+1
3
(t − 3)
f (t) = exp(−2(t − 3))(t − 3)
3!
(3s+1)exp(s)
2.2.9 G(s) = s(s2 −4)(s−1)
(3s + 1)exp(s)
G(s) =
s(s2 − 4)(s − 1)
1 < Re(s) < 2
ˆ σ+i∞
1 (3s + 1)es est
g(t) = ds
2πi σ−i∞ s(s2 − 4)(s − 1)
2
The poles of s(s − 4)(s − 1) are 0, 2, −2 and 1.
es est = e(1+t)s
Residues:
At s=0 add s.
s(3s + 2)e(1−t)s 2
lim 2 =
s→0 s(s − 4)(s − 1) 4
At s=2 add (s − 2).
(s − 2)(3s + 2)e(1−t)s −
(s 2)(3s + 2)e(1−t)s
8
= e2−2t
lim = lim
s→2 s(s − 2)(s + 2)(s − 1) s→2 s −
(s 2)(s + 2)(s − 1)
8
(s2 − 4) = (s − 2)(s + 2)
At s = −2 add (s + 2).
(s + 2)(3s + 2)e(1−t)s (s
+2)(3s + 2)e(1−t)s
4 −2+2t
lim = lim = e
s→−2 s(s − 2)(s + 2)(s − 1) s→−2 s(s − 2)
(s + 2)(s − 1)
24
At s=1 add (s − 1).
(s − 1)(3s + 2)e(1−t)s −
(s 1)(3s + 2)e(1−t)s
5
= e1−t
lim = lim
s→1 s(s − 2)(s + 2)(s − 1) s→1 s(s − 2)(s + 2) −
(s 1)
3
Left contour: −2, 0 and 1. e(t−2)s =⇒ ε (1 − t).
(−t−2)s
Right contour: 2. e =⇒ ε (−t − 2)
1 < Re(s) < 2, g(t) = [−Res(z = −2) − Res(z = 0) − Res(z = 1)] + [Res(z = 2)]
1 2−2t 5 1−t 1 −2+2t
1 < Re(s) < 2, g(t) = − − e − e ε (−t − 2) + e ε (t − 2)
2 3 6
3 FOURIER 32
3 fourier
calculate the generalized Fourier transforms (CCF T 0 t), X (jω), Y (jω) and Z (jω).
´t sin(ω0 τ )
3.0.1 x(t) = −∞ τ dτ
ˆ t
sin(ω0 τ )
x(t) = ε(t − τ )dτ
−∞ τ
1 2 1
sin (ω0 t) F 2πrect (ω; 2ω0 )
2 ω ←→ 2
1
ε (t) F πδ (ω) +
←→ jω
1
X (jω) = πδ (ω) + πrect (ω; 2ω0 )
jω
πrect (ω; 2ω0 )
= π 2 δ (ω) +
jω
1
3.0.2 y (t) = exp (jt) sign (t) π(t−3)
2
sign (t) F [150]
←→ jω
2
f (t) exp (jω0 t) F F {(jω − jω0 )} [141]
←→ jω
1
g (t) =
π (t − 3)
2
sign (t) F [150]
←→ jω
1 j
F 2π sign (−ω) = −jsign (ω)
πt ←→ 2π
1
F − jsign (ω) e−3jω
π (t − 3) ←→
2 −sign (ω) e−3jω
−jsign (ω) e−3jω = −
Y (jω) =
j (ω − 1) (ω − 1)
exp(−2jt)
3.0.4 f (t) = (t+2j)2
´t cos(τ )
3.0.5 x(t) = exp(−3t)δ(2t − T ) + τ =−∞ πτ dτ
ˆ t
cos(τ )
x(t) = exp(−3t)δ(2t − T ) + dτ
τ =−∞ πτ
ˆ t
cos(τ )
X(jω) = exp(−3t)δ(2t − T ) + dτ
τ =−∞ πτ
Can't seem to nd a transform for δ(2t − T ) and
2
3.0.6 Y (jω) = (ω) − ω−ω0
f1 {t}
1
(t) F πδ (ω) + jω [149]
←→
.&
1
πδ (t) + jt F 2π (−ω)
←→
1 1 1 2π
2
π
(
πδ (t)) + 2π jt F
2π
(−ω)
←→
1 1
2 δ (t) + 2πjt F (−ω)
n o ←→
1 1
j2 2 δ (t) + 2πjt F j 2 (−ω)
←→
j
− 21 δ (t) + 2πt F (ω)
←→
f2 {t}
2
sign (t) F jω [150]
←→
f (t) exp (jω0 t) F F {j (ω − ω0 )} [141]
←→
2
sign (t) exp (jω0 t) F j{ω−ω0 }
←→
j2
−jsign (t) exp (jω0 t) F − j{ω−ω
←→ 0}
f1 (t) f2 (t) F 1
2π F1 (jω) *F2 (jω)
←→
1 j
− 2 δ (t) * {−jsign (t) exp (jω0 t)}
1 2
2π 2πt F (ω) − ω−ω0
←→
sin(t)
3.0.7 f (t) = (t+j)2
sin(t)
f (t) =
(t + j)2
(t + j)2 has a double pole in −j .
´∞
F (jω) = f (t) expo(−jωt) dt, with ωR [19]
´−∞
∞
n
sin(t)
= −∞ (t+j) 2 exp (−jωt) dt
−jωt = −jωR {cos (ϕ) + jsin (ϕ)} = −jωRcos (ϕ) + ωRsin (ϕ)
ω<0 =⇒ F (jω) = 0
ω=0 =⇒ F (j0) = 0
ω>0 =⇒ F (jω) = residue theorem
ˆ
k! f (z)
f k (z0 ) = k+1
dz
2πi (z − z0 )
C
In the point −j .
ˆ
1! sin(t)
dz
2πi (t + j)2
C
d
dz (sin(t)) = cos(t)
2πi (1) 2πi
= f (−j) = [cos(t)]t=−j = 2πjcos(−j)
1 1
4 Z-TRANSFORM 36
4 Z-transform
x3 [k] = 5k ε [−k − 1]
∞
X
F (z) Z f [n] z −n (a ≤ |z| ≤ b) (bilateral) [118]
←→
n=−∞
∞
X
X3 [z] = 5k ε [−k − 1] z −n
n=−∞
1
´π
4.0.6 x [k] = 2π −π
X ejΩ exp (jkΩ) dΩ
4 Z-TRANSFORM 37
x3 [k] = 4k ε [−k − 2]
∞
X
F (z) Z f [n] z −n (a ≤ |z| ≤ b) (bilateral) [118]
←→
n=−∞
∞ −∞ k ∞ k
X
k −k
X 4 X z 1
X3 [z] = 4 ε [−k − 2] z = = −2= −2
k=−∞ k=−2
z
k=0
4 1 − z4
z
<1
4
x3 [k] = +2δ [k − 1]
m
X
−m −m
f (n − m) (n) Z z F (z) + z f [−k] z k (m ≥ 0) [122]
←→
k=1
x3 [k] = −π −k ε [k − 1]
∞
X
F (z) Z f [n] z −n (a ≤ |z| ≤ b) (bilateral) [118]
←→
n=−∞
∞ ∞ k X ∞ k
X
−k −k
X 1 1 1
X3 [z] = − π ε [k − 1] z =− = −1= 1
−1
k=−∞ k=−1
zπ
k=0
zπ 1 − zπ
2z−6 1
4.1.1 Y (z) = z(2z−1)(z 2 +9) , 2 < |z| < 3
z−3 1
Y (z) = 1
, < |z| < 3
2 + 9) 2
z z− 2 (z
z−3 1
Y (z) = 1
, < |z| < 3
z z− 2 (z + 3j) (z − 3j) 2
1
Four poles: z = 0, z = 2, z = 3j and z = −3j .
‰
1 (z − 3) z k−1
y [k] dz
2πj C z z − 12 (z + 3j) (z − 3j)
Plaatje:
Stel z = Rejϕ met lim
R→∞
ˆ 2π
1 Rk+1
dϕ
2πj 0 R4
jϕ jϕ
dRe = jRe dϕ
Contour between |z| > 12 and |z| < 3.
For k ≥ 3 all residues within contour.
Residue (z = 0; k ≥ 0)
z z 3 + 2 z k−1 z z 3 + 2 z k−1
lim = lim =0
z→0 z 2 (2z 2 + 3z − 2) z→0 zz (2z 2 + 3z − 2)
1
Residue z= 2
1 k−1 k−1
z − 12 z 3 + 2 z k−1 1 3 17
z− 2 z + 2 z k−1 8 5 17 1
lim = lim 1
= 5 =
z→ 12 z 2 (z + 2) z − 12 z→ 12 z 2 (z + 2) z
− 2 8
5 5
Residue z = −2
(z + 2) z 3 + 2 z k−1 (z
+ 2) z 3 + 2 z k−1
6 k−1
lim = lim = (−2)
z→−2 z 2 (z + 2) z − 1 z→−2 z 2 (z + 2) z − 2
1 10
2
k−1
17 1 6 k−1
− (−2)
5 5 10
z−4
4.1.2 Y (z) = , 1
(z 2 −4)(z− 12 ) 2
< |z| < 2
z−4 1
Y (z) = 1 , 2 < |z| < 2
(z 2 − 4) z − 2
1
Three poles: z = −2, z = 2 and z = 2.
z−4
Y (z) =
(z + 2) z − 12 (z − 2)
4 Z-TRANSFORM 39
‰
1 (z − 4) z k−1
y [k] dz
(z + 2) z − 21 (z − 2)
2πj C
1
Contour between |z| > 2 and |z| < 2.
Plaatje:
00 00
Look for which k the circle contribution at ∞ dissapears.
jϕ
Stel z = Re met lim and dRejϕ = jRejϕ dϕ.
R→∞
ˆ 2π
1 Rk+1
dϕ −→ 0 when R → ∞ with k ≤ 0
2πj 0 R3
For k≤1 look from C to the circle at innity
For k≥2 look within C
Within C :
Res z = 12
1 k−1 k−1
z − 12 (z − 4) z k−1 1 7
z−2 (z − 4) z k−1 2 2 ∗4 14 1
lim1 1
= lim 1 = 15 =
z→ 2 (z + 2) z − 2 (z − 2) z→ 12 (z + 2) − 2 (z − 2)
z
4
∗4 15 2
k−1
14 1
ε [k − 2]
15 2
3 k−1
(−2) ε [−k + 1]
5
Thus:
k−1
14 1 1 k−1 3 k−1
y [k] = ε [k − 2] + (2) ε [−k + 1] + (−2) ε [−k + 1]
15 2 3 5
4 Z-TRANSFORM 40
z 3 +2 1
4.1.3 Y (z) = z 2 (2z 2 +3z−2) , 2 < |z| < 2
‰
1 z3 + 2
y [k] = z k−1 dz
2πj c z 2 (2z 2 + 3z − 2)
1
poles: double pole in 0 one in
2 and one in −2.
For k ≥ 2 calculate residues within contour.
Residue (z = 0; k ≥ 0)
z z 3 + 2 z k−1 z z 3 + 2 z k−1
lim = lim =0
z→0 z 2 (2z 2 + 3z − 2) z→0 zz (2z 2 + 3z − 2)
1
Residue z= 2
1 k−1 k−1
z − 12 z 3 + 2 z k−1 1 3 17
z− 2 z + 2 z k−1 8 5 17 1
lim = lim 1
= 5 =
z→ 12 z 2 (z + 2) z − 12 z→ 12 z 2 (z + 2) z
− 2 8
5 5
Residue z = −2
(z + 2) z 3 + 2 z k−1 (z
+ 2) z 3 + 2 z k−1
6 k−1
lim = lim = (−2)
z→−2 z 2 (z + 2) z − 1 1
z→−2 z 2 (z +
2)
z − 10
2 2
k−1
17 1 6 k−1
− (−2)
5 5 10
2z 2 +1
4.1.4 Y (z) = 2z 3 +3z 2 +z , |z| < 1
2z 2 + 1
Y (z) =
z (2z + 1) (z + 1)
‰
1 2z 2 + 1
y [k] = z k−1 dz
2πj C z (2z + 1) (z + 1)
1
Contour |z| < 2.
-
z = Rejϕ
Plaatje:
00 00
Look for which k the circle contribution at ∞ dissapears.
Stelmet lim and dRejϕ = jRejϕ dϕ.
R→∞
ˆ π k+1
1 R
dϕ −→ 0 when R → ∞ with k ≤ 0
2πj −π R3
4 Z-TRANSFORM 41
2z 2 + 1
lim z k−1 = 0
z→0 z (2z + 1) (z + 1)
δ [k + 1]
For k≤0 look from C to the circle at innity. Two poles z = − 21 and z = −1. (counter clockwise so negative
signs)
Res z = − 21 ; k ≤ 0
2 k−1
2z 2 + 1 k−1 2 − 12 + 1 k−1 −2 (2) 1 k−1
lim 1 z = lim 1 1 1 z = = − (2)
− 12 + 1
z→− 2 z (2z + 1) (z + 1) z→− 2 − 2 2 − 2 + 1 6 3
1 k−1
(2) ε [−k + 1]
3
Res (z = −2; k ≤ 0)
k−1
(z + 2) (z − 4) z k−1 (z
+2) (z − 4) z k−1
−6 (−2) 3 k−1
lim = lim = = − (−2)
1 1
z→−2 (z + 2) z − (z − 2) z→−2(z +
2)
z − (z − 2) 10 5
2 2
3 k−1
(−2) ε [−k + 1]
5
Thus:
k−1
14 1 1 k−1 3 k−1
y [k] = ε [k − 2] + (2) ε [−k + 1] + (−2) ε [−k + 1]
15 2 3 5
-
2z 2 +2
4.1.5 Y (z) = , 1
z(2z−1)(z+4)2 2
< |z| < 4
z 2 +3 1
4.1.6 Y (z) = z(2z 2 +3z−2) , 2 < |z| < 2
z 3 +4 1
4.1.7 Y (z) = z 2 (2z 2 +3z−2) , 2 < |z| < 2
z 3 +2 1
4.2.1 Y (z) = z 2 (2z 2 +3z−2) , 2 < |z| < 2
ˆ π
1
F ejΩ exp (jkΩ) dΩ
f [k] =
2π −π
jΩ
Unit circle in region of convergence =⇒ z = e .
e3jΩ + 2
Y ejΩ =
e2jΩ (2e2jΩ + 3ejΩ − 2)
4 Z-TRANSFORM 43
Formula sheet
Jordan's lemma:
ˆ ˆ π
R πR
f (z) dz ≤ 2 e−Rsin(2θ) Rdθ ≤ 2 →0
R + 36 0 R + 36
|z|=R, Im(z)≥0
As R → 0.
Cauchy
ˆ
k k! f (z) 2πi (k)
f (z0 ) = k+1
dz =⇒ f (Z0 )
2πi (z − z0 ) k!
C