Sarasvati River - Ancestral Home of Chit

VIBHAKAR V.
LELE
_____________
SARASVATI
RIVER
THE ANCESTRAL
HOME OF
CHITPAVAN
BRAHMINS
VIBHAKAR V. LELE
___________________
SARASVATI RIVER
THE ANCESTRAL HOME
OF
CHITPAVAN BRAHMINS
Author
Vibhakar V. Lele
B.E. B.Sc. LL.B.
__________________________________________________________________________
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An authorized publication of
YOGESHWAR KUTIR PUBLICATION
VRINDAVAN DHAM
Thane 400065
E-copy in India by self
ISBN/IBN: (being obtained
__________________________________________________________________________
Contact: Email: vibvitle@gmail.com

____________________________________
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___________________________________________________________
THE AUTHOR
VIBHAKAR LELE
BE, BSC, LLB
HE IS A PROFESSIONAL ENGINEERING CONSULTANT
AND A RESEARCHER, WITH MANY TOPICS OF INTEREST.
His topics of interest include Mathematics, Astronomy, Cosmogony,

Science, Engineering, Genetics, Physics, Chemistry and Atomic Sciences.
He is proficient in English and Indian languages, and in Literature.
He researches into Oriental Disciplines of Philosophy, Mysticism, Yoga,

Jnana, Bhakti, Tantra, Vedas and the Upanishadas.
He also writes on the yoga of the Gita and Dnyaneshwari by Saint Yogi Shri
Dnyaneshwar. He belongs to the main Natha Siddha tradition of Adinatha –
Umadevi –Gorakshanatha –Gahininatha –Saint Dnyaneshwar. –
Satyamalanatha – Guptanatha – Kesarinatha – Shivdeenanatha –
Vasudevanatha. He is a senior practitioner of Pantharaja, the Kundalini-yoga
of Natha Pantha. He is a connoisseur of Saint Dnyaneshwar’s & Patanjali’s
Yoga.
His writings are based on what he has learnt from Saint Dnyaneshwar’s
compositions and commentary on the Bhagavad Gita. He has many years of
Yoga experience behind him. He writes from personal practice of Yoga and
knowledge of Indian philosophy. He views mysticism through the enquiring
mind of a man of modern science.
His books as follows have already been published on various platforms:
1. YOGADA SHRI DNYANESHWARI [योगदा रीञाने्वरी] [Marathi

language] and its 12 independent parts
Kundalini Yoga [Yoga of Gita Expounded By Saint Dnyaneshwar]:
1. Autobiography of A Natha Siddha Yogi
2. Philosophy And Yoga of Gita And Dnyaneshwari
3. Introduction To Gita And Dnyaneshwari
4. Pantharaja: Kundalini Yoga Practice * Methods And Processes
5. एका नाथसिध यो्याचे आ्मव्ृ त [Marathi] [Eka Natha Siddha Yogyache
Atmavritta]
6. Chitpavan Konkanastha Brahmins’ History [Pre- And Proto-]
7. Sarasvati River – The Ancestral Home of Chitpavan Brahmins
__________________________________________________________________
DEDICATION
THEIR TRAVAILS WERE LONG,
THOUSANDS OF MILES FROM WHEREVER THEY CAME.
THE MIGRATORY ROUTE INVOLVED TRAVEL PROBABLY FROM
ONE EXTREMITY OF
PAN-VEDIC CIVILIZATION, STRETCHING FROM INDONESIA -
KAMBOJ TO PERSIA - ASIA MINOR, EAST TO WEST AND THE
HIMALAYAS TO
THE PALK STRAITS, NORTH TO SOUTH:
OVER THE TEN MILENNIA,
WHAT HAPPENNED TO THEM, HOW THEY FACED THE
CHALLENGES OF FREQUENT MIGRATIONS OVER LONG
DISTANCES AND UNKNOWN LANDS IS SO MUCH A MATTER
OF READING RIGHT THROUGH THEIR VEDIC PAST AND
VISUALISING:
I BOW TO THEM, MY ANCESTORS, FOR THE RICH HERITAGE
THEY HAVE LEFT TO US, THEIR CHILDREN.
THIS BOOK IS BUT A SMALL TRIBUTE TO THEM
TO PAY THE DEBT OF THE FOREFATHERS BY TRYING TO
PUT THEIR HISTORY IN A BETTER PERSPECTIVE AND
PAY PROPER OBESEIANCE TO THEIR LONG FORGOTTEN SAGA.
MAN SEES HIMSELF IN HIS CHILD.
LET THEM BE HAPPY WHEREEVER THEY MAY BE,
REJOICING THE STILL UNFOLDING SAGA OF THEIR ADVENTURES
BEING PLAYED BY THEIR CHILDREN,
ON THE LARGER CANVAS OF THE GLOBE ITSELF,
FROM JAPAN IN THE EAST TO CALIFORNIA IN THE WEST,
FROM NORDIC NORTH TO THE SOUTH POLE,
STEPPING INTO THEIR FOOTSTEPS,
WE, THEIR BELOVED CHILDREN,
DARE TO GO WHERE NO MAN HAS GONE BEFORE.
PRAY LET THEM BESTOW BLESSING UPON US
IN THIS CONTINUING VENTURE;
OM
SHANTI: SHANTI: SHANTI:
Vibhakar V. Lele
INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK
SARASVATI RIVER
THE ANCESTRAL HOME OF CHITPAVAN BRAHMINS
This book is a sequel to the book ‘Chitpavan Konkanastha

Brahmins’ History [Pre- And Proto-]’. Like the previous book, it
further takes the story to its final logical conclusion. It shows
categorically that the Original Home of the Chitpavan Brahmins’
ancestors was right on the banks of the ancient Vedic River
Sarasvati, near its origin in the Himalayas in the region now known
as Uttarakhanda of India.
This book was possible owing to impromptu feedback by Dr.

Ambujkishore Jha, MBBS, from Mumbai. He came across my
Chitpavan Origins Book on academis.edu. After reading it, he said
that he was very much impressed and wrote to me a mail. These
details are furnished in this book at appropriate places.
As informed by him, the historic narration is due Mr. Ramakrishna

Jha, his grandfather, a scholar of Vedic History. He had passed on
the history to Dr. Jha. This would not be an isolated piece of history
related to their own ancestors who were domiciled on the Sarasvati
River banks, at its origin in the Vedic times. The Chitpavan
Brahmins ancestors were called ‘Agnihotri Brahmins’ then and
were the neighbours of the Maithili Brahmins’ ancestors in the
region to their north-east as narrated.
In the book on Chitpavan Brahmins Origins of this author, it was

seen that the historic connection to Ahichhatra, with due evidence,
was provided by the Kannada Shashtik Brahmins who shared
common ancestry with Chitpavan Brahmins.
SARASVATI RIVER - THE ANCESTRAL HOME OF CHITPAVAN BRAHMINS
In this case, it is the Maithili Brahmins, one time old neighbours of

the Chitpavan Brahmins’ ancestors for long since ancient Vedic
times, who have come forward to provide the missing link to their
ancestral history by emphatically providing the necessary evidence
and connection of their ancestral home on the banks of the Vedic
Sarasvati River in the Himalayas.
This author finds the hand of providence in this discovery of the

roots of the Chitpavan Brahmins and their ancestry. Had it not been
the chance of meeting a longtime friend Mr. K. R. Kodiyal from
Dombivli, this author may not have known the Pre-history of
Chitpavan Brahmins’ ancestors from the Kannada sources.
Again if he had not come across Mr. Deepak Gore, the important
archeological evidence provided by Mr. N. S. Rajpurohit in his
research paper on Chiploon and Talagunda Agraharas (of 300BC /
350 AD and 1174 AD) of Chitpavan Brahmins would have
remained unknown to him.
Both these sources were in Kannada language, unknown to this

author. The link of Chitpavan Brahmins to Ahichhatra thus became
well established, with other details the author had himself come
across in his research on the roots of Chitpavan Brahmins.
Now providentially, Dr. Jha has arrived on the scene with his
narration of Chitpavan Brahmins’ ancestral proto-history. What a
great chance for a researcher! He can only remain grateful to his all
sources and now especially to late Shri Ramakrishna Jha, a Vedic
scholar and historian and his grandson, Mr. Ambujkishore Jha, for
their unique special contribution to this research of the ancient
home of the Chitpavan Brahmins’ ancestors. Their contribution has
been appropriately noted in the text of this book.
Some of the readers might not have read this author’s previous
book. It is a very important one and a predecessor of this book. It is
a must-read for getting the full picture of Chitpavan Origins. To
2
Vibhakar V. Lele
acquaint them with its central ideas, a short synopsis from it is

given at the beginning of this book, with its introduction etc. All the
same they should not miss upon the original book that is still
available at 1. Internetarchives.org and 2. Academis.edu and on 3.
Pothi.com in printed edition and e-book forms.
I hope that the interested Chitpavan Brahmins and scholars would

be happy with what novel narration these two books have to offer
in respect of the Pre- and Proto-history of Chitpavan Konkanastha
Brahmins.
Vibhakar V. Lele
Author
_________________________________________________
3
Vibhakar V. Lele
SARASVATI RIVER
THE ANCESTRAL HOME
OF
CHITPAVAN BRAHMINS
CONTENTS
THE AUTHOR ............................................................................ 4
DEDICATION ...................................................... 0
INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK ................................ 1
______________________________________________________
SYNOPSIS OF CHITPAVAN KONKANASTHA BRAHMINS’

HISTORY (PROTO- AND PRE) ................................... 1
FOREWORD........................................................ 1
Expression of Gratitude ............................................................... 6

PS: Of late Shri Ramakrishna Jha and his grandson Dr.
Ambujkishore Jha ................................................. 10
BRIEF DETAILS ........................................................................ 1

Source-1 ................................................................................... 1
Source-2 ................................................................................... 2
4
Vibhakar V. Lele
VYADESHVARODAYA KAVYA (1627 AD) by MAHA-

KAVI VISHWANATH: .......................................................... 2
Source 3 Mr. N. S. Rajpurohit’s paper on Talagunda and
Chiploon Agraharas ................................................................. 4
Source 4 ................................................................................... 5
Source 5: Pulakeshi’s Shila-lekha ........................................... 5
Source 6: Narrative of Shri Ramakrishna Jha and Dr.
Ambujkishore Jha .................................................................... 6
PRESENTATION ....................................................................... 6
ANCESTORS: ............................................................................. 7
CONCLUSION OF THE RESEARCH ON CHITPAVAN
KONKANASTHA BRAHMINS’ HISTORY (PROTO AND
PRE) .......................................................................................... 10
1. Why are they Dwivedis, unlike other Brahmins:............... 10
2. Why do they worship Yogeshwari of Ambejogai as
Kuladevata: ............................................................................ 11
3. Why is the Vindhyavasini Chitales'& Some Chitpavans’
Kuladevata: ............................................................................ 13
4. Did Chitpavans’ ancestors go directly to Chiploon from
Ahichhatra in UP: .................................................................. 14
5. Why Mahalakshmi of Kolhapur is the Kuladevata of some
of the Chitpavans: .................................................................. 14
6. Where were Chitpavans before 1600 AD: ........................ 15
7. From which river Payaswini Parashurama sought
Chitpavans’ ancestors for re-settlement at Guhagar: ............. 18
8. From where did the Chitpavans’ ancestors comeŚ
Ambejogai, Payaswini, Vanavasi or Ahichhatra: .................. 18
5
Vibhakar V. Lele
9. How did Karnataka Brahmins know the etymology of

‘Chitpavan’ derived from ‘Agnihotra Pavitra’/
‘AgnihotrapavanŚ ................................................................... 21
Some might question how was it that the neighbours in
Karnataka know that the etymology of ‘Chitpavan’ arose from
earlier IDs of ‘Agnihotra Pavitra’/‘Agnihotrapavan’ to ‘Pavan’
and then to Chitpavan’ś why were the Chitpavans not aware of
it. ............................................................................................ 21
10. The etymological connection of ‘Chitpavan’ to the Persian
word ‘Kshatrapavan’Ś ............................................................ 22
What were Chitpavans called before coming to Konkan: ..... 22
One wonders what etymological connection the word
‘Chitpavan’ has to the Persian word ‘Kshatrapavan’ and how
to explain the meaning of Chitpavan in older Persian. .......... 22
Although the meanings of ‘Pavan’ and ‘Agni’ in Sanskrit, and
‘Chit’ of Sanskrit and ‘Pavan’ of Persian, overlap, it has been
conclusively shown in Chapter 8 that the ‘Pavan’ of Persian
need not be considered for arriving at the meaning of
‘Chitpavan’. It can be directly derived from the word
‘Agnichit’ from Sanskrit itself. (Ref. Chapter 9) ................... 22
11. Did Chitpavans go from Ambejogai to Konkan via
Vanavasi: ............................................................................... 22
12. Why were the Khares from Kaveri side accepted into
Chitpavans’ communityŚ........................................................ 23
13. How did Chitpavans’ ancestors in Konkan identify the
newcomers to Konkan arriving after several hundred years
from distant lands: ................................................................. 23
14. Trihotra Brahmins of Konkan mentioned in Sahyadri
Khanda:.................................................................................. 24
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Vibhakar V. Lele
15. The Sahyadri Khanda calls the ‘Chitpavans’ as

‘Agnihotraparayana’, brought by Parashurama from Desha
region; .................................................................................... 24
16. The little known details given in Lele Kulavrittanta: ...... 25
17. The connection of river named Hiranyakeshi at Amboli in
Konkan to the history of Chitpavans: .................................... 26
18. What was the Vedic past of Chitpavans and their
ancestors? .............................................................................. 26
19. Tamrapatas of 1000AD with Chitpavan surnames like
Patwardhan, Bapat etc. .......................................................... 27
20. CHITPAVANS’ ASSOCIATION WITH PARSHURAMŚ
............................................................................................... 28
______________________________________________________
Sarasvati River – The Ancestral Home of

Chitpavan Brahmins
______________________________________________________
CHAPTER 1
CHITPAVAN BRAHMINS’ ORIGINAL VEDIC HABITAT AT
SARASVATI RIVER ............................................... 1
Important Information ................................................................. 1

Maithili Brahmins ........................................................................ 1
The Sarasvati River connection ................................................... 2
CHAPTER 2
FURTHER INTERACTION WITH DR. JHA ............................ 7
7
Vibhakar V. Lele
CHAPTER 3
HISTORICAL EVIDENCE......................................... 8
CHAPTER 4
INTERPRETATION OF THE EVIDENCE OF DR. JHA ....... 11
Parashurama Connect ............................................................ 14

CHAPTER 5
ANAHICHHATRA CHITPAVAN BRAHMINS’ ANCESTRAL
SECOND HOME ................................................. 15
CHAPTER 6
ADDITIONAL BACKGROUND ................................ 19
CHAPTER 7
CONCLUSION FROM DISCUSSIONS ......................... 21
Neighbours of Maithili Brahmins .............................................. 21

Similarities................................................................................. 22
Habitat ....................................................................................... 23
Kamboja and India .................................................................... 23
Chitpavans’ Ancestral Migrations and Patronage ..................... 23
Evidence of Being Original Vedics ........................................... 24
Divine Hand............................................................................... 27
Additional Information .............................................................. 27
CHAPTER 8
DR JHA’S COMMUNICATIONS of June 2015 ................. 28
Previous Settlements ................................................................. 28
8
Vibhakar V. Lele
History of Sarasvati ................................................................... 28

MIGRATIONS .......................................................................... 29
Sarayupareen Brahmins ......................................................... 29
Maithili Brahmins .................................................................. 31
Agnihotri (Chitpavan) Brahmins ........................................... 32
Sarasvat Brahmins ................................................................. 32
Other Relevant Details............................................................... 33
Conclusion ................................................................................. 34
Pre-History of the Regions South of Vindhyachal .................... 34
Who lived there ..................................................................... 34
Migrations of Vedics To The South ...................................... 35
Entry Of Vedic Kings Into The South ................................... 35
Historicity of Name Ashmaka ................................................... 37
Causes for drying of Sarasvati River ......................................... 38
The Legend of King Kundan of Kamboja ................................. 39
CHAPTER 9
EPILOGUE........................................................ 42
Essence of e-mails exchanged with Dr. Jha............................... 42

Timeline of Chitapavan Brahmins’ Migrations ......................... 42
Timeline of King Kundan of Kamboja ...................................... 44
Chitpavan Brahmins – The Most Ancient Brahmins ................. 45
Region of Chitpavan Brahmins’ ancestors ................................ 46
Details of Habitat, Maps etc. of Chitpavan Brahmins’ Ancestors
................................................................................................... 47
Sarasvati Riverine Home ........................................................... 47
9
Vibhakar V. Lele
Vedic Attestation of Agnihotri Brahminsvati on Sarasvati River

................................................................................................... 49
Ahichhatra and Panchala ........................................................... 51
Kamboja, Mithila, Ashmaka etc. ............................................... 52
Agnihotri ID of Chitpavan Brahmins ........................................ 52
Antiquity of Chitpavan Brahmins.............................................. 53
Shakha-bheda......................................................................... 53
Pankti-bheda .......................................................................... 53
Migrations Of Chitpavan Brahmins In Nutshell ........................ 54
Ancient ID – “Agnihotri’ ....................................................... 54
Domicile And Later-Day Migrations..................................... 55
CONCLUSION ......................................................................... 57
Deshastha Brahmins and Others ............................................ 58
Maharashtra ........................................................................... 58
In Passing................................................................................... 59
Letter from Dr. Ambujkishore Jha To This Author .............. 60

CHAPTER 10
ORIGINAL VEDIC HABITAT OF CHITPAVANS’
ANCESTORS ..................................................... 61
SARASVATI RIVER ............................................. 61
Recent Research on the Sarasvati River .................................... 64

Efforts to trace Saraswati's course ............................................. 65
Project to Revive Sarasvati River .............................................. 66
Did the mythical Saraswati River of the ancient Vedas really
exist? .......................................................................................... 67
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Vibhakar V. Lele
What is the real reason behind drying up of Saraswati River? .. 71

SARASVATI RIVER ................................................................ 73
Etymology ............................................................................. 74
Importance ............................................................................. 75
In the Rigveda ........................................................................ 75
Praise ..................................................................................... 75
Course .................................................................................... 77
Other Vedic texts ..................................................................... 78
Post-Vedic texts ..................................................................... 80
Identification theories ............................................................ 81
Identification with the Sarasvati ............................................ 82
Course of the historical Ghaggar-Hakra River ...................... 83
Drying-up of the Ghaggar-Hakra system .............................. 83
Identification with the Indus Valley Civilization .................. 85
Helmand river ............................................................................ 86
Drying-up and dating of the Vedas ........................................ 87
Notes ...................................................................................... 89
References ............................................................................. 90
Sources ...................................................................................... 94
Further reading ....................................................................... 96
External links ........................................................................... 96
CHAPTER 11
SARASVATI RIVERINE GEOMPORPHIC ACTIVITY ....... 97
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Vibhakar V. Lele
CHAPTER 12
MARITIME ACTIVITY IN PRE-HISTORY ON KONKAN
COAST .......................................................... 101
CHAPTER 13
HIMALAYAS AND INDIAN SUB-CONTINENT ........... 102

CHAPTER 14
THE ORIGINAL REGION OF CHITPAVAN BRAHMINS’
VEDIC ANCESTORS - SHIVALIK RANGES ................ 109
Siwalik region ................................................... 109
Geology ................................................................................... 110

Pre-history ............................................................................... 110
Demographics .......................................................................... 111
References ............................................................................... 111
......................... 112
Siwalik .......................................................... 112

CHAPTER 15
ORIGIN OF SARASVATI RIVER............................. 113
ADI BADRI ..................................................... 113
CHAPTER 16
SCENARIO OF CHITPAVAN BRAHMINS’ ANCESTRAL
HABITAT IN AHICHHATRA OF UTTARA PANCHAL .... 116
Himalayan peaks of Uttarakhand ............................... 116
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Vibhakar V. Lele
CHAPTER 17
LONGTIME HABITAT OF CHITPAVAN BRAHMINS’
ANCESTORS AHICHHATRA ................................ 123
History ..................................................................................... 124

Archaeology ............................................................................ 125
Main Temple & Idol ................................................................ 126
Natural Scenario ...................................................................... 126
Means of approach .................................................................. 126
Nearby Places .......................................................................... 126
Notes ........................................................................................ 126
CHAPTER 18
LONGTIME RESIDENCE OF CHITPAVAN BRAHMINS’
ANCESTORS PANCHALA ................................... 127
Geographical extent ................................................................. 128

Panchala during the Vedic period ............................................ 128
Panchala under Magadhan rule................................................ 129
Panchala during post-Mauryan period ..................................... 129
References[edit] ....................................................................... 131
CHAPTER 19
THE KAMBOJAS ................................................................... 132
Ethnicity and language ............................................................ 132
Origins ..................................................................................... 133
Theory of Origin - Eurasian Nomads .................................. 134
The Kambojan States ............................................................... 135
The A vakas ........................................................................ 135
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Vibhakar V. Lele
Alexander's Conflict with the Kambojas ............................. 136

Migrations................................................................................ 136
Eastern Kambojas ................................................................ 137
Mauryan period ....................................................................... 137
CHAPTER 20
MITHILA (ANCIENT) ......................................... 139
Ancient history and myths ....................................................... 140

Ruling dynasties ...................................................................... 140
CHAPTER 21
ASMAKA/ASSAKA ........................................... 141

References ............................................................................... 142
Asmaka Kingdom .................................................................... 143
Asmaka the adopted son of Saudasa ................................ 143
Asmakas in Kurukshetra War ......................................... 143
Karna's conquests .............................................................. 144
Asmaka Sumantu, a sage .................................................. 144
References ............................................................................... 144
Mahajanapada .......................................................................... 144
Assaka...................................................................................... 144
Mahajanapada ................................................... 145

CHAPTER 22
AGNIHOTRA ................................................... 147
AGNICAYANA ...................................................................... 147

AGNIHOTRA ......................................................................... 150
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Vibhakar V. Lele
CHAPTER 23
THE SHATAPATHA BRAHMANA ON AGNIHOTRA ..... 152
THIRD ADHYÂYA - FIRST BRÂHMANA...................... 152

Footnotes ............................................................................. 158
CHAPTER 24
PARAHURAMA AVATARA .................................. 162
Lineage .................................................................................... 164

Birth ......................................................................................... 165
Renuka & The Clay Pot ....................................................... 165
Kartavirya Sahastrarjun & The Haihaya Kingdom ................. 166
Genocide Of Bhrigu & The Sacred Cow ................................. 168
Vengeance Against Kshatriya ............................................. 169
Different Epochs ...................................................................... 170
Beating Back The Arabian Sea ............................................ 170
Request To Shiva ................................................................. 171
Rambhoja ............................................................................. 172
Sanyasa & End Time ............................................................... 172
Name........................................................................................ 173
Parashurama Temples .............................................................. 173
Parashurama Kshetras.............................................................. 174
Seven Kshetras are popularly known as Parashurama Kshetras or
Parashurama Srishti:[5] ............................................................. 174
References ............................................................................... 175
Additional Sources .................................................................. 175
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Vibhakar V. Lele
External links Media related to Parashuram at Wikimedia

Commons ................................................................................. 175
Ganapati Temple at Ganapati Pule District Ratnagiri .......... 176
Coastal Shipping at Velneshwar ................................ 176
DEAR READER: ............................................... 177
___________________________
16
Vibhakar V. Lele
___________________________
SYNOPSIS
OF
CHITPAVAN
KONKANASTHA
BRAHMINS’ HISTORY
(PROTO- AND PRE)
______________________________________________________
INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK
CHITPAVAN KONKANASTHA BRAHMINS’ HISTORY

(PROTO- AND PRE)
This book pieces together the most important story of who they
were, from where they came, their Kuladevatas, original
habitats, customs and other important details. It categorically
disproves the ancient hollow anecdotes based upon the mere
mythical propositions and conjectural guesswork. The author
would like to share the story with Chitpavans and well-wishers.
Dr. Rosalind O’Hanlon, Professor of Indian history and culture,

Oriental Institute, Oxford, who is researching in the Chitpavan
Brahmins’ history, during a communication, informed me on the
underlying article on ‘The Roots Of Chitpavan Brahmins’ of
which this book is a further elaboration that she found it most
interesting and very much enjoyed, and learned from, all of the
materials that this author had collected therein.
Sources-1: Research paper by Mr. N. S. Rajpurohit, An

eminent archaeologist from Karnataka, on Talagunda
inscriptions;
2. Mr. Korati Sri Niwas Rao's book on ‘Sri Raghavendra
Charitra’ (Kannada);
3. ‘Vyadeshwaroda Mahakavya’ by Vishwanatha (Early 17th
century AD)
4. Lele Kulavrittanta and
5. Samrata Pulakeshi’s Shila-lekha1
This book, with annexures, comprises of the propositions about the

prehistory of Chitpavan Brahmins. Most of the important scattered
details have been put in place to stitch together the ancient and
medieval history of Chitpavan Konkanastha Brahmins. At the same
time, the author delves into their proto-history from the times of
sage Agasti.
###
1
6. The Narration of Dr. Jha and Shri Ramakrishna Jha, Vedic scholar.
PHOTOS OF KULDAIVATAS
PHOTO - DASHABHUJ GANAPATI, HEDVI
VIBHAKAR V.LELE
AMBEJOGAI YOGESHWARI TEMPLE
GODDESS YOGESHWARI
AMBEJOGAI
KULADEVATA OF CHITPAVANS
2
Vibhakar V. Lele
MAHALAXMI TEMPLE, KOLHAPUR
GODDESS MAHALAXMI OF KOLHAPUR
3
Vibhakar V. Lele
TEMPLE VINDHYAVASINI, VINDHYACHAL
GODDESS VINDHYAVASINI,
VINDHYASHEKHAR, VINDHYACHAL,
NEAR MIRZAPUR, UTTAR PRADESH
4
Vibhakar V. Lele
CHITPAVAN KONKANASTHA
BRAHMINS’ HISTORY (PROTO- AND
PRE)
FOREWORD
It was indeed a pleasant surprise for me when Shri Vibhakar Lele
asked me to write a few words by way of a Foreword, since my
acquaintance with him is fairly short, and in fact we have met in
person only once.
I do not recollect who, but someone suggested the name of Shri

Lele to me for obtaining a copy of Shata-Prashna-Kalpa-Latika. I
approached him, but he did not have it. However, he had a copy of
Vyadeshwarodaya Mahakavya. And he shared that copy with me
most ungrudgingly. At about the same I was to join the Karnataka
Office of my bank, and so we decided to keep in touch by email or
phone.
Shri Lele was the first to bring to my notice that there is a mention
about, Aravathu Okkalu, (also known as Shashtik Brahmins or 60
Kulas) a Brahmin community of Karnataka, in the biography of
Shri Raghavendra Swami. My posting in Bangalore turned out a
blessing in disguise. I was able to buy a copy of the book “Sri Sri
Raghavendra Swamigalu” by Mr. Korati Sri Niwas Rao in
Kannada language.
I was also able to get a free translation of pages 214 to 216 of the
book, which deal with Shashtik Brahmins with the help of my
friend Dr. H.N.V. Prasad. Later I came to know that Late Shri
Korati Sri Niwas Rao who was a Professor of Kannada Literature
in Bangalore University, had also written a book 'Shashtik Vamsha
Pradeep', a hard copy of which I was able to obtain from wife of
Late Shri Korati Sri Niwas Rao.
VIBHAKAR V.LELE
I even contacted Shri. D.S. Krishnacharya, owner of Prabha Press

in Bangalore who had published Shri Rao's books, but he was not
able to tell anything about the various sources from which Shri Rao
had written his book. Shri Krishnacharya, himself a Shashtik
Brahmin, confirmed that their community does not see any
difference between them and the Chitpavans.
In the present book, Shri Lele has made several original points not
generally known to everybody. Thus for example, the Kula Devata
of Chitale family is Vindhyavasini in Uttar Pradesh, and not some
temple in Konkan. On reading this I made further search, and found
that Vatsa Gotra Gore families, as also all Kale families who also
belong to Vatsa Gotra, have Kala Bhairava of Kashi in Uttar
Pradesh as their Kula Daivata. All these things do point to the
possibility of Chitpavans having migrated from North.
Shri Lele has made many other singular original contributions,

including some brand new perspectives for collating and
synthesizing the fragmented proto and pre-history of Chitpavan
Konkanastha Brahmins. He has adopted a novel approach to link up
the matter through tracing the Vedic history of Chitpavan Brahmins
with reference to the Veda branches they follow. It is an attempt
not so far heard of. He also lays down a number of criteria to
adjudge the hypotheses of Chitpavans’ pre-history in Chapter 16,
‘Pre-Requisites of a Theory on Chitpavans’ Proto-History and
Roots’.
He shows in Chapter 58, ‘Conclusions on Proto- and Pre-history of

Chitpavan Konkanastha Brahmins’, how the postulations of
Chitpavan Brahmins’ ancient history he makes conform to the
criteria so laid down. He has also tried to locate the original
habitats of Chitpavans from the Vedic regions where various Veda
Shakhas were prevalent in the past. He has used the details of
‘Charanavyuha’ to corroborate his postulations. He has also given,
in the proper perspective, a brief historic outline of many Brahmin
2
Vibhakar V. Lele
communities like Karhades, Aravathokkalu, Badaganadu, Vadama,

Iyers, Iyengars et al, hinted by scholars to be related to Chitpavans,
to judge the Chitpavan story that he has laboriously pieced together
in this volume of almost 500 pages.
He has given geographic maps and bibliography of use to

researchers of this subject. He has outlined the parameters of
researching Chitpavans’ history in Chapter50, ‘Some Notes to
Researchers’.
His use of Talagunda inscriptions is novel. Other socio-politico-

economic details of the relevant historic periods also find place in
his book to give the reader an idea of the milieu against which the
interpretation of historic facts has to made, for proper appreciation
of his efforts.
The photographs of Chitpavans’ Kuladevatas given in this book are

its added attraction. The idols of Renuka of Mahur, Yogeshwari of
Ambejogai and Vindhyavasini of Vindhyashekhar, UP are in
Tandala form, as he points out. That fact has been linked by him to
trace the proto-history of Chitpavans.
He has used another novel approach to trace the Chitpavans’ past

through a detailed analysis of their Kuladevatas and Kulaswamis to
arrive at their original landing sites in Konkan which confirm the
story of ‘Vyadeshwarodaya’. The Ambejogai connection of
Chitpavans is well explained with reference to history of the
Kuladevata and the unadulterated edition of Sahyadri Khanda.
There are many more minute details which he points out in

connection with ascertaining the real history of Chitpavans. He has
seen the myth of Parashurama and other incidents from a scientific
perspective. Shearing them of their mystic content, he reinterprets
them in a rationalistic manner to arrive at the real facts behind those
myths. He has explained properly the Parashurama’s connection
with Chitpavans.
He has given the details of the genesis of the word ‘Chitpavan’,

with his own most novel suggestion to reveal the baffling
etymology of ‘Chitpavan’. He arrives at a clearly most logical and
3
Vibhakar V. Lele
the newest etymology of ‘Chitpavan’ from the Sanskrit word

‘Agnichit’ to identify Chitpavans’ oldest ID as ‘Chitpavan’ itself.
‘Chitpavan’, like ‘Agnichit’, means ‘One who guards and
propitiates the sacred Vedic ‘Agni’ for Vedic rites he conducts.
Thus the ID ‘Chitpavan’ can be easily seen to be related to the
Vedic function the community performs.
He has scientifically covered the new research in genetics of

‘Chitpavans’ to relate it to the actual facts of their migrations over
the past millennia. He has also pointed out that biased genetic
researchers are mischievously adulterating historical facts and are
telling lies with a view to malign the Chitpavan Brahmin
community.
He has also dealt with the relevance of the ‘Aryan’ invasion theory
and the matter of correctly identifying the chronology of the Vedas
and other epical and Puranic incidents to times more ancient than
what the western historians tend to postulate. His efforts in that
direction are guided by latest findings and historic artifacts.
One more connection to their ancient history is missed by all those

who dwelt on the subject previously. It is of the Chitpavans being
Dwivedis as against almost all other Brahmin communities of today
being single Shakhiyas. That way he has traced the Chitpavans to
Veda Vyasa’s times, emphatically.
He has also brought to the notice of researchers some little known

historic recorded facts like in Lele Kulavrittanta, Emperor
Pulakeshi’s Shila-Lekha, Sri Niwas Rao’s Kannada book on Shri
Raghavendra Swami, ‘Vyadeshwarodaya’Ś an early seventeenth
century book of origins from Kaveri, recorded fact that Khares and
some other Chitpavans had joined Chitpavans in the known past, et
al.
I have pointed out so many novelties in his approach to the subject

never before attempted by any scholar known to me. Suffice it to
say that just going through the ‘Table of Contents’ under ‘Index’
would give the reader a good idea of what Shri Lele is about to
reveal in this book.
4
Vibhakar V. Lele
In the year 2007 the first World Chitpavan Sammelana was held in
Pune, when one venue was allotted to Gore Parivara (families).
During the Sammelana some persons decided to take a lead in
preparing Gore Kulavrittanta and I decided to lend a helping hand,
considering I was fast approaching my retirement age. It looked
like a good project to keep me busy.
At around the same time, one Mr. P.V. Joshi published a book
entitled 'Greek Nagarika te Peshawai'. Those of you who have read
the book will realize that Shri Joshi has built his fantastic theory
only on the basis of Shat-Prashna-Kalpa-Latika, a book which he
had probably not even seen.
So the second project that I commenced was to collect information

about ‘Origin of Chitpavans’ so as to rebut the arguments of Shri.
P.V. Joshi. The first step in this direction was to obtain a copy of
Shata-Prashna-Kalpa-Latika.
While collecting information for Gore Kula Vrittanta, I came to

meet one gentleman by name Shri G. Ramanatha Bhat, Retired
Executive Engineer, now settled in Mysore. He told me that the G
in his name stands for Gore, and that they are Vatsa Gotra
Brahmins from Ratnagiri, who have settled down first in South
Karnataka and later on in rest of Karnataka over the last 300 years.
Shri Bhat told me that in the year 1946, Shri Narayanacharya

Srinivasacharya Rajpurohit (Shri N.S. Rajpurohit) had written
a comprehensive essay, titled “THALGUNDA AND CHIPLOON
AGRAHARAS “ which was published by the University of
Mysore in their publication “PRABHUDHA –KARNATAKA”.
Shri Bhat in fact managed to get for me a copy of the paper, which
I was able to get translated with the help of Shri S. H. Kulkarni,
another colleague of mine in the bank.
5
Vibhakar V. Lele
In due course I shared both these documents with Shri Vibhakar

Lele. And that is how the bond between us became stronger,
although we have met only once.
I wish him well that his book will be met with enthusiasm by
Chitpavan Brahmins in general and the scholars in particular. I
wish him full success in this grand attempt of his.
I am sure when readers go through this book along with two of my

own, 'Origin of Chitpavans' and 'Chitpavan-Gotra-Pravar', they will
have to give up several of their own pre-conceived notions. All of
these books are available on internet for free downloads;
Deepak Gore,
Retired Chief General Manager, NABARD,
Mumbai, India
Email: deepakgore@gmail.com
______________________________________________________
Expression of Gratitude
This author is indebted to his friends and colleagues for their help
and critical appreciation of his ideas on the subject. Especial thanks
are due to Mr. Deepak Gore, Mumbai, and author of ‘Origins of
Chitpavans’ and ‘Chitpavan Gotra Pravara’ published on
httpŚ//www.calameo.com/, who are also this author’s free e-book
publishers. Mr. Prakash Godse deserves unbound praise for his
work on the Godse Kulavrittanta.
Mr. Vijay Apte from Mumbai had most kindly provided me with a
copy of the book on ‘Vyadeshwarodaya Mahakavya’ of
Vishwanatha by Mr. M. D. Paradkar, a scholar. The book was
unavailable. He kindly sent to me a copy. He had taken pains to
search the Central Library at Calcutta to find the rare manuscript of
‘Vyadeshwarodaya’. He got published the said book, with
translation into Marathi and comments by Mr. M. D. Paradkar. This
author is indeed indebted to him for his free help.
6
Vibhakar V. Lele
Mr. Bharat Dandekar, Mumbai, too, obliged me by giving his copy

of Chitpavanism - A Tribute to Konkanastha Brahmin Culture by
Mr. Jay Dixit, MD for my work.
I am also indebted to Dr. Madhav M. Deshpande, Professor of

Sanskrit and Linguistics Department of Asian Languages and
Cultures, University of Michigan Ann Arbor, MI 48104-1608,
USA, for sending to me a copy of his articleŚ ‘Panca Gauda and
Panca Dravida – Contested Borders of a Traditional Classification’.
It has been very useful in understanding the historical social
background of Brahmin communities, classified into the two major
divisions: Pancha Gauda and Pancha Dravida. He also provided me
with some additional references for my study.
Most of all, this author is indebted to these authors of his source

books: Mahakavi Vishwanatha, Mr. N. S. Rajpurohit and Mr. Sri
Niwas Rao.
All the Chitpavan Brahmins are in great debt of Mahakavi

Vishwanatha, the author of ‘Vyadeshwarodaya’, but for the
penning down of his epic, the Chitpavans would have lost a most
definite connection to their ancestral history.
The Chitpavans are all indebted to the compilers of Chitpavan

Kulavrittantas. Especial note has to be taken of the wisdom of the
compilers of Lele Kulavrittanta who had preserved in print some of
the most important links to their Vedic past. The mention in the
Tamrapatra of Kongani king of Hiranyakeshi Brahmin, with its
Indian Antiquary number, is most helpful for researchers of
Chitpavan history. The Kulavrittanta also gave important links to
Satyashadha, the preceptor of Hiranyakeshi branch of Chitpavans,
about his austerities at the Parashurama Kshetra in the Sahyadri
mountain range, in Konkan.
Last, but not the least, thanks are due to the e-book publishers
because of whom this author has been able to publish the e-edition
of his book to promote the cause of this research into Chitpavan
Konkanastha Brahmins’ Pre- and Proto-history.
1. ‘Calameo’ http://www.calameo.com/ for the 1st e-book edition of
this book;
7
Vibhakar V. Lele
2. Academia.edu at
https://www.academia.edu/?notification_code=QWjnLbOk for the
2nd e-reproduction of this book.
3. Internet Archives.org: for the 3rd e-reproduction of this book.
The author is also indebted to previous authors of various books

which helped him get information on the subject matter, including
those of web-sites, like Wikipedia, from which he could understand
many details covered in this book. Special mention has been made
of Wikipedia at appropriate place.
Latest in this list of honour is Dr. Rosalind O'Hanlon, M.A. PhD,

Professor of Indian History and Culture, Oriental Institute, Oxford
OX1 2LE. This author’s interaction with her has helped revive his
current interest in the subject, with live exchange of some ideas in
the matter. She was very kind in helping this author in finding e-
copy of the old book ‘Charanavyuha’ of Maharshi Shaunaka. That
book helped vindicate this author’s views in the matter of the Vedic
history of Brahmins gathered from other sources.
The mutual exchanges by mail in the matter have helped this author
to elaborate upon various ideas contained in this work on the
Chitpavans. This author is most grateful for her scholarly help and
permission to include the gist from communication with her, albeit
in a suitable form, at appropriate places in this book. Thanks are
again due to Mr. Deepak Gore for having given introduction to her.
Lastly, this author thanks Mr. K.R. Kodiyal, BA, a English

Language scholar friend, who first of all brought to his notice the
passages regarding the ancient connection between Chitpavan
Brahmins’ ancestors, Shashtik Brahmins and Ahichhatrapur from
Korati Sri Niwas Rao’s book on the life of Shrimad Raghavendra
Swami, without which this matter would never have gained the
momentum and this book would have been a never-born one!
This author very much appreciates the efforts of Dr. Urmila

Rajashekhar Patil in putting forward the matter regarding the
Brahma Sabha convened by Chhatrapati Shri Shahu Maharaja, the
1st, of Satara, wherein the pedigree of various Brahmin
communities of Maharashtra and the Pancha Dravidas were
8
Vibhakar V. Lele
examined. Her clearest noting of the actual reading from the

Shringeri Peetha’s authentic version of the Sahyadri Khanda is
worth note for all the Chitpavans and their baiters. I am giving my
understanding of the matter below:
The following testimony of the authentic Sahyadri Khanda,

which was produced from the Matha of the venerable Shri
Shankaracharya of Shringeri Peetha:
‘.............They (The Brahma Sabha called by Shahu Chhatrapati of
Satara in the1749AD) ordered the copy of the Sahyadri Khanda from
the Shringeri Matha. .......
(It read..) .. "The five Dravidas included the Dravidas, the

Maharashtras, the Tailangas, the Karnatakas and the Gurjaras.
These Brahmins are there since antiquity. ............
Parashurama made the ocean give him a land 14 Kroshas long and 74
villages wide so that he could have home. In that land he established
Brahmins (in the region) from the river near Kalyan (a town near
Thane in north Konkan) to the river in Rajapur (a town near
Ratnagiri in the south Konkan).
He established Brahmins from the Maharashtra country and named

them 'Chitpavans'; they were Brahmins attached to the
'Ashwalayana' branch of the Rig Veda’.
This will emphatically set at rest, once for all, the mischief behind
the 14 corpse’s story.
V. V. Lele
Author
____________________________________________________
9
Vibhakar V. Lele
PS: Of late Shri Ramakrishna Jha and his grandson Dr. Ambujkishore Jha
Since writing and print publishing of this book, this author received
the most important and crucial information of Chitpavan Brahmins’
ancestral home on the banks of Vedic Sarasvati River and later in
Ahichhatrapur from Dr. Ambujkishore Jha, MBBS, courtesy his
late grandfather, Shri Ramakrishna Jha, a renowned Vedic and
Historian scholar, who deserve more than thanks and gratitude.
Their Narratives and information, and discussions and e-mail

exchanges with Dr. Ambujkishore Jha have led to firmly establish
the Proto-history and the Pre-History of Chitpavan Brahmins that it
was rooted originally in the Vedic times upon the banks of the
Sarasvati River of the Vedas and later on in Ahichhatrapur after the
eco-systemic changes in the Sarasvati Riverine regions.
This unique development has taken the credible proto-history of

Chitpavan Brahmins to most ancient of the Vedic times, long
before seven millennia to the time of the origin of the Vedas. As is
well-known ‘Agnimeele purohitam’ [अ्निमीळे परु ोहितम ्] is the very
first Richa of the Vedas. The Chitpavan Brahmins’ ancestors were
the first-known performers of the Agnihotra rite in the Yajnas and
hence were called ‘Agnihotri Brahmins’. That reflects upon their
primacy in the Vedic order, if there is such a one. However,
without them, the Vedic rites would not start and hence their
antiquity is self-established.
This author had already deduced and established their ID of

‘Agnihotri’ as such in his previous book, ‘Chitpavan Konkanastha
Brahmins’ History [Pre- And Proto-]’, a complementary to this one.
The factual evidence provided by late Shri Ramakrishna Jha and his
grandson, Dr. Ambujkishore Jha, places the proto-history of
Chitpavan Brahmins beyond even a shred of doubt. They both,
along with the Maithili Brahmin community, deserve unrestrained
praise for doing a great favour to their ancestor’s erstwhile
neighbours, the ‘Agnihotri’ Chitpavan Brahmins, by carrying
forward that great piece of proto-history from the antiquity to the
present, by succession for over seven thousand years.
______________________________________________________
10
Vibhakar V. Lele
CHITPAVAN KONKANASTHA BRAHMINS’
HISTORY (PROTO AND PRE)
_________________________________________________
BRIEF DETAILS
Source-1
Korati Sri Niwas Rao's book on SRI RAGHAVENDRA

CHARITRA (Kannada) Original Shashtik Brahmins (of 60 Kulas --
like Chitpavans hold to be their case) - move South from North
from Ahichhatra (Rampur – Bareilly - Ujjain) to (Pratishtthana –
Paithan - Ambejogai to Vanavasi - Vaijayanti near Shimoga in
Karnataka in the times of Trinetra Sharma of Kadamba Dynasty-
father of Mayoor Sharma-(230 BC) for performing Sarvatomukha,
Ashwamedha and other Yajnas.
Some of these families later on move over to Ratnagiri in

Konkan. They were called ‘Agnihotra-pavan’- ‘Trihotra Pavan’
due to performing ‘Agnihotra’--then just ‘Pavan’ and later on
‘Chitpavan’-purified of 'Chit' by ‘Agnihotra’.
The details in the above said book are reliable because it was like
obiter ditta, by the way, and not for specially recording Chitpavan
history. The details about Chitpavan ancestry and migrations were
noted in the book by the way to trace the ancestry of Shri
Raghavendra Swami who is held in great esteem as a famous
Madhwa saint of the Dwaita tradition.
Mr. Sri Niwas Rao informs in the said book that Shri Raghavendra
Swami, as well as the famous Bajirao Peshawa the 1st, were the
descendants of the Shashtik Brahmins. He had given a list of
references upon the issue which are appended at Appendix II of this
book.
Ahichhatra was mentioned as present day Ujjain in the said book.

However further research by this author brought out another more
ancient Ahichhatra which is in present day Uttar Pradesh (UP), near

to Varanasi (Banaras or Kashi as known alternatively). The general
theory and evidence points to the Sarasvati basin, and later the
Ganges basin, as the original habitats of Brahmins in general. They
migrated from there to the South and many other places.
Chitpavans might not be an exception. However, they must have
migrated to the South India in the antiquity, thus losing traces of
their sojourn.
Further, the Charanavyuha mentions the abodes of Brahmins in the

long past times. The Hiranyakeshi and Ashwalayanas were together
at Varanasi in those ancient times as per the said reference. These
details I gathered from the reference listed at entry no. 13 of
Appendix I.
Source-2
VYADESHVARODAYA KAVYA (1627 AD) by MAHA-KAVI

VISHWANATH:
After creating Konkan-Parashurama and Muni Vyadi established

a Shivalinga at Guhagar- Parashurama visited river Kaveri-Met
Brahmins residing on the bank of river Payaswini ('Payoshni')
south of Kaveri near Kasargod region - Invited them to come to
the settlement created by him-Named as Chittapavan-All
Brahmins residing there called Chitpavan since then.
Just like the place names Ahichhatra and Vindhyachal, the river
name Payaswini (Payoshni, Paryushni etc. are aberrations) is
alluded to multiple rivers viz. The Tapi, the Payaswini of
Kasargod, Kerala border, Poorna in Vidarbha and probably
Parushni of the Panchanad areas of Punjab.
This author endorses the Payaswini of down South, Kerala-

Karnataka boundary as the one from where these Chitpavans’
ancestors came to Guhagar for two reasons:
A. Vyadeshwarodaya refers to Parashurama having gone to

Kaveri River where he supposedly met the Chitpavans’
2
Vibhakar V. Lele
ancestors for settling at Guhagar. Payaswini down south is likely

to be a more probable river from the same geographical area
than Tapi or Poorna from North of Maharashtra state. Poorna
basin is in Vidarbha and Tapi basin is in Khandesh and abutting
Gujarat. Their distances from the Kaveri River compared to the
southernmost Payaswini are far too much.
B. It is said that the Khares and some others who later joined
Chitpavans came from the Kaveri River basin. This information
is given in ‘Chitpavan’ by Mr. N. G. Chapekar.
Apart from above, the tendency of migrants to new lands is to

name new places after their old places. For example there are
more than a dozen places named ‘London’, in USA and
elsewhere where the British had settled. The same is the story
with Spanish, Dutch, Portuguese and other settlers elsewhere.
The Indians from the North India were no exception. Hence
there are multiple ‘Ahicchatras’, ‘Vindhyachalas’ and
‘Payaswinis’ etc.
Also the name ‘Payaswini’ is rather different. In Sanskrit, it

means ‘Full of Payasa' (literally milk, ambrosia), a ritual feast
offered to the Gods in Yajnas. The Sandhya-vandanam2 has
mantras regarding ‘Payaswini’. The rivers were the cradles of
civilizations all around the world. The Indians, recognizing their
importance to life, were used to venerate them like mothers who
feed their children with milk so essential to life. Hence one may
find still some more rivers which bear this name.
2
‘Sandhya-vandanam’ is a routine prayer by Richas of Vedas and
recitation of Gayatri mantra by the three Varnas (classes of Vedics). It is
ordained by the Shastras that Sandhya-vandanam is performed three times
daily: in the dawn before sunrise, at noon and in the dusk before sunset.
3
Vibhakar V. Lele
Source 3 Mr. N. S. Rajpurohit s paper on Talagunda and

Chiploon Agraharas
Some new information, reinforcing migration of Chitpavans

from Ahichhatra in UP to Talagunda and Banavasi – Karnataka -
Kaveri region, was discovered by Mr. Deepak Gore, CGM,
NABARD. The research article by Mr. N. S. Rajpurohit sent by
him to this author is quite useful for the Chitpavan Konkanastha
Brahmins’ Pre-History and as it turns out, for their medieval
history, too.
The article is in Kannada titled “Talagunda and Chiploon

Agraharas” by Mr. N. S. Rajpurohit, an eminent archaeologist of
his times It was published by Mysore University, in 1946. It
reaffirmed, with Archaeology evidence, two migrations of 64
Kula Brahmins from Ahichhatra- in the North, (most probably
from UP) - one in the times of Mayoora Sharma of Kadamba
dynasty, around 350 AD and the other, in times of one Mukanna
Kadamba, sometime in 1174 AD.
Each time 64 Kulas of Brahmins were brought and settled at

Talagunda in Karnataka and at Chiploon in Konkan. The reason
for requiring 64 Kulas is also well explained i.e. for performing
Sarvatomukha Yajna. For that purpose, you need 64 Brahmins
well versed in all the four Vedas and Yajnas, sixteen Brahmins
of every Veda. A number of surnames and common Gotras of
the Chitpavans and the Shashtik or the 64 Kula Brahmins who
are still in Karnataka, called Aravathokkalu, are very similar. It
is worth careful note by historians of the Chitpavans. Talagunda,
Dist. Shimoga, in Karnataka has inscriptions on stone pillar
noting related the matter.
As per Mr. N. S. Rajpurohit, one settlement of Chitpavans was

made at Chiploon by Mukanna of Kadamba dynasty around 1174
AD. In this connection, it is to point out that the Chitales
traditionally have been like masters of the place, with most of the
Agraharas belonging to them. Further, they appear to be later day
4
Vibhakar V. Lele
Chitpavan settlers in Konkan, the first being settlements at

Guhagar, referred to by Vishwanatha in Vyadeshwarodaya.
Source 4 Lele Kulavrittanta: The Lele Kulavrittanta has

been of immense help in arriving at some definite conclusions
about Chitpavans’ earlier stay in Konkan in the pre-historic times.
1. Its detailed notes on the Hiranyakeshi Branch of Chitpavans, the

austerities performed by their preceptor Satyashadha on the
riverbanks of Hiranyakeshi in Parashurama Kshetra in the
Sahyadris; 2. Domicile of Hiranyakeshi branch in and around
Chiploon area and on the banks of Hiranyakeshi River as per
Charanavyuha and commentary upon it by Mahidasa; 3. The
Tamrapatra of a Kongani king, mentioning a Hiranyakeshi
Brahmin and 4. General Vedic pre-history of Kashyapa Gotra of
the Chitpavans have all provided a hitherto untapped source of
Chitpavans’ pre- and proto-history.
All Chitpavans ought to be grateful to the compilers of Lele

Kulavrittanta for recording important links to their history which
would have been otherwise lost in the course of time.
Source 5: Pulakeshi s Shila-lekha
Mr. Jog of Bombay, in his book 'Chitpavan Brahmananchi

Kulakatha ani Adanave' (चि्पावि रा्मणांिी कुळकथा आणण
आडिावे) has given information about a point of history that
Emperor Pulakeshi had imported some Brahmin families from
the North for the purpose of performing Ashwamedha Yajna. If
the details of that Shila-lekha could be located, in support of this
statement, some authentic evidence could be adduced in the
matter of migration of Chitpavan Brahmins from the North. It is
very important. Emperor Pulakeshi’s time was from 610 to 642
AD. He was Emperor Harshavardhana's contemporary.
5
Vibhakar V. Lele
Source 6: Narrative of Shri Ramakrishna Jha and Dr.

Ambujkishore Jha
Newly received evidence of ancestral stay on the banks of River

Sarasvati in ancient Vedic times and later on at Ahichhatrapur in
Uttarakhanda, given by late Shri Ramakrishna Jha and Dr.
Ambujkishore Jha. It forms a separate complementary book
Saras ati ‘i er – The a estral Ho e of Chitpa a Brah i s
_________________________________________________
PRESENTATION
This research book is a presentation, reconstructing and researching
from various sources, inter alia, the independent historic
information provided in Mr. Korati Sri Niwas Rao's book ‘Sri Sri
Raghavendra Swamigalu (LIFE HISTORY)’ (Kannada), further
amplified with reference to ‘Vyadeshwarodaya Mahakavya’ by
Mahakavi Vishwanatha (1627 AD) and the Talagunda
Archaeological inscriptions as researched by the eminent
Archaeologist Mr. N. S. Rajpurohit as per the paper published by
Mysore University in 1946 by title ‘Talagunda And the Chiploon
Agraharas of Chitpavans’ (in Kannada); and the Narrative and
discussions with Dr. Ambujkishore Jha on their ancestral home on
the banks of the Vedic Sarasvati River in ancient times and later on
at Ahichhatrapur which forms a the subject matter of the
complementary book – ‘Sarasvati River – The Ancestral Home of
Chitpavan Brahmins’.
A complementary book ‘Sarasvati River – Ancestral Home of

Chitpavan Brahmins’ has been published to take care of most
crucial narrative by way of further evidence on the subject of
Chitpavan Brahmins’ Proto- and Pre-history of the ancient Vedic
times, evidencing their ancient domicile stretching beyond seven
millennia ago at the origin on the banks of the Vedic Sarasvati
River and subsequently at Ahichhatrapur till recent times, as late as
1174 AD.
6
Vibhakar V. Lele
This author has tapped many sources on the Chitpavans’ historical

past with a view to present a more multidimensional research on
the subject. Their Vedic past is considered by him to be of special
significance in determining their pre- and proto-history. Their
Kuladevatas and Kulaswamis are a very important indicator of their
past and migrations. Lele Kulavrittanta and information received
from other sources like Puranas and Vedic literature, from the
internet, discussions with scholars, and previous researchers’ ideas,
from India and abroad, have all been collated logically to weave
together the Chitpavans’ ancestral history over the past ten
millennia.
This is also a modern day attempt to take note of the recent

advances in human genetic haplotype studies of Chitpavan
Brahmins and other genetic groups. The findings of Genetics
researchers have been extrapolated by this author to assess their
implications on the ancestral past of Chitpavans. The author has
also pointed out to the mischief by some researchers of genetics
who have tried to malign the image of Chitpavan Brahmins.
There were some articles and research publications on the

Chitpavan Brahmins’ antecedents by this author. All these,
published privately and on the internet, were a precursor to this
book. His research has been taken note of by academics and
scholars in India and abroad and it has been appreciated as
instrumental in introducing fresh dimensions to the subject of
Chitpavan Brahmins’ pre- and proto-history.
_________________________________________________
ANCESTORS:
The ancestors of Chitpavan Brahmins were called "Shashtik" in the
past, meaning ‘of 60 families (Kulas)’. It is much like the
Chitpavans’ belief that there were 64 original Kulas and surnames
of their ancestors. The ancestors were at Ahichhatra (Rampur-
Bareilly in present day UP) and later on, probably, at Ambejogai,
for long periods of time in the pre and proto-historic days.
7
Vibhakar V. Lele
This is borne out by information in "Charanavyuha"-an old

authoritative book as per details given in the "Mantrashastra" of
Shri Shri Shankaracharya Khareshastri, ed. by Mr. G. P. Bhave. In
very old proto-historic times, there were concurrently Brahmins
who practised the two Veda branch viz. Ashwalayana of Rigveda
and Hiranyakeshi of Yajurveda at Varanasi-Banaras, near
Ahichhatra, in UP.
Being ‘Dwivedi’ Brahmins i.e. the practice of two Vedas in a given

Brahmin community is current in very few Dwivedi or Trivedi
Brahmins like Chitpavans. The Chitpavans, since prehistoric times
are Dwivedis in as much as they practise both the Rigveda and the
Yajurveda. They were actually the practitioners of the Moola or the
Krishna Yajurveda which is the older of the two, Shukla and
Krishna Yajurvedas.
The Dwivedis are supposed to automatically include the practice of

Samaveda in their recital of the Vedas. Samaveda is just the
melodious singing of the Rigveda Richas. It can be said that the
Chitpavans had originally all the four Vedas-practising Brahmins
among their community. This is based on the findings of Mr. N. S.
Rajpurohit, (henceforth called NSR or NSRajpurohit for the sake of
brevity), from the Talagunda monument that the ancestors of
Chitpavans viz. the Shashtik Brahmins, well versed in all the four
Vedas were invited by the Kadamba kings for Sarvatomukha
Yajna. The original ancestors of Chitpavans must, therefore, have
been practising all the four Vedas.
Hence the Chitpavans’ ancestors might have been practising the

oldest known Veda which was divided into four by Veda Vyasa. It
was the "Moola Veda", in contrast to later day other single -Veda
practising Brahmins like the Shukla Yajurvedis etc. Thus the
Chitpavans’ ancestors have to be regarded as more ancient than
these single-Veda practising other Brahmin communities. The
Chitpavans thus also trace their antiquity to the days of Veda Vyasa
who is said to have divided the Moola Veda into four branches,
Rigveda, Yajurveda, Samaveda and Atharvaveda.
It is held that Ravana, a Brahmin himself, was the first to compile

the original Moola Veda manuscript (Samhita) from the various
8
Vibhakar V. Lele
Sooktas and Samhitas of Richas, known to and spread over many

schools of Vedas.
Later on, in the Dwapara-yuga, Veda Vyasa, also called Krishna-

dwaipayana Vyasa, divided the Moola Veda into four branches for
his disciples, for easier memorizing and understanding. Each Veda
was given by him to one disciple to practise as a separate school
while participating in the Yajnas and other Vedic activities like
study, teaching and practising. Veda Vyasa is reckoned to be
contemporary of Mahabharata war times, approximately 3000 years
B.C.
Sage Yajnavalka quarreled with Vaishampayana, his preceptor and

separated from the Moola Yajurveda branch. He formed a separate
branch, now known as Shukla Yajurveda. It is also called the
Vajasaneyi Samhita as it is said that Soorya, assuming the form of a
horse (Vaji), Himself revealed it to sage Yajnavalka. Thus the
Yajurveda came to have two main sub-branches, the Krishna and
the Shukla.
It must have taken a good deal of time after Veda Vyasa’s time,
many a centuries at the least, for the practice of limited single-Veda
to take firm roots in the Brahmin Communities. This practice of
single-Veda must not have taken roots until the Chitpavans’ Moola-
Veda-practising ancestors migrated away from the main land of
Brahmins in the Gangetic /Sarasvati belt in the North India to the
South.
The Brahmins who later on migrated to the South India from the
North in comparatively recent times, about a few centuries ago, are
invariably single-Veda branch practitioners, as juxtaposed to the
Moola-Veda-practising Chitpavans and their ancestors.
9
Vibhakar V. Lele
CONCLUSION OF THE RESEARCH ON CHITPAVAN

KONKANASTHA BRAHMINS HISTORY (PROTO AND PRE)
This author thanks the reader for his patience in reading this book
containing many diverse and complex issues. The reader may not
have had any background of the subject of this book and hence he
may have had difficulties in appreciating the discussion by this
author.
However as it may be, the synopsis of all the important issues

discussed and conclusions reached by this author is presented
herewith for the sake of clarity. Of course, it is not practical to
broach each and every issue in the given space. It would be
unnecessary revisiting the topics already discussed.
Hence this author proposes now to revisit only the salient points
relevant to the Proto- and Pre-history of Chitpavan Konkanastha
Brahmins in the following paragraphs and he fervently hopes that
the reader will kindly bear with him.
It will be remembered that this author had laid down certain

important points in Chapter 16 - ‘Pre-Requisites of a Theory on
Chitpavans’ Proto-History and Roots’. Hereunder the same are
re-examined in the context of the research and postulations
about Chitpavans’ Pre-history and Roots, presented in this book.
1. Why are they Dwivedis, unlike other Brahmins:
The history of all the Vedic Brahmins has been traced before
and after Veda Vyasa. The Chitpavans’ ancestors separated from
the mainland in Aryavarta of the Brahmins in the era shortly
after Veda Vyasa’s. Until Chitpavans’ ancestors left their
homeland, the Brahmins had not become strictly branched out
into single Veda branch practitioners, like the majority of them
are today. The four divisions of Vedas, along with Moola Veda,
prevailed at the time of their departure from their main land.
The Chitpavans’ ancestors had families practising all the four

branches of Vedas in their community, without the imposing of
10
Vibhakar V. Lele
the strict discipline on inter-branch commerce which came into

vogue subsequently. Later on, in the course of time, only
Rigveda and Yajurveda branches remained. Families practising
Samaveda and Atharvaveda became extinct in subsequent
migrations, and possible demise of the families practising these
Vedas. Therefore, they are left out now as ‘Dwivedis’, instead of
original ‘Chaturvedis’.
Such Dwivedi Brahmin communities are rare now, the only

other known community is the ‘Devarukhe’ś settled in Konkan
since the time of Yadavas and Shilaharas (around 12th century
AD). They migrated to Konkan from Karnataka, in the known
historic times. NSR alludes to it as one of the many other
Brahmin communities whose ancestors he suspects to be
Shashtik Brahmins.
Until the time, the Chitpavans’ ancestors went to Vanavasi to

Kadamba Kingdom, their community had all the four-Veda-
practitioner families. This is proved in NSR paper, giving
justification. Sarvatomukha Yajna required 16 families
practising each Veda branch i.e. a total of 64 families in the
Brahmin community. The Shashtik Brahmins’ present day
nomenclature as ‘Aravathokkalu’ i.e. ‘60+’ has its roots in it.
Similar is the case of Chitpavans of today who reiterate that
there were 64 (60+ original surnames or Kulas) families of their
ancestors to begin with when they migrated to Konkan.
There are still the Ayyars in the South who are Chaturvedis, so
to say. Their coming to South goes back to 500 years BC, or
even before. It would mean that the single-Veda-practice found
today amongst the North Indian Brahmins and the émigrés of
later years to the South was not prevalent until 500 years BC.
2. Why do they worship Yogeshwari of Ambejogai as Kuladevata:
The ancestors of Chitpavans who left their mainland after Veda

Vyasa’s time, many of them had settled for a long time at
Ambejogai in the pre-historic times. The goddess worship at
11
Vibhakar V. Lele
those times was primitive. The goddesses in the Tandala (तांदळा)

form were current at those times, in common with the primitive
tribals. The Vedics, then, or sometime later, must have accepted
‘Idol Worship’, in contrast to their having been strictly against
idolatrous practices since the proto-historic times.
Their stay at Ambejogai is reflected in the folklores of

Ambejogai that Parashurama had collected Chitpavans’
ancestors from Ambejogai for re-settling them in Konkan. The
Sahyadri Khanda, in its authentic copy, mentions that the
Chitpavans’ ancestors were brought from Desha region to
Konkan. Ambejogai falls into one of the most populous regions
of Desha of the pre-historic times.
The Chitpavans try to explain away the matter of Yogeshwari of

Ambejogai, a region distant from Konkan, as being their
Kuladevata, by citing two myths:
1. The goddess Yogeshwari, from Konkan, went to

Marathawada to marry with God Vaijnatha of Parali. Due to
some circumstances, the marriage did not take place. On the
way, she was at Ambejogai by then, en-route to Parali-
Vaijnatha. She decided to stay there, instead of returning to
Konkan.
2. After Parashurama resurrected their 14 ancestors, there was a

problem of finding brides for them. Parashurama went to
Ambejogai in search of brides for them. The Brahmins at
Ambejogai agreed to give their daughters in marriage to the
Chitpavans’ ancestors, provided they agreed to accept the
Goddess of Ambejogai as their Kuladevata. Goddess of
Ambejogai became their Kuladevata according to that
agreement.
On closer examination, the two anecdotes, barring their mythical

content, may mean that the Chitpavan Brahmins of Konkan were
no different from the Deshastha Brahmins of Ambejogai. Hence
marriages between Brahmins of Konkan and Ambejogai were
12
Vibhakar V. Lele
the common practice of those times. Also it would mean that to

and fro migration of Brahmins between Konkan and Desha was
prevalent then. This in itself is a pointer to the Chitpavans’
ancestors, some of them at least, having migrated from Desha to
Konkan.
The clearest fact must be the Chitpavans’ ancestors, many of

them, must have come from Ambejogai region and the Goddess
Yogeshwari must have been their Kuladevata which they did not
substitute by any local goddess from Konkan.
3. Why is the Vindhyavasini Chitales'& Some Chitpavans’

Kuladevata:
It is a fact that of the Vindhyavasini of Vindhyachal-Ahichhatra in

UP, is Chitales' and some other Chitpavans’ Kuladevata. The
Chitales’ and some other Chitpavans’ batch settled at Chiploon
at a much later date. They must have been from the stock of
Shashtik ancestors who came to Chiploon at the behest of
Kadamba King Mukanna around 1174 AD. NSR has
conclusively shown that King Mukanna had granted Agraharas
to the Shashtik Brahmins at Talagunda in Karnataka and
Chiploon at that time for settling there. They came from
Ahichhatra as per NSR, based upon ancient engravings on the
stone pillar at Talagunda.
The case of Chitales and Avalaskaras etc. of Chiploon is similar

to that of the earlier settlers who worshipped Yogeshwari of
Ambejogai. The Chitales, Avalaskaras and some other families
settled at Chiploon, who migrated to Konkan from the North in
the later days, post Guhagar etc., still worship the goddess
Vindhyavasini. This author has shown that she is of their earlier
habitat of Vindhyachal-Ahichhatra in the North from Uttar
Pradesh.
It has been noted that the Vindhyavasini of Vindhyachal, near

Mirzapur in UP, is also in the Tandala form. It indicates that she
is also a Proto-historic Goddess like Yogeshwari of Ambejogai
13
Vibhakar V. Lele
and Renuka of Mahur. Since there is some distance between

Vindhyachal and Ahichhatra, it appears that this group was
earlier settled near Vindhyachal before settling down at
Ahichhatra since they are worshippers of Vindhyavasini.3
4. Did Chitpavans ancestors go directly to Chiploon from

Ahichhatra in UP:
It looks to be most certain that the Chitales’ and some other

families’ ancestors went directly from Ahichhatra in UP to
Chiploon as they do not seem to be from the lot which first
settled at Guhagar etc., their Kuladevata being not Yogeshwari
of Ambejogai but Vindhyavasini. The first lot settled at
Chiploon in Mayoora Sharma’s times in 350 AD might have
amalgamated with the earlier settled lot of Guhagar; or some of
them might still be the devotees of Vindhyavasini when the next
lot came in 1174 AD. The first lot cannot be distinguished from
the latter lot.
5. Why Mahalakshmi of Kolhapur is the Kuladevata of some

of the Chitpavans:
The Chitpavan ancestors settled down south from Pre-historic

times spread over, later on, to many places, including Kolhapur.
Being settled at Kolhapur for a long time, they might have
3
The Ahichhatra story will be incomplete without mentioning that it was
the capital of the Kingdom of Ahichhatra which was won by Arjuna for
Drona from king Drupad in battle. The Rajputs claim that another
Ahichatra(pur) near Nagaur in Rajasthan was the original place Arjuna
won. However, the excavations by archaeologists at the ‘Ahichhatra’ site,
near Bareily in UP, show artifacts of very old periods. It was a part of the
Panchal kingdom of king Drupad. The one near Nagaur was not a
Mahabharata period kingdom. Hence for the purpose of Chitpavans’
ancestral stay, the ‘Ahichhatra of UP’ is relevant place. NSR also says it is
this Ahichhatra from which the Shashtik Brahmin ancestors came and got
settled around 350 AD and in 1174 AD, at Talagunda and Chiploon, both
the times.
14
Vibhakar V. Lele
abandoned their earlier Kuladevata and adopted Mahalakshmi as

their Kuladevata. It could also be that these families settled at
Kolhapur in the past 400 years or so and therefore, might have
replaced Ambejogai Devi by Mahalakshmi of Kolhapur.
A study of Kuladevatas of many Chitpavans in Chapter 35

reveals that most of the Kulas (families) which are devotees of
Mahalakshmi have branches which worship Yogeshwari of
Ambejogai. This will indicate that those families which worship
Yogeshwari later on adopted Mahalakshmi, being the goddess of
local Kshetra. Mahalakshmi is also regarded as a form of
goddess Parvati, like Yogeshwari.
6. Where were Chitpavans before 1600 AD:
1. They were at Ahichhatra in UP definitely at the time around

350 AD of Kadamba King Mayoora Sharma, as proved
conclusively by NSR. Their kin were still at Ahichhatra when
they were settled at Talagunda in Karnataka and Chiploon in
Konkan.
2. since the Chitales and some other families from the lot
brought by the Kadamba kings from Ahichhatra still worship the
goddess Vindhyavasini of Vindhyachal in UP, their ancestors
must have had earlier been from Vindhyachal in the North and
surrounding area of Varanasi in UP..
3. ‘Charanavyuha’ refers to ‘Ashwalayana’ and ‘Hiranyakeshi’

Brahmins concurrently residing at Varanasi in old times when
the Magas were in Mesopotamia. That is much in antiquity.
Those times might take them to be in the north in Aryavarta in
times of Mahabharata.
Further evidence is provided by the following:

4. Their following the ‘Dwiveda System’ is reminiscent of times
more ancient than Veda Vyasa, much before 3000 years BC.
They must have been in India, most positively in the north in
Aryavarta in Mahabharata times.
15
Vibhakar V. Lele
5. Their ancestors must have been followers of ‘Moola Veda’, as

discussed in details in this book. The time of ‘Moola Veda’ goes
back to Ravana’s i.e. Ramayana times. The historians, by and
large, reluctantly admit of the Mahabharata period to be around
2000 to 3000 BC. Ramayana time they reckon, if at all, to a few
hundred years before that. Many Indian historians do not agree
with the chronology of the western historians. As discussed in
this book, the time could as well be 8000 ybp.
6. The Chitpavans’ ancestry would then go back to 8000 ybp. It

is now conclusive that the Vedas came from India, and not from
some nomads wandering off from the steppes of Eurasia. The
‘Sindhu-Punjab-Sarasvati’ basins are regarded by many
historians as the cradle of the Vedas.
7. Being from the original stock of the Vedics, the ancestry of

Chitpavans must be regarded as being in the said Vedic region
around the time of the Moola Veda i.e. Ravana’s time, around
5000 - 8000 ybp.
The habitats of Chitpavans’ ancestors in the Vedic times as per

the attached maps are a proof in itself of the ancient Vedic
origins of Chitpavans’ ancestors. It is seen from these historic
Vedic maps of India that:
(A) Brahmins of Shakala Shakha of Rigveda, regarded by some
Pundits to be the originator of the Ashwalayana Shakha of
Chitpavans, were in the vicinity of Punjab and Kurukshetra.
(B) Brahmins of Taittiriya Shakha, the originator Shakha of the

Hiranyakeshi branch, were in the foothills of the Himalayas,
near Nepal.
8. Further, if at all the Parashurama anecdotes have any

relevance to a real person Parashurama, and not just mythical,
his association in settling the Chitpavans’ ancestors would have
to be dated to around 10000 ybp.
16
Vibhakar V. Lele
9. As shown in this book, he brought the Brahmins from either,

Kaveri side or from Ambejogai or from both. Shearing off the
mythical content from the Parashurama anecdotes, these two
authentic sources, ‘Vyadeshwarodaya’ and the authentic copy of
‘Sahyadri Khanda’ from Shringeri Peetha, these myths point out
to two separate migrations of the Chitpavans’ ancestors in the
ancient times, one from Ambejogai and the other from Kaveri-
side. That will indicate that the Chitpavans’ ancestors came to
the South from the North much earlier, in the footsteps of
Agasti, before the Ramayana times.
Also these stories point out to the fact that, either they were
named ‘Chitpavans’ after settling down in Konkan or the places
they settled at got the name ‘Chitpavan’ from their original Id as
‘Chitpavan’. The matter remains unresolved so far as these
stories go.
10. The Tamrapatra of the fifth century AD of a Kongani King,

with the mention of a Hiranyakeshi Brahmin in it indicates their
presence in Konkan in the fifth century AD and even 200 to 300
years earlier i.e. around 2nd and 3rd century AD.
11. The commentary by Mahidasa on ‘Charanavyuha’ shows

Hiranyakeshi Brahmins settlement in the ‘Sahyadri Mountains’
on the banks of river Hiranyakeshi and their domiciles in
Chiploon and many other places in Konkan. It would take their
antiquity in Konkan to even earlier times, say 100 to 300 years
BC.
12. Hiranyakeshi is a branch of Chitpavans settled in Konkan

since earlier times. The only other Hiranyakeshi Devrukhes,
settled in Konkan came there much later in the Yadavas’ and
Shilaharas’ times around 1100 AD. This undisputedly indicates
that the Hiranyakeshis, mentioned in Mahidasa’s commentary on
‘Charanavyuha’ and in the ‘Tamrapatra’ of the Kongani king,
were Chitpavans’ ancestors from Konkan in the relative times.
17
Vibhakar V. Lele
13. The mention in Lele Kulavrittanta of the above, together

with the mention of Satyashadha, preceptor of Hiranyakeshi
branch, performing austerities on the banks of river
Hiranyakeshi in Parashurama Kshetra on the western flanks of
Sahyadri Mountains is another important recorded evidence of
the Chitpavans domicile in Konkan before 500AD.
7. From which river Payaswini Parashurama sought

Chitpavans ancestors for re-settlement at Guhagar:
Vishwanatha, in ‘Vyadeshwarodaya’, says that Parashurama

sought Chitpavans’ ancestors from ‘Payaswini River’ for re-
settlement at Guhagar. Some scholars have noted that Tapi River
or Poorna River could be the river in question as they were also
named ‘Payaswini’ in the past.
As conclusively shown in this book, it was ‘River Payaswini’,

south of the River Kaveri, from where Chitpavans’ ancestors
came to Konkan. The Khares and other families joining them in
recent times from Kaveri side shows that the Chitpavans’
ancestors were domiciled in ‘Kaveri-Payaswini-Coorg-
Kasargod’ region, before they came to Konkan.
8. From where did the Chitpavans ancestors come:

Ambejogai, Payaswini, Vanavasi or Ahichhatra:
1. Vishwanatha in ‘Vyadeshwarodaya’ says that Chitpavans

ancestors came from the ‘River Payaswini’ (‘Payoshni’) to
Guhagar.
2. However, NSRajpurohit cites evidence in his paper that they
came from Ahichhatra to Talagunda and Chiploon.
3. As seen from the Parashurama related myths, they came from
Desha region.
4. The Sevaka Brahmins of Kachchha region, settled on the

Western coast of Saurashtra, have surnames similar to
Chitpavans.
18
Vibhakar V. Lele
5. This author has also interpreted their previous domicile at

Ambejogai and near about, based upon the predominant
Kuladevata, Yogeshwari Devi of Ambejogai. How does one
resolve this anomaly?
It would be seen that the Chitpavan diaspora was spread far and
wide as there is evidence of their ancestors coming to Konkan
from Desha, Ambejogai, Ahichhatra, river Payaswini near
Kaveri basin and Vanavasi.
NSR hints that many Brahmin communities known as Karhades,

Devamukhi, Badaganadu, Sahavashi and others, were originally
Shashtik Brahmins. They have similar culture and Vedic
practices. As seen from Mr. Korati Sri Niwas Rao’s book, the
Madhwa Brahmins are descendants of Shashtik Brahmins.
There is one more mystery of Roopa Kunda tragedy of 1200

years past.4 It may show that kin of Chitpavans’ ancestors had
been domiciled in the Himalayas.
Khares and some others came from Kaveri region, from South
India as seen from the book ‘Chitpavan’ by Mr. N. G. Chapekar.
Accepting all these accounts would mean that all these, if not
some more yet unknown places, were the earlier habitats of
Chitpavans’ ancestors. It would show that their diaspora was
4
There are reports of about remains of skeletons of about 800 people
discovered at Roop Kunda in the Himalayas. The genetic studies indicate
that they match with Chitpavans’ genetics. The remains appear to be of
persons who perished at the same time, around 800 years AD. It is a
mystery what this large group of Chitpavans’ alikes was doing in the
Himalayas in those ancient times. Coming from Konkan of such a large
group for pilgrimage is supposed to be implausible. Who were these
people and from where they came to Roop Kunda and for what purpose is
a mystery. The obvious inferences are that: 1. They were not Konkanastha
Chitpavans; 2. They were not Chitpavans’ kin who were still in the
northern plains at Ahichhatra; 3: So many people could be at Roop Kunda
only if they were domiciled in the neighbouring areas in the Himalayas.
19
Vibhakar V. Lele
spread far and wide over the North and the South India. The
Sevaka Brahmins may be a pointer to migrations from Lothal
from the vanished Sarasvati river Basin, as suggested by some
scholars; and from the Sindha-Punjab belt of the earlier period of
the Vedas.
It would also appear from the details of their habitats and

migrations that the process of migration was either sporadic, if
not continuous; and it was not a one-time phenomenon. The
Chitpavans’ ancestors appear to be migrating over the greater
time span from the original Vedic period, to the latest known
migration of Khares et al in the recent times from the Kaveri
side.
It is further surprising that their compatriots, settled in Konkan,

separated by distance and time, could always recognize their
freshly arriving kin. It was an excellent communication system
they might have been using; or recognition of their unchanged
customs and traditions, displayed by the newer arriving clan
members; to identify positively their own kith under such
circumstances, when Brahmins from other regions were simply
not accepted into the fold of local Brahmins, as a general rule.
Therefore, it should not be surprising to anyone that Brahmins

separated by a time span of almost 800 years could be identified
as belonging to the same community and accepted by the earlier
settlers of 350 AD at Talagunda and Chiploon, even if the
nomenclature used for their identification might have changed;
as it has definitely changed from whatever may have been their
original ID, Shashtik or otherwise, to Aravathokkalu and
Chitpavan, in the least, if not Karhade, Devamukhi, Sahavashi,
Badaganadu and Sevaka et al, as hinted at by NSR. It looks like
these Brahmins were like homing pigeons, arriving at their nests
in every distant land.
It is further shown in Sr. No. 9 below (on pp21) that the Chitpavans
ancestors could be having the same ID of ‘Chitpavan’ since the
20
Vibhakar V. Lele
early beginning of their community which must not have

changed over the past millennia since their Vedic origins began.
9. How did Karnataka Brahmins know the etymology of

Chitpavan derived from Agnihotra Pavitra / Agnihotrapavan:
Some might question how was it that the neighbours in Karnataka

know that the etymology of ‘Chitpavan’ arose from earlier IDs of
‘Agnihotra Pavitra’/‘Agnihotrapavan’ to ‘Pavan’ and then to
Chitpavan’ś why were the Chitpavans not aware of it. Also NSR
indicates that they started calling themselves as ‘Chitpavan’
while settled by Kadamba kings at Talagunda and Chiploon.
Chitpavans got separated from Shashtik group settled at

Talagunda in Karnataka either when one of their groups was
resettled by the Kadambas at Chiploon or they were invited by
some other local chieftain to Konkan. The Shashtik group in
Karnataka retained the knowledge of their original IDs of
‘Agnihotra Pavitra’/‘Agnihotrapavan’ before they became known
by other community names like ‘Aravathokkalu’ and others.
Some Karnataka scholars did keep knowledge of the original ID
related to ‘Agnihotra’. Probably in later days, those settled in
Konkan had lack of interest in keeping firm links with the past
and lost the knowledge.
Various communities become self-contented after permanently

settling down at a given place. None of the Indian communities
can explain their past history succinctly which gets lost in the
course of time. However, certain old links are still retained like
worship of particular gods and goddesses, and many other
customs and traditions. It has, therefore, been possible to
connect to the past.
In Karnataka, the ‘Shashtikas’ were remembered because of old

manuscripts, listed in ‘References Of Old Manuscripts and
Monuments’ of this book and the inscriptions on Talagunda
stone pillar. Apart from that, the Shashtikas’ present-day
descendants have the revealing name, ‘Aravathokkalu’, meaning
21
Vibhakar V. Lele
‘Sixty-plus’, which is still current. Because of that, some kind of

historic links are preserved.
The records of the ‘Shashtikas’ in Kannada language of the past

800 years and even of earlier periods, were preserved by the
followers of the Notable Shri Madhwacharya, who was a
descendent of these ‘Shashtik Brahmins’. That is the main
reason why the history and knowledge of Shashtik ancestry
remained clear in the minds of the local folks.
Therefore, some of the scholars from Karnataka were aware of

the etymology of Chitpavans’ ID as derived from ‘Agnihotra
Pavitra’ ‘Agnihotrapavan to Pavan to Chitpavan’. It does not
mean that every ordinary person from Karnataka knew about it.
Still that ID has been explained in an approximate way.
10. The etymological connection of Chitpavan to the Persian

word Kshatrapavan :
What were Chitpavans called before coming to Konkan:

One wonders what etymological connection the word
‘Chitpavan’ has to the Persian word ‘Kshatrapavan’ and how to
explain the meaning of Chitpavan in older Persian.
Although the meanings of ‘Pavan’ and ‘Agni’ in Sanskrit, and

‘Chit’ of Sanskrit and ‘Pavan’ of Persian, overlap, it has been
conclusively shown in Chapter 8 that the ‘Pavan’ of Persian
need not be considered for arriving at the meaning of
‘Chitpavan’. It can be directly derived from the word ‘Agnichit’
from Sanskrit itself. (Ref. Chapter 9)
11. Did Chitpavans go from Ambejogai to Konkan via Vanavasi:
In the local folklore of Ambejogai, Parashurama is seen to have

taken Chitpavans from Ambejogai to Konkan. Mr. Korati Sri
Niwas Rao is seen to allude that Chitpavans might have also
gone from Vanavasi Kadamba kingdom to Konkan. How does
one explain these seeming inconsistencies?
22
Vibhakar V. Lele
It has been shown above in [8. Fro here did the Chitpa a s
ancestors come: Ambejogai, Payaswini, Vanavasi or Ahichhatra:]
(pp 18)
that the Chitpavan diaspora was spread far and vide over
India. Hence it is not anomalous that Chitpavans’ ancestors
could have come from Ambejogai as well as from their
settlements in Kadamba kingdom.
12. Why were the Khares from Kaveri side accepted into
Chitpavans community:
It is seen that Khares and some other families joined the

Chitpavans in the recent past. Some question how Chitpavans in
Konkan could recognize these newcomers to Konkan as their
kin. What possible link was shared with them which the
Chitpavans from Konkan knew that enabled them to identify
these long forgotten kin from another distant land of Kaveri
River’s basin.
This matter has already been already explained in [7. From which
ri er Payas i i Parashura a sought Chitpa a s a estors for re-
settlement at Guhagar: (pp 18) and [8. From where did the
Chitpa a s a estors o e: A ejogai, Payas i i, Va a asi or
Ahichhatra: (pp 18) above.
The Chitpavans seem to have retained their original Vedic ID as

Chitpavans in spite of all the various migrations over the past
millennia. Hence Khares and others who joined from Kaveri side
in the recent past could be recognized by Konkan Chitpavans as
their kin.
. How did Chitpavans ancestors in Konkan identify the

newcomers to Konkan arriving after several hundred years
from distant lands:
As explained above, the same ID of Chitpavan retained by their

kin all the time helped the earlier settlers at Guhagar in Konkan,
from very old times, identify subsequent newcomers in Mayoora
Sharma’s times (350 AD), as well as in Mukanna Kadamba’s
23
Vibhakar V. Lele
times (1174 AD) from the distant lands in UP from Ahichhatra

of North India.
Additionally, they shared identical customs and surnames, as it

appears from a comparison of surnames by NSR. It does appear
that the surnames did not change over many millennia. Most, if
not all their surnames had origin in the Vedic duties they
performed in Yajnas, as can be seen from Mr. S. L. Dixit’s book
and NSR paper. Other sources like Mr. Jog also recognize this
fact.
14. Trihotra Brahmins of Konkan mentioned in Sahyadri

Khanda:
In the light of etymology of Chitpavan from Agnihotra :

There is a mention of ‘Trihotra Brahmins’ in Konkan in the said
‘Sahyadri Khanda’. This reference to them has gone almost
unnoticed except for some dim reference to Brahmins of
Karnataka who started claiming that the Trihotra Brahmins were
their ancestors.
Who they were can be logically explained in the light of

etymology of the word ‘Chitpavan’ derived in relation to the
terms ‘Agnihotra’, ‘Agnihotraparayana’ and ‘Agnihotra-Pavitra’
et al. as shown earlier. ‘Trihotra’ literally means performance of
daily Yajna three times; in the morning, noon and evening. It is
just a synonym of the word ‘Agnihotra’. Hence one may safely
assume that the word ‘Trihotra’ used for Brahmins residing in
Konkan in Sahyadri Khanda actually points to the ‘Agnihotri
Chitpavan Brahmins’ ancestors.
15. The Sahyadri Khanda calls the Chitpavans as

Agnihotraparayana , brought by Parashurama from Desha
region;
There is a lot of significance to this Parashurama story of

‘Sahyadri Khanda’. Such anecdotes help in piecing together the
entire picture of their original habitats and migrations and many
24
Vibhakar V. Lele
other matters mostly forgotten in the course of time and left just
to conjecture. For one, we get two places from where
Chitpavans’ ancestors came to Konkan.
Parashurama is seen to be associated variously with Chitpavans’

Proto-history. In one story, he brings their ancestors from Kaveri
River side. Another story tells that he brought them from
Ambejogai. Third story here is that they were brought by
Parashurama from the Desha region, without specifying the
place. Parashurama is basically a mythical figure. Hence
discounting mythical content of these anecdotes, one can see that
all these stories, taken together, reveal that the ancestors of
Chitpavans came from many places to Konkan. Again the
inscriptions on Talagunda stone pillar state that they came from
Ahichhatra in the north.
The matter has already been elaborated in Chapter 12:

‘Legendary Link To Parashurama’ and earlier in this Chapter. It
has been already seen that Chitpavans’ diaspora was spread far
and wide and they arrived in Konkan from many places spread
all over India.
16. The little known details given in Lele Kulavrittanta:
The little known details given in Lele Kulavrittanta have already

been taken into consideration with special reference to:
1. The Tamrapatra given by the Kongani king (may be Kongani
Varma) around 500 AD in Konkan, mentioning a Hiranyakeshi
Brahmin;
2. Also the matter regarding Satyashadha’s (originator of
Hiranyakeshi branch of Chitpavans) austerities at Parashurama
Kshetra in Konkan has been considered in this book.
In fact, Lele Kulavrittanta forms one of the supporting pillars of
the architecture of this book.
25
Vibhakar V. Lele
17. The connection of river named Hiranyakeshi at Amboli

in Konkan to the history of Chitpavans:
This connection has been well explored in this book. It has

helped in locating another source, namely ‘Charanavyuha’ to
support the postulations made by this author in this book about
Chitpavans’ Proto- and pre-history. Lele Kulavrittanta also states
that as per ‘Charanavyuha’, Hiranyakeshi Brahmins were
domiciled on the banks of that river and also at Chiploon and
many other surrounding places.
Lele Kulavrittanta mentions Hiranyakeshi Brahmins domiciled

in Sahyadri Mountains and in Chiploon and other areas: This
point, too, has been accounted for in this book.
18. What was the Vedic past of Chitpavans and their

ancestors?
The Vedic past of the Chitpavans and their ancestors has been
fully explored in this book. It has already been concluded that
they were original Moola Vedic Brahmins who later on
remained as ‘Dwivedis’ due to extinction of the traditions of two
Vedas. Their past history from the Vedic times to the present
times has been traced in this book. Their migrations all over
India have been traced.
In particular, this author has very clearly shown the etymology

of their Chitpavan ID and how and when it arose. It can be seen
that their Chitpavan ID was framed according to the Vedic
duties their ancestors were entrusted with. It was neither a place
name to begin with, nor was it ever used for the places of their
settlements, although some sources make such an attempt.
This, however, may or may not have two exceptions:
1. The settlement at Chiploon: Some scholars regard the name of

this place to be derived from ‘Chitpavan – Chitvan’ and
‘Chitpolan’ etc. It has not been shown clearly how that is
26
Vibhakar V. Lele
applicable and is there any historical evidence of any of these

derived names being in use ever. One point to be noted in this
matter is that like its preceding root ‘Chit-van’,
‘Vyadeshwarodaya’ also refers to Guhagar by a name ‘Guha-
van’. This matter is worth further research by the scholars.
2. Vishwanatha in ‘Vyadeshwarodaya’ states that ‘Guhavan’

was first named as ‘Chitpavan’ by Parashurama and the
Chitpavans’ ancestors got that place name as their ID.
However, this author has clearly shown that the ‘Chitpavan’ ID

is based upon their Vedic duties. Even many of their and
Aravathokkalu Brahmins’ surnames are found to be based upon
the Vedic duties the heads of the so-named families had to
perform. As such there is little scope for the naming of the place
as ‘Chitpavan’ and then the re-settlers having ID after the place
named as per ‘Vyadeshwarodaya’.
On the contrary, if at all, Guhagar might have been called as

‘Chitpavan’ because of the Chitpavans settled there. The proof
for such a name to have been actually in use has to be sought by
the researches. Even then, it will be more logical that the
‘Chitpavan’ ID came first, as proved by this authorś the place
names corresponding to ‘Chitpavan’, if ever there were any,
would have to be after the Chitpavans settled there.
19. Tamrapatas of 1000AD with Chitpavan surnames like

Patwardhan, Bapat etc.
This matter has also been accounted for in this book which
clearly proves that some Chitpavans had these surnames and the
Chitpavans were domiciled in Konkan. The ‘Chitpavan’ ID has
already been looked into in great details and proved to be
ancient. The history of those Chitpavans’ ancestors has already
been traced and reconciled with other data.
27
Vibhakar V. Lele
. CHITPAVANS ASSOCIATION WITH PARSHURAM:
This also has been fully explained as being of mythological

origins with some content of facts. References to Parashurama
are made in various sources, including 1. ‘Vyadeshwarodaya
Kavya’ of the early seventeenth century AD by Vishwanatha; 2.
The bringing by him of their ancestors from Desha, as in the
Sahyadri Khanda and 3. The folklore of Ambejogai regarding
Parashurama having taken Chitpavans’ ancestors to Konkan
from Ambejogai.
One cannot go by the myth of fishermen / corpses of foreigner

sea sailors etc. being brought back to life and bestowed Brahmin
hood. This blasphemous and scientifically impossible story is
intentionally mischievous / erroneous and highly derogatory, and
has complicated serious scriptural implications. It has been
blown to smithereens in this book by this author.
Parashurama is the Chitpavan Icon, having a great standing in

India. As earlier pointed out, Chitpavans might have been at
Mahur and surrounding areas some time in their pre-historic
period. Renuka might have been their previous Kuladevata
before moving over to Ambejogai. They might have supplanted
Renuka by Yogeshwari of Ambejogai which became their
substitute Kuladevata.
However, Parashurama who was seen as their benefactor and

protector since their stay at Mahur remained associated with
them even after moving over from Mahur to Ambejogai and
later on to Konkan. He being the presiding Kshetradhisha (ruler,
guardian) of Konkan, especially ‘Parashurama Kshetra’ in
‘Ratnagiri-Chiploon-Guhagar’ complex, Chitpavans adored him
more and more.
However, there is no known Chitpavan family that worships him

either as a Kulaswami or as a god in their daily idol worship.
Hence his Iconic character becomes clear.
28
Vibhakar V. Lele
_____________
SARASVATI
RIVER
_____
THE ANCESTRAL
HOME OF
CHITPAVAN
BRAHMINS
_________________
SARTASVATI RIVER
THE ANCESTRAL HOME
OF
CHITPAVAN BRAHMINS
CHAPTER 1
***
CHITPAVAN BRAHMINS’ ORIGINAL VEDIC

HABITAT AT SARASVATI RIVER
Important Information
Since publication of The Book5 on Chitpavan Konkanastha

Brahmins’ History [Proto- and Pre-], a unique communication was
received by this author from Dr. Ambujkishore Jha, originally from
Nepal, now working at Mumbai.
Maithili Brahmins
The gist of his email received on 8 June 2015 by this author is

reproduced hereunder, with relevant grammatical editing and
5
Hereafter the term ‘The Book’ stands for this author’s primary book
under the title of ‘Chitpavan Konkanastha Brahmins’ History [Proto-
and Pre-]’, unless the context otherwise warrants.
additions to amplify the relevant matter, in so far as the matter

pertains to the Chitpavan Brahmins’ ancestral history.
Dr. Ambujkishore Jha informed that he comes from a family of

learned Vedic scholars from the District of Madhubani, Bihar. He
did MBBS studies from the JJ hospital, Mumbai. His great-
grandfather was the Rajpurohit of king of Bettiah and many of his
brothers/cousins have golden locks of hair and golden and green
eyes. They live in a joint family in his native village. His father has
72 cousins and sibling. Dr. Jha, too, has 94 cousins (all paternal
cousins). His grandfather's grandfather was Shri Awahail Jha, son
of Shri Nathudutt Jha. Shri Awahail Jha’s younger brother, Shri
Abhilaakh Jha, was Rajpurohit of king of Bettiah.
This author is using all this mailed information and subsequent

exchanges with Dr. Jha since he had expressly permitted that
whatever information he has passed on could be of use in the
research of this author on the topic of Chitpavan Brahmins’
Ancestral Origins.
The Sarasvati River connection
Dr. Jha says that ‘I read your book on CHITPAVAN

BRAHMANS HISTORY on academia.edu. It was very
informative and I am very much impressed by the fact that you
have not tried to prove that their origin lies in some place out of
India. There is a tendency amongst younger people to trace their
origin in the Central Asia, Caucasus or Europe.’
Dr. Jha further commented to the effect that some of them think of
calling themselves as originally from other regions, so they come
up with fantastic and hypothetical stories.
He further says that ‘I am a Maithili Brahman and we trace our

migration from the origin of the Sarasvati River, in the Himalayas.
2
Vibhakar V. Lele
King Mathva Videha was the son of Mathu Videha, father of Mithi
Videha and grandfather of Narak Videha: Founder of the Nation of
Kaamroopa (Assam).’
‘During his reign, the Sarasvati river was on the verge of

drying and Gautama Rahugana (husband of Ahilya) had
predicted that the river would soon go dry. This happened 24
generations prior to birth of goddess Sita.’
‘I have heard stories from my elders that ‘The Chitpavan

Brahmins lived in the region east of the origin of the Sarasvati
river and are thus original neighbours of Maithili Brahmins.’
‘This can be seen in their similar speaking habits characterized by

the nasal twang common to both the Maithili and the Chitpavani
languages. A Chitpavan is an ideal candidate to learn Maithili and a
Maithili is an ideal candidate to learn Chitpavani.’
‘From there they (the Chitpavan Brahmins) migrated to

Ahichhatra in the North Panchala region and we (the Maithili
Brahmins) established the new kingdom of Maha Videha east
of the river Sadanira (Gandak) and west of Kosi Rivers.’
‘I have also heard stories that while their (Chitpavan Brahmins’)

stay in the Himalayas with the Maithili Brahmins, many of them
used to have golden (locks of) hair and that ‘They were
AGNIHOTRI Brahmins and used to be invited by the Maithili
Brahmins for the performance of the Yajnas and their job was
to produce the sacred fire by ARANI MANTHAN.’6
6
‘Agnichayan-kriya’, as it is called in the Vedic parlance. Two pieces of
special wood are taken. One has a small hole drilled in it. It is called the
‘Arani’. The other has a sharp pointed edge. It is called ‘Mantha’. Fixing
its pointed projection into the hole in the other piece, that piece is held
down firmly by a third piece of wood. After that the pointed piece is
3
Vibhakar V. Lele
In this context, it may be noted that ‘Agni-manthan-kriya’ is

technically called by the Sanskrit word ‘Agnichayana’.
* Its mantras are first attested in the Yajurveda Samhitas

(Taittiriya, Kathaka; Vajasaneyi) of the Kuru Kingdom.7 Its
theological explanations are in the Brahmana texts.8
rotated swiftly back and fore with the help of a rope wound around the
Mantha, just like using the stirrer in obtaining butter by churning milk and
curds. The process is started with the chanting of the Vedic Vedic Mantras
for Agni, until smoke starts coming out by friction from the two wooden
pieces. The small speck of fire that results is tended appropriately to the
level that actual flames erupt and then wood etc, are added to it in the
Yajna-kunda to turn it into the Yajnic sacrificial fire.
All the while the Brahmins go on chanting the Vedic Mantras. That is
the Vedic process of the invocation of the sacred Agni with Mantras. The
Brahmins then keep the sacred Agni live in the Yajna-kunda 24 hours a
day, propitiating it day and night by sacrifices and with Vedic Mantras,
until another Yajna is due and the same process is repeated for the new
Yajna. That is the sacred duty of an Agnihotrin Brahmin. The fire required
for the hearths and other sacred purposes by others used to be almost
always obtained from the Agnihotrin Brahmins’ families, as a rule.
7
The timeline given here is c.1000 BCE. The chronology given by
modern-day historians of the Vedic texts and many other ancient pre- and
proto-historic events is misleading since a) They base it upon the written
text forms and ‘concrete’ evidence of artifacts etc. found so far and b)
They interpret their timelines by their own criterion.
The oral traditions of the Vedic schools are scripturally timeless and
practically indeterminate. Still, their timelines will go back much in
antiquity as compared to those given by academic historians. They totally
disregard the scriptural and Puranika evidence. Ramayana and
Mahabharata are regarded as ‘Itihasa Granthas’ i.e. History Texts by
Indians.
This factor is conveniently neglected by these historians who like to
extoll Homer and Iliod, Egypto-Roman-Mesopotamian and Greek
mythology, seeking historic events in it. This is a standard bias of the
modern-day academic history under the pure western influence of the
erstwhile British rulers. It suited the foreigner rulers perfectly, to denigrate
the Vedic civilization and culture to promote their own value systems,
including reign and religion. For detailed debate in this context, see
4
Vibhakar V. Lele
The practice of this ritual was generally discontinued among

Brahmins by the late Vedic period, during the rise of Jainism and
Buddhism in India.
The liturgical text is in chapter 20 to 25th of Krishna

Yajurveda. The immediate purpose of the Agnichayana is to
build up for the sacrificer an immortal body that is
permanently beyond the reach of the transitoriness, suffering,
and death that, according to this rite, characterize man's
mortal existence.*9
In this connection, this author noted that the information from

Maithili Brahmin elders is invaluable. There is a branch of
Yajurvedins of Hiranyakeshin10 amongst the Chitpavan Brahmins.
The ‘Golden Haired’ people may perhaps be a factual reference to

those Chitpavan Brahmins who might have had locks of golden hair
as some of the Chitpavan Brahmins did think. But more than
conjecture, there is little to no reference to it in the research
material that this author came across.
It is now only, after Dr. Jha’s revealing of the evidentiary missing

piece of Chitpavan Brahmins’ history, that it can be said firmly that
the Chitpavan Brahmin community had golden locks of hair.
Perhaps some of us, not just the younger generation, but older ones
too, may gloat over it as a link to the Nordic or foreign origins. But
http://archaeologyonline.net/artifacts/horse-debate - The Horse and the

Aryan Debate by Michel Danino (Published in the Journal of Indian
History and Culture of the C. P. Ramaswami Aiyar Institute of Indological
Research, Chennai, September 2006, No.13, pp. 33-59.) For a sample of
the anti-Indian propaganda in matters related to ancient Vedic history, see
http://soc.culture.pakistan.narkive.com/JYrq6IvK/horseplay-in-harappa-
sid-harth - Discussions On Indus Valley Civilizartion Hindutva Angle.
88
See ‘Agnihotra’ in the chapter on Shatapatha Brahmana.
9
The matter given between * and * marks is borrowed from Wikipedia
subject to their conditions.
10
Literally, ‘Golden-haired’.
5
Vibhakar V. Lele
even the genetics, as far as its fledgling research can prove

tentatively, does not so assert.
All that is a complex issue. That way, there are no aboriginals or

Adi-Dravidas or Aryans in India, genetically speaking! All the
present humans here in this land are the progeny of Original
African Homo sapiens, evolved from the primordial EVE from
Africa. The race of Homo sapiens has arisen there and then it
migrated all over the world, with one known stopover and spread in
the Middle east, branching out thereafter onwards to 1. Europe and
2. The Indian subcontinent; and later on to Australasia etc.
That is all a pretty old phenomenon, between more than 60,000

years to 200,000 years ago. It has patent ramifications on the
present genetic structures of the current Indian sub-continental
populace, in so far as it is material.
Much of it is conjectural. What if the origins of Homo sapiens were

elsewhere other than in Africa but we get to trace the humans back
only to Africa, and not beyond to the Gondavana Land?
The time epoch of Homo sapiens' origin is also uncertain, with the
date ever shifting backwards in time than established at a given
time by the anthropologists!
Again, to reiterate, no hordes of ‘Aryans’ or any other nomads in

large numbers did ever invade the Indian heartland in the past that
can be a massive link to the genetic pool of the Indians of today
overall. David Frawley and Dr. N.R. Varhadpande have
conclusively exposed the fallacy of the hoax theory of ‘The Aryan
Race and Their Invasion of India’ attributable to Max-Muller and
Neo-Max-Mullerian motivated anthropologists and historians!
___________________________________________________
6
Vibhakar V. Lele
CHAPTER 2
***
FURTHER INTERACTION WITH DR. JHA
Dr. Jha expressed his goodwill by saying that this small piece of
information that he had graciously supplied to the author will help
in further research by him.
After receiving this most unexpected piece of evidence about the

Chitpavan Brahmins’ ancestral home in the vicinity of the
erstwhile Sarasvati River, of the original Vedic times beyond
almost 6700 years ago, there was some interesting mail
correspondence between this author and Dr. Jha, from 8th of June
2015 to 23rd of June 2015. Its substance so far as it is pertinent to
Chitpavan Brahmins’ ancestral home is given hereunder with
additional input by this author.
As was deemed fit, this author expressed special thanks with

gratitude on behalf of the Chitpavan community at large to Dr. Jha,
his late grandfather, Shri Ramakrishna Jha, and the Maithili
Brahmin community et al for preserving in their racial memory this
most important piece of information given by him relating to the
ancestry of Chitpavan Brahmin community seven millennia past.
This author, to buttress, if possible, this oral traditional evidence by

documentation, requested Dr. Jha to provide him, if he could, any
documented details of the origin/neighbourhood of the erstwhile
Chitpavan and Maithili Brahmins, in books, Shilahasans, History of
Mithila, the Maithili and related Brahmin communities etc. that he
may have come across since it would have helped much more for
additional authentication of the author’s own research on Chitpavan
Brahmins’ Origins.
7
Vibhakar V. Lele
Dr. Jha also delved into some Vedic lore and hypotheses. But that
information has not been used here since The Book is written on
Chitpavan Brahmins’ Proto and Pre-History, not for the believers
and not from Vedists' angle, but for the younger generation next
who are totally under the influence of modern science. The
common trend nowadays seems to be to accept blindly whatever
geneticists say and hypothesize. The Book delves in details into the
geneticists’ views and the lacunae of their science.
___________________________________________________
CHAPTER 3
***
HISTORICAL EVIDENCE
On receiving the newest evidence on Chitpavan Brahmins’
oldest habitat on the east of the then extant Sarasvati river, in
the Himalayas, this author suggested to Dr. Jha to reduce all the
historic treasure-trove of his grandfather, Shri Ramakrishna Jha,
into writing out systematically so that whatever best he can
remember today is not lost.
Even if the academic historians demand a record of every event, it

is just illogical to expect it for most of the things. Oral evidence,
racial memory and other traditional sources etc. are definitely a part
of history. It has to be taken into account duly, evaluating its real
worth and the factuality behind it, in a more logical manner.
This author has collated every kind of evidence, the written and
the oral, the fictional and the factual, the legendary and from
the Puranas etc., to piece together, from the little-known and
conjectural history of Chitpavan Brahmins’ origins, a very
plausible hypothesis. Now, as it turns out, there is more than
8
Vibhakar V. Lele
actual substantiating evidence for it, turning it into factual

history than just a most plausible hypothesis!
The historic proofs are of different types. Although the academic

historians go only by 1. The documented proof and 2. Monuments
and artifacts, this author does add the folklores, Puranas, mythical
tales and firmly held beliefs of a populace and racial memory as
additional evidence, though it may need a lot more understanding
of the subject in deciphering it than normal historic evidence.
Even the ‘normal’ historical evidence is hard to decipher in its

fullest extent many a times. The story of the Harappan and
Mohenjodaran scripts and its seals and the archaeological evidence
is yet to fully unfold despite abundant historical concrete evidence
of artifacts etc.! Only conjectural guesswork is its present state and
likely to remain so for many more years. But the academic
historians hope to unearth that sooner or later.
The story of such evidence does not end here. If in future, some
other piece of evidence emerges, the historical findings of scholars
may again go even a sea-change in their earlier hypotheses.
History, as we know, is and always has been a subject of much
speculation, conjecture and uncertainty since not much is left
behind in the course of time, except some telltale concrete piece of
the ‘so-called’ historical evidence and anecdotes to work upon.
Using present-day knowledge and conjectures, the historians have

pieced together the history of humanity over the ages long past. In
this respect, this author includes archaeology and anthropology as
well, with academic history.
And what one should make of the unwritten history of the Vedic
civilization? It is well-known that there was no traditional writing
of the Vedas, either because it was a taboo to commit the Vedas to
writing and they were supposed to be passed down by an eminent
tradition of accurate recitation, or because the early Vedics lacked a
9
Vibhakar V. Lele
script, whatever you may like to presume. The historians, naturally,

for want of concrete evidence of a script, presume that the Vedics
had no script to write down the Vedas and hence the way of recital
to pass down the generations.
While at this, one must remember that even when the scripts came
around, it was the domain of just a few learned men. The rest of the
populace used to go by racial memory and folk tales etc. Even the
later-day history of the medieval and modern times is similarly
shrouded in mystery since everything does not get recorded in
‘concrete’ historical evidence.
We will have, therefore, to jettison the ‘normal academic

historians’ dogma’ of ‘concrete historical evidence’ and at times, if
found necessary by the circumstantial evidence, depend upon the
testimony of not so academically well recognized evidence of 1.
Anecdotes 2. Folklore 3. Racial memory of the concerned masses
and 4. Puranas et al.
Unfortunately, some of the very Chitpavan Brahmin kinsmen are so

much brainwashed by the intangible allure of the Parashurama
connection to the 14 corpses bluff spread maliciously by the then
rival Brahmin communities that they started feeling greatness by
imbibing these fool stories. This author has come across them, time
and again, who opposed his studies, saying these cannot be the
truth, although this author has given them ample and an alternative
benefic Parashurama connection that could be good and prestigious
and has some grain of truth in it!
The story of 14 corpses was patently false and malicious as was

proved in the Brahma-sabha called at the instance of Chhatrapati
Shahu, the 1st, of Satara, the Peshwa’s King, to find out the truth of
similar such falsehoods. It was amply proved that this fable woven
by the rival Brahmins was entirely false. Recourse may be had to
the resources cited in The Book and to Dr. Urmila Rajashekhar
Patil’s intelligent dissertation on certain issues, noted elsewhere in
The Book.
10
Vibhakar V. Lele
Anyway, it is heartening to know that the Maithili Brahmins, once

neighbours of Chitpavan Brahmins seven thousand years ago, from
the Banks of Sarasvati, have left adequate trace of the Chitpavan
Brahmins' Vedic History and habitat east of the Sarasvati River,
over more than 7 millennia, that the Chitpavan Brahmins’
forefathers did not, unfortunately.
Brahmins, wherever they may be, are originally from the

Aryavarta11, without exception. That is what Dr. Jha said and that is
the central point of The Book as noted elsewhere. Chitpavan
Brahmins cannot be any exception to it, this author has said in The
Book, even if generally they do not know of their real origin!
___________________________________________________
CHAPTER 4
***
INTERPRETATION OF THE EVIDENCE OF

DR. JHA
The time epoch of the Mahabharata is generally reckoned as around
5000 years before the present times from its internal evidence. The
derivation of Ramayana period predated by almost 1000 years, as
Dr. Jha has said should be accepted in view of Brihadbal
narration12. Going yet 24 generation past than Devi Sita’s times
11
‘Aryavarta’ of the yore was regarded as the original habitat of the Vedic
civilization and culture. Historians generally regard that it was the
territory bounded by the Arabian Sea on the west, the Himalayas to the
north, the Narmada river and the Vindhya mountains to the south, and the
Bay of Bengal to the east.
12
‘Brihadbal’ is in reference to the 31st generation scion of Lord shri
Rama’s royal family who participated in the great epic Mahabharata war
on the side of King Duryodhana. Taking 30 years average span between
11
Vibhakar V. Lele
would take history back by almost 700 years ago, taking 30 years
average span between two generations. That, as Dr. Jha says
correctly, might be the real epoch to piece together the Chitpavan-
Maithili Brahmins’ story.
Mr. Prakash Godse, in his essays on the subject, in the Godse

Kulavrittanta, too, reckons the Sarasvati riverine geomorphic
episode and consequent migrations of the people there, including
the Chitpavan Brahmins. As can be understood from these essays,
its period can be recognized to be around 6000 to 7000years before
the present i.e. 4000 to 5000 BC. The time epoch of the said
Sarasvati geomorphic phenomenon is geologically provable.
The Chitpavan Brahmins did not have the later-day customary

restriction that came to the northern Brahmins about Pankti13 and
marriages.14 It could be that they had separated from the heartland
Aryavarta from times much before the times of Mahabharata and
Veda-Vyasa. That is a point that goes in favour of very ancient
migrations of the ancestors of Chitpavan Brahmins, in the footsteps
of Agasti.
If one were to stick to the story of Parashurama having settled the

Chitpavan Brahmins’ ancestors in the Konkan belt, his
mythological time is before Lord Shri Rama. In the same way as it
is surmised that Lord Shri Rama's times were 1000 years before
two successive generations, this story establishes the Ramayana period at

1000 years before the epic Mahabharata war i.e about 6000 years before
the present.
1313
Literally, ‘A row’.
14
The later day single-Veda-shakhiya Brahmins, e.g. the Rigvedins,
Yajurvedins, Samavedins etc., formed certain taboos much after Ved-
Vyasa’s period. The chief inter-branch taboos were 1. Not to partake food
with other Shakhiya Brahmins, sitting in the same row (‘Pankti’). Usually,
the rows of different Shakhiya Brahmins were arranged at right angles to
one another. 2. The intermarriages between different Shakhiya Brahmins
were proscribed. Therefore, the followers, even of the same Veda but its
different branches, or even sub-branches, could not intermarry.
12
Vibhakar V. Lele
Mahabharata, one can surmise that the legendary Parashurama's

times may have been 500 years at least before him. It takes us to an
epoch of around 6500 years before the present to locate Bhagavan
Shri Parashurama on the time scale, although he is deemed to be
immortal!
That is good evidence for Dr. Jha’s date-timeline for the geographic
togetherness of the Maithili and Chitpavan Brahmins (more than
7000 years ago). It also suits one of the genetic study cited in The
Book15 that shows that there have been little or no genetic changes
over more than 9000 years past in the genetic samples of Chitpavan
Brahmins studied which included the Leles and allied groups of
Chitpavan Brahmins as the most pre-historic of them all!
There thus appears to be a tallying point in Dr. Jha’s anecdote that

the Chitpavan Brahmins’ ancestors once lived in the Himalayas
near River Sarasvati around the same time and that King Kundan
established Chitpavan Brahmins in Ratnagiri region at a later date,
about 2600 years ago.
Secondly his say that they migrated in lots of 100 to 1000s over a
period of thousands of years, latest until 1000 AD, under the
patronage of kings all over a vast region, including Dandakaranya,
with later-day concentration in Konkan, tallies with what The Book
says about continued migrations all over Dandakaranya and central
and western India from the north.
From the Kannada resources cited in The Book, the Chitpavan

Brahmins’ ancestors were Agnihotri Brahmins and their Chitpavan
ID was linked with their this vocation. This, too, is eminently
evident in Dr. Jha’s avocation that the Chitpavan Brahmins were
Agnihotri and his Maithili Brahmin ancestors used to call them for
‘Agnihotra’16 and Yajnas in times much earlier to the Sarasvati
15
http://www.roperld.com/AsianIndian.htm
16
[Following matter, between * and * is borrowed from Wikipedia,
subject to their conditions.]: *Agnihotra is a Vedic yajña (ritual or
sacrifice) performed in Hindu communities. It is mentioned in the
13
Vibhakar V. Lele
Riverine geomorphic upheavals and subsequent dispersal of

Brahmins all over a vast region.
Parashurama Connect
Another vexing question is the Parashurama connection and its

significance to Chitpavan Brahmins’ migrations to Konkan.
Parashurama is regarded by some historians to be an epic figure of
Persia, which comprised of the present day Iran, Afghanistan, etc.
(erstwhile Kamboja). He is regarded as having settled Chitpavan
Brahmins in Konkan, especially at Guhagar!
Mr. Prakash Godse has a different hypothesis on the Parashurama

connection. He appears to subscribe to a view that whosoever he
may be, he is someone, a powerful king etc. who settled the
Chitpavan Brahmins in their present Konkan habitat. It appears that
that later on that personality became an icon and got connected to
the mythical Parashurama, in some way or the other.
Atharvaveda (11:7:9) and described in detail in the Yajurveda Samhita

and the Shatapatha Brahmana (12:4:1). The Vedic form of the ritual is still
performed by the Nambudiri Brahmins of Kerala and by a small number
of Vaidiki Brahmins in South Asia.
The central part of the Agnihotra consists of making two offerings of
brown rice (unpolished) into the fire exactly at, slightly before, or even
after the time of sunset and sunrise, along with Vedic mantras that relate
the fire and the sun to each other: 'agnir jyotir, jyotiḥ sūryaḥ sv h ' in the
evening, but the reverse 'sūryo jyotir, jyotir agniḥ sv h ' in the morning.
This preserves the sun over night, which is also one of the interpretations
of the ritual given in the Samhitas and Brahmanas.
This small rite is surrounded by a large number of additional actions
and is followed by the worship of the three (or five) sacred fires (agni-
upasth na). The ritual is performed by a Brahmin priest for his own or the
benefit of a sponsor (yajam na). The Vedic Agnihotra takes about 15
minutes in current performances.
There is a simplified version of the Agnihotra in the Grihyasutras and
in later post-Vedic texts.*
14
Vibhakar V. Lele
Dr. Jha tells this author that in the realm of a Kamboja king, by
name of Kundan, the Konkan and much of the Deccan region came
under his sway. It was he who first of all settled the Chitpavans’
ancestors in this region and in the Konkan. The story that Dr. Jha
subsequently gave about continued migrations of Chitpavan
Brahmins to ‘Aparantaka’ i.e. Konkan-Ratnagiri region appears to
be in concurrence with this author’s derivations in The Book about
it.
___________________________________________________
CHAPTER 5
***
ANAHICHHATRA
CHITPAVAN BRAHMINS’ ANCESTRAL

SECOND HOME
Ahichhatra in UP, Rampur-Bareilly belt has been a site of
archaeological excavations. It is understood to be the erstwhile
capital of the kingdom of Guru Dronacharya of the Mahabharata
fame, seized from king Drupada of Panchala by Arjuna.
*Panchala (Sanskrit: प्िाल, Pañcāla) was the name of an

ancient kingdom of northern India, located in the Ganges-
Yamuna Doab of the upper Gangetic plain, encompassing the
modern-day states of Uttarakhanda and western Uttar
Pradesh.
The Panchalas occupied the country to the east of the Kurus,

between the upper Himalayas and the river Ganges. It roughly
corresponded to modern Budaun, Farrukhabad and the
15
Vibhakar V. Lele
adjoining districts of Uttar Pradesh. The country was divided

into Uttara-Panchala and Dakshina-Panchala.
The northern Panchala had its capital at Ahichatra, (also

known as Adhichhatra and Chhatravati), near present-
day Ramnagar village in Aonla tehsil of Bareilly district,
The southern Panchala had it capital at Kampilya

or Kampil in Farrukhabad district. The famous city of Kanyakubja
or Kannauj was situated in the kingdom of Panchala.
The Shaunaka and Taittiriya Vedic Schools were located in the

area of Panchala.17
During the late Vedic times (c.850-500 BCE), it was one of the
most powerful states of South Asia, closely allied with the Kuru
Kingdom.* 18
Naturally, it was the Panchala kingdom’s part prior to that. Thus

the story of Dr. Jha that after the Sarasvati drying up, they moved
to Mithila19 region and the Chitpavan Brahmins’ ancestors moved
17
This book already has shown the connection of the ‘Taittiriya’ Samhita
to the Chitpavan Brahmins’ current Yajurveda school i.e. ‘Hiranyakeshin’.
It was the main branch of which the latter was a sub-branch (Upashakha).
There is, therefore, reason for locating the Chitpavan Brahmins’ ancestors
in North Panchala where the school was major.
18
Matter between * and * marks borrowed from Wikipedia, subject to
their conditions
19
[Following footnote matter is borrowed from Wikipedia, subject to their
conditions]: The Mithila (Videha) kingdom existed on the eastern Indo-
Gangetic Plain, an area which today is spread over more than half of
India's Bihar state and parts of adjoining Nepal.
Mithila (Sanskrit: mithilā), located in Ancient India, was the capital city
of the Videha (Mithila) Kingdom.
With its name commonly used to refer to the Videha Kingdom itself, as
well as, to the modern-day territories that fall within the ancient
boundaries of Videha (Mithila (India) and Mithila (Nepal)), the city of
Mithila has been identified as modern day Janakpur in the Dhanusa
16
Vibhakar V. Lele
to Ahichhatra in Panchala20 matches with the author’s avowal that

the Chitpavan Brahmins’ ancestors came from Ahichhatra, in UP.
There is yet another Ahichhatra(pur) in Rajasthan which itself is a

historic place but it is not the same as the one in UP in importance.
The ‘Rajasthan’ ‘Ahichhatra(pur)’ was an establishment of Nagauri
kings, it is learnt! a medieval times establishment. That way Ujjain
also had the same nomenclature as ‘Ahichhatra’ but it appears to be
a later-day establishment than UP Ahichhatra, after the Vedists
moved down to the Vindhya mountains in sage Agasti’s times.
The story of dispersal of the Brahmins and other Vedic

communities all over the Pan-Vedic region that Dr. Jha gave
matches with the Charanavyuha Samhita that gives very clearly that
Brahmins of different Shakhas were settled in the Pan-Vedic
region, from the Far East to the Middle East, Java and Sinhala-
dweepa to Asia Minor, present-day Iraq, Turkey and Afghanistan
(called Gandhara) etc. It is a kind of historic proof itself.
The time of the writing in the ‘Charanavyuha’ must have been post-
Vyasa of Mahabharata fame since it is he who is reputed to have
sectionalized the Vedas into four main parts, now known as the
four Vedas. The branches (Shakhas, Upashakhas etc.) were
subsequent to his times.
This is part of the story from the racial memory and past historical
information available with some of the Maithili Brahmins. Dr.
Jha’s grandfather, the late Shri Ramakrishna Jha, and he himself,
might be amongst even the last of them, since in a given
population, just but a few are the intelligentsia who carry forward a
part of the stack of knowledge of a given community. This author
district of Nepal. [For more details, see extract from Wikipedia under
‘MITHILA (ANCIENT)’]
20
See extract from Wikipedia on ‘Panchala’
17
Vibhakar V. Lele
and the Chitpavan Brahmins’ community are indeed fortunate to

get this grand pearl of information even at this stage, preserved by
the Maithili Brahmins over seven millennia at the least, so to say.
All this has come forth because of 1. Writing of The Book

‘Chitpavan Konkanastha Brahmins’ History [Proto- and Pre-]’
by this author and its subsequent free download permitted by the
author 2. Its reading in details by Dr. Jha and 3. Dr. Jha’s
impromptu mail to this author, passing on this most important piece
of information to the author for use in his research on Chitpavan
Brahmins’ ancestry. It is indeed a very fortuitous chance that
Chitpavan Brahmins now have a most authentic proof of their
Vedic past of even 7000 years ago!
Once again, this author expresses his (and of the like-minded

members of Chitpavan Brahmin community’s) gratefulness to the
racial memory of Maithili Brahmin community which places:
1. Chitpavan Brahmins’ ancestors around 7000 years before present

in the vicinity of the Sarasvati River in the Himalayas
2. Their having moved to Ahichhatra, in the Panchala Pradesha, in

the wake on geomorphic upheavals in the Sarasvati Riverine belt
almost 6700 years before present and
3. The history of their moving for over a few millennia to the

Deccan and to the Ratnagiri region that might have continued till
AD 1000.
A part of this story by Dr. Jha matches with what N.S. Rajpurohit
has shown in his essay that Mukanna Kadamba, the Kadamba king,
had settled at Chiploon around as late as AD 1161 some of the
Chitpavan Brahmins’ ancestors, Chitales et al, who came from
Ahichhatra in UP for performing the Yajnas for him.
18
Vibhakar V. Lele
This author has already pieced together their original settlements of

1. Guhagar, Teh. Chiploon, Dist. Ratnagiri and 2. Chiploon proper,
apart from a few other places like Ratnagiri-Rajapur, Dabhol,
Murud, Harihareshwara-Shrivardhan, et al. It had been arrived at in
The Book, though by a different logic!
_____________________________________
CHAPTER 6
***
ADDITIONAL BACKGROUND
There is some additional background to ‘Dr. Jha’s Historical
Information On Chitpavan Brahmins’ Ancestral Home And
Migrations’.
His grandfather used to tell him things which were unheard of

anywhere else. He had told him about the Chitpavan Brahmins that
"Jab hum Sarasvati nadi ke kinaare rehte the tab hamaare purvi
bhaag mein Agnihotri Brahman rehte the aur woh ab pashchimi
Samudra tat par rehte hain"21.
He also told him the legend of king of Kamboja who had colonized
Konkan and Maharashtra by defeating the Indians and
establishment of Brahmin settlements in these regions. He also used
21
Literally translatedŚ ‘When we (the Maithili Brahmins) were living upon
the banks of the Sarasvati River (prior to almost 7000 years ago), the
Agnihotri Brahmins (Chitpavan Brahmins’ ancestors) used to inhabit to
our east. They (their successors, progeny) now live upon the eastern
coastal region (meaning west coast of India, abutting upon the Arabian
seaś Konkan region).’ [NoteŚ matter in the parenthesis by this author]
19
Vibhakar V. Lele
to tell ancient history and unique events that happened with the
Maithili Brahmins’ clan and their migrations within Mithila after
having come from the Sarasvati riverine belt.
He also told him the legend of the King Narak Videha who
established the kingdom of Kaamroopa (present-day Assam) and
about the original temple of Kaamakhya. He had at least 1000
poems of Hindi by heart including some not published anywhere
else.
Unfortunately Dr. Jha’s knowledgeable granddad, Shri

Ramakrishna Jha, left this earth on the 18th Jan 2015. What a
chance! His grand finale on this author’s Chitpavan History should
come just in less than six months after he left for his heavenly
abode!
Dr. Jha’s granddad had also told him the history of the Sarasvata
Brahmins who used to stay in the region south of the settlement of
Maithili Brahmins while on the banks of the Sarasvati river. He
also told him story of formation of Himalayas and subsequent
flooding of plains and migration of Brahmins into Himalayan
territories.
Dr. Jha informs that Shri Ramakrishna Jha, his grandfather, was a
traveller and a great scholar. He never wore anything other than
Khadi right from the age of seven. His routine was to get up at 3
am and study for 3 hours. He did it all his life. He had great love for
knowledge. He believed in ritual purity and believed that it was not
enough to just chant the name of lord but a Brahmin must perform
his elaborate Nitya Karma every day. He was also a Purohit and
could perform all Pauranik Karmas including all Poojas, Shraddha
and Tarpana. Presently Dr. Jha’s clan lives in the Parsouni village
of Madhubani district.
___________________________________________________
20
Vibhakar V. Lele
CHAPTER 7
***
CONCLUSION FROM DISCUSSIONS

On the basis of our discussions, Dr. Jha concluded his historical
evidence succinctly. It is given below, in as much as this author
understands it:
Neighbours of Maithili Brahmins
Chitpavan Brahmins were original neighbours of Maithili

Brahmins. This is amply supported by the following facts:
It is evident from (a) Similar way of speaking (nasal twang), (b)

Uniquely similar food habits (Choora Dahi)22, (3) Oral narrative of
Dr. Jha’s grandfather, the late Shri Ramakrishna Jha, about
cohabitation in neighbourhood of both the Maithili and the
Chitpavan Brahmin communities.23
Common Food habits: Dahi-Poha i.e. Dadape Pohe (what the

Maithili Brahmins call it as Dahi-choora) is a unique food amongst
Maithili and Chitpavan Brahmins was a news to this author. Dr. Jha
says that no other communities have that as a traditional food item
is news.
22
A similar dish is what the Chitpavan Brahmins of Konkan call as
‘Dadape Pohe’, a ususal breakfast item.
23
‘jab hum Saraswati ke kinaare rehte the tab (Chitpavan) Agnihotri
Brahman hamaare purab mein rehte the jo ab pashchimi samudra tat par
rehte hain’.
21
Vibhakar V. Lele
Similarities
There are many other striking similarities as pointed out by this

author and the name of the place of importance to both, called
Devghar.24
Both the communities follow the rules proscribing the Sagotra and
the Sapinda marriages. The cousins, not even maternal, can wed
with another cousin, in such a system, unlike many other Brahmin
communities which allow some such kind of marriages between the
cousins.
There is one more important striking similarity i.e. both the Maithili
and Chitpavan Brahmins invariably worship a Mother Goddess as
their Kula Devata. The Goddesses are different for both. The
Chitpavans have one or the other Pre-historic goddesses whom they
worship prominently as Kula Swamini or Kula Devata. The proto-
historic Goddess Yogeshwari of Ambejogai is, by default, the Kula
Devata of almost all the Chitpavan Brahmins as discussed in ‘The
Book’.
24
Devghar is the place of great importance to Maithil Brahmins as learnt
from Dr Jha. In present Raigad district of Konkan, there is a pristine
establishment of Chitpavan Brahmins at the location Shrivardhan-
Harihareshwar belt. Harihareshwar was earlier known by the name
‘Devaghar.’ It is important to note since the migrated Brahmins must have
named the Devghar of Bihar and Shrivardhan in memory of their
earstwhile habitat in Ahichhatra and neighbourhood. As shown by this
author, the migrants have a tendency to name places, rivers, mountains
etc. after their original habitats’ names. Devaghar (Harihareshwar) was
regarded as ‘Dakshina Kashi’ by many Chitpavan Brahmins of the yore.
In fact, as pointed out by Dr Rosalind O’Hanlon, there is one
Harihareshwar Mahatmya that says that Parashurama had originally
settled the Chitpavans’ ancestors at Harihareshwar. The readers may read
this author’s noting in the book on Parashurama’s role in Chitpavan
Brahmins’ History, duly explained.
22
Vibhakar V. Lele
Habitat
The Maithili Brahmins are the original inhabitants in the vicinity of

the Origin of the Sarasvati River in the Himalayas and Agnihotri
Chitpavan Brahmins stayed in the region east of them in times
before 4700BC. In support, Dr. Jha cites the Shatapatha
Brahmana25 and the story of migration of Maithili Brahmins to
modern day North Bihar under the leadership of king Mathva
Videha.
Kamboja and India
The thing that needs to be found out is exactly when did Kamboja
colonized the regions of Modern day Maharashtra. One thing is for
sure that it happened prior to 6th century BC as Buddhist texts
mention about Ashmaka and hence Dr. Jha guesses it to be around
the 8th century BC, but it is only an intelligent guess and he does
not have a clue to the date of the time period of king Kundan.
Shri Ramakrishna Jha, his late grandfather, had said that Lord Shri
Ram defeated the Rakshasas and at a later date King of Kamboja
defeated the Indians and thus the modern day Aryan state of
Maharashtra was created. Just as the settlers from Europe have
colonized the USA, similarly settlers from the classical Aryavarta
settled in Maharashtra (The Ashmaka Desha of the yore).
Chitpavans Ancestral Migrations and Patronage
The other thing noted is that Chitpavan Brahmins have always

found patronization and endorsement of kings in the past which
25
For the Shatapatha Brahmana text, in so far as it pertains to ‘Agnihotra’,
see the exerpt given in this book from ‘The Satapatha Brahmana, Part I’,
Sacred Books of the East, Vol. 12 translated by Julius Eggeling [1882]
Ref. http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/sbr/sbe12/sbe1248.htm.
23
Vibhakar V. Lele
points that they must have maintained their Vedic knowledge

unlike some other Brahmin communities of the yore.
One more thing very evident is that there was an earlier settlement
of Chitpavan Brahmins in the Konkan region that was followed by
(a) Smaller migrations via land route which continued for more
than 2000 years and (b) Formation of new villages of Chitpavan
Brahmins. This goes to explain the multiplicity of earliest landing
sites of Chitpavan Brahmins’ ancestors in Konkan, as enumerated
by this author, but on entirely different logic of Kuladevtas etc.
The facts that might help one to find out the exact date of arrival of
first and biggest lot of Chitpavan Brahmins to Konkan can be these:
(a) Date of colonization of the modern day Maharashtra by

Kamboja and establishment of nations of Ratnagiri and Ashmaka.
(b) One thing is for sure that apart from Aagris, Kolis, Nags and
other Indians; Chitpavan Brahmins are the first Vedics to reach and
settle upon the western coast of India (Konkan) with the help of
Kshatriya king of Kamboja as there were no Vedics on this land
prior to the expedition of king of Kamboja.
(c) Very shortly after King Kundan had relocated the Brahmins on
the west coast, his nation was attacked by Mlechchas and Yavanas
from the west and in the ensuing battle Kamboja was ransacked and
Kundan was killed. A few remaining Chitpavan Brahmins in
Kamboja were either killed by the invaders or fled towards eastern
nations of Kuru, Panchala and Kashi.
Evidence of Being Original Vedics
Dr. Jha thinks that the existing generational features are the biggest
proof of the past. Many of his brothers have golden locks of hair;
light brown, green and golden eyes. This is a pointer to the
24
Vibhakar V. Lele
Chitpavan and Maithili Brahmins’ common ancient habitat at the

Origin of Sarasvati.
Dr. Jha says that the Maithili Brahmins are Samavedin Brahmins.
This point was deliberated upon by this author. The author has
reasons to believe that the Chitpavan Brahmins’ ancestors must
have been the Moola-veda practicing Brahmins.
The Moola-veda would have been in the form of the Samas i.e. its
Richas were to be sung melodiously. Thus there is a commonality
between the Maithili Brahmins and the ancestors of Chitpavan
Brahmins regarding the Veda practice. Incidentally, this also
indicates that these Moola Veda practicing Brahmins must have
been the original Vedics settled upon the banks of the Sarasvati
river.
In the considered opinion of this author, the Vedics first had the
Moola Veda i.e. now called the Rigveda. The Samaveda is the
sonorous chanting and singing of the Rigvedic Richas as of today.
The original Richas were in oral traditional way of singing hymns
i.e. the Samaveda, if it may be called so.
The Moola-veda must have, therefore, been the Samaveda. It is said

that Ravana collected and collated the whole body of the Vedic
Richas from the entire Vedic region and coalesced them into one
Veda Samhita. It is well-known that he was an ardent divine singer
and a musician, esp. famous for his Veena Vadana by which he had
pleased Lord Shri Shiva to grant him many boons.
The Samaveda as such must have been the original Veda as

gathered in Samhita form by Ravana. There is a book by Dr. Savaji
on Chitpavan Brahmins' Origins in which he hypothesizes that
Chitpavan Brahmins were original Samavedin Brahmins! Albeit
from some different perspective!
The Chitpavan Brahmins are presently Dwivedis but they must

have been the Moola-vedics i.e. Samavedin, if you like to call it
that, since times immemorial. They were the Moola Vedics.
25
Vibhakar V. Lele
Given to the vocation of the institute of Yajnas, naturally, the

Chitpavan Brahmins were well-versed in the later-day-partitioned
Vedas, four in numbers.
Later on they must have lost two branches, the Sama and the
Artharva, due to extinction of follower branches. Some do not
regard Atharvan as a Veda!
The nasal twang of Chitpavan Brahmins, the predominance and

proficiency of many Chitpavan males and females even, at singing
and classical music, point towards a Samavedic Proto-History, in
the considered opinion of this author. These are the genetic traits
left in the progeny of the Samavedic Brahmins that they must have
been for millennia, even after the Veda-Vyasa period which saw
the Moola Veda partitioned into four branches.
Dr. Jha says that what this author says about the Moola Veda is
absolutely correct. Original Veda is one and the same. The mantras
when recited are called Rik, when sung with a melody is called
Saaman and when preceded by Udgitha and Vyahriti ('Aum Bhuh
Bhuvah Swah') and succeeded by 'Swaha' becomes Yajus. It is how
one utters them classifies them into three. The actual content in
terms of Mantra remains the same.
One more thing conclusively proven is that the Major Chitpavan

population had migrated away from classical Aryavarta 700 years
prior to Ramayana period hence they continue to practice the
Moola Veda system as divisions were made in Mahabharata period
by Krishna Dwaipayana Vyasa.
Dr. Jha remembers his grandfather having told him that all the
Brahmins were exotic and have descended from the Heavens
(Svarga) under the guidance of the Sapta Rishis by a process called
26
Vibhakar V. Lele
‘Manthan’. He had said that ‘Ojha’ was the first Brahmin to

descend and ‘Agnihotri’ was the last to descend.26
He also said that ‘Agnihotri’ was the fairest man in the world and
that ‘blondes’ (The White Men/The European-likes) were actually
not fair but in fact lacked fairness totally.
Divine Hand
Dr. Jha, very emotionally says that he is sure that all this dialogue
and discussions on this matter of Chitpavan Brahmins in
connection with the Maithili Brahmins has started with the divine
inspiration of Goddess Sarasvati herself and she will certainly help
us to conclusively prove to the modern world that Maithili and
Chitpavan Brahmins were the original neighbours and residents of
the blessed and divine land of Sarasvati. He hopes that soon it will
all be figured out and we will find the lone missing thread which
will prove everything conclusively for everyone to accept it without
any doubt.
Additional Information
Additional information received from Dr. Ambujkishore Jha is

appended hereunder for the sake of clarity, independent of the
collating and extrapolation as above done for the purpose of
Chitpavans’ ancestral habitat.
26
The word ‘Ojha’, in certain civilizations, literally reflects, even in the
ancient context, a Brahmin or a ‘Seer’, having supernatural powers to
foresee events and doling out magical cures and remedies. His utterances
in trance state were regarded as the word of God. In short, this legendary
reference to the ‘Ojha’ and the ‘Agnihotri’ Brahmins may mean that it was
the magical utterances that preceded the ritual practice of the Vedic
Brahmins. Therefore, the Richas came first and the Vedic rites last. It may
also indicate the evolutionary graph of the Vedic culture.
27
Vibhakar V. Lele
Also interesting information on the related topics can be had from

Wikipedia and the net from the following addresses:
http://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kambojas
http://www.csuchico.edu/anth/mithila/
http://www.jstor.org/stable/41498247?seq=1#page_scan_tab_conte
nts
https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=A0i94Z5C8HMC&pg=PA38
&hl=en#v=onepage&q&f=false
https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mithila_(ancient)
CHAPTER 8
***
DR JHA’S COMMUNIQUES of June 2015

Previous Settlements
History of Sarasvati
The Sarasvati River originated in the Himalayas and its waters

joined the ground water and thus it never reached the sea. Just as
the Sarasvati goddess of the Puranas is an untouched goddess, so is
river Sarasvati as she never reaches ocean.
The Sarayupareen Brahmins lived in the region west of the River

Sarasvati and east of their River Sarayu (modern-day Harayu). The
Maithili Brahmins lived in the region Northeast of Origin (Udgam)
of Sarasvati. The Agnihotri Brahmins (ancestors of Chitpavan
28
Vibhakar V. Lele
Brahmins) lived in the regions further north and east of origin of

Sarasvati and settlements of Maithil Brahmins. The Sarasvat
Brahmins lived along both the banks of Sarasvati river. These
settlements were very ancient (spanning over millions of years) and
extended over hundreds of Kilometers.
MIGRATIONS
Sarayupareen Brahmins
The Sarayupareen Brahmins were the first ones to migrate. The

modern Gangetic plain was then a swamp where waters coming
from the Himalayas accumulated resulting in the formation of a
dense mangrove forests. With the passage of time, waters started
receding and areas that formed modern day state of UP started
becoming dry from the west to the eastwards.
The Sarayupareen Brahmins left the regions west of Sarasvati and

started settling in the region of modern day Gangetic plains. This
happened in 6020 BC under the rule of great Kshatriya king
Ikshvaku of Soorya-Vamsha (dynasty)27. As the waters receded, the
Sarayupareen Brahmins kept moving eastwards.
27
Borrowed from Wikipedia, subject to their conditions – Ikshavaku -
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ikshvaku:
Ikshvaku is remembered in Hindu scriptures as a righteous and glorious
king. In some versions, he is the son of Vaivasvata Manu (formerly the
Emperor Satyavrata of Dravida), one of the two central characters along
with the Lord Matsya incarnation of Lord Vishnu in the Matsya Purana.
He is born to Manu after the deluge which sends the King's ship to the top
of the Malaya Mountains in the Dravida country.
Lineage details below as per the Valmiki Ramayana - 1. Lord Brahma
2. Marichi (son of Brahma) 3. Sage Kashyapa (son of Marichi) 4.
Vivasvan (Surya) (son of Sage Kashyapa) 5. Manu (Vaivasvatha) (Father
of humanity) 6. Ikshvaku (Manu's son) 7. Gushi (son of Ikshvaku) 8.
Vigushi (son of Gushi) 9.Baana (son of ViGushi) 10. Anaranya (son
29
Vibhakar V. Lele
In 5800 BC, the city of Shravasti was established. In 4820 BC,

King Bhagirath brought down the Ganga and thus the entire swamp
was drained up to the river Gandak28 and later-day nation of Koshal
of Baanan) 11. Brithu (son of Anaranyan) 12. Trisanku (son of

Brithu) - he got his own heaven with the help of sage vishwamithra 13.
Thundhumaaran 14. Yuvanaswa 15. Mandhata 16. Susanthi 17.
Dhuruvasanth and Prasanejit 18. Bharata (son of Dhuruvasanti) 19. Asitha
20. Sagara 21. Asamanja 22. Amsumaa 23. Dileepa 24. Bhagiratha (He
brought river Ganges or Ganga to Earth from Devaloka and so Ganga has
another name Bhagirathi) 25. Kaguthstha 26. Raghu 27. Pravritha a.k.a.
Kalmasha-paatha 28. Sangana 29. Sudharshana 30. Agnivarna 31.
Seekraga 32. Maru 33. Prachuchrugana 34. Ambarisa 35. Nahusha 36.
Yayati 37. Naabaaga 38. Ajan 39. Dasaratha 40. Rama 41. Lava
and Kusha (Sons of Rama and Sita)
In Vedic History:Ikshvaku was one of the earliest monarchs of India,
and played a pivotal role in the propagation of the ancient Vedic religion.
Across the length and breadth of Greater India, numerous royal families
have claimed to have belonged to the House of Ikshvaku, which was
synonymous with the Solar Dynasty. Great kings
like Bhagiratha and Dasaratha were among the kings in the line before
Lord Rama.
28
This really could have been a reference to the endless efforts by the
Ikshvaku kings to channelize the waters then flooding the erstwhile
Gangetic belt, the Central canal may be the River Ganga of today.
It could also mean that the Ikshvaku kings tried their hand at building a
dam at the source of Sarasvati to divert its flow and channelize it towards
the plains. That may the portion of River Ganga which is presently known
as Bhagirathi River.
As it is, the geologists seem to agree that after the River Sarasvati
started drying periodically. It could be because either the River Yamuna
trapped and diverted its waters and/or the glaciers at its source started
drying out. The stream of Ganga started gaining in strength as a result.
Another possibility is that of a massive earthquake that altered the entire
topography of the Northern India resulting in the reflow of the erstwhile
rivers and giving rise to the present topography with extinction of the
River Sarasvati and the rivers Yamuna and the Ganga gaining strength as
the major rivers of the Northern plains of India.
The timeline of the frying out of the Sarasvati River and the
strengthening of the Ganges stream given by Dr. Jha matches with the
geologic timeline of these geomorphic upheavals.
30
Vibhakar V. Lele
(Ayodhya) was established with Gandak as its eastern frontier.

They named the new river which flowed in the new Koshal as
Sarayu after their old river west of Sarasvati.
Maithili Brahmins
After commencement of the migration of Sarayupareen Brahmins,

the Maithili Brahmins, the Agnihotri Brahmins and the Sarasvat
Brahmins remained. In 4700 BC, Gautam Rahugana, the Rajpurohit
of King Mathu Videha and husband of Sati Ahilya, predicted that
Sarasvati River would soon go dry and that the Sarasvati region
was not suitable for inhabiting; that a great catastrophe was coming
soon and thus they should migrate just as the Sarayupareen
Brahmins did.
As the Sarayupareen Brahmins had migrated towards the east, the

Maithili Brahmins, too, decided to move in the same direction.
King Mathu had become old. So his son Mathva Videha was
coronated and he was asked by his father to lead the migration of
Maithili population towards east under the guidance of Gautam
Rahugana.
A massive Yajna was performed before leaving the Sarasvati

region and having obtained the blessings of the Vaishwaanar Agni,
the Maithili Brahmins started their journey eastwards. After many
weeks of journey they crossed the newly established nation of
Koshal and reached the west coast of River Gandak (River
Sadanira).
The River Gandak was a ferocious river and region east of the river
was a dense swamp populated by giant lizards, crocodiles, snakes
and barbarians along with dense population of mosquitos. The
region was however reclaimed after propitiating the Sacred Agni
and thus the nation of Maha-Videha was established with Jayanta
as its capital. River Gandak and the River Kosi were its respective
31
Vibhakar V. Lele
western and eastern frontiers, Himalayas the northern and the River
Ganga the southern frontiers.
Agnihotri (Chitpavan) Brahmins
The Maithili Brahmins had informed the Agnihotri and the Sarasvat
Brahmins as well about the approaching disaster but they refused to
leave the Sarasvati region. After some years the signs of impending
disaster started becoming apparent.
Then the Agnihotri Brahmins, too started migrating. They were

divided into two groups. Half of them migrated towards the east and
the south and settled in Ahichhatra, the capital of North Panchal. It
was a city closest to their settlement and they used to frequently visit
this place even in the earlier times as the rulers of Ahichhatra used to
invite them for performance of the Yajnas. This happened in 4600
BC.
The remaining half migrated towards west and settled in Kamboja

and further western territories up to Mesopotamia, Anatolia and
Europa.
Sarasvat Brahmins
The Sarasvat Brahmins followed in the footsteps of the

Sarayupareen and the Maithili Brahmins and reached the newly
established nation of Videha. They were advised to go further east,
as the nation was already populated. They crossed the Kosi River
and reached Gaud Desha (Northern part of Vanga).
They stayed in Gauda Desha for hundreds of years but suffered

from lack of patronization and endorsement and thus had to endure
a life of misery and poverty. As the Sarasvat Brahmans found it
difficult to sustain themselves in Gauda Desha, they started
migrating to different places all over India.
32
Vibhakar V. Lele
Other Relevant Details
After the migration of Sarayupareen and Maithilis, the Agnihotris

and Sarasvat Brahmins remained in the Sarasvati region. As the
signs of the impending disaster started becoming apparent, they too
decided to leave the region.
The Agnihotri Brahmins (Chitpavan Brahmins’ ancestors) used to

visit the city of Ahichhatra (capital of North Panchala) very
frequently even while at the Sarasvati region. Hence the city was
very familiar to them. Thus a majority of Agnihotris settled in the
Ahichhatra region. A minority of them migrated towards west and
settled in the nation of Kamboja and in further western territories.
With the collapse of Vedic religion in the far western regions, the
Mlechchas and Yavanas started chasing the Brahmins and other
Vedics out of their nations. The Brahmins thus moved eastwards
and started concentrating in the nation of Kamboja. The Kshatriya
king of Kamboja settled the Agnihotri Brahmins in the newly
conquered region of Ratnagiri, in Konkan.
After a few hundred years the news of the Agnihotri Brahmins

(Chitpavan Brahmins’ ancestors) having settled in Ratnagiri
reached fellow Agnihotri Brahmins of Ahichhatra. By then, many
Brahmins from Ahichhatra had migrated to various parts of modern
day MP and Maharashtra.
Afterwards, the Agnihotri Brahmins of Ahichhatra, MP and various

parts of Maharashtra started migrating towards Ratnagiri in search
of their kins which continued for centuries, even millennia and
people migrated in lots of 100 to 10000. Eventually around 1174
AD, the migrations were complete and Ratnagiri (Konkan) became
densely populated with Agnihotri Brahmans, now known as
Chitpavan Brahmins.
33
Vibhakar V. Lele
Conclusion
In this way all the original inhabitants of Sarasvati Riverine region

migrated to different places and were established in new kingdoms.
Only a small population of Sarasvat Brahmins continued to live in
the regions in the Sarasvati region.
Pre-History of the Regions South of Vindhyachal
During the early Vedic era and during the epoch of settlements at
Sarasvati riverine basin, there were no Vedic followers in the
regions south of the Vindhya Mountains. However with the
establishment of new Vedic kingdoms in the Gangetic plain, the
Vedics started visiting the regions south of the Vindhya Mountains.
Who lived there
Prior to the advent of the Vedics, the regions south of the Vindhya
Mountains i.e. the Dandakaranya was populated by various
aboriginal tribes in the northern parts. They were uncivilized and
roamed naked.
There were the Rakshasas in the south. The Rakshasas on the other
hand spoke highly refined languages and were organized under
kings and commanded disciplined armies. The Rakshasas had
subdued the tribes of the northern parts i.e. the regions immediately
to the south of the Vindhya Mountains and ruled over the entire
peninsula of modern India from the seas up to the Vindhya
Mountains.29
29
This is evidenced in the Ramayana.
34
Vibhakar V. Lele
Migrations of Vedics To The South
After the establishment of new Vedic kingdoms in the Gangetic

plain (Koshal in 6020 BC and Videha in 4700 BC), many Vedic
people started visiting regions south of the Vindhya Mountains.
These included the Brahmins who settled in the forests for their
Vaanprastha or for performing penance. Many fugitives, dacoits,
outlaws and outcastes also found refuge in the forests.
Entry Of Vedic Kings Into The South
King Sagara
The great Kshatriya king, Sagara of the Soorya Vamsha from the
nation of Koshal performed the Ashwamedha sacrifice in 4940 BC
defeating various tribes in India and the Rakshasas and conquered
regions up to the southern tip of the Indian peninsula, defeating the
Cholas and Keralas. In the west he conquered lands up to the
modern day Greece (the Yavanas).
The Yadavas
Following in the footsteps of King Sagara, the Yadavas east of the

River Anshumati (Yamuna) crossed the Vindhya Mountains in
massive hordes and established the Vedic nation of Vidarbha by
defeating its rulers. The new nation of Vidarbha had close ties with
the powerful nation of Koshal. Another king of the Soorya Vamsha
by the name of Rituparna from Koshal visited the newly established
nation of Vidarbha as a goodwill gesture in 4670 BC.
Ashmaka and Moolaka
Even after establishment of Vedic kingdom of Vidarbha, the

regions towards north and west of it i.e. the regions of Gujarat and
northern parts of Maharashtra remained under the control of the
barbaric aboriginal tribes. A group of Vratyas from the North came
35
Vibhakar V. Lele
and settled in region south of Vindhya Mountains and formed the

nation of Paudanya in 4300 BC. They were called Ashmakas and
Moolakas.
Those Ashmaka and Moolaka Chieftains were not organized on the

pattern of a regular Vedic kingdom but various warlords
commanded over small groups of mercenaries or rather bandits and
acted on their own. The Ashmaka warlords fought from the side of
both the Pandavas as well as Kauravas in the battle of Mahabharata
as they were not organized under a King.30
Ramayana Era
In 4000 BC, the prince of Ayodhya from the Ikshvaku dynasty by

the name of Shri Ramchandra crossed the Vindhya Mountains with
his wife and brother to spend his days in exile. Here he witnessed
that many Brahmins stayed in the forests in small huts. There were,
however, no elaborate settlements of those Brahmins. The
Brahmins complained that the Rakshasas did not allow them to
perform the Yajnas and even physically abused them.
The Rakshasas were ruled by Ravana, their king who was the son
of a Brahmin but through a Rakshasa wife. The rest of the
Ramayana story is famous. After killing Ravana, Shri Ramachandra
appointed his brother as the new ruler of the Rakshasa kingdom
who was very benevolent and righteous and facilitated the Vedics
in the performance of Vedic rituals.
King Kundan Of Kamboja
After the expedition of prince of Kosala, there was an expedition by

the King of Kamboja by the name of Kundan Varnakaanchan. He
defeated the tribes of the west coast and established the nation of
30
This is evidenced in Mahabharata
36
Vibhakar V. Lele
Ratnagiri. He also ruled Ashmaka. It was he who settled the

Agnihotri Brahmins (Chitpavan Brahmins’ ancestors) in the newly
established nation of Ratnagiri. Following this many thousands of
other Brahmins and Yadavas settled in regions south of the
Vindhya Mountains.
Historicity of Name Ashmaka
According to the legend of the King of Kamboja by the name of

Kundan Varnakaanchan, he established his reign in the nations of
Ratnagiri, the western coastal belt of India (so named by him) and
Ashmaka (erstwhile Dandakaranya).
He named the west coast as Ratnagiri, since gems cud be found

lying on the mountains. It was an unexplored land as Rakshasas did
not visit these regions as it was a very dense rain forest populated
with many harmful creatures and local barbaric tribes.
It is quite likely that the region of the Dandakaranya was called as

Ashmaka31 since times immemorial by inhabitants of the Vedics
from Aryavarta for its rocky terrain and King Kundan of Kamboja,
after colonizing it, used the generic word as a proper noun. 32
31
Ashmaka: It could mean a rocky terrain in Sanskrit. Since Maharashtra
region is made of the Deccan Trap by geomorphic volcanic activity, it
might have been so named in those times.
32
Archeologists have excavated artifacts from a Harappan site at
Daimabad, Ahmednagar District, Maharashtra. It shows the antiquity of
Ashmaka and its connection with the Harappa-Mohenjodaro epoch.
[Following matter, between * and * is extracted from Wikipedia, subject
to their conditions.]: Ref.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Indus_Valley_Civilization_sites -
Harappan Sites list includes arti
facts of Ahmednagar Chariot driven by bulls -List of Indus Valley
Civilization sites - From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
37
Vibhakar V. Lele
Causes for drying of Sarasvati River
The drying of Sarasvati River marks the end of Vedic era and
beginning of the Puranika era. While in the Sarasvati region, the
Maithili Brahmins used to perform the great Soma Sacrifice but
after having migrated to modern-day north Bihar (erstwhile Mithila
region), there is no historical proof of any such Yajna being
performed. Actually the drying of the Sarasvati River and
disappearance of Soma symbolizes the end of the Vedic era and the
beginning of Pauranika era.
In 4840 BC, the great Kshatriya king Bhagirath of the Soorya

Vamsha brought down the Divine River Ganga from the Svarga33.
Due to geomorphic changes in the Sarasvati region, the inclinations
of many regions changed. The Anshumati River which was earlier
a tributary of the Sarasvati River and flowed southwards turned east
and became a tributary of the newly formed Ganga river. The
Anshumati stole the water of Sarasvati and drained it into the River
Ganga. Their confluence is at Prayag (present-day Allahabad).
A sculpture of a
bronze chariot,
45 cm long and
16 cm wide,
yoked to two
Daimabad Ahmadn oxen, driven by
Maharas Ind
Late agar a man 16 cm
htra ia
Harappan District high standing in
it; and three
other bronze
sculptures.[9] So
uthern-most
IVC site
*
33
As some Vedic scholars have tried to show, ‘Svarga’ may refer to the
Himalayan regions to the farthest north.
38
Vibhakar V. Lele
By the time of the Mahabharata (3000 BC), the Sarasvati River had
completely dried off and only the tract remained which was filled
with water during the rains and was dry otherwise.
Prior to the advent of Ganga, the modern Gangetic plains used to be

flooded and there were many Paleolithic period water-flow tracts
that drained the waters from the northern plains into the sea, but
those should not be mistaken for the River Ganga.
The Legend of King Kundan of Kamboja
Dr. Ambujkishore Jha gives the following legend of King Kundan

of Kamboja, as narrated to him by his grandfather:
Once upon a time there lived a Kshatriya king by the name of

Kundan Varnakaanchan in the nation of Kamboja. He had curly
hair and golden complexion. He was a great warrior, horseman and
explorer. He had the best horse and best golden crown in the world.
He had a cavalry of 50,000 strong. He had a friend who was a
warlord and resident of Tibetan Plateau.
Once they went to explore regions north of Tibetan Plateau. The

people of those regions were amused to see the beauty of Kundan.
Envious of his beauty, the warlord of region north of Tibetan
plateau sent his son to Kamboja disguised as a foot massager. Once
while massaging the feet of Kundan, Kundan fell asleep and the
Chinese boy stole his Dhoti, ornaments and crown. He reached his
nation. Put on all the attire of Kundan only to look like a clown and
being laughed upon by everyone. Kundan later found the boy with
help of his Tibetan warlord friend and recovered his crown from
him.
At a later date he started an expedition south of Vindhyachala and

reached the west coast with his cavalry and Tibetan army. The west
coast was a rain forest and it rained all around the year. He saw that
there were gems lying on the mountain ranges. The forest was
dense and had flying snakes and other harmful creatures. The forest
also had a big Indian population who roamed naked and were
39
Vibhakar V. Lele
barbarians. Kundan defeated the Indians and named the newly

conquered mountain ranges as RATNAGIRI.
He then turned his army towards east and repelled the Indians into
the forests of Nagpur. He thus established the new Nation of
ASHMAKA. He made garrisons at strategic locations and left for
Kamboja.
After sometime, hordes of Brahmins reached Kamboja from the

west. They looked scarred, starved and tired. They told Kundan that
Mlechchas and Yavanas were after their life and sought asylum in
Kamboja. The king of Kamboja provided them with asylum. The
newly arrived Brahmins discovered that their kin were already
staying in Kamboja. The Brahmins were comforted and were
provided with food, clothing and shelter.
The great King Kundan of Kamboja relocated the Brahmins into his
newly established colony of Ratnagiri. A few of them remained in
Kamboja. The Brahmins coming from the west were actually
Agnihotri Brahmins (the ancestors of Chitpavan Brahmins) who
had migrated from the Sarasvati River region. In the wake of the
Sarasvati Riverine geomorphic activity and the drying of the River
Sarasvati, the Agnihotri Brahmins (Chitpavan Brahmins’ ancestors)
had migrated to Ahichhatra to the east and Kamboja and further
western nations after the migration of Maithili Brahmins to region
east of River Sadanira (Gandak).
After the Agnihotri Brahmins (Chitpavan Brahmins’ ancestors)

were settled in the newly formed Vedists' nation of Ratnagiri, there
started migrations of the Agnihotri Brahmins (Chitpavan Brahmins’
ancestors) from various parts including Ahichhatra and many other
regions where they had migrated from Ahichhatra. After continued
migrations of thousands of years they eventually got concentrated
in Ratnagiri i.e. neighbouring Konkan coastal area. The timeline of
40
Vibhakar V. Lele
Kundan, the Kamboja King, has been dealt with elsewhere in This
Book34 in this connection.
Kundan Varnakaanchan was eventually killed in the ransacking of

Kamboja by the Mlechchas and the Yavanas. He was a great
warrior and fought very bravely till the end.
All the Brahmins should remember the great Kshatriya King of

Kamboja who did not mind creating enmity with Mlechchas and
Yavanas for the sake of Brahmins.
_______________________________________________
34
The term ‘This Book’ stands for this author’s current book, a
supplement to the primary book under the title of ‘Chitpavan
Konkanastha Brahmins’ History [Proto- and Pre-]’, unless the context
otherwise warrants.
41
Vibhakar V. Lele
CHAPTER 9
***
EPILOGUE
Essence of e-mails exchanged with Dr. Jha
Dr. Jha stressed that the of information he has recorded for this
author is not only relevant from the Chitpavan Brahmins’ proto-
history but will also help force the historians to look into the
ancient history of formation of Maharashtra anew.
In the ongoing mail exchanges, this author made certain points for
the sake of clarity as follows:
Timeline of Chitapavan Brahmins’ Migrations
Regarding Chitpavan Brahmins' ancestral settlements in Konkan

under the Kadamba Kings' patronage, there had been at least two
well-documented settlements at Chiploon, one in 350AD / 300BC
in King Mayoora Sharma’s times and the other in 1174 AD in
Mukanna Kadamba’s times, as reported in The Book.
The myths of sage Parashurama and of sage Agasti's sojourn to the

southern India can indicate a time period at least as far back as
4700 BC to 4000 BC, may be even more ancient. Their settlement
then would be in the Dandakaranya, in the Vidarbha-Marathawada
region since majority of Chitpavans worship Yogeshwari of
Ambejogai from Marathawada in that region as Kuladevata.
It is well-known from Ramayana that sage Agasti had married the

princess Lopamudra of the Vidarbha king. The then Vidarbha-
Marathawada region was a part of the extensive Dandakaranya
forest. Part of Dandakaranya must be reckoned as the one that came
to be known as Ashmaka region, more specifically in the
Maharashtra times.
42
Vibhakar V. Lele
This links up with the myth of sage Parashurama that took place in
the region of Vidarbha and surrounding Malwa region of central
India. The place where he was born is legendarily at Mahur-gad in
the present Nanded district of Marathawada region. Traditionally,
Vidarbha and Marathawada have been called as a unit of
governance as late as in 1950 AD post-independence.
Going by the history of Chitpavan and Maithili Brahmins given by

Dr. Jha, around that time, 4700 BC to 4000 BC, the Sarasvati
catastrophe was shaping. The Brahmins, including Chitpavan
Brahmins’ ancestors, had started migrating from Sarasvati Riverine
basin by then. Even sage Agasti's migration could as well be a
result of those changes.
The timeline of ecological changes of the Sarasvati Riverine region

due to geomorphic, climatic and other causes is rather uncertain. It
just might not have happened overnight. It could as well have been
a development taking long time, may be a few centuries or even a
millennia or two. For want of documentation, one will have to go
by a very approximate timeline in this whole migratory episode of
the Brahmins from the Sarasvati region, including Chitpavan
Brahmins’ ancestors.
As shown in The Book, Parashurama is iconic for Chitpavan

Brahmins, as well as for many other Brahmin communities,
including Namboodiri, Bhoomihar etc. His legendary connection to
their pre-history need not necessarily be personal but just
mythological. This has been shown clearly by Mr. Prakash Godse
in his essays in the Godse Kulavrittantas.
For the sake of completeness of information, a separate chapter on

‘Parashurama’ is included in This Book to help the reader assess
the interaction between historical fact and myths.
Even so, as shown earlier in This Book, his time can be reckoned as
around 4700 BC. The migration of Chitpavans linked to him
certainly would be just about pre or post Agasti in the imminent
period.
The migrations were going on for quite some time. In Ahichhatra

case, the most recent migrations referred to from it to Konkan were
43
Vibhakar V. Lele
spaced almost 1000 years apart, in Kadamba kings’ times, in 300

BC to 1174 AD. Their coming to Konkan in successive lots like
homing pigeons was a definite phenomenon.
Royal patronage is a clear-cut fact behind their migrations. The

country of Konkan otherwise is not as fertile as the northern
plains. Without proper Agraharas, they would not have migrated
over long distances from Ahichhatra, at least. Kamboja could be
story apart, from the west but not from the north.
Timeline of King Kundan of Kamboja
So for the legend of Kundan, one has to look into the epoch from
4700 BC to 300 BC i.e. from the time of Chitpavan Brahmins’
ancestors’ migrations from Sarasvati region to the time of their first
recorded settlement of in Konkan. The period would be in all
probability from 4700 BC to 2500 BC, from around pre-Ramayana
to post- Mahabharata war.
One has to look at it more probabilistically. The Brahmins,

including Chitpavan Brahmins’ ancestors, had migrated to the
regions west of the Sarasvati river basin, including the regions
beyond Gandhara and Kamboja and lived there peacefully under
the patronage of various kings of the said regions for quite some
time.
This fact is witnessed from the information given in ‘Maharshi

Shaunaka’s Charanavyuha Sootra. It shows their residences from
Mesopotamia to Shri Lanka and Kamboja. Since it lists Brahmins
by Shakhas and Upashakhas of Brahmins, ‘Charanavyuha’ appears
to refer to the period post-Vyasa of Mahabharata.
It was sage Vyasa who is regarded to have partitioned the Veda into
four branches. Hence the period of harassment of Brahmins in the
west in the Mlenchchha and Yavana regions west of Gandhara and
Kamboja has to be after Mahabharata war, not soon after but much
later, after the wane of Vedic power west of those regions.
Thus the period of from 3000 BC onwards has to be considered for

fixing the likely time of King Kundan of Kamboja who is crucial to
44
Vibhakar V. Lele
the history of Chitpavans and other Brahmins for their resettlement

along the coast of Konkan. Since this period did not start soon after
Mahabharata war, it might have been say 500 years at least
thereafter.
The Mahabharata war had taken a heavy toll of the Vedic

Kshatriyas as witnessed from the large scale participation of kings
with their vast armies which were reportedly all destroyed in the
great fratricidal war. That must have resulted in the weakening of
the Vedist kings’ prowess in the far western regions like
Mesopotamia and Middle East etc. The nomads west of these
regions must have taken advantage of it to disturb these regions.
King Kundan must have been about one of the last few powerful
Vedic king of the region who gave succor to this disturbed Vedic
populace and resettled them in his regions along the Konkan coast
and in Ashmaka.
Hence one is enthused to regard his time post-Mahabharata war by

about 500 years to around 2500 BC or so. Therefore, the time of
resettlement of Chitpavan Brahmins’ ancestors in Konkan coastal
region and in Ashmaka region would have to be reckoned as 2500
BC or thereabouts and that is the suggested epoch of King Kundan
and his conquest of the Konkan coast and Ashmaka.
In this way, the earliest approximate date of Chitpavan Brahmins’

ancestors’ migration to Konkan would be 2500 BC. Incidentally,
the king could belong to the clan of the Bhargavas and associated
with sage Parashurama in one way or the other. Mr. Prakash Godse,
in his essays referred to earlier, appears to just be making a
proposition to the effect that a powerful king who settled the
Konkan coast must have come to be linked with the Parashurama
ID.
Chitpavan Brahmins – The Most Ancient Brahmins
Chitpavan Brahmins follow the oldest branch of Rigveda -

Ashwalayana. They are an off-shoot of the Shaunaka School, now
transformed into Ashwalayana School. Shaunaka, a great Vedic
45
Vibhakar V. Lele
scholar, was the preceptor of sage Ashwalayana of the Grihya

Sootra fame.
The Sahyadri Khanda, in the Parashurama legend of their

settlement along the west coast in Konkan, clearly tells that the
Chitpavan Brahmins were Ashwalayana Rigvedis. He brought them
from the Desha region to Konkan.35
The erstwhile Desha region was actually a vast region, from

Maharashtra to Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh of the present times,
barring coastal regions. The Ashmaka region was evidently a part
of it. These Brahmins whom sage Parashurama resettled along the
Konkan coast, as per Sahyadri Khanda, have to be the successors of
the Ashwalayana Chitpavan Agnihotri Brahmins who had come to
the Desha/ Dandakaranya region in the footsteps of sage Agasti.
Region of Chitpavan Brahmins’ ancestors
The Chitpavan Brahmins’ current Veda branches of Ashwalayana

and Taittiriya. The history books show the post-Vyasa Vedic
territories of Ashwalayana, Taittiriya and Shaunaka branches to be
Panchala and adjoining regions up to Haryana/ Punjab along the
Himalayan foothills. It tallies with their territories as given for them
as per ‘Charanavyuha’. These branches were simultaneously
current in the Kashi region
Although Chitpavan Brahmins' ancestors settled down south in the

ancient times would have been the Moola-vedics or the Samavedics
to start with, there must have been a northern influence post-Vyasa
for introduction of branches like Ashwalayana etc. Taittiriya branch
is clearly of Vyasa times because of the famous Yajnavalka-
Vaishampayana episode.
35
Refer the book, for excerpts from the dissertation of Dr. Urmila
Rajashekhar Patil.
46
Vibhakar V. Lele
Details of Habitat, Maps etc. of Chitpavan Brahmins’

Ancestors
This Book includes informative chapters on the regions of

Chitpavan Brahmins’ ancestral home in the Himalayan and
Sarasvati regions, Panchala and Ahichhatra etc. Also it covers
information on the related topics of Mithila region where the
Maithili Brahmins resettled, Kamboja, Ashmaka and certain other
related topics for the sake of clarity and a link to the Proto and Pre-
history of the Original Home of Chitpavan Brahmins’ ancestors.
As has been seen, the original habitat of the Chitpavan Brahmins’

ancestors was the North-eastern side of the Sarasvati River’s
origins. The river originates in Aadi Badri, in the Himalayas. Maps
showing the details and a write-up on Sarasvati River, Aadi Badri
and adjoin Shivalik hills, along with pertinent details of the
Himalayas, the original abode of the Chitpavan Brahmins’
ancestors are given in The Book. That will enable the readers to
have a good idea of the topography and the scenario of their
original Vedic proto-historic habitat.
Sarasvati Riverine Home
*The Nadistuti hymn in the Rigveda (10.75) mentions the

Sarasvati between the Yamuna in the east and the Sutlej in the
west, and later Vedic texts like Tandya and Jaiminiya
Brahmanas as well as the Mahabharata mention that the
Sarasvati dried up in a desert.*
*According to the medieval commentator Uvata, the five tributaries

of the Sarasvati were the Punjab rivers Drishadvati, Satudri
(Sutlej), Chandrabhaga (Chenab), Vipasa (Beas) and the Iravati
(Ravi).*
*The Jaiminiya Brahmana (2.297) speaks of the 'diving under

(upamajjana) of the Sarasvati', and the Tandya Brahmana (or
Pancavimsa Br.) calls this the 'disappearance' (vinasana).*
*The Plaksa Prasravana (place of appearance/source of the river)

may refer to a spring in the Siwalik Mountains. The distance
47
Vibhakar V. Lele
between the source and the Vinasana (place of disappearance of the

river) is said to be 44 Asvina (between several hundred and 1600
miles) (Tandya Brahmana. 25.10.16; cf. Av. 6.131.3; Pancavimsa
Brahmana.*
*In the Latyayana Shrauta Sootra (10.15-19) the Sarasvati seems to

be a perennial river up to the Vinasana, which is west of its
confluence with the Drishadvati (Chautang). The Drishadvati is
described as a seasonal stream (10.17), meaning it was not from
Himalayas. Bhargava has identified Drishadwati River as present
day Sahibi River originating from Jaipur hills in Rajasthan. The
Ashwalayana Shrauta Sootra and Sankhayana Shrauta Sootra
contain verses that are similar to the Latyayana Shrauta Sootra.*
This Rigvedic description of the Vedic Sarasvati River and its

elaboration in the other Vedic texts like Brahmnas etc. tallies well
with what the modern-day Geo-archaeologists have found about its
origin and course noted below.
*The river Sarasvati is supposed to have originated in

Bandarpoonchha mastiff (Saravati-Rupin glacier confluence at
Naitwar in western Garhwal). Descending through Adi-badri,
Bhavanipur and Balchapur in the foothills to the plains, the
river took roughly a southwesterly course, passing through the
plains of Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, Gujarat and finally it is
believed to have debouched into the ancient Arabian Sea at the
Great Rann of Kutch. In this long journey, Sarasvati was
believed to have had three tributaries, Shatadru (Sutlej) arising
from Mount Kailas, Drishadvati from Shiwalik Hills and the
old Yamuna.*
In passing, it has to be pointed out that some historians think that

the Vedic Sarasvati River can be traced back to the Pamirs –
Mesopotamian regions, to Sirdariya – Amudariya – Helmond
riverine belt and may be as far away as in the Caucasus region /
Caspian Sea surrounding area. But that thinking is patently wrong
in the light of the discussion above.
48
Vibhakar V. Lele
Even some Archaeo-geologists have concluded that although the

name of Helmond River might have been ‘Haraxvatī’ in the
Avestan times, it is not the Vedic Sarasvati River. The topography
is different there. This author thinks that the branch of the Vedic
people that settled in Iran after their separation from the original
Sarasvati riverine region might have named the said river as
Haraxvatī, after their original habitat on the banks of the Vedic
Sarasvati.36
Vedic Attestation of Agnihotri Brahmin on The

Banks Of Sarasvati River
The following passages from Rigveda clearly establish that 1. It

was this same Sarasvati River that was the home of the ancient
Vedics and 2. The Agnihotri Brahmins was an essential segment of
that ancient riverine civilization.
*‘Pavaka nah saravati, vajebhir vajinivati; Yajnam vastu

dhiyavasuh. Codayitri sunrtanam, cetanti sumatinam; Yajnam
dadhe sarasvati. Maho arnah sarasvati, pra cetayati ketuna; Dhiyo
visva vi rajati’— verse from Rigveda.*
*The complete translation would be in Sri Aurobindo's own words:

"May purifying Sarasvati with all the plenitude of her forms of
plenty, rich in substance by the thought, desire our sacrifice. “She,
the impeller to happy truths, the awakener in consciousness to right
mentalisings, Sarasvati, upholds the sacrifice." "Sarasvati by the
perception awakens in consciousness the great flood (the vast
movement of the ‘Ritam’) and illumines entirely all the thoughts."*
*Aurobindo has proposed, on the other hand, “The symbolism

of the Veda betrays itself to the greatest clearness in the figure
of the goddess Sarasvati...She is, plainly and clearly, the
goddess of the Word, the goddess of a divine inspiration...".*
From the Vedic Sarasvati – The vowel ‘S’ of Sanskrit becomes ‘H’ in
36
old Persian of the Avestan times.
49
Vibhakar V. Lele
This author interprets the above as follows:
1. Sarasvati River, as described earlier in the Nadi Sookta of

Rigveda and found by modern-day archeologists, was the cradle of
the Vedas. This is amply borne out by the comments of Shri
Aurobindo cited above that *"Sarasvati by the perception awakens
in consciousness the great flood (the vast movement of the ‘Ritam’)
and illumines entirely all the thoughts."* In short, the Vedas were
perceived upon the banks of Sarasvati River by the Rishis.
2. ‘Agnimeele purohitam’ – ‘अ्निमीळे पुरोहितम ्’ is the very first

Richa of Rigveda. It is invocation to the ‘Sacred Agni’ to appear
before the Brahmins and to invite the Gods to participate in the
Yajnas that are being conducted for their blessings. In short, the
‘Agnihotra’ was the basic institution and the highest prestigious rite
of the Vedas.
‘Pavaka nah saravati, vajebhir vajinivati; Yajnam vastu …’, in the

Richa above attests to this fact. Shri Aurobindo, to cite him again,
translates this into: *‘May purifying Sarasvati with all the plenitude
of her forms of plenty, rich in substance by the thought, desire our
sacrifice.’"She, the impeller to happy truths, the awakener in
consciousness to right mentalisings, Sarasvati, upholds the
37
sacrifice."*
The sum and substance of the above narration is that the Yajnas
were being conducted on the banks of Sarasvati River with her
blessings. She was the upholder i.e. the one who sustained the
Yajnas and their performers. The Vedas were her giving. The
institution of Agnihotra and the performing Agnihotri Brahmins
were her protégés. This clarifies in its entirety that the Agnihotri
Brahmins, the ancestors of Chitpavan Brahmins, resided on the
banks of the Vedic River Sarasvati.
Even the antiquity of the region around Sarasvati and primate

evolution in its surrounding regions is established by the
37
Text * to * is extracted from Wikipedia subject to their copyright
conditions.
50
Vibhakar V. Lele
anthropologic discovery of the fossil of the primitive Sivapithecus

(a kind of ape, formerly known as Ramapithecus), among many
fossil finds in the Siwalik region.
Ahichhatra and Panchala
Next given are the details of the Panchala region and Ahichhatra
where the majority of the ancestors of Chitpavan Brahmins
migrated after the Sarasvati Riverine disturbances to their
environment.
*Ahichatra (or Ahi-Kshetra) was the ancient capital of Northern

Panchala, a northern Indian kingdom mentioned in Mahabharata.
The remains of this city have been discovered
near Ramnagar village in Aonla tehsil of Bareilly district in Uttar
Pradesh state.*
*The territory under Ahichatra was formerly under the Panchala

king Drupada. Later it was taken over by Drona, after a war, in
which Drupada was defeated by Drona's
disciple Arjuna. Ashwatthama, the son of Drona, was given the
responsibility of ruling the territory of Northern Panchala from
Ahichhatra. Ashwatthama probably ruled the kingdom being
subordinate to the rulers of Hastinapura.*
*The word Ahi means snake or Naga in Sanskrit. Nagas were a
group of ancient people who worshiped serpents. The
word khsetra means region in Sanskrit. This implies that Ahi-
kshetra was a region ofNagas.*
*This could mean that the region was populated originally by
Nagas, Nairs and Bunts of Keralaand Tulu-Nadu who
claim Kshatriya descent from the Nagas as well
as Namputhiri and Tuluva Brahmins. Hindu philosophers Adi
Shankara and Madhwacharya belonging to these communities trace
their origins to this place.*
*It will be seen from it that both Panchala kingdom and Ahichhatra
are very ancient. Their history goes back to the pre-Mahabharata
51
Vibhakar V. Lele
times. Ahichhatra was the long-time capital of Uttar Panchala

kingdom of Guru Dronacharya and his son Ashwatthama. The
kingdom patronized the ancestors of Chitpavan Brahmins for long
epochs. The reference to their migrations from Ahichhatra under
the Kadamba kings’ patronage is as late as 1174 AD.*38
Kamboja, Mithila, Ashmaka etc.

Side by side, other important information on king Kundan and
Kamboja, with Ashmaka, is also given elsewhere. The details of
Maithili Brahmins’ later habitat i.e. Mithila region is also given for
the purpose of completeness of the details.
Agnihotri ID of Chitpavan Brahmins
It is seen that they did not lose their ‘Agnihotri’ ID wherever they
went. ‘Chitpavan’ is their later-day ID as attested by the Kannada
sources when they settled in Konkan, as shown in The Book. How
and why and exactly when they got this ID or started using it defies
answers.
This will, in the most cogent way, explain how they could always
identify their kin from long past times and distant Pan-Vedic
regions to welcome them into their folds even after settling in
Konkan. It is certain that there were many lots of them who
migrated to Konkan right from their first establishment in Guhagar
onwards till final arrival of the Khares a few hundred years ago
from down south Kaveri River. This must have been possible
because until that time they remembered their ‘Agnihotri ID of the
earliest Vedic times.
It may look that they were all Yajurvedis because of their Agnihotri
ID. But it need not be so. All the Brahmins were supposed to offer
fire sacrifices daily. However, invoking the Agni with Agnichayana
into the Yajna Kunda and related Mantra chanting and related rites
38
Text * to * is extracted from Wikipedia subject to their copyright
conditions.
52
Vibhakar V. Lele
was their specialty because of which they gained the ID as

Agnihotri Brahmins.
For the knowledge of the interested readers, chapters giving details

on Agnihotra, Agnichayana and pertinent extract from the
Shatapatha Brahmana on the rites of Agnihotra have been included
in This Book.
Antiquity of Chitpavan Brahmins
Shakha-bheda
As it is, all the present-day Brahmins divide themselves into four

Shakhas or sides for performance of the Yajnas. Roles as required
for the Vedic rites are partaken irrespective of Shakha, if the
Brahmins of a particular Shakha are not present.
Probably Krishna-dwaipayana Vyasa's Veda divisions were just

flexible. He might have cast the roles of the Brahmins for
conducting Yajnas into branches and no more. The Vedas were
sacrosanct and it is understood that even a great sage like Vyasa
himself would not have tampered with them. Therefore, what
Vyasa did was just segregate the whole Veda into four roles of
Ritvijas of each direction. So in principle, the Veda remained
intact, as it is, the Moola-veda. The Shakhas were just superficial to
begin with from his times.
Pankti-bheda
The customary dicta on ‘Panktis’ started thereafter because roles

were taken and the four branches would sit facing the Agni in the
Yajna Kunda from the four sides. There need not be anything
sacrosanct about the later-day's Pankti discriminations and
superiority of one over the other branch etc. attributed to the later-
day single-branch Brahmins.
It arose out of vain pride and prejudices over centuries. Since the
Rigveda was the base of all the Yajnas, the Shakhin of Rigveda
started feeling prestigious but it was just simply vainglorious.
53
Vibhakar V. Lele
The Chitpavan Brahmins are definitely pre these single-Shakhins in

tradition since they do not have any such prejudices of Pankti-
prapancha. Their Rigvedi families freely inter-marry with their
Yajurvedin families and take food freely at each other’s places
without any Pankti rule like the Deshastha Brahmins etc. In fact it
never crosses their minds to ask the Shakha of each other in
everyday commerce, except for religious rites.
Migrations Of Chitpavan Brahmins In Nutshell
The readers will have observed the general pattern of migrations of

the ancestors of Chitpavan Brahmins from this book as well as its
predecessor book on Chitpavan Brahmins’ ancestral roots. It is
recounted here in nutshell for their recapitulation.
Ancient ID – “Agnihotri
Their ancestors from the earliest Vedic times were known broadly
as ‘Agnihotri Brahmins’. This ‘Agnihotri’ ID was in vogue until
very recent times, even after their settling down in Konkan region
for a long time. The Khares’ absorption into their fold will bear
testimony to it along with i. Raghavendra Swami Charitra by Sri
Niwas Rao in Kannada and ii. NSR’s paper on Chiploon and
Talgunda Agraharas of Chitpavan and Shashtik Brahmins.
They acquired ‘Chitpavan’ ID a long time after settling in Konkana

region. This author has shown lucidly how it is etymologically
derived from the Sanskrit word ‘Agnichit’ meaning “The Invocator
and the Protector of the Sacred Fire (Agni)’.
Even if their ‘Chitpavan’ ID were connected with a place name like

‘Chitap-van’ etc., again it must be related to their vocation as the
earliest Vedic Brahmins.
The earlier Veda was in the form of the Samas i.e. Samaveda. The
invocation to ‘Agni’ and the Gods necessarily was by melodious
singing of the Vedic hymns.
Dr. Savaji, in his book on Origins of Chitpavan Brahmins has

contended that they were Samavedi Brahmins. The word ‘Chitap’
54
Vibhakar V. Lele
refers to them as Samavedi Brahmins, according to him. A Konkan

king settled them at Chiploon near Ratnagiri, Konkan. The place
‘Chiploon’ was earlier called as ‘Chitap-van’ etc. according to him
because of their settlement. Thereafter they came to be identified as
‘Chitpavan’ Brahmins i.e. those who reside in ‘Chitap-van’.
That will also go to show that their ‘Chitpavan’ ID is a much later-

day one. According to Dr. Savaji, it is of the time of the defeat of
the last of the Shilahara kings by the Yadavas of Devgiri around
1212 AD. Incidentally, it is around the same time that NSR’s paper
refers to their settlement at Chiploon by Mukannaa Kadamba in
1174 AD.
Domicile And Later-Day Migrations
They were domiciled upon the banks of the Vedic Sarasvati River
since antiquity. That time goes far back in their Proto-history. The
latest recognizable time period of their domicile on Sarasvati River
banks is of 7000 years ago.
The Sarasvati Riverine region started to suffer from certain

ecological devastation around 4700 to 4000 BC. All the Brahmins
settled upon its banks moved because of it to other regions.
Their neighbours, the Maithili Brahmins moved to Mithila region.

The Sarayupareen and the Sarasvata Brahmins, too, moved away.
The Chitpavan Brahmins’ ancestors, Agnihotri Brahmins, moved to
Ahichhatra in the Uttara Panchala region of the ancient times.
However, a few of them had already moved down south, probably
in earlier times of Agasti Rishi and later on. However, Agasti
Rishi’s timeline, just like that of the legendary Parashurama, cannot
be firmly established.
Hence, one has to presume that till the ecological changes in the
Sarasvati Riverine belt about 7000 years ago, they had no reason to
move away. They must have moved only when the calamity
became evident. Then also their majority got settled at relatively
nearby Ahichhatra in Panchala region, probably under the
patronage of the local kings.
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Rest of them moved to other Pan Vedic regions of the ancient

times. In the course of time, they might have spread over a far
larger area from the Middle East – Kamboja – Iran – Afghanistan to
Central India – Rajasthan – Gujarat - MP and down to the Desha –
Dandakaranya complex of the south.
Going by Parashurama myths of Ambejogai, Kaveri and Desha etc.,

it is there from the south that the first lot of Chitpavan Brahmins’
ancestors who came to Konkan from Ambejogai in ancient times
must have settled.
Subsequently, the settlement in Konkan –Ratnagiri region was

made in the times of Kamboja king Kundan. The timelines for all
these settlements have already been established in this book.
In modern historical times, one finds their next lots having been
settled in Konkan at Chiploon by the Kadamba kings in Mayoor
Sharma / Trinetra Sharma’s times (300 BC to 350 AD) and
Mukanna Kadamba’s times, in 1174 AD precisely.
Further lots must have also arrived in Konkan as evidenced by the

Khares’ latter-day arrival from Kaveri River side. That is in quite
recent times. There has to be a continuity of traditions and common
Vedic ancestry with their Vedic ID of ‘Agnihotri’ attached to these
newcomers for the earlier settlers to identify their arriving kin in
Konkan at vastly different times and from very distant lands for the
diaspora to ultimately center around Guhagar-Chiploon- Ratnagiri-
Shrivardhan – Murud complex. That is well explained by their
ancient ID of ‘Agnihotri’.
As rightly speculated by NSR, there must be other leftovers of

these ‘Agnihotri’ Brahmins’ kith and kin in other regions that have
since then assumed different IDs over the millennia.
He has pointed out thatŚ ‘Some of the Brahmin families with

community identities as North-Deshastha, Badaganadu, 64 Okkalu,
Agnihotrapavan (Chitpavan), Sahavashi, Karhade, Devamukhi
(Devarushi), Vadama, Brahmacharin, Sankethi etc., with common
culture and common food habits migrated to south from north for
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Vibhakar V. Lele
permanent settlement. These migrated Br hmiṇs subsequently

became famous as 'Pancha Dravida Brahmins'.
Even today, quite a few of these Brahmin communities identify

themselves as ‘Agnihotri’ Brahmins, including the Namboodiris of
Kerala. The Namboodiris appear to claim to be practising
‘Agnihotra’ rites in Kerala since their settlement there 3000 years
ago. That lends credence to NSR’s intelligent surmising on this
account. The Shashtik Brahmins of Karnataka, even today, clearly
recognize the Chitpavan Brahmins as their kith and kin whose
common ancestors came from Ahichhatra in the North in the
Kadamba kings’ times. Even the great Acharyas, Adi
Shankaracharya and Madhwacharya trace their ancestry to
Ahichhatra, as seen earlier.
This shows that the diaspora of the ‘Agnihotri Brahmins’ of the

Sarasvati Riverine ancient home was spread far and wide in the
ancient times. A small part of it settled over the span of a few
millennia, in lots, coming from all the directions of Pan Vedic
regions but chiefly from Ahichhatra, in Konkan.
CONCLUSION
There are multiple factors in this history of migrations of Brahmins,

including the ancestors of Chitpavan Brahmins. The Agnihotri
Brahmins of the yore of Sarasvati habitats appear to have further
divided into separate ID groups like Karhade, Devrukhe,
Namboodiri , Shivali, and Shashtik etc. as noted in The Book.
Adi Shankara and Madhwacharya had ancestors who came from

Ahichhatra. So if all these are taken together, a lot more remains to
be woven together for completing the pre and proto-history of the
original Vedic Brahmins settled in the Sarasvati riverine region.
But it is certain from the account that Maithilis, Sarasvatas,

Sarayupareens, Deshasthas, Aiyyars and Aiyyangars do have
separate IDs than Agnihotris like Chitpavans etc. The entry of
many of these other Brahmins in the South is relatively quite a
recent matter as compared to Chitpavans of olden times of BC,
rather than of AD.
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Deshastha Brahmins and Others
It has to be kept on record that Dr. Jha gives the original habitats of
two other significant communities of Maharashtra viz. the
Deshastha Brahmins and the Marathas.
He says that the Deshastha Brahmins were originally known as

Uttara Sarayupareen Brahmans. They were also referred to by
many as 'Panchavid Brahmans' (Knowers of the Five Vidyas) as it
was considered that they knew some secret doctrine (Vidya) apart
from the four Vedas and it was known only to them.
They lived in the regions between Sarayu (modern day Harayu) in

the south and Vaksh (modern day Oxus) in the north. They
migrated to the modern day state of Maharashtra (Desha) around
2800 BC after the conditions in those regions became inhospitable,
in common with other Vedic communities and the Vedic religion
went on a decline in Ariana (modern day Iran). Ariana eventually
declared all Devas as Demons and started worshipping Asura
Medha (Ahura Mazda) after the preaching of Zarathustra.
Maharashtra
Dr. Jha says that the word Maha-Rathaa comes from the word
Maha-Rathi which means 'Great Charioteer'. A Maha-Rathaa
(Maratha) is a great Kshatriya who can engage with 10000 enemies
at once.
He says that simultaneous with the establishment of Vidarbha

kingdom by the Yadavas, the Vedic Kshatriyas had started
migrating from various parts of classical Aryavarta to this region.
The Vedic Kshatriyas comprised of mainly Brahmvamshi,

Sooryavamshi, Somavamshi and Yaduvamshis. They are supposed
to have migrated in the period from 1500 BC to 1100 AD.
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Dr. Jha speaks highly, in praise, of the erstwhile Maratha

community of Maharashtra. They were the brave Marathas who
protected the honour of the Hindus when under the greatest threat
of the despotic Moghul rulers in the 17th and the 18th centuries AD.
IN PASSING
This author would not like to talk bad about or deride any other
Brahmin communities for whatever their customs and other
reasons. Even old rivalries past were for Vritti. That cause is no
more. Following of different practices of daily conduct, food and
habits is also a dead cause. It appears that no one practises anything
Vedic now, except for namesake.
So this story is for the interested Chitpavan Brahmins and scholars

only. As it is, many from the community appear not to care much
for this history. But the author feels the satisfaction of doing his
duty for the sake of record by putting it all in black and white.
______________________________________________________
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______________________________________________________
Letter from Dr. Ambujkishore Jha To This Author
E-mail Dated 22.06.2015
Dear Sir,
You are free to use whatever information that i have provided

u and mine or my grandfather's name in your book. In fact, it will
be a matter of great pride and honour to have my grandfather's
mention in your book. Next time when I will go to my village, I
will carry a book of yours to show to everyone.
My Dadaji spent most of the time with fellow scholars and

kept travelling here and there. I always liked his talks and would
listen to him for hours.
I hope he must be watching down from the heaven to bestow

his blessings upon us.
Yours,
AMBUJ(KISHORE) JHA, DR
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CHAPTER 10
***
ORIGINAL VEDIC HABITAT OF CHITPAVANS’

ANCESTORS
SARASVATI RIVER
Origin Of Sarasvati River
Confluence Of Mandakini And Sarasvati
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Ref: http://www.stephen-
knapp.com/recent_research_on_the_sarasvati_river.htm
Recent Research on the Sarasvati River
There is a book available that goes further into the details of the
Sarasvati river research, 'New Discoveries About Vedic Sarasvati'
written by Dr. Ravi Prakash Arya. He is the Chief Editor of Vedic
Science journal.
India's 'miracle river'
Scientists say new evidence could unearth the Sarasvati. The legend
of the mighty Sarasvati river has lived on in India since time
immemorial. Ancient Hindu scriptures called the Vedas, recorded
thousands of years ago, are full of tantalizing hymns about it being
the life-stream of the people.
In a new radio programme, Madhur Jaffrey recounts the legend of

the Saraswati river - and explores startling new evidence that it may
not have been a myth after all. Vast and awesome, the Saraswati's
holy waters are supposed to have flowed from the Himalayas into
the sea, nourishing the land along the way. But as the centuries
passed and no one could find it, myth, belief and religion came
together and the Saraswati passed into the realm of folklore.
Through satellite photography, scientists have mapped the course

of an enormous river that once flowed through the north western
region of India. The images show that it was 8 km wide in places
and that it dried up 4,000 years ago.
Dr. JR Sharma who heads the Remote Sensing Services Centre in

Jodhpur which is mapping the images, believes a major earthquake
may have played a part in the demise of the Saraswati. There was,
he says, a big tectonic activity that stopped the water supply to the
river. Sharma and his team believe they have found the Saraswati.
Mr. KS Sriwastawa of the Rajasthan State Groundwater Board

believes one of these ancient buried channels may be the Saraswati.
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He knows the stories refer to the ancient river flowing through this
area and says excitedly that carbon dating has revealed that the
water they are finding is 4000 years old. That would date it to the
time of the Saraswati. The modern search for the Saraswati was
first sparked by an English engineer called CF Oldham in 1893
when he was riding his horse along the dry bed of a seasonal
Rajasthani river called the Ghaggar.
As he rode on, he was struck by a sudden thought. The Ghaggar

when it flowed, was a small, puny river and there was no reason for
its bed to be up to 3km wide in places unless it occupied the former
course of a much larger river - the Saraswati. The discovery of a
vast prehistoric civilization that lived along the banks of a major
river, has added impetus to the growing modern belief that the
Saraswati has been found. Over 1000 archaeological sites have
been found on the course of this river and they date from 3000 BC.
One of these sites is the prehistoric town of Kalibangan in northern
Rajasthan.
The town has proved a treasure trove of information about the

Bronze Age people who actually lived on the banks of the
Saraswati. Archaeologists have discovered that there were priests,
farmers, merchants and very advanced artists and craftsmen living
there. Highly sophisticated seals on which there is evidence of
writing have also been found, indicating that these people were
literate, but unfortunately the seals have never been deciphered.
They may well hold the clue to the mystery of what happened to
the Saraswati and whether it has really been found again.
___________________________________________________
Efforts to trace Saraswati's course

The Tribune, Chandigarh, June 13, 2002 Our Correspondent
Yamunanagar, June 12.
Union Culture and Tourism Minister Jag Mohan has said research
work on the Saraswati river would be undertaken on a priority
basis. While addressing a seminar on Saraswati river research held
here today, he said the Saraswati, originating from Har Ki Doon
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Vibhakar V. Lele
glacier in the interior Himalayas, after crossing the Shivalik

range, enters into the plains, near Adi Badri in the district.
___________________________________________________
Project to Revive Sarasvati River
Times News Network [ SATURDAY, JUNE 15, 2002 1:29:54 AM

]
Of the nearly 2600 archeological sites of varying sizes, over 1500

settlements were found on the Sarasvati river basin, which included
settlements larger than those of Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro.
http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/articleshow.asp?art_id=1300612
0&sType=1
According to published literature, the river disappeared between

5000 BC and 3000 BC due to tectonic events in the Himalayas that
cut off the water supply, and climatic changes that converted what
was once a lush green Rajasthan into an arid zone. Past attempts to
accurately trace the lost river and reconstruct its drainage system
did not succeed.
"Recent advancements in space-based sensors and in data

processing technologies made it possible", says J. R. Sharma of the
Jodhpur-based Remote Sensing Service Centre of the Indian Space
Research Organization (ISRO). He and his colleagues, A. K. Gupta
and G. Sreenivasan have mapped the "Palaeo-channels" relics of
the river and its tributaries using data from three different sensors
on board Indian satellites.
http://www.hinduonnet.com/stories/2002072901060800.htm
These are based on the assumption that the seasonal Ghaggar river
in Haryana is the ancient Sarasvati.
….. the research on the "mighty river" which has been referred to
50 times in the Rig Veda,.. The river, the Minister explained, was
mentioned along with other rivers, and if these rivers had existed, it
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was not correct to assume that the Sarasvati had not existed. .. there
was cultural, geological, hydrological and geographical evidence to
show that the river was not a mythological desert river.
…. so many sites were found located on the banks of the Sarasvati -

such as Gaveriwala, Rakhigarhi and Dholavira – (how could it be)
if it had not been a perennial river. Bisht contends that the territory
of the Rig Vedic Aryans was coterminous with that of the
Harappans. Between 2000 B.C. and 1800 B.C., a dry spell heralded
the decline of the Indus Valley civilization, he says. … The Nadi
Sookta or the river hymn, although a late composition compared to
the Rig Veda, enumerated a large number of rivers that ran from
the east to the west. … it was thought that the Yamuna and the
Sutlej flowed into the Sarasvati, …
Ref: http://www.ancient-origins.net/news-general/did-mythical-
saraswati-river-ancient-vedas-really-exist-002174
7 October, 2014 - 01:45
Did the mythical Saraswati River of the ancient

Vedas really exist?
Coming together, glorious, loudly roaring, Saraswati, Mother of

Floods.
This is the description of the Saraswati River as written in the Rig

Veda, a sacred collection of Vedic Sanskrit hymns dating back at
least as early as the 2nd millennium BC. The Saraswati is described
as a river greater than the Indus and the Ganges, which flowed from
the mountains to the oceans. Since none of the existing rivers in
India fit this description, the Saraswati has often been dismissed as
a mere legend, or simply a figment of poetic imagination. However,
in recent years, attempts have been made by geologists, historians,
and archaeologists, to determine whether the great Saraswati did
indeed exist.
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According to the sacred Vedic texts, the Saraswati River was so

powerful and majestic that it inspired the Rig Veda to be composed
on its banks.
The Rig Veda offers up a few clues about the location of the
Saraswati River. According to the ancient text, the majestic river
was situated between the Yamuna and Sutlej rivers, and the
Drishadvati and Apaya were its tributaries. In addition, the Rig
Veda clearly mentions that the Saraswati flowed all the way from
the mountains to the sea.
According to Dr. Mayank Vahia, a scientist working at the Tata

Institute of Fundamental Research, who has written a report in
DNA India, there is only one river that lies between the Yamuna
and Sutlej rivers; in India it is called the Ghaggar, and as it moves
into Pakistan, it becomes the Hakra. Although its river bed stands
dry today, the ground surveys and satellite clearly indicates that it
was once a huge river.
The Rig Veda offers clues to the location of the Saraswati River.
Image source.
Michael Danino's book ‘The Lost River: On the trail of the

Saraswati’, presents numerous pieces of evidence from topographic
exploration, geological and climatological studies, satellite
imagery, and isotope analyses, to support the view that the dried up
riverbed of the Ghaggar-Hakra was indeed the legendary Saraswati
River, and that this river once sustained the great Indus Valley /
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Harappan civilization, which flourished between 3500 and 1900

BC.
“The Harappan or Indus Valley Civilization - the world's largest

civilization of the time - covered vast areas of modern day Pakistan
and Western India from Kashmir to Gujarat,” writes Dr. Vahia. “Its
cities were spread across what appears to be a waterless desert in
the western part of the Indian subcontinent. A careful plot of these
sites suggests they lie along the path of a dried riverbed, and the
river, if filled up, would rival the Indus in size. It could have arisen
in the upper reaches of the Shivalik Hills in the foothills of the
Himalayas, and then flowed west.”
S.R.N. Murthy, a researcher who conducted a geological survey,

published in the Indian Journal of History of Science, supports this
view. “The Vedic river Saraswati is not a myth. It was a live river
in the Vedic time, and irrigated large areas supporting the Vedic
Culture to a considerable extent,” he writes. “Its extinction is due to
geological changes in the subcontinent.”
The proposed courses of the Sarawati River, and the location of

ancient Harappan sites. Image source.
While numerous academics concur with Michael Danino and

S.R.N. Murthy that the dried up riverbed of the Ghaggar-Hakra was
the Saraswati River of the Vedas, Dr. Vahia raises a few challenges
to the theory. Firstly, he proposes that the Indus Valley civilization
could have been sustained by existing riversŚ “the Harappans were
very efficient with water management and invented circular brick-
lined wells. They could have lived quite comfortably with monsoon
water channels,” writes Dr. Vahia.
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Secondly, he states that, although dating of the riverbed is broadly

consistent with the demise of the Harappan culture, recent studies
conducted by researches drilling into the riverbed suggests that the
Ghaggar-Hakra was probably never connected to the great glaciers
of the Shivaliks, and that it was always a seasonal monsoon water
channel.
“To make the matter even more intractable,” he writes, “the

evidence of Harappan civilization is entirely archaeological, while
evidence of Vedic culture is entirely literary, and synthesizing the
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Vibhakar V. Lele
two is not easy since there are some glaring differences in what is
mentioned in Vedas and what it seen on the ground.”
For now, the question regarding the true identity of the Sarawati
River remains unresolved, but with every new study, scientists are
inching closer towards unraveling this millennia-old mystery.
Further reading:
The Mystery Known as River Sarasvati!

http://indiaopines.com/mystery-river-sarasvati/
___________________________________________________
From: http://www.quora.com/What-is-the-real-reason-behind-
drying-up-of-Saraswati-River
What is the real reason behind drying up of

Saraswati River?
According to the Vedas and the Mahabharata, the river Saraswati
dried up in a desert (probably, Thar Desert).
Although, Hindu belief is that still Saraswati river flows
underground and meets Yamuna and Ganga at Allahabad (Prayag).
Also, some historians believe that the Helmand River of southern
Afghanistan corresponds to the Sarasvati River.
The river Saraswati is supposed to have originated in

Bandarpoonchha mastiff (Sarawati-Rupin glacier confluence at
Naitwar in western Garhwal). Descending through Adi-badri,
Bhavanipur and Balchapur in the foothills to the plains, the river took
roughly a southwesterly course, passing through the plains of Punjab,
Haryana, Rajasthan, Gujarat and finally it is believed to have
debouched into the ancient Arabian Sea at the Great Rann of Kutch.
In this long journey, Saraswati was believed to have had three
tributaries, Shatadru (Sutlej) arising from Mount Kailas, Drishadvati
from Siwalik Hills and the old Yamuna. Together, they flowed along
a channel, presently identified as that of the Ghaggar river, also
called Hakra River in Rajasthan and Nara in Sindh.
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As of the river's drying up is concerned, the most probable reasons

are:
1. Capture of the waters of the Saraswati by the adjoining rivers,

Sutlej and the Yamuna. During the Indus period, the Saraswati was
a large river, receiving water from the Sutlej and the Yamuna.
Tectonic movements in the region caused the separation of the river
Yamuna from the Indus system. Over time, these waters were
withdrawn and the river became smaller and eventually dry.
2. The river bed could be choked with modern moving sand.
3. The lack of water far down the old course threatens the
vegetation necessary to help maintain the river.
The banks have undergone intense erosion leading to the collapse
of the banks and drying of the river.
Two major shifts in the course and the volume of water associated
with the river during the 3rd and 2nd millennia BC. The two major
shifts were the drying of one of the important tributaries of the
Saraswati, resulting in reduced volume of water and the capture of
the river Sutlej by the river Beas which rendered part of the river
dry.
__________________________________________________
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SARASVATI RIVER39
For other rivers of the same name, see Saraswati River

(disambiguation).
Ghaggar river flowing through Panchkula in Haryana in India.

Ghaggar-Hakra River has been identified as the historic Sarasvati
river by many researchers.
The Sarasvati River (Sanskrit: सर्वती िदी sárasvatī nadī) is one

of the main Rigvedic rivers mentioned in the Rig Veda and later
Vedic and post-Vedic texts. It plays an important role in Hinduism,
since Vedic Sanskrit and the first part of the Rig Veda are regarded
to have originated when the Vedic people lived on its banks, 2nd
millennium BCE. The goddess Sarasvati was originally a
personification of this river, but later developed an independent
identity.[1]
The Nadistuti hymn in the Rigveda (10.75) mentions the Sarasvati

between the Yamuna in the east and the Sutlej in the west, and later
39
The following extracted matter is borrowed from:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sarasvati_River: Courtesy Wikipedia,
subject to their conditions as cited elsewhere.
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Vedic texts like Tandya and Jaiminiya Brahmanas as well as the

Mahabharata mention that the Sarasvati dried up in a desert.
The work on delineation of entire course of Sarasvati River in

North West India was carried out using Indian Remote Sensing
Satellite data along with digital elevation model. The Palaeo-
channels are validated using historical maps, archaeological sites,
hydro-geological and drilling data. It was observed that major Indus
Valley Civilization sites of Kalibangan (Rajasthan), Banawali and
Rakhigarhi (Haryana), Dholavira and Lothal (Gujarat) lie along the
River Sarasvati.[2][3]
Many scholars have identified the Vedic Sarasvati River with the
Ghaggar-Hakra River, which flows in northwestern India and
Pakistan. This was proposed by several scholars in the 19th and
early 20th century. Satellite images in possession of the ISRO and
ONGC have confirmed that the major course of a river ran through
the present day Ghaggar River.[4] Another theory suggests that the
Helmand River of southern Afghanistan corresponds to the
Sarasvati River,[5] while other scholars have argued that the
Sarasvati was a mythical river, signifying the Milky Way.
Etymology
Sarasvatī is the Devi feminine of an adjective sarasvant- (which

occurs in the Rigveda[7] as the name of the keeper of the celestial
waters), derived from Proto-Indo-Iranian *sáras-vat-ī (and earlier,
PIE *séles-u̯n̥t-ih₂), meaning ‘marshy, full of pools’.
Sanskrit sáras means ‘pool, pond’ś the feminine sarasī́ means

‘stagnant pool, swamp’.[8] Like its cognates Welsh hêl, heledd
‘river meadow’ and Greek ἕλος (hélos) ‘swamp’, the Rigvedic term
refers mostly to stagnant waters, and Mayrhofer considers unlikely
a connection with the root *sar- ‘run, flow’.[9]
Sarasvatī is an exact cognate with Avestan Haraxvatī, perhaps[10]

originally referring to Arədvī Sūr An hit (modern Ardwisur
Anahid), the Zoroastrian mythological world river, which would
point to a common Indo-Iranian myth of a cosmic or mystical
Sáras-vat-ī river. In the younger Avesta, Haraxvatī is Arachosia, a
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Vibhakar V. Lele
region described to be rich in rivers, and its Old Persian cognate

Harauvati, which gave its name to the present-day H rūt River in
Afghanistan, may have referred to the entire Helmand drainage
basin (the center of Arachosia).
Importance
The Saraswati river was revered and considered important for

Hindus because it is said that it was on this river's banks, in the
Vedic state of Brahmavarta, that Vedic Sanskrit had its genesis, and
important Vedic scriptures like Manusmriti, initial part of Rigveda
and several Upanishads were supposed to have been composed by
Vedic seers. In the Manusmriti, Brahmavarta is portrayed as the
"pure" centre of Vedic culture. Bridget and Raymond Allchin in
The Rise of Civilization in India and Pakistan took the view that
"The earliest Aryan homeland in India-Pakistan (Aryavarta or
Brahmavarta) was in the Punjab and in the valleys of the Sarasvati
and Drishadvati rivers in the time of the Rigveda."[11]
In the Rigveda
The Sarasvati River is mentioned in all but the fourth book of the
Rigveda. The most important hymns related to Sarasvati are RV
6.61, RV 7.95 and RV 7.96.[12]
Praise
The Sarasvati is praised lavishly in the Rigveda as the best of all

the rivers: e.g. in RV 2.41.16 she is called ámbitame nádītame
dévitame sárasvati, "best mother, best river, best goddess". Other
verses of praise include RV 6.61.8-13, RV 7.96 and RV 10.17. In
some hymns, the Indus river seems to be more important than the
Sarasavati, especially in the Nadistuti Sookta. In RV 8.26.18, the
white flowing Sindhu 'with golden wheels' is the most conveying or
attractive of the rivers.
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Map of northern India in the late Vedic period
RV 7.95.2. and other verses (e.g. RV 8.21.18) speak of the

Sarasvati pouring "milk and ghee." Rivers are often likened to cows
in the Rigveda, for example in RV 3.33.1,
Like two bright mother cows who lick their youngling, Vipas and
Sutudri speed down their waters.
Strong attention has been given to the Sarasvati River in the

Rigveda along with several Sooktas dedicated to it. As such it
seems there are a number of Sarasvatis with the earliest Sarasvati
not identifiable with the Hakra and Ghaggar. The Sarasvati River is
perceived to be a great river with perennial water. The Hakra and
Ghaggar cannot be compared to it. The earliest Sarasvati is said to
be similar to the Helmand in Afghanistan which is called the
Harakhwati in the vest .[13]
The phrase sárasvatī saptáthī síndhumātā of RV 7.36.6 has been

rendered as " Sarasvati the Seventh, Mother of Floods" in a popular
translation.[14] While this takes a tatpurusha interpretation of
síndhumātā, the word is actually a bahuvrihi.[15]
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Vibhakar V. Lele
"Pavaka nah saravati, vajebhir vajinivati; Yajnam vastu dhiyavasuh.

Codayitri sunrtanam, cetanti sumatinam; Yajnam dadhe sarasvati.
Maho arnah sarasvati, pra cetayati ketuna; Dhiyo visva vi rajati"—
verse from Rigveda[16] The complete translation would be in Sri
Aurobindo's own words: "May purifying Sarasvati with all the
plenitude of her forms of plenty, rich in substance by the thought,
desire our sacrifice. "She, the impeller to happy truths, the awakener
in consciousness to right mentalisings, Sarasvati, upholds the
sacrifice." "Sarasvati by the perception awakens in consciousness the
great flood (the vast movement of the 'Ritam') and illumines entirely
[17]
all the thoughts "
Course
The late Rigvedic Nadistuti Sookta enumerates all important rivers

from the Ganges in the east up to the Indus in the west in a clear
geographical order. Here (RV 10.75.5), the sequence "Ganges,
Yamuna, Sarasvati, Shutudri" places the Sarasvati between the
Yamuna and the Sutlej, which is consistent with the Ghaggar
identification.
Verses in RV 6.61 indicate that the Sarasvati river originated in the
hills or mountains ('Giri'), where she "burst with her strong waves
the ridges of the hills (‘Giri’)". It is a matter of interpretation
whether this refers only to the Himalayan foothills, where the
present-day Sarasvati (Sarsuti) river flows, or to higher mountains.
RV 3.23.4 mentions the Sarasvati River together with the
Drishadvati River and the pay River. RV 6.52.6 describes the
Sarasvati as swollen (pinvam n ) by the rivers (sindhubhih).
While RV 6.61.12 associates the Sarasvati River with the five
tribes; and RV 7.95-6 with the Paravatas and the Purus; in RV
8.21.18, a number of petty kings are said to dwell along the course
of Sarasvati,
Citra is King, and only kinglings [r jaka] are the rest who dwell
beside Sarasvati.
In RV 7.95.1-2, the Sarasvati is described as flowing to the
samudra, a word now usually translated as ocean.
This stream Sarasvati with fostering current comes forth, our sure
defence, our fort of iron.
As on a chariot, the flood flows on, surpassing in majesty and might
all other waters.
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Vibhakar V. Lele
Pure in her course from mountains to the ocean, alone of streams

Sarasvati hath listened.
Thinking of wealth and the great world of creatures, she poured for
Nahusa her milk and fatness.
The Sarasvati is mentioned some fifty times in the hymns of the
Rig Veda.[18] it is mentioned in thirteen hymns of the late books (1
and 10) of the Rigveda.[19] Only two of these references are
unambiguously to the river: 10.64.9, calling for the aid of three
"great rivers", Sindhu, Sarasvati and Sarayu; and 10.75.5, the
geographical list of the Nadistuti Sookta. The others invoke
Sarasvati as a goddess without direct connection to a specific
river.[citation needed]
In 10.30.12, her origin as a river goddess may explain her

invocation as a protective deity in a hymn to the celestial waters. In
10.135.5, as Indra drinks Soma he is described as refreshed by
Sarasvati. The invocations in 10.17 address Sarasvati as a goddess
of the forefathers as well as of the present generation. In 1.13, 1.89,
10.85, 10.66 and 10.141, she is listed with other gods and
goddesses, not with rivers. In 10.65, she is invoked together with
"holy thoughts" (dhī) and "munificence" (puraṃdhi), consistent
with her role as a goddess of both knowledge and fertility.[citation
needed]
Though Sarasvati initially emerged as a river goddess in the Vedic

scriptures, in later Hinduism of the Puranas, she was rarely
associated with the river. Instead she emerged as an independent
goddess of knowledge, learning, wisdom, music and the arts. The
evolution of the river goddess into the goddess of knowledge
started with later Brahmanas, which identified her as Vāgdevī, the
goddess of speech, perhaps due to the centrality of speech in the
Vedic cult and the development of the cult on the banks of the
river. It is also possible that two independently postulated
goddesses were fused into one in later Vedic times.[1] Aurobindo
has proposed, on the other hand, “The symbolism of the Veda betrays
itself to the greatest clearness in the figure of the goddess
Sarasvati...She is, plainly and clearly, the goddess of the Word, the
[20]
goddess of a divine inspiration...".
Other Vedic texts
78
Vibhakar V. Lele
In post-Rigvedic literature, the disappearance of the Sarasvati is

mentioned. Also the origin of the Sarasvati is identified as Plaksa
Prasravana.[21][22]
In a supplementary chapter of the Vajasaneyi-Samhita of the

Yajurveda (34.11), Sarasvati is mentioned in a context apparently
meaning the Sindhu: "Five rivers flowing on their way speed
onward to Sarasvati, but then become Sarasvati a fivefold river in
the land."[23] According to the medieval commentator Uvata, the
five tributaries of the Sarasvati were the Punjab rivers Drishadvati,
Satudri (Sutlej), Chandrabhaga (Chenab), Vipasa (Beas) and the
Iravati (Ravi).
The first reference to the disappearance of the lower course of the

Sarasvati is from the Brahmanas, texts that are composed in Vedic
Sanskrit, but dating to a later date than the Veda Samhitas. The
Jaiminiya Brahmana (2.297) speaks of the 'diving under
(upamajjana) of the Sarasvati', and the Tandya Brahmana (or
Pancavimsa Br.) calls this the 'disappearance' (vinasana). The same
text (25.10.11-16) records that the Sarasvati is 'so to say
meandering' (kubjimati) as it could not sustain heaven which it had
propped up.[24][note 1]
The Plaksa Prasravana (place of appearance/source of the river)

may refer to a spring in the Siwalik mountains. The distance
between the source and the Vinasana (place of disappearance of the
river) is said to be 44 asvina (between several hundred and 1600
miles) (Tandya Br. 25.10.16; cf. Av. 6.131.3; Pancavimsa Br.)[25]
In the Latyayana Srautasutra (10.15-19) the Sarasvati seems to be a

perennial river up to the Vinasana, which is west of its confluence
with the Drishadvati (Chautang). The Drishadvati is described as a
seasonal stream (10.17), meaning it was not from Himalayas.
Bhargava[26] has identified Drashadwati river as present day Sahibi
river originating from Jaipur hills in Rajasthan. The Ashwalayana
Shrauta Sootra and Sankhayana Shrauta Sootra contain verses that
are similar to the Latyayana Shrauta Sootra.
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Vibhakar V. Lele
Post-Vedic texts
The Mahabharata
According to the Mahabharata, the Sarasvati dried up in a desert (at

a place named Vinasana or Adarsana);[27] after having disappeared
in the desert, reappears in some places;[28] and joins the sea
"impetuously".[29] MB.3.81.115 locates the state of Kurupradesh or
Kuru Kingdom to the south of the Sarasvati and north of the
Drishadvati. The dried up seasonal Ghaggar River in Rajasthan and
Haryana reflects the same geographical view described in the
Mahabharata.
According to Hindu scriptures, a journey was made during the

Mahabharata by Balrama along the banks of the Saraswati from
Dwarka to Mathura. There were ancient kingdoms too (the era of
the Mahajanapads) that lay in parts of north Rajasthan and that
were named on the Saraswati River.[30][31][32][33]
Puranas
Several Puranas describe the Sarasvati River, and also record that
the river separated into a number of lakes (saras).[34]
In the Skanda Purana, the Sarasvati originates from the water pot of
Brahma and flows from Plaksa on the Himalayas. It then turns west
at Kedara and also flows underground. Five distributaries of the
Sarasvati are mentioned.[35] The text regards Sarasvati as a form of
Brahma's consort Brahmi.[36] According to the Vamana Purana
32.1-4, the Sarasvati rose from the Plaksa tree (Pipal tree).[34]
Smritis
In the Manu Smriti, the sage Manu, escaping from a flood, founded
the Vedic culture between the Sarasvati and Drishadvati rivers. The
Sarasvati River was thus the western boundary of Brahmavarta:
"the land between the Sarasvati and Drishadvati is created by God;
this land is Brahmavarta."[37]
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Vibhakar V. Lele
Similarly, the Vasistha Dharma Sutra I.8-9 and 12-13 locates

Aryavarta to the east of the disappearance of the Sarasvati in the
desert, to the west of Kalakavana, to the north of the mountains of
Pariyatra and Vindhya and to the south of the Himalaya. Patanjali's
Mah bh ṣya defines Aryavarta like the Vasistha Dharma Sutra.
The Baudhayana Dharmasutra gives similar definitions, declaring

that Aryavarta is the land that lies west of Kalakavana, east of
Adarsana (where the Sarasvati disappears in the desert), south of
the Himalayas and north of the Vindhyas.
Identification theories
Vedic rivers
Attempts have been made to identify the mythical Sarasvati of the

Vedas with concrete rivers.[38] Many think that the Vedic Sarasvati
river once flowed east of the Indus (Sindhu) river.[39] Scientists,
geologists as well as scholars have identified the Sarasvati with
many present-day or now defunct rivers.
Two theories are popular in the attempts to identify the Sarasvati.

Several scholars have identified the river with the present-day
Ghaggar-Hakra River or dried up part of it, which is located in
Northwestern India and Pakistan.[40][41][42][43] A second popular
theory associates the river with the Helmand river or an ancient
river in the present Helmand Valley in Afghanistan.[5][44] Others
consider Sarasvati a mythical river.
Ghaggar-Hakra River
Main article: Ghaggar-Hakra River
The Ghaggar-Hakra River is an intermittent river in India and

Pakistan that flows only during the monsoon season.
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Vibhakar V. Lele
Identification with the Sarasvati
Many scholars as well as geologists have identified the Sarasvati

river with the present-day Ghaggar-Hakra River, or the dried up
part of it.[41][42][43][45][46][47][48] The main arguments are the supposed
position east of the Indus, which corresponds with the Ghaggar-
Hakra riverbed; the actual absence of a "mighty river" east of the
Indus, which may be explained by the drying up of the historical
Ghaggar-Hakra river; and the resemblance between the "diving
under" of the Puranic Sarasvati, and the ending of the present-day
Ghaggar-Hakra river in a desert.[citation needed]
The identification of the Vedic Sarasvati River with the Ghaggar-

Hakra River was proposed by some scholars in the 19th and early
20th century, including Christian Lassen,[49] Max Müller,[50] Marc
Aurel Stein, C.F. Oldham[51] and Jane Macintosh.[52] Danino notes
that "the 1500 km-long bed of the Sarasvati" was "rediscovered" in
the 19th century.[53] According to Danino, "most Indologists" were
convinced in the 19th century that "the bed of the Ghaggar-Hakra
was the relic of the Sarasvati."[53]
Romila Thapar terms the identification "controversial" and

dismisses it, noticing that the descriptions of Sarasvati flowing
through the "high mountains" does not tally with Ghaggar's course
and suggests that Sarasvati is Haraxvatī of Afghanistan.[54] Wilke
suggests that the identification is problematic since the Ghaggar-
Hakra river was already dried up at the time of the composition of
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Vibhakar V. Lele
the Vedas,[55] let alone the migration of the Vedic people into
northern India.[56][57]
Course of the historical Ghaggar-Hakra River
The historical Ghaggar-Hakra river, identified with the Sarasvati,

flowed down the present Ghaggar-Hakra River channel, and that of
the Nara in Sindh.[58] Satellite images in possession of the ISRO
and ONGC have confirmed that the major course of a river ran
through the present day Ghaggar River.[59]
Course of Sarasvati river
The full flow of the Palaeo-Ghaggar-Hakra River was not present

during the Holocene. According to Clift et al. and Giosan et al. the
Yamuna and Sutlej were lost during the Pleistocene, and the
Ghaggar-Hakra River was a much smaller river, fed entirely by
monsoon rains rather than glacial streams, during the mid-late
Holocene (including the Vedic period).[60][61][note 2]
Drying-up of the Ghaggar-Hakra system
Late in the 2nd millennium BCE the Ghaggar-Hakra fluvial system

dried up, which affected the Harappan civilization.
Giosan et al., in their study Fluvial landscapes of the Harappan

civilization,[38] make clear that the Ghaggar-Hakra fluvial system
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Vibhakar V. Lele
was not a large glaciered Himalayan river, but a monsoonal-fed

river.[63][4][note 2] They concluded that the Indus Valley Civilization
died out because the monsoons, which fed the rivers that supported
the civilization, migrated to the east.
With the rivers drying out as a result, the civilization diminished

some 4000 years ago.[38] This particular effected the Ghaggar-
Hakra system, which became ephemeral and was largely
abandoned.[66] The Indus Valley Civilization had the option to
migrate east toward the more humid regions of the Indo-Gangetic
Plain, where the decentralized late Harappan phase took place.[66]
Painted Grey Ware sites (ca. 1000 BCE) have been found in the
bed and not on the banks of the Ghaggar-Hakra river, suggesting
that the river had dried up before this period.[67]
Other scenarios suppose that geological changes diverted the Sutlej

towards the Indus and the Yamuna towards the Ganges, following
which the river did not have enough water to reach the sea anymore
and dried up in the Thar desert.[citation needed] Active faults are present
in the region, and lateral and vertical tectonic movements have
frequently diverted streams in the past. The Saraswati may have
migrated westward due to such uplift of the Aravallis.[68] According
to geologists Puri and Verma a major seismic activity in the
Himalayan region caused the rising of the Bata-Markanda Divide.
This resulted in the blockage of the westward flow of Sarasvati
forcing the water back. Since the Yamun Tear opening was not far
off, the blocked water exited from the opening into the Yamun
system.[69][70]
Apart from the above reasons, the following can be the possible
reasons for the drying up of the river:
1. Capture of the waters of the Sarasvati by the adjoining rivers,

Sutlej and the Yamuna. During the Indus period, the Sarasvati was
a large river, receiving water from the Sutlej and the Yamuna. The
tectonic movements during this period resulted in a distinct
separation of the river Yamuna from the Indus system. Over time,
these waters were withdrawn and the river became smaller and
eventually dried up.[71]
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Vibhakar V. Lele
2. The banks have undergone intense erosion leading to the

collapse of the banks and drying of the river. Also, the river bed
could be choked with modern moving sand.[71]
3. Two major shifts in the course and the volume of water
associated with the river during the 3rd and 2nd millennia BC.[71]
The two major shifts were the drying of one of the important
tributaries of the Sarasvati, resulting in reduced volume of water
and the capture of the river Sutlej by the river Beas which rendered
part of the river dry.[71]
4. The lack of water far down the old course threatens the
vegetation necessary to help maintain the river. It is also assumed
that the plains formed during the course of the river was a part of
Indo Gangetic plains which later turned to Thar Desert after the
depletion of River Sarasvati.[71][72]
Identification with the Indus Valley Civilization
The Indus Valley Civilization (Harappan Civilization), which is

named after the Indus, was largely located on the banks of and in
the proximity of the Ghaggar-Hakra fluvial system.[73]
Kalyanaraman concludes that the drying-up of the Ghaggar-Hakra
resulted in the abandonment of the valley by the Mature Harappans.
They moved into the region between the upper reaches of Gang
and Yamun going in the north-eastwards direction. This is
supported by the evidence of the occurrence of a very few Mature
Harappan sites but Late Harappan sites in that region.[70]
The Indus Valley Civilization is sometimes called the "Sarasvati

culture", the "Sarasvati Civilization", the "Indus-Sarasvati
Civilization" or the "Sindhu-Sarasvati Civilization", as it is
theorized that the civilization flourished on banks of the Sarasvati
river, along with the Indus.[42][43][74] Danino notes that the dating of
the Vedas to the third millennium BCE coincides with the mature
phase of the Indus Valley civilization,[75] and that it is "tempting" to
equate the Indus Valley and Vedic cultures.[76]
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Vibhakar V. Lele
Helmand river
Main article: Helmand River
Suggestions for the identity of the early Rigvedic Sarasvati River

include the Helmand River in Afghanistan, separated from the
watershed of the Indus by the Sanglakh Range. The Helmand
historically besides Avestan Haetumant bore the name Haraxvaiti,
which is the Avestan form cognate to Sanskrit Sarasvati. The
Avesta extols the Helmand in similar terms to those used in the
Rigveda with respect to the Sarasvati: "the bountiful, glorious
Haetumant swelling its white waves rolling down its copious
flood".[77]
Helmand River in Uruzgan Province.
Kocchar (1999) argues that the Helmand is identical to the early

Rigvedic Sarasvati of Sooktas 2.41, 7.36 etc., and that the Nadistuti
Sookta (10.75) was composed centuries later, after an eastward
migration of the bearers of the Rigvedic culture to the western
Gangetic plain some 600 km to the east. The Sarasvati by this time
had become a mythical "disappeared" river, and the name was
transferred to the Ghaggar which disappeared in the desert.
The identification of the Helmand with the early Rig Vedic

Sarasvati is not without difficulties. However, the geographic
situation of the Sarasvati and the Helmand rivers are similar. Both
flow into terminal lakes: the Helmand into a swamp in the Iranian
plateau (the extended wetland and lake system of Hamun-i-
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Vibhakar V. Lele
Helmand). This matches the Rigvedic description of the Sarasvati

flowing to the samudra, which at that time meant 'confluence',
'lake', 'heavenly lake, ocean'; the current meaning of 'terrestrial
ocean' was not even felt in the Pali Canon.[78] In post-Rig Vedic
texts (Brahmanas) the Sarasvati ("she who has (many) lakes"), is
said to disappear ("dive under") in the desert.
Because the Nadi Sookta of the Rig Veda (10.75.5) place the
Sarasvati between the Yamuna and the Ghaggar, the Helmand is
ruled out as being the historical Sarasvati since there are no rivers
in Afghanistan by the names Yamuna and Ghaggar.[79][who?]
Also because the Rig Veda (10.92.2) mentions that Sarasvati rose
from the mountains and fell into the ocean, the Helmand is ruled
out as being the Sarasvati because Helmand does not flow into the
ocean.[79][who?]
Drying-up and dating of the Vedas
The Vedic and Pauarnika statements about the drying-up and

diving-under of the Sarasvati have been used as a reference point
for the dating of the Harappan civilization and the Vedic culture.[6]
Some see these texts as evidence for an earlier dating of the Rig
Veda, identifying the Sarasvati with the Ghaggar-Hakra River,
rejecting the Indo-Aryan migrations theory, which postulates a
migration at 1500 BCE.[note 3][note 4]
Danino places the composition of the Vedas in the third millennium

BCE, a century earlier than the conventional dates.[75] Danino notes
that accepting the Rig Veda accounts as factual descriptions, and
dating the drying up late in the third millennium, are
incompatible.[75] According to Danino, this suggests that the Vedic
people were present in northern India in the third millennium
BCE,[89] a conclusion which is drawn by some Indian
archaeologists, but not by Western archaeologists.[75] Danino states
that there is an absence of "any intrusive material culture in the
Northwest during the second millennium BCE,"[75][note 5] a
biological continuity in the skeletal remains,[75][note 4] and a cultural
continuity. Danino then states that if the "testimony of the Sarasvati
is added to this,"
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Vibhakar V. Lele
[T]he simplest and most natural conclusion is that the Vedic culture
was present in the region in the third millennium.[76]
Danino acknowledges that this asks for "studying its tentacular

ramifications into linguistics, Archaeo-astronomy, anthropology
and genetics, besides a few other fields".[76]
Annette Wilke notes that the "historical river" Sarasvati was a

"topographically tangible mythogeme", which was already reduced
to a "small, sorry tickle in the desert", by the time of composition of
the Hindu epics. These post-Vedic texts regularly talk about drying
up of the river, and start associating the goddess Sarasvati with
language, rather than the river.[93]
Michael Witzel also notes that the Rig Veda indicates that the
Sarasvati "had already lost its main source of water supply and
must have ended in a terminal lake (samudra)."[56][note 6][note 7]
Romila Thapar notes that "once the river had been mythologized
through invoking the memory of the earlier river, its name -
Sarasvati - could be applied to many rivers, which is what
happened in various parts of the [Indian] subcontinent."[54]
Several present-day rivers are also named Sarasvati, after the Vedic
Sarasvati:
1. Sarsuti is the present-day name of a river originating in a

submontane region (Ambala district) and joining the Ghaggar near
Shatrana in PEPSU. Near Sadulgarh (Hanumangarh) the Naiwala
channel, a dried out channel of the Sutlej, joins the Ghaggar. Near
Suratgarh the Ghaggar is then joined by the dried up Drishadvati
river.
2. Sarasvati is the name of a river originating in the Aravalli
mountain range in Rajasthan, passing through Sidhpur and Patan
before submerging in the Rann of Kutch.
3. Saraswati River, a tributary of Alaknanda River, originates
near Badrinath
4. Saraswati River in Bengal, formerly a distributary of the
Hooghly River, has dried up since the 17th century.
88
Vibhakar V. Lele
Notes
1. See Witzel (1984)[24] for discussion; for maps (1984) of the area,
p. 42 sqq.
2. Valdiya dispute this, arguing that it was a large perennial river
draining the high mountains as late as 3700–2500 years ago.[62]
3. According to David Anthony, the Yamuna culture was the
"Urheimat" of the Indo-Europeans at the Pontic steppes.[84] From
this area, which already included various subcultures, Indo-
European languages spread west, south and east starting around
4,000 BCE.[85] These languages may have been carried by small
groups of males, with patron-client systems which allowed for the
inclusion of other groups into their cultural system.[84] Eastward
emerged the Sintashta culture (2100–1800 BCE), from which
developed the Andronovo culture (1800–1400 BCE). This culture
interacted with the BMAC (2300–1700 BCE); out of this
interaction developed the Indo-Iranians, which split around 1800
BCE into the Indo-Aryans and the Iranians.[86] The Indo-Aryans
migrated to the Levant, northern India, and possibly south Asia.[87]
4. The migration into northern India was not a large-scale
immigration, but may have consisted of small groups,[88] which
were genetically diverse. Their culture and language spread by the
same mechanisms of acculturalization, and the absorption of other
groups into their patron-client system.[84]
5. Michael Witzel points out that this is to expected from a mobile
society, but that the Gandhara grave culture is a clear indication of
new cultural elements.[90] Michaels points out that there are
linguistic and archaeological data that shows a cultural change after
1750 BCE,[91] and Flood notices that the linguistic and religious
data clearly show links with Indo-European languages and
religion.[92]
6. Witzel: "The autochthonous theory overlooks that RV 3.33206
already speaks of a necessarily smaller SarasvatīŚ the Sudås hymn
3.33 refers to the confluence of the Beas and Sutlej (Vipå ,
utudrī). This means that the Beas had already captured the Sutlej
away from the Sarasvatī, dwarfing its water supply. While the
Sutlej is fed by Himalayan glaciers, the Sarsuti is but a small local
river depending on rain water.
In sum, the middle and later RV (books 3, 7 and the late book,
10.75) already depict the present day situation, with the Sarasvatī
89
Vibhakar V. Lele
having lost most of its water to the Sutlej (and even earlier, much of
it also to the Yamunå). It was no longer the large river it might
have been before the early Rigvedic period.[94]
7. Witzel further notes: "If the RV is to be located in the Punjab,
and supposedly to be dated well before the supposed 1900 BCE
drying up of the Sarasvatī, at 4-5000 BCE (Kak 1994, Misra 1992),
the text should not contain evidence of the domesticated horse (not
found in the subcontinent before c. 1700 BCE, see Meadow
1997,1998, Anreiter 1998: 675 sqq.), of the horse drawn chariot
(developed only about 2000 BCE in S. Russia, Anthony and
Vinogradov 1995, or Mesopotamia), of well-developed
copper/bronze technology, etc."[95]
References
1. Kinsley 1998, p. 10, 55-57.
2.http://164.100.47.132/LssNew/psearch/QResult15.aspx?qref=138
704 | " The work on delineation of entire course of Sarasvati River
in North West India was carried out using Indian Remote Sensing
Satellite data along with digital elevation model. Satellite images
are multi-spectral, multi-temporal and have advantages of synoptic
view, which are useful to detect Palaeo-channels. The Palaeo-
channels are validated using historical maps, archaeological sites,
hydro- geological and drilling data. It was observed that major
Harappan sites of Kalibangan (Rajasthan), Banawali and
Rakhigarhi (Haryana), Dholavira and Lothal (Gujarat) lie along the
River Saraswati ."- Ministry of Space, Government of India.
3. http://www.iisc.ernet.in/currsci/oct25/articles20.htm |
A.V.Shankaran.:"Saraswati – The ancient river lost in the desert."
4. Vedic River Sarasvati and Hindu Civilization, Edited by
S.Kalyanaraman (2008), ISBN 978-81-7305-365-8 PP.308
5. Kochhar, Rajesh, 'On the identity and chronology of the Ṛgvedic
river Sarasvatī' in Archaeology and Language III; Artifacts,
languages and texts, Routledge (1999), ISBN 0-415-10054-2.
6. The Editors of Encyclopædia Britannica, Sarasvati,
Encyclopedia Britannica
7. e.g. 7.96.4, 10.66.5 / 8. e.g. RV 7.103.2b
9. Mayrhofer, EWAia, s.v.; the root is otherwise often connected
with rivers (also in river names, such as Sarayu or Susartu); the
90
Vibhakar V. Lele
suggestion has been revived in the connection of an "out of India"

argument, N. Kazanas, "Rig-Veda is pre-Harappan", p. 9.
10. by Lommel (1927); Lommel, Herman (1927), Die Yašts des
Awesta, Göttingen-Leipzig: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht/JC Hinrichs
11. Bridget Allchin, Raymond Allchin, The Rise of Civilization in
India and Pakistan, Cambridge University Press, 1982, P.358.
12. Ludvík p. 11
S.Kalyanaraman ISBN 978-81-7305-365-8 PP.96
14. Griffith
15. Hans Hock (1999) translates síndhumātā as a bahuvrihi, "whose
mother is the Sindhu", which would indicate that the Sarasvati is
here a tributary of the Indus. A translation as a tatpurusha ("mother
of rivers", with Sindhu still with its generic meaning) would be less
common in RV speech.
16. Rigveda,4.58.1/ 17. Sri Aurobindo , op.cit. / 18. Eck 2012,
p. 145. / 19. 1.3, 13, 89, 164; 10.17, 30, 64, 65, 66, 75, 110, 131,
141
20. K.R. Jayaswal, Hindu Polity, pp. 12-13
21. Pancavimsa Brahmana, Jaiminiya Upanisad Brahmana,
Katyayana Srauta Sutra, Latyayana Srauta; Macdonell and Keith
1912
22. Asvalayana Srauta Sutra, Sankhayana Srauta Sutra; Macdonell
and Keith 1912, II:55
23. Griffith, p.492 / 24. Witzel 1984.
25. D.S. Chauhan in Radhakrishna, B.P. and Merh, S.S. (editors):
Vedic Saraswati 1999. According to this reference, 44 asvins may
be over 2600 km
26. Sudhir Bhargava, "Location of Brahmavarta and Drishadwati
river is important to find earliest alignment of Saraswati river"
Seminar, Saraswati river-a perspective, Nov. 20-22, 2009,
Kurukshetra University, Kurukshetra, organised by: Saraswati Nadi
Shodh Sansthan, Haryana, Seminar Report: pages 114-117
27. Mhb. 3.82.111; 3.130.3; 6.7.47; 6.37.1-4., 9.34.81; 9.37.1-2
28. Mbh. 3.80.118 / 29. Mbh. 3.88.2 / 30. [1] / 31. [2] / 32. [3]
33. Studies in Proto-Indo-Mediterranean culture, Volume 2, page
398
34. D.S. Chauhan in Radhakrishna, B.P. and Merh, S.S. (editors):
Vedic Saraswati, 1999, p.35-44
91
Vibhakar V. Lele
5. compare also with Yajurveda 34.11, D.S. Chauhan in

Radhakrishna, B.P. and Merh, S.S. (editors): Vedic Saraswati,
1999, p.35-44
36. Eck p. 149 / 37. Manusmriti 2.17-18 / 38. Giosan et al. 2012. /
39. Eck p. 145 / 40. Darian 2001, p. 58.
41. Pushpendra K. Agarwal; Vijay P. Singh (16 May 2007).
Hydrology and Water Resources of India. Springer Science &
Business Media. pp. 311–2. ISBN 978-1-4020-5180-7.
42. Upinder Singh (2008). A History of Ancient and Early Medieval
India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century. Pearson Education
India. pp. 137–8. ISBN 978-81-317-1677-9.
43. Charles Keith Maisels (16 December 2003). "The
Indus/'Harappan'/Sarasvati Civilization". Early Civilizations of the
Old World: The Formative Histories of Egypt, The Levant,
Mesopotamia, India and China. Routledge. p. 184. ISBN 978-1-
134-83731-1.
44. Darian p. 59 / 45. Darian p. 58
46. "Proceedings of the second international symposium on the
management of large rivers for fisheries: Volume II". Fao.org.
2003-02-14. Retrieved 2012-07-12.
47. Mughal, M. R. Ancient Cholistan. Archaeology and
Architecture. Rawalpindi-Lahore-Karachi: Ferozsons 1997, 2004
48. J. K. Tripathi et al., "Is River Ghaggar, Saraswati? Geochemical
Constraints," Current Science, Vol. 87, No. 8, 25 October 2004
49. Indische Alterthumskunde
50. Sacred Books of the East, 32, 60
51. Oldham 1893 pp.51–52
52. The ancient Indus Valley:new perspectives By Jane McIntosh
53. Danino 2010, p. 252.
54. Romila Thapar (2004). Early India: From the Origins to AD
1300. University of California Press. p. 42. ISBN 978-0-520-
24225-8.
55. Wilke 2011. / 56. Witzel 2001, p. 93.
57. Mukherjee 2001, p. 2, 8-9.
58. A. V. Sankaran. "Saraswati – the ancient river lost in the
desert". Indian Institute of Science. Retrieved 22 January 2015.
S.Kalyanaraman (2008), ISBN 978-81-7305-365-8 p. 308
60. Clift et al. 2012 / 61. Giosan et al. 2012 / 62. Valdiya 2013.
92
Vibhakar V. Lele
63. Giosan et al. 2012, p. 1688, 1689. / 64. Giosan et al. 2012,
p. 1688. / 65. Giosan et al. 2012, p. 1689. / 66. Giosan et al. 2012,
p. 1693.
67. Gaur, R. C. (1983). Excavations at Atranjikhera, Early
Civilization of the Upper Ganga Basin. Delhi.
68. D. S. Mitra and Balram Bhadu (10 March 2012). "Possible
contribution of River Saraswati in groundwater aquifer system in
western Rajasthan, India" (PDF). Current Science 102 (5).
69. Puri and Verma 1998, Glaciological and geological source of
Vedic Saraswati in the Himalayas.
S.Kalyanaraman ISBN 978-81-7305-365-8 PP.104
71.http://www.ancientindia.co.uk/staff/resources/background/bg9/b
g9pdf.pdf
72. Valdiya, K. S. (2002), Saraswati: The River That Disappeared,
Universities Press (India), Hyderabad, ISBN 81-7371-403-7
73. Jayant K. Tripathi, Barbara Bock, V. Rajamani and A.
Eisenhauer (25 October 2004). "Is River Ghaggar, Saraswati?
Geochemical constraints" (PDF). Current Science 87 (8).
74. Denise Cush; Catherine A. Robinson; Michael York (2008).
Encyclopedia of Hinduism. Psychology Press. p. 766. ISBN 978-0-
7007-1267-0.
75. Danino 2010, p. 256. / 76. Danino 2010, p. 258. / 77. Yasht
10.67
78. Klaus, K. Die altindische Kosmologie, nach den Br hmaṇas
dargestellt. Bonn 1986; Samudra, XXIII Deutscher Orientalistentag
Würzburg, ZDMG Suppl. Volume VII, Stuttgart 1989, 367-371
79. P. 54 The Indo-Aryan Controversy: Evidence and Inference in
Indian History edited by Edwin Bryant, Laurie Patton
80. Wilke p.310 note 574 quoting Witzel
81. Ludvík p.85, quoting Witzel / 82. Witzel 2012, p. 74, 125, 133.
/ 83. Mukherjee 2001, p. 2, 6-9. / 84. Anthony 2007.
85. Beckwith 2009, p. 29. / 86. Anthony 2007, p. 408. / 87.
Beckwith 2009. / 88. Witzel 2005, p. 342-343. / 89. Danino 2010,
p. 256, 258. / 90. Witzel 2005. / 91. Michaels 2004, p. 33.
92. Flood 1996, p. 33. / 93. Wilke pp. 310-1 / 94. Witzel 2001,
p. 81. / 95. Witzel 2001, p. 31. / 96. Eck 2012, p. 148. /97. Eck
2012, p. 147. / 98. Ludvík p. 1 / 99. At the Three Rivers TIME,
February 23, 1948 / 100. Eck p. 220
93
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Sources
1. Anthony, David W. (2007), The Horse The Wheel And
Language. How Bronze-Age Riders From the Eurasian Steppes
Shaped The Modern World, Princeton University Press
2. Beckwith, Christopher I. (16 March 2009). Empires of the Silk
Road: A History of Central Eurasia from the Bronze Age to the
Present. Princeton University Press. ISBN 1400829941. Retrieved
30 December 2014.
3. Bryant, Edwin (2001). The Quest for the Origins of Vedic
Culture. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-513777-9.
4. Danino, Michel (2010), The Lost River - On the trail of the
Sarasvati, Penguin Books India
5. Darian, Steven G. (2001), "5.Ganga and Sarasvati: The
Transformation of Myth", The Ganges in Myth and History, Motilal
Banarsidass Publ., ISBN 978-81-208-1757-9
6. Eck, Diana L. (2012), India: A Sacred Geography, Clarkson
Potter/Ten Speed/Harmony, ISBN 978-0-385-53191-7
7. Clift et al. 2012. "U-Pb zircon dating evidence for a Pleistocene
Sarasvati River and capture of the Yamuna River." Geology, v. 40.
[5]
8. Flood, Gavin D. (1996), An Introduction to Hinduism,
Cambridge University Press
9. Giosan et al. (2012), "Fluvial landscapes of the Harappan
civilization", PNAS 109 (26)
10. Gupta, S.P. (ed.). 1995. The lost Saraswati and the Indus
Civilization. Kusumanjali Prakashan, Jodhpur.
11. Hock, Hans (1999) Through a Glass Darkly: Modern "Racial"
Interpretations vs. Textual and General Prehistoric Evidence on
Arya and Dasa/Dasyu in Vedic Indo-Aryan Society." in Aryan and
Non-Aryan in South Asia, ed. Bronkhorst & Deshpande, Ann
Arbor.
12. Keith and Macdonell. 1912. Vedic Index of Names and
Subjects.
13. Kinsley, David (1998), Hindu Goddesses: Visions of the Divine
Feminine in the Hindu Religious Tradition, Motilal Banarsidass
Publ., ISBN 978-81-208-0394-7
14. Kochhar, Rajesh, 'On the identity and chronology of the
Ṛgvedic river Sarasvatī' in Archaeology and Language III;
94
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Artefacts, languages and texts, Routledge (1999), ISBN 0-415-

10054-2.
14. Lal, B.B. 2002. The Saraswati Flows on: the Continuity of
Indian Culture. New Delhi: Aryan Books International
15. Ludvík, Catherine (2007). Sarasvatī, Riverine Goddess of
Knowledge: From the Manuscript-carrying Vīṇā-player to the
Weapon-wielding Defender of the Dharma. BRILL. ISBN 90-04-
15814-6.
16. Michaels, Axel (2004), Hinduism. Past and present, Princeton,
New Jersey: Princeton University Press
17. Mukherjee, Ashoke (2001), "RIGVEDIC SARASVATI:
MYTH AND REALITY" (PDF), Breakthrough, Breakthrough
Science Society, Vol. 9 No. 1, january 2001
18. Oldham, R.D. 1893. The Sarsawati and the Lost River of the
Indian Desert. Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society. 1893. 49-76.
19. Puri, VKM, and Verma, BC, Glaciological and Geological
Source of Vedic Sarasvati in the Himalayas, New Delhi, Itihas
Darpan, Vol. IV, No.2, 1998 [6]
20. Radhakrishna, B.P. and Merh, S.S. (editors): Vedic Saraswati:
Evolutionary History of a Lost River of Northwestern India (1999)
Geological Society of India (Memoir 42), Bangalore. Review (on
page 3) Review
21. Shaffer, Jim G. (1995). Cultural tradition and Palaeoethnicity
in South Asian Archaeology. In: Indo-Aryans of Ancient South
Asia. Ed. George Erdosy. ISBN 3-11-014447-6.
22. S. G. Talageri, The RigVeda - A Historical Analysis chapter 4
23. Valdiya, K. S. (2002), Saraswati: The River That Disappeared,
Universities Press (India), Hyderabad, ISBN 81-7371-403-7
24. Valdiya, K.S. (2013), "The River Saraswati was a Himalayan-
born river" (PDF), Current Science 104 (01)
25. Wilke, Annette (2011), Sound and Communication: An
Aesthetic Cultural History of Sanskrit Hinduism, Walter de
Gruyter, ISBN 978-3-11-018159-3
26. Witzel, Michael (1984), Sur le chemin du ciel (PDF)
27. Witzel, Michael (2001), "Autochthonous Aryans? The Evidence
from Old Indian and Iranian Texts" (PDF), Electronic Journal of
Vedic Studies' (EJVS) 7-3, pp 1-93
95
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28. Witzel, Michael (2005), "Indocentrism", in Bryant, Edwin;

Patton, Laurie L., TheE Indo-Aryan Controversy. Evidence and
inference in Indian history (PDF), Routledge
29. Witzel, Michael (2012), The Origins of the World's
Mythologies, Oxford University Press
Further reading
1. Eck, Diana L. (2012), India: A Sacred Geography, Clarkson
Potter/Ten Speed/Harmony, ISBN 978-0-385-53191-7
2. Ludvík, Catherine (2007). Sarasvatī, Riverine Goddess of
Knowledge: From the Manuscript-carrying Vīṇā-player to the
Weapon-wielding Defender of the Dharma. BRILL. ISBN 90-04-
15814-6.
3. Danino, Michel (2010), The Lost River - On the trail of the
Sarasvati, Penguin Books India
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Sarasvati River.
1. Is River Ghaggar, Saraswati? by Tripathi, Bock, Rajamani, Eir

2. Saraswati – the ancient river lost in the desert by A. V. Sankaran
3. Sarasvati research and Education Trust
4. Map "રદે શ નદીનો તટરદે શ (બેઝીન) સર્વતી (Regional River

Basin: Saraswati Basin)". Narmada, Water Resources, Water
Supply and Kalpsar Department.
96
Vibhakar V. Lele
5. This page was last modified on 25 June 2015, at 05:32.

6. Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-
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profit organization.
CHAPTER 11
***
SARASVATI RIVERINE GEOMORPHIC ACTIVITY
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R.V.Karanth, P.S. Thakkar, M.S. Gadhvi, D.A. Sant and J.G. Negi
One of the highly debated geo-archaeological aspects is existence

of the River Sarasvati, most respected river of the land in the
ancient Hindu text of Vedas. The debate is of more than one type;
(1) whether the river exist at all, (2) if existed during which period,
(3) what were its tributaries, (4) where was it flowing, (5) was it
debouching into the sea/gulf or was it a tributary of some other
major river, (6) if it was debouching into the sea/gulf where and
near which geographic location, (7) when and why did it disappear?
Several Palaeo-channels of rivers have been identified in the region
of Rajasthan, Haryana Uttar Pradesh and adjacent areas some of
which are assigned to Sarasvati. The River Sarasvati is considered
to have migrated from east to west. Most discussions end up the
River Sarasvati to the north of the state of Gujarat in western India
(viz. Oldham, 1886; Wilhelmy, 1968; Sridhar et al., 1999; Malik et
al., 1999), debouching into Arabian Sea/Rann of Kachchh. Whereas
a few others placed the river in the eastern part of Kachchh and
Saurashtra, emptying itself into the Gulf of Kachchh/Little Rann at
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Prabhas Patan near Mehsana (Iyengar and Radhakrishna, 2005).

There is the view that Saraswati flowed through central Saurashtra
and entered Arabian Sea near Prabhas Patan, Somnath-Veraval
(Thakker, 2002). The present paper deals with the extension of
Sarasvati and other northern rivers into the region of Gujarat and its
entry into the sea, taking historical, geomorphic, tectonic and
Palaeo-climate/ sea level changes aspects into consideration.
Two very important factors to be considered are: (1) Rise and fall
of the sea level in the last Glacial from –120m around 18,000 yrs
BP to +5-7m around 4,500 yrs BP during which the civilization of
the region evolved socially and intellectually. The unusually large
shelf offered a vast fertile land for the early civilization to prosper
and flourish using the waters of the northern rivers flowing through
their land. Withdrawal of the sea by –50m and –100m exposes
additional 100,000sq.km and 250,000sq.km respectively to the
western shelf. The period of late Quaternary Glaciations and
subsequent melting of the ice sheets resulted in the onset of dry and
wet phases. In addition to melting ice sheets from the Himalayas,
copious rains in the wet phase had provided a large network of
fluvial system to evolve in western India. (2) Tectonic instability of
the region owing stresses generated from intense compression in
the late Cenozoic which is expressed in the form of recurring
seismic events (two earthquakes of magnitude over M7.5 within the
span of last two centuries) and upheaval and subsidence of land
(e.g., uplift of Allah Bund by 5-6m and subsidence of Sindree Fort
and surrounding area during 1819 Kachchh earthquake. An overall
uplift of the region is expected from the existing compress ional
regime. These two factors have brought frequent changes in the
fluvial system of western India.
A critical study of the satellite imageries reveals several Palaeo-

channels in Rajasthan, Haryana and Utter Pradesh extending to
west and southwest. Further tracing of the channels extend the
rivers into the region of Gujarat finally entering the sea through the
Ranns and Gulf of Kachchh and Gulf of Cambay. During low sea
level regime the Rann of Kachchh and Gulf of Cambay have played
a significant role in sustaining the course of northern rivers as well
as the human settlements to thrive as evidenced by the following:
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(1) Discovery of distinct Palaeo-channel with fortified settlement

within the Great Rann of Kachchh (Thakker, 2001) and numerous
channels that appeared in the Great Rann of Kachchh immediately
after 2001 Bhuj Earthquake. (2) Recent discovery of underwater
township near Surat (Gupta et al., 2002 and Kathiroli et al., 2003).
Study of the satellite imageries point to the existence of a channel
in the Gulf of Cambay extending for 250km. The channel ends with
some obscure features resembling human settlements (Thakker,
2005).
The zone that connects Saurashtra and Gujarat Mainland forms yet
another curious structure. It formed a depocentre for the sediments
brought by rivers from the east and west, and presently it
accommodates the famous Nal Sarovar, a possible remnant of the
sea. This zone offered channel for the rivers to flow in the past.
The river under discussion was flowing several millennia ago when
the sea level was far lower (-60 to-120m, over 10,000yr BP); i.e., a
greater part of the western Indian shelf was exposed and also when
the sea level was higher (+5-6m, ~4-5000yr BP) than the present.
Study of the satellite imagery reveals the traces of several Palaeo-
channels and human settlements within the Rann of Kachchh
indicating flow of rivers in the Ranns in the past which
subsequently flowed through the area between Saurashtra and
Gujarat Mainland, further extending into the region which presently
forms the Gulf of Cambay and entering the sea around 150 km west
of present strandline.
___________________________________________________
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CHAPTER 12
***
MARITIME ACTIVITY IN PRE-HISTORY ON

KONKAN COAST
Extracted from: Geoarchaeological studies in coastal Maharashtra:
Implications for understanding
Savita Ghate, Dr. Ambedkar College, Pune 411 006; S.G. Deo and
S.N. Rajaguru
….. In the last decade detailed archaeological investigations of

some famous port sites like Sopara, Chaul, Kelshi, Guhagar,
Palshet have been carried out by scholars from the Deccan
College, Pune.
These ports seem to have been in operation since the beginning

of the Early Historic period (~2nd 3rd century B.C.) and got
defunct only recently (i.e. in 18th century).
___________________________________________________
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CHAPTER 13
***
HIMALAYAS AND INDIAN SUB-CONTINENT
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The primitive Sivapithecus (a kind of ape, formerly known as

Ramapithecus). Its fossil was found among many others in the
Siwalik region
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104
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105
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106
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A View Of The Himalayan Panorama
Gangtok is located in the Shivalik Hills of the eastern Himalayan

range, at an altitude of 1,437 meters (4,715 ft.).
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Nanda Devi, in the Indian Himalayas, viewed from the Shivalik

Range, Uttarakhanda
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CHAPTER 14
***
THE ORIGINAL REGION OF
CHITPAVAN BRAHMINS’
VEDIC ANCESTORS
SHIVALIK RANGES40
Siwalik region
The Shivalik Hills is a mountain range of the outer Himalayas also

known as Manak Parbat in ancient times. Shivalik literally means
'tresses of Shiva’.[1] This range is about 2,400 km (1,500 mi) long
enclosing an area that starts almost from the Indus and ends close to
the Brahmaputra, with a gap of about 90 kilometers (56 mi)
between the Teesta and Raidak rivers in Assam. The width of the
Shivalik Hills varies from 10 to 50 km (6.2 to 31.1 mi), their
average elevation is 1,500 to 2,000 m (4,900 to 6,600 ft.).[2]
Other spelling variations used include Shivalik and Siwalik,

originating from the Hindi and Nepali word shiwālik parvat. Other
names include Churia hills, Chure hills, and Margalla hills.
40
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siwalik_region - subject to their conditions
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Vibhakar V. Lele
Geology
Geologically, the Sivalik Hills belong to the tertiary deposits of the

outer Himalayas. They are chiefly composed of sandstone and
conglomerate rock formations, which are the solidified detritus of
the great mountain range to their north, but often poorly
consolidated.[3] The remnant magnetization of siltstones and
sandstones suggests a depositional age of 16-5.2 million years with
Karnali River exposing the oldest part of the Sivalik Hills in
Nepal.[4]
They are the southernmost and geologically youngest east-west

mountain chain of the Himalayas. They have many sub-ranges and
extend west from Arunachal Pradesh through Bhutan to West
Bengal, and further westward through Nepal and Uttarakhand,
continuing into Himachal Pradesh and Kashmir. The hills are cut
through at wide intervals by numerous large rivers flowing south
from the Himalayas.[citation needed]
They are bounded on the south by a fault system called the Main
Frontal Thrust, with steeper slopes on that side. Below this, the
coarse alluvial Bhabhar zone makes the transition to the nearly
level plains. Rainfall, especially during the summer monsoon,
percolates into the bhabar, then is forced to the surface by finer
alluvial layers below it in a zone of springs and marshes along the
northern edge of the Terai or plains.[citation needed]
North of the Sivalik Hills the 1,500-3,000 meter Lesser Himalayas

also known as the Mahabharat Range rise steeply along fault lines.
In many places the two ranges are adjacent but in other places
structural valleys 10–20 km wide separate them.[citation needed]
Pre-history
Sivapithecus (a kind of ape, formerly known as Ramapithecus) is

among many fossil finds in the Siwalik region.
The Siwalik Hills are also among the richest fossil sites for large
animals anywhere in Asia. The Hills had revealed that all kinds of
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Vibhakar V. Lele
animals lived there. They were early ancestors to the sloth bear,
Sivatherium, an ancient giraffe, Colossochelys atlas, a giant tortoise
named the Siwaliks giant tortoise[5] Megalochelys atlas amongst
other creatures.
The remains of the Lower Paleolithic (ca. 500,000 to 125,000 BP)

Soanian culture have been found in the Siwalik region.[6][7]
Contemporary to the Acheulean, the Soanian culture is named after
the Soan Valley in the Siwalik Hills of Pakistan. The bearers of this
culture were Homo erectus.
Demographics
Low population densities in the Siwalik and along the steep

southern slopes of the Mahabharat Range, plus virulent malaria in
the damp forests on their fringes create a cultural, linguistic and
political buffer zone between dense populations in the plains to the
south and the "hills" beyond the Mahabharat escarpment, isolating
the two populations from each other and enabling different
evolutionary paths with respect to language, race and culture.
References
Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopædia

Britannica article Siwalik Hills.
1. Balokhra, J. M. (1999). The Wonderland of Himachal Pradesh.

Revised and enlarged 4th edition. H.G. Publications, New Delhi.
2. Kohli, M. S. (2004). Mountains of India: Tourism, Adventure,
Pilgrimage. Indus Publishing, New Delhi.
3. This article incorporates text from a publication now in the
public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Siwalik Hills".
Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.
4. Gautam, P., Fujiwara, Y. (2000). Magnetic polarity stratigraphy
of Siwalik Group sediments of Karnali River section in western
Nepal. Geophysical Journal International 142 (3): 812–824.
5. http://www.bbc.com/earth/story/20150519-the-truth-about-giant-
tortoises
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Vibhakar V. Lele
6. Is the Soanian techno-complex a Mode 1 or Mode 3

phenomenon? A morphometric assessment
7. Distribution of Acheulian sites in the Siwalik region
___________________________________________________
Siwalik
Mountains, Asia
Siwalik Range, also called Siwalik Hills or Outer Himalayas,

Siwalik also spelled Shiwalik, sub-Himalayan range of the northern
Indian subcontinent. It extends west-northwestward for more than
1,000 miles (1,600 km) from the Tista River in Sikkim state,
northeastern India, through Nepal, across northwestern India, and
into northern Pakistan. Though only 10 miles (16 km) wide in
places, the range has an average elevation of 3,000 to 4,000 feet
(900 to 1,200 metres). It rises abruptly from the plain of the Indus
and Ganges (Ganga) rivers (south) and parallels the main range of
the Himalayas (north), from which it is separated by valleys. The
Siwaliks are sometimes considered to include the southern foothills
of the Assam Himalayas, which extend eastward for 400 miles (640
km) across southern Bhutan to the bend of the Brahmaputra River.
The range proper, to which the name Siwalik (from Sanskrit,
meaning “Belonging to [the God] Shiva”) was formerly restricted,
is the 200 miles (320 km) of foothills in India extending from the
Ganges River at Haridwar, Uttarakhand state, northwestward to the
Beas River.
Everywhere in this section the poor scrub forests have long since
been removed, and the hills are subject to severe erosion. Seasonal
torrents, called cos, sweep masses of sand and silt down into ever-
changing great streambeds that are dry except after rains. Nepal’s
portion of the range is called the Churia Range.
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CHAPTER 15
***
ORIGIN OF SARASVATI RIVER
ADI BADRI41
Sapta Badri (Sanskrit: स्त-बरी) constitutes a group of seven
sacred Hindu temples, dedicated to god Vishnu, located
in Garhwal Himalayas in the Indian state of Uttarakhand.
The Badrinath temple (बरीिाथ), called the Badri-vishal (बरी-
ववशाल) (altitude 3,133 m (10,279 ft.)) is the primary temple among
the seven shrines, followed by six others, namely, Adi Badri (आहद-
बरी), Vridha Badri (वध
ृ -बरी), Dhyan Badri (्याि-बरी), Ardha
Badri (अधध-बरी), Bhavishya Badri (भवव्य-बरी) and Yogadhayan
Badri (योग्याि-बरी). The Panch Badri (पंि-बरी) temple circuit
consisted of only five temples, omitting Ardha Badri and Dhyan
Badri or sometimes Vridha Badri. Rarely, Narasingh Badri (िसृ संि-
बरी) is included in the Sapta Badri or Panch Badri list.
The abode of Vishnu in the Alaknanda river valley, starting from

Satapanth about 24 kilometers (15 mi) above Badrinath extending
up to Nandprayag in the south, is particularly known as the Badri-
Kshetra in which all the Badri temples are located.[1] Since the early
times, approach to the main temple of Badrinath was only along a
41
From Wikipedia: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sapta_Badri: subject to
their conditions
113
Vibhakar V. Lele
bridle path passing through badri van or (forest of berries). Thus,

the word "Badri", meaning "berries", is suffixed to the names of all
the Sapta Badri (seven) temples.[2]
The main shrine of Badrinath is well connected by road and air but
is closed during the winter season due to snow conditions, from
October–November to April–May depending on the astrological
dates fixed by the Temple Committee; the Raj Purohit (Royal
priest) decides the auspicious day for opening the
temple patak (doors) on Vasant Panchami day in end of April/early
May while the closing day is Vijayadashami day in
October/November. The other six temples are located in villages,
largely in remote locations. A few of them can be approached only
by trekking along bridle paths.[2][3]
Adi Badri From Wikipedia:

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sapta_Badri
Adi Badri complex of temples nearKarnaprayag
The Adi Badri (30°27 27 N 77°20 28 E) the first temple complex

among the Sapta Badri temples is an ancient shrine dedicated to
Vishnu and is one among a chain of 16 small shrines located in the
hill ranges 17 kilometers (11 mi), beyond Karnaprayag (confluence
of Pindar River and Alaknanda River in Chamoli district. Seven
temples of this chain were built during the late Gupta period (5th
century to 8th century).[7] According to tradition, Adi Shankara is
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Vibhakar V. Lele
attributed as builder of all the temples.[7] Adi Shankara is believed

to have sanctioned these temples in order to spread Hinduism to
every remote part of the country.[4] In ancient times, when approach
to the main shrine of Badrinath was closed due to weather
conditions, pilgrims worshipped Vishnu at this temple.[citation
needed]
Adi Badri, also known as Helisera according to revenue
records, is a tiny temple complex enclosed within a space of 14
meters (46 ft.) X 30 meters (98 ft.). The height of the temples vary
from 2–6 meters (6.6–19.7 ft.). The chief temple is dedicated to god
Vishnu, which is built over a raised platform, with a small
enclosure in a pyramidal form. The sanctum holds black stone 1
meter (3.3 ft.) image of Vishnu.[7][8][9] The image depicts Vishnu
holding a mace, lotus and chakra (discus).[10][11] Brahmins from
South India serve as chief priests in the temple.[6]
Adi Badri is located 3 kilometers (1.9 mi) from Chandpur fort or

Garhi located on the hilltop, which was built by the Gurkha kings
to fight the British. Adi Badri is an hour's drive from Karnaprayag
and close to Chulakot on the way to Ranikhet.[8][9] On shifting of
Badrinath (also known as Raj Badri) to Bhavishya Badri, Adi Badri
will be called the Yog Badri.[11]
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CHAPTER 16
***
SCENARIO OF CHITPAVAN BRAHMINS’ ANCESTRAL

HABITAT IN AHICHHATRA OF UTTARA PANCHAL
Himalayan peaks of Uttarakhand42
Uttarakhand is a Himalayan state of India. This hilly state contains,

in its northern section, some of the highest mountain peaks in the
world. Many of them are unclimbed; many are unnamed. A large
number of peaks in Uttarakhand are still not open for climbing due
to security reasons, as this region borders Tibet. Following is a list
42
Borrowed From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Himalayan_peaks_of_Uttarakhand
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of selected named peaks of Uttarakhand with elevation over

6,000 m (19,700 ft.).
Himalayan Peaks of Uttarakhand
Name Location District Coordinates

Altitude (meters) Region
Abi Gamin Garhwal Chamoli 30°55 57 N

79°36 09 E 7355 Kamet
Arwa Crest Garhwal Chamoli 30°52 12 N
79°15 36 E 6250 Gangotri
Arwa Spire Garhwal Chamoli 30°48 36 N
79°21 36 E 6193 Gangotri
Arwa Tower Garhwal Chamoli 30°52 12 N
79°16 48 E 6352 Gangotri
Avalanche Peak I Garhwal Chamoli 30°50 24 N
79°24 00 E 6196 Gangotri
Avalanche Peak II Garhwal Chamoli-Uttarkashi
30°54 36 N 79°16 48 E 6443 Gangotri
Balakun Garhwal Chamoli 30°45 36 N
79°20 24 E 6471 Gangotri
Bamba Dhura Kumaon Pithoragarh 30°26 24 N
80°16 48 E 6334 Panchchuli
Bandarpunch I Garhwal Uttarkashi 31°06 24 N
78°33 00 E 6316 Bandarpunch
Bandarpunch II (White Peak) Garhwal Uttarkashi
31°06 24 N 78°33 00 E 6102 Bandarpunch
Barmatia Garhwal Chamoli 30°45 15 N
79°58 06 E 6041 Kamet
Bhagirathi Parvat I Garhwal Uttarkashi 30°51 00 N
79°08 57 E 6856 Gangotri
Bhartekunta Garhwal Uttarkashi-Rudraprayag-Tehri
Garhwal 30°50 39 N 79°02 05 E 6578 Gangotri
Bhrigupanth Garhwal Uttarkashi 30°52 50 N
79°00 10 E 6772 Gangotri
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Brammah Parvat Kumaun Pithoragarh 30°16 30 N

Burphu Dhura Kumaun Pithoragarh 30°26 24 N
Chamrao Parvat I Garhwal Chamoli 30°59 24 N
79°31 45 E 6910 Kamet
Chandra Parbat Garhwal Uttarkashi 30°52 19 N
79°15 25 E 6739 Gangotri
Changabang Garhwal Chamoli 30°30 00 N
79°55 37 E 6864 Nanda Devi
Changuch Kumaon Pithoragarh-Bageshwar
30°17 34 N 80°02 22 E 6322 Nanda Devi
Chaturbhuj Garhwal Uttarkashi 30°59 41 N
79°05 37 E 6654 Gangotri
Chaudhara Kumaun Pithoragarh 30°16 48 N
Chaukhamba I Garhwal Uttarkashi-Chamoli
30°44 59 N 79°17 28 E 7138 Gangotri
Chaukhamba II Garhwal Uttarkashi-Chamoli
30°44 08 N 79°16 49 E 7058 Gangotri
Chaukhamba III Garhwal Uttarkashi-Chamoli-Rudraprayag
30°43 26 N 79°16 31 E 6974 Gangotri
Chaukhamba IV Garhwal Uttarkashi-Rudraprayag
30°43 27 N 79°15 24 E 6854 Gangotri
Chiring We Kumaun Pithoragarh 30°25 12 N
Deoban Garhwal Chamoli 30°52 04 N
79°39 00 E 6855 Kamet
Devtoli Kumaon-Garhwal Chamoli-Bageshwar
30°17 09 N 79°51 12 E 6788 Nanda Devi
Dunagiri Garhwal Chamoli 30°30 54 N
79°52 00 E 7066 Nanda Devi
Durpata Garhwal Chamoli 30°43 03 N
79°44 12 E 6468 Kamet
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Vibhakar V. Lele
Ganesh Parbat Garhwal Chamoli 30°58 21 N

79°43 03 E 6532 Kamet
Gauri Parbat Garhwal Chamoli 30°42 40 N
79°42 03 E 6708 Kamet
Gangotri I Garhwal Uttarkashi 30°55 04 N
78°50 49 E 6672 Gangotri
Hathi Parbat Garhwal Chamoli 30°41 06 N
79°42 21 E 6727 Kamet
Hardeol Kumaon-Garhwal Chamoli-Pithoragarh
30°33 36 N 80°00 39 E 7151 Nanda Devi
Janhukut Garhwal Uttarkashi 30°46 42 N
79°14 30 E 6805 Gangotri
Kalanag(Black Peak) Garhwal Uttarkashi 31°01 12 N
Kalanka Garhwal Chamoli 30°30 12 N
79°56 30 E 6931 Nanda Devi
Kamet Garhwal Chamoli 30°55 12 N
79°35 30 E 7756 Kamet
Kedarnath (Main) Garhwal Uttarkashi-Rudraprayag
30°47 42 N 79°04 10 E 6940 Gangotri
Kedarnath Dome Garhwal Uttarkashi 30°48 31 N
79°04 44 E 6831 Gangotri
Kharchakund Garhwal Uttarkashi 30°46 50 N
79°07 44 E 6612 Gangotri
Kuchela Dhura Kumaon Pithoragarh 30°18 19 N
80°05 15 E 6294 Nanda Devi
Mana NW Garhwal Chamoli 30°53 37 N
79°35 57 E 7092 Kamet
Mana Peak Garhwal Chamoli 30°52 50 N
79°36 55 E 7272 Kamet
Mandani Parvat Garhwal Uttarkashi-Rudrapayag
30°44 01 N 79°11 57 E 6193 Gangotri
Mandir Parbat Garhwal Chamoli 30°49 40 N
79°36 14 E 6559 Kamet
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Vibhakar V. Lele
Maiktoli Kumaon-Garhwal Chamoli-Bageshwar

30°16 24 N 79°52 18 E 6803 Nanda Devi
Meru Peak Garhwal Uttarkashi 30°52 5 N
79°1 56 E 6803 Gangotri
Mrigthuni Kumaon-Garhwal Chamoli-Bageshwar
30°17 24 N 79°49 47 E 6855 Nanda Devi
Mukut Parbat Garhwal Chamoli 30°56 57 N
79°34 12 E 7242 Kamet
Nagalaphu Kumaun Pithoragarh 30°14 24 N
Nanda Devi Garhwal Chamoli 30°22 33 N
79°58 15 E 7816 Nanda Devi
Sunanda Devi Kumaon-Garhwal Chamoli-Pithoragarh
30°22 00 N 79°59 40 E 7434 Nanda Devi
Nanda Ghunti Garhwal Chamoli 30°20 54 N
79°43 06 E 6309 Nanda Devi
Nanda Gond Kumaun Pithoragarh 30°33 00 N
80°07 48 E 6315 Nanda Devi
Nanda Khat Kumaon-Garhwal Chamoli-Bageshwar
30°18 04 N 79°58 36 E 6611 Nanda Devi
Nanda Kot Kumaon Pithoragarh-Bageshwar
30°16 48 N 80°04 12 E 6861 Nanda Devi
Nanda Pal Kumaun Pithoragarh 30°31 12 N
80°08 24 E 6306 Nanda Devi
Nilgiri Parbat Garhwal Chamoli 30°46 59 N
79°38 43 E 6474 Kamet
Nilkantha Garhwal Chamoli 30°43 48 N
79°24 20 E 6596 Gangotri
Om Parvat Kumaun Pithoragarh 30°22 12 N
P. 6120 Kumaun Pithoragarh 30°13 25 N
P. 6172 Kumaun Pithoragarh 30°10 39 N
80°56 24 E 6172 Kalapani
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Vibhakar V. Lele
Panchchuli I Kumaun Pithoragarh 30°13 12 N

Panchchuli II Kumaun Pithoragarh 30°13 12 N
Panchchuli III Kumaun Pithoragarh 30°12 00 N
Panchchuli IV Kumaun Pithoragarh 30°11 24 N
Panchchuli V Kumaun Pithoragarh 30°10 48 N
Panwali Dwar Kumaon-Garhwal Chamoli-Bageshwar
30°17 22 N 79°57 21 E 6663 Nanda Devi
Pilapani Parvat Garhwal Uttarkashi 30°57 57 N
79°12 45 E 6796 Gangotri
Rajrambha Kumaun Pithoragarh 30°15 00 N
Rataban Garhwal Chamoli 30°45 02 N
79°42 19 E 6166 Kamet
Rishi Pahar Kumaon-Garhwal Chamoli-Pithoragarh
30°31 48 N 79°59 24 E 6997 Nanda Devi
Saf Minal Garhwal Chamoli 30°31 43 N
79°58 01 E 6911 Nanda Devi
Sangthang Kumaun Pithoragarh 30°21 15 N
80°47 12 E 6430 Kalapani
Saraswati Parvat I Garhwal Chamoli 31°01 54 N
79°30 06 E 6940 Kamet
Saraswati Parvat II Garhwal Chamoli 31°00 51 N
79°30 30 E 6775 Kamet
Satopanth Garhwal Uttarkashi 30°50 42 N
79°12 45 E 7075 Gangotri
Shivling Garhwal Uttarkashi 30°52 37 N
79°03 56 E 6543 Gangotri
Sri Kailash Garhwal Uttarkashi 31°01 03 N
79°10 39 E 6932 Gangotri
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Suitilla or Suj Tilla East Kumaun Pithoragarh

30°19 48 N 80°22 48 E 6373 Panchchuli
Suj Tilla West Garhwal Pithoragarh 30°19 48 N
Sumeru Parbat Garhwal Uttarkashi-Rudraprayag
30°46 15 N 79°07 24 E 6350 Gangotri
Swachhand Garhwal Uttarkashi-Chamoli
30°48 34 N 79°13 27 E 6721 Gangotri
Swargarohini Garhwal Uttarkashi 31°05 04 N
Thalay Sagar Garhwal Uttarkashi-Tehri Garhwal
30°51 29 N 78°59 50 E 6904 Gangotri
Tharkot Kumaon-Garhwal Chamoli-Bageshwar
30°13 30 N 79°49 24 E 6099 Nanda Devi
Tirsuli Kumaon-Garhwal Chamoli-Pithoragarh
30°34 48 N 80°01 12 E 7074 Nanda Devi
Tirsuli West Garhwal Chamoli 30°34 12 N
80°00 00 E 7035 Nanda Devi
Trisul I Garhwal Chamoli 30°18 36 N
79°46 12 E 7120 Nanda Devi
Trisul II Garhwal Chamoli 30°17 24 N
79°46 12 E 6690 Nanda Devi
Trisul III Garhwal Chamoli 30°15 00 N
79°46 12 E 6008 Nanda Devi
Uja Tirche Garhwal-Kumaon Chamoli-Pithoragarh
30°39 00 N 80°00 36 E 6204 Nanda Devi
Vasuki Parbat Garhwal Uttarkashi 30°52 30 N
79°10 30 E 6792 Gangotri
___________________________________________________
Note: It will be seen from the above data how densely

mountainous, with high peaks dotting the landscape, the Shivalik
Hills and other regions of the Himalayas are where Chitpavan
Brahmins’ ancestral home was..
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CHAPTER 17
***
LONGTIME HABITAT OF CHITPAVAN

BRAHMINS’ ANCESTORS
AHICHHATRA 43
Coordinates: 28.371°N 79.136°E

Ahichatra (or Ahi-Kshetra) was the ancient capital of Northern
Panchala, a northern Indian kingdom mentioned in Mahabharata.
The remains of this city has been discovered near Ramnagar village
in Aonla tehsil of Bareilly district in Uttar Pradesh state.
The excavations have brought to life a brick fortification and
continuity of occupation from a period before 600 BCE to 1100
CE.[1] During the first excavations in 1940–44, the Painted Gray
Ware pottery were found at the earliest level. Ruins of this city
could be identified from the remote sensing imagery of IRS (Indian
Remote Sensing) satellites. The ruins reveal that the city had a
triangular shape.
Recent excavations in Ahichhatra showed it was first inhabited by
the middle of the second millennium BC with Ochre Coloured
Pottery culture people, followed by Black and Red Ware culture.
Around 1000 BC, it reached at least 40 hectares of area, making it
one of the largest Painted Grey Ware culture sites.[2]The city was
alive up to end of Kurukshetra war. Near the Ahichhatra 2 km west
there is also a big pond at the time of Mahabharta in the village of
43
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ahichatra: Courtesy Wikipedia, subject to
their conditions as cited elsewhere.
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Jagannathpur and today the peoples bath in that pond. This pond is
made by the Pandavs at the time of Banavasa.
The territory under Ahichatra was formerly under the Panchala
king Drupada. Later it was taken over by Drona, after a war, in
which Drupada was defeated by Drona's
disciple Arjuna. Ashwatthama, the son of Drona, was given the
responsibility of ruling the territory of Northern Panchala from
Ahichatra. Ashwatthama probably ruled the kingdom being
subordinate to the rulers of Hastinapura.
The word Ahi means snake or Naga in Sanskrit. Nagas were a
group of ancient people who worshiped serpents. The
word khsetra means region in Sanskrit. This implies that Ahi-
kshetra was a region of Nagas.
This could mean that the region was populated originally by
Nagas, Nairs and Bunts of Kerala and Tulu-Nadu who
claim Kshatriya descent from the Nagas as well
as Namputhiri and Tuluva Brahmins (Hindu philosophers Adi
Shankara and Madhvacharya belonging to these communities) trace
their origins to this place.[3]
History
Its history reaches back to 1430 B.C., at which time it was capital
of Panchala. The name is written Ahikshetras as well asAhi-
chhatra, but the local legend of Adi Raja and the Naga, who
formed a canopy over his head, when asleep, shows that the latter is
the correct form.[4] This grand old fort is said to have been built by
Adi Raja, an Ahir, whose future elevation sovereignty was foretold
by Drona, when he found him sleeping under the guardianship of a
serpent with expended hood. The fort is also called Adikot.[4]
In ancient time this place was famous as ‘Sankhyavati’ but later on
after protection of Bhagwan Parshvanath from ‘Upsarg’ by serpent
hoods of Dharnendra & Padmawati, this place became famous as
‘Ahichchhatra’. Ahichchhatra is one of the ancient cities of India.
This city was the capital of ‘Panchal Janapada’. This Panchal
Janapada is one of the 52 Janapadas established by Bhagwan
Adinath.
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Vibhakar V. Lele
During next period there was partition of Panchal Janapada into

Northern Panchal and Southern Panchal. The ‘Kampila’ remained
capital of Southern Panchal and Ahichchhatra remained capital of
Northern Panchal. During ‘Mahabharata’ period the Northern
Panchal was ruled by King ‘Drona’ and Southern Panchal was
ruled by King ‘Drupada’. According to one of the inscriptions
discovered from the cave of Pabhosa Kshetra near Kaushambi the
one name of this place was ‘Adhichakra’ also.
From the 2nd century to the 6th century this place remained famous
as Ahichchhatra. We found name Ahichchhatra on ‘Yaksha Statue’
& ‘Clay Stamp of Gupta period’ discovered during excavations.
The ancient Ahichchhatra was spread in large area and its ruins are
still found around the city Ramnagar. According to the Chinese
traveler ‘Hu-en-tsang’ this place was spread in the area of 3 miles
and many Stupas were also constructed here.
Archaeology
A huge and magnificent temple was constructed in order to make
memories related with Samavsharan of Bhagwan Parshvanath long
lasting after their departure. According to petrographs, it is clear
that this temple remained up to the ‘Gupt period’. During that
period many Jain idols & Stupas were constructed here.
Many such idols & remains of Stupas and many other artistic things
were discovered after excavating one ancient fort. All these idols
belong to Digambar Jain tradition. The large numbers of coins got
during excavations belong to ‘Mitravanshi Kings’ and many
Mitravanshi Kings were followers of Jainism.
Events
Paatra Kesari is great Jain Acharya born during 6th – 7th century.
He was Brahmin and used to reside in Ahichchhatra. The Avanipal
was King of Ahichchhatra at that time. In his royal court 500
Brahmins scholars got discussion on philosophical matters and
Paatra Kesari was main scholar in them.
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Main Temple & Idol

Shri Ahichchhatra Parshvanath Atishaya Kshetra Digambar Jain
Mandir is thousands years ancient and its reconstruction was done
in the year 1975.
Natural Scenario
This Kshetra is situated near Ramnagar Village and is surrounded
by beautiful & peaceful natural environment.
Means of approach
From the Revati Bahoda Khera Station on Chandosi – Bareilly
Line, vehicle of Kshetra and other vehicles are available. Road: -
Buses are available from Delhi, Meerut, Aligarh, Lucknow,
Kasganj & Badaun. Train: - Trains are available from Delhi,
Bareilly, Agra, Muradabad, Aligarh to Revati Bahoda Khera
Station and vehicles are all time available for Ramnagar from
Revati Bahoda Khera Station. Airport: - Delhi 250 km
Nearby Places
Nainital – 180 km Hastinapur Atishaya Kshetra – 200 km Kampilji
Atishaya Kshetra – 180 km Manglayatan (Aligarh) – 180 km
Notes
1. Lahiri, Bela (1972). Indigenous States of Northern India (Circa
200 B.C. to 320 A.D.), Calcutta: University of Calcutta, pp.170-88
2. http://www.educationtimes.com/article/290/2013091720130917
1524062507304cdb3/What-Lies-Beneath.html What lies Beneath,
B. R. Mani 2013
3. Maclean's Manual of the Administration of the Madras
Presidency
4. Subodh Kapoor (1 Jan 2002). Encyclopaedia of Ancient Indian
Geography, Volume 1. Genesis Publishing Pvt Ltd. pp. 17, 18, 19.
Retrieved 30 September 2014.
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CHAPTER 18
***
LONGTIME RESIDENCE OF
CHITPAVAN BRAHMINS’
ANCESTORS
PANCHALA44
The position of the Panchala kingdom in Iron Age Vedic India.
44
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panchala: Courtesy Wikipedia, subject to
127
Vibhakar V. Lele
Panchala (Sanskrit: प्िाल, Pañcāla) was the name of an

ancient kingdom of northern India, located in the Ganges-
Yamuna Doab of the upper Gangetic plain, encompassing the
modern-day states of Uttarakhand and western Uttar Pradesh.
During Late Vedic times (c.850-500 BCE), it was one of the most
powerful states of South Asia, closely allied with the Kuru
Kingdom.[1] By the c. 5th century BCE, it had become an oligarchic
confederacy, considered as one of the solasa
(sixteen) Mahajanapadas (major states) of South Asia. After being
absorbed into the Mauryan Empire (322-185 BCE), Panchala
regained its independence until it was annexed by the Gupta
Empire in the 4th century CE.
Geographical extent
The Panchalas occupied the country to the east of the Kurus,

between the upper Himalayas and the river Ganges. It roughly
corresponded to modern Budaun, Farrukhabad and the
adjoining districts of Uttar Pradesh. The country was divided
into Uttara-Panchala and Dakshina-Panchala. The northern
Panchala had its capital at Ahichatra, (also known as
Adhichhatra and Chhatravati, near present-
day Ramnagar village in Aonla tehsil of Bareilly district, while
southern Panchala had it capital at Kampilya
or Kampil in Farrukhabad district. The famous city of Kanyakubja
or Kannauj was situated in the kingdom of Panchala.
Panchala during the Vedic period
Panchala was the second political center of Vedic civilization, as its

focus moved east from the Punjab, after the focus of power had
been with the Kurus in the early Iron Age. This period is associated
with the Painted Grey Ware culture, arising beginning around 1100
BCE, and declining from 600 BCE, with the end of the Vedic
period. The Shaunaka and TaittiriyaVedic schools were located in
the area of Panchala.
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The ruling confederacy, the Panchalas, as their name suggests,

probably consisted of five clans - the Krivis, the Turvashas, the
Keshins, the Srinjayas, and the Somakas. Each of these clans is
known to be associated with one or more princes mentioned in the
Vedic texts - the Krivis with Kravya Panchala, the Turvashas with
Sona Satrasaha, the Keshins with Keshin Dalavya, the Srinjayas
with Sahadeva Sarnjaya, and the Somakas with Somaka Sahadevya.
The names of the last two clans, the Somakas and the Srinjayas, are
also mentioned in the Mahabharata and the Puranas. King Drupada,
whose daughter Draupadi was married into the Pandavas, belonged
to the Somaka clan.[2] However, the Mahabharata and the
Puranas consider the ruling clan of the northern Panchala as an
offshoot of the Bharata clan and Divodasa, Sudas, Srinjaya,
Somaka, and Drupada (also called Yajnasena) were the most
notable rulers of this clan.[3]
Panchala under Magadhan rule
Originally a monarchical clan, the Panchalas appear to have

switched to republican corporation around 500 BCE. The Buddhist
text Anguttara Nikaya mentions Panchala as one of the
sixteen Mahajanapadas of the c. 6th century BCE.[4] The 4th
century BCE Arthashastra also attests the Panchalas as following
the Rajashabdopajivin (king consul) constitution. Panchala was
annexed into the Magadha Empire during the reign of Mahapadma
Nanda in the mid-4th century BCE.[5]
Panchala during post-Mauryan period
Coin of Agnimitra, showing the depiction of Agni with flaming

hair on the obverse, and a reverse showing the three dynastic
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symbols of the Panchala rulers and a legend naming the king:

Agimitasa.
Coin of Achyuta, the last Panchala king, showing an 8-spoked

wheel and the king's name: Achyu.
Numismatic evidence reveals the existence of independent rulers of

Panchala during the post-Mauryan period. Most of the coins issued
by them are found at Ahichatra and adjoining areas. All the
coins are round, made of a copper alloy and have a set pattern on
the obverse-a deeply incised square punch consisting of a row of
three symbols and the ruler's name placed in a single line below
them. The reverse bears depictions of the deities or sometimes of
their attributes, whose names form a component of the issuers'
names (for example, coins of Agnimitra bear the depiction
of Agni). The names of the rulers found on these coins are
Vangapala, Yajnapala, Damagupta, Rudragupta, Jayagupta,
Suryamitra, Phalgunimitra, Bhanumitra, Bhumimitra, Dhruvamitra,
Agnimitra, Indramitra, Vishnumitra, Jayamitra, Prajapatimitra,
Varunamitra, Anamitra, Bhadraghosha and Yugasena (the reverse
of the coins of Varunamitra, Yugasena and Anamitra do not exhibit
any deity). Shaunakayaniputra Vangapala, ruler of Ahichatra,
whom Vaidehiputra Ashadhasena mentioned as his grandfather in
his Pabhosa inscription, is identified with king Vangapala, known
from his coins. The name of Damagupta is also found on a clay
sealing.[6][7]
The last independent ruler of Ahichatra was probably Achyuta, who

was defeated by Samudragupta, after which, Panchala was annexed
into the Gupta Empire.[8] The coins of Achyuta found from
Ahichatra have a wheel of eight spokes on the reverse and the
legend Achyu on the obverse.[9]
130
Vibhakar V. Lele
References[edit]
1. Witzel, Michael (1995), "Early Sanskritization: Origin and
Development of the Kuru state", EJVS vol. 1 no. 4 (1995)
2. Pargiter, F.E. (1972). Ancient Indian Historical Tradition, Delhi:
Motilal Banarsidass, p.117
3. Raychaudhuri, H.C. (1972) Political History of Ancient India,
Calcutta: University of Calcutta, pp.65-8.
4. Raychaudhuri, H.C. (1972). Political History of Ancient India,
Calcutta: University of Calcutta, p.85
6. Lahiri, B. (1974). Indigenous States of Northern India (Circa
200 B.C. to 320 A.D.) , Calcutta: University of Calcutta, pp.170-88
7. Bhandare, S. (2006). Numismatics and History: The Maurya-
Gupta Interlude in the Gangetic Plain in P. Olivelle ed. Between
the Empires: Society in India 300 BCE to 400 CE, New York:
Oxford University Press, ISBN 0-19-568935-6, pp.76,88
9. Lahiri, B. (1974). Indigenous States of Northern India (Circa
200 B.C. to 320 A.D.) , Calcutta: University of Calcutta, p.182
131
Vibhakar V. Lele
CHAPTER 19
***
THE KAMBOJAS45
The Kambojas were a Kshatriya tribe of Iron Age India, frequently
mentioned in Sanskrit and Pali literature.
Vedic period India, with the Kamboja on the northwest border
Ethnicity and language
The ancient Kambojas were probably an Indo-Iranian

tribe.[1] They are however, sometimes described as Indo-
Aryans[2][page needed][3][clarification needed][4] and sometimes
as having both Indian and Iranian affinities.[5][6][7] The Kambojas
are also described as a royal clan of the Sakas.[8]
45
The following extracted matter is borrowed from :
https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kambojas
Courtesy Wikipedia, subject to their conditions as cited elsewhere.
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Vibhakar V. Lele
Origins
The earliest reference to the Kamboja is in the works of P ṇini,

around the 5th century BCE. Other pre-Common Era references
appear in the Manusmriti (2nd century) and the Mahabharata (1st
century), both of which described the Kambojas as former
kshatriyas who had degraded through a failure to abide by Hindu
sacred rituals.[9] Their territories were located beyond Gandhara,
beyond Pakistan, Afghanistan layingin Tajikistan, Uzbekistan, Kyr
gyzstan where Buddha statues were built in the name of king
Maurya & Ashoka[10] and the 3rd century BCE Edicts of
Ashoka refers to the area under Kamboja control as being
independent of the Mauryan empire in which it was situated.[9]
Some sections of the Kambojas crossed the Hindu Kush and

planted Kamboja colonies in Paropamisadae and as far as Rajauri.
The Mahabharata locates the Kambojas on the near side of the
Hindu Kush as neighbors to the Daradas, and the Parama-
Kambojas across the Hindu Kush as neighbors to
the Rishikas (or Tukharas) of
the Ferghana region.[11][page needed][12][13]
The confederation of the Kambojas may have stretched from the

valley of Rajauri in the south-western part of Kashmir to the Hindu
Kush Range; in the south–west the borders extended probably as
far as the regions of Kabul, Ghazni and Kandahar, with the nucleus
in the area north-east of the present day Kabul, between the Hindu
Kush Range and the Kunar river, includingKapisa[14][15] possibly
extending from the Kabul valleys to Kandahar.[16]
Others locate the Kambojas and the Parama-Kambojas in the areas

spanning Balkh, Badakshan, the Pamirs and Kafiristan.[17] D. C.
Sircar supposed them to have lived "in various settlements in the
wide area lying between Punjab, Iran, to the south of
Balkh."[18] and the Parama-Kamboja even farther north, in the
Trans-Pamirian territories comprising the Zeravshan valley,
towards the Farghana region, in the Scythia of the classical
writers.[2][page needed][19][20] The mountainous region between
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Vibhakar V. Lele
the Oxus and Jaxartes is also suggested as the location of the

ancient Kambojas.[21]
The name Kamboja may derive from (Kam + bhuj), referring to the
people of a country known as "Kum" or "Kam". The mountainous
highlands where the Jaxartes and its confluents arise are called the
highlands of the Komedes by Ptolemy.Ammianus Marcellinus also
names these mountains as Komedas.[22][23][24] The Kiu-mi-to in
the writings of Hiuen Tsang have also been identified with
the Komudha-dvipa of the Puranic literature and the Iranian
Kambojas.[25][26]
The two Kamboja settlements on either side of the Hindu Kush are
also substantiated from Ptolemy's Geography, which refers to
the Tambyzoi located north of the Hindu Kush on the river Oxus
in Bactria, and the Ambautai people on the southern side of
Hindukush in the Paropamisadae.[citation needed] Scholars have
identified both the Ptolemian Tambyzoi and Ambautai with
Sanskrit Kamboja.[11][27][28][29][30]
Theory of Origin - Eurasian Nomads
Some scholars believe that the Trans-Caucasian hydronyms and

toponyms viz. Cyrus, Cambyses and Cambysene were due to
tribal extension of the Iranian ethnics — the Kurus and Kambojas
of the Indian texts, who according to them, had moved to the north
of the Medes in Armenian Districts in remote antiquity.[31]
Chandra Chakraberty also theorizes that the Kambojas---the

Kambohs of NW Panjab was a branch of the Scythian Cambysene
from ancient Armenia.[32]
As against the above, Buddha Prakash, S. Misra and others have

done further research on this topic and have come to the conclusion
that the Kurus and Kambojas were in fact, a Eurasian Nomads from
the Central Asian Steppe who, as a composite horde, had
entered Iran, Armenia, Anatolia as well as Indian Sub-
continent through the passage between the Pamir mountains and
the Caspian sea around 8th or 9th century BCE (or even
earlier).[citation needed]
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Vibhakar V. Lele
The Kambojan States
The capital of Kamboja was probably Rajapura (modern Rajori).

The Kamboja Mahajanapada of Buddhist traditions refers to this
cis-Hindukush branch.[33]
Kautiliya's Arthashastra and Ashoka's Edict No. XIII attest that the
Kambojas followed a republican constitution. P ṇini's Sutras tend
to convey that the Kamboja of P ṇini was a "Kshatriya monarchy",
but "the special rule and the exceptional form of derivative" he
gives to denote the ruler of the Kambojas implies that the king of
Kamboja was a titular head (king consul) only.[34]
The Aśvakas
Main article: Aśvakas
The Kambojas were famous in ancient times for their excellent

breed of horses and as remarkable horsemen located in the
Uttarapatha or north-west.[35][36] They were constituted into
military sanghas and corporations to manage their political and
military affairs.[citation needed] The Kamboja cavalry offered their
military services to other nations as well. There are numerous
references to Kamboja having been requisitioned as cavalry
troopers in ancient wars by outside nations.[37][38]
It was on account of their supreme position in horse (Ashva) culture

that the ancient Kambojas were also popularly known as Ashvakas,
i.e. horsemen. Their clans in the Kunar and Swat valleys have been
referred to as Assakenoi and Aspasioi in classical writings,
and Ashvakayanas and Ashvayanas in P ṇini's Ashtadhyayi.
The Kambojas were famous for their horses and as cavalry-men

(a va-yuddha-Ku alah), A vakas, 'horsemen', was the term
popularly applied to them... The A vakas inhabited Eastern
Afghanistan, and were included within the more general term
Kambojas. — K.P.Jayswal[36]
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Vibhakar V. Lele
Elsewhere Kamboja is regularly mentioned as "the country of

horses" (Asvanam ayatanam), and it was perhaps this well-
established reputation that won for the horse breeders of Bajaur and
Swat the designation Aspasioi (from the Old Pali aspa) and
assakenoi (from the Sanskrit asva "horse"). — Etienne Lamotte[39]
Alexander's Conflict with the Kambojas
Main article: Alexander's Conflict with the Kambojas
The Kambojas entered into conflict with Alexander the Great as he

invaded Central Asia. The Macedonian conqueror made short shrift
of the arrangements of Darius and after over-running the
Achaemenid Empire he dashed into Afghanistan. There he
encountered incredible resistance of the
Kamboja Aspasioi and Assakenoi tribes.[40][41]
The Ashvayans (Aspasioi) were also good cattle breeders and

agriculturists. This is clear from the large number of bullocks,
230,000 according to Arrian, of a size and shape superior to what
the Macedonians had known that Alexander captured from them
and decided to send to Macedonia for agriculture.[42][43]
Migrations
During the 2nd and 1st centuries BCE, clans of the Kambojas from
north Afghanistan in alliance the with Sakas, Pahlavas and the
Yavanas entered India, spread into Sindhu, Saurashtra, Malwa,
Rajasthan, Punjab and Surasena, and set up independent
principalities in western and south-western India. Later, a branch of
the same people took Gauda and Varendra territories from the
Palas and established the Kamboja-Pala Dynasty of Bengal in
Eastern India.[44][45][46]
There are references to the hordes of the Sakas, Yavanas,

Kambojas, and Pahlavas in the Bala Kanda of the Valmiki
Ramayana. In these verses one may see glimpses of the struggles of
the Hindus with the invading hordes from the north-
west.[4][47][48][49] The royal family of the Kamuias mentioned in
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Vibhakar V. Lele
the Mathura Lion Capital are believed to be linked to the royal

house of Taxila in Gandhara.[50] In the medieval era, the
Kambojas are known to have seized north-west Bengal
(Gauda and Radha) from the Palas of Bengal and established their
own Kamboja-Pala Dynasty. Indian texts like Markandeya
Purana, Vishnu Dharmottari Agni Purana,[51]
Eastern Kambojas
See also: Kamboja-Pala Dynasty of Bengal
A branch of Kambojas seems to have migrated eastwards

towards Tibet in the wake of Kushana (1st century) or
else Huna (5th century) pressure and hence their notice in the
chronicles of Tibet ("Kam-po-tsa, Kam-po-ce, Kam-po-ji")
and Nepal(Kambojadesa).[52][53][54] The 5th-century Brahma
Purana mentions the Kambojas around Pragjyotisha and
Tamraliptika.[55]>[56][57][58]
The Kambojas of ancient India are known to have been living in

north-west, but in this period (9th century AD), they are known to
have been living in the north-east India also, and very probably, it
was meant Tibet.[59]
The last Kambojas ruler of the Kamboja-Pala Dynasty Dharmapala

was defeated by the south Indian Emperor Rajendra Chola I of
the Chola dynasty in the 11th century.[60][61]
Mauryan period
See also: Maurya Empire
The Kambojas find prominent mention as a unit in the 3rd-century

BCE Edicts of Ashoka. Rock Edict XIII tells us that the Kambojas
had enjoyed autonomy under the Mauryas.[4][62] The republics
mentioned in Rock Edict V are the Yonas, Kambojas, Gandharas,
Nabhakas and the Nabhapamkitas. They are designated as araja.
vishaya in Rock Edict XIII, which means that they were kingless,
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Vibhakar V. Lele
i.e. republican polities. In other words, the Kambojas formed a self-

governing political unit under the Maurya emperors.[63][64]
Ashoka sent missionaries to the Kambojas to convert them

to Buddhism, and recorded this fact in his Rock Edict
V.[65][66][67]
___________________________________________________
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Vibhakar V. Lele
CHAPTER 20
***
MITHILA (ANCIENT)46
Mithila (Sanskrit: mithilā), located in Ancient India, was the
capital city of the Videha Kingdom. With its name commonly used
to refer to the Videha Kingdom itself, as well as to the modern-day
territories that fall within the ancient boundaries of Videha (Mithila
(India) and Mithila (Nepal)), the city of Mithila has been identified
as modern day Janakpur in the Dhanusa district of Nepal. The
Mithila kingdom existed on the eastern Indo-Gangetic Plain, an
area which today is spread over more than half of India's Bihar state
and parts of adjoining Nepal.
The legend of Mithila extends over many centuries. Both Gautama

Buddha and Vardamana Mahavira are said to have lived in Mithila.
It also formed the center of Indian history during the first
millennium, and has contributed to various literary and scriptural
works.
The name Mithila is derived after Mythical King 'Miti'. He was

supposed to have been created from the body of his father King
Nimi. He established the capital of his kingdom at Mithilapuri and
hence the region came to be called Mithila. Since he was born out
of body of his father, he took the title Janaka. After this, the
Kings were called Janaka. The best known Janaka was
Kushadhwaja, father of Sita. He was 21st Janaka of Mithila. This
Dynasty was also called Videha Janaka. There were 57 kings in the
dynasty of Videha Janaka.
46
https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mithila_(ancient)
Courtesy Wikipedia, subject to their conditions as cited elsewhere.
139
Vibhakar V. Lele
Ancient history and myths
The most important reference to Mithila is in the Hindu

epic Ramayana, whereby Lord Rama's wife Sita is said to have
been the princess of the land, born to King Janaka, who ruled
Mithila. Other kings of Mithila during the ancient period were
Bhanumath, Satghumanya, Suchi, Urjnama, Satdhwya, Kriti,
Anjan, Arisnami, Srutayu, Supasyu, Suryasu, Srinjay, Sourmabi,
Anena, Bhimrath, Satyarath, Upangu, Upgupt, Swagat, Snanand,
Subrachya, Supraswa, Subhasn, Suchurut, Susurath, Jay, Vijay,
Critu, Suny, Vith Habya, Dwati, Bahulaswa and Kriti Tirtiya.
It is said that the last king of the Janakas was of bad

character.[who?] He was deposed by the public under the leadership
of acharyas or learned men. Thereafter, Mithila remained without a
king for hundreds of years. During this period, instead of a
monarchy, a democratic system was followed under which the ruler
was elected by the people and decisions taken in a collective
manner.[1] This continued for several centuries until the region was
attacked and conquered by the Magadha kingdom. Thereafter, it
came to be included under some of the Janapadas (oligarchies ruled
by guilds such as Vajji Sangha, Lichhavi) until after the conquest
by successive Magadha dynasties
(Shaishunaga, Nanda, Maurya, Sunga, Gupta, and Vardhan), who
ruled the area at various times.
Ruling dynasties
In the medieval and modern history of India, Mithila has never

been ruled as a separate state. Until the 14th century, Mithila was
part of erstwhile Bengal and ruled by Bengal Kings. Later on, after
the fall of Bengal to Muslim rulers, Mithila became a part of
Ghulam/Tuglaq/Mughal Kingdoms. Starting with the Oinwara
dynasty, all the rulers of Mithila listed hereunder were not
independent kings. Their status was more or less of rent paying
Rajas, Subedars or Jamindars, despite the fact that several of them
were granted the titles of Raja, Maharaja or Maharajadiraj by
Muslim and English rulers.
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CHAPTER 21
***
ASMAKA/ASSAKA47
Assaka
This article is about the historical region of Aśmaka. For the
kingdom in Indian Epic Literature, see Asmaka Kingdom.
The Assaka Mahajanapada

Assaka (Sanskrit: अ्मक, A maka Pali: Assaka), was a region
of ancient India (700–300 BCE). It was one of
the solasa (sixteen) Mahajanapadas in the 6th century BCE,
mentioned in the Buddhist text Anguttara Nikaya.
The region was located on the banks of the Godavari river, between
the rivers Godavari and Manjira. It was the only Mahajanapada
situated to the south of the Vindhya Range and was
in Dakshinapatha. It corresponds to districts Nizamabadand parts
47
https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mithila_(ancient): Courtesy Wikipedia,
141
Vibhakar V. Lele
of Adilabad in Telangana and Nanded, Yavatmal in Maharashtra st

ates in current-day India.
The Prakrit name of Bodhan (Telugu: బో ధ్) is from "bhoodaan"
(Sanskrit: भद
ू ाि) (Telugu: భూదా్) meaning "Land given to poor as
alms", identified as present dayBodhan. The capital is variously
called Potali, or Podana, which now lies in the Nandura Tehsil.
The Buddhist text Mahagovinda Suttanta mentions about a ruler of
Assaka, Brahmadatta who ruled from Potali.[1]
The Matsya Purana (ch.272) lists twenty-five rulers of A maka,
contemporary to the Shishunaga rulers of Magadha.[2]
Later, the people spread southward to the territory of
the Rashtrakuta empire, which is now in modern Maharastra.
Ashmaka is also identified as Assaka
and A vakas in Buddhist literature and Gatha Saptashati of
king H la. Ashmaka is derived from Sanskrit word "Ashma" which
means Stone or Gem: In fact one finds thousands of hillocks and
stones in this region and thus aptly called Ashmaka. There is a
speculation that about 10 to 20 Million years back, there was a
heavy Meteoroid fall in this Region.[citation needed]
References
1. Raychaudhuri, Hemchandra (1972) Political History of Ancient
India, University of Calcutta, Mumbai, p.80
2. Law, B.C. (1973). Tribes in Ancient India, Poona: Bhandarkar
Oriental Research Institute, pp.180-3
3. Law, Bimala Churn (1926). "3. The Asmakas or
Assakas". Ancient Indian Tribes. Motilal Banarsidas.
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Vibhakar V. Lele
Asmaka Kingdom48
Asmaka was a kingdom among the 16 Mahajanapadas mentioned in
the Buddhist texts. All other kingdoms were in the north,
from Vanga to Gandhara. Some believes that Asmaka was a colony of
the Kambojas, and its earlier name was Aswaka. The
epic Mahabharata mentions that the king of the name Asmaka was
the adopted son of Saudasa alias Kalmashapada a king
of Kosala and an Ikshwaku ruler.
Asmaka the adopted son of Saudasa
Madayanti, the wife of Saudasa, commanded by her husband to
raise offspring went unto Rishi Vasishtha. And on going in unto
him, the handsome Madayanti obtained a son named Asmaka.
(1,122).
This history is repeated at (1,197), where it adds that the queen bore
the embryo in her womb for a long time. She being impatient upon
her pregnancy, hit her stomach by stone (Asma, in Sanskrit), hence
the son thus born was named Asmaka. He became a great king and
founded the city of Paudanya.
As per Rigveda, Asmaka is region near to Vidarbha , Varuna are
living in Asmaka as per Rigveda book two and hymn 31: ..
Asmakas in Kurukshetra War
On Pandava Side
Asmakas were mentioned to be on the side of Pandavas,
with Dhristadyumna, at (7.83)
On Kaurava Side
Borne by his well-broken steeds Abhimanyu quickly checked
the son of Asmaka. Staying before him, the handsome son of
Asmaka pierced him with ten shafts and addressing him, said,
‘Wait, Wait.’ Abhimanyu then, with ten shafts, cut off the former’s
steeds and charioteer and standard and two arms and bow and head,
48
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asmaka_Kingdom; Courtesy Wikipedia,
143
Vibhakar V. Lele
and caused them to fall down on the earth, smiling the while. After
the heroic ruler of the Asmakas had thus been slain by the son of
Subhadra, the whole of his force wavered and began to fly away
from the field. (7,35)
Karna's conquests
Dhritarashtra talks of Karna having conquered the mighty foes----
the Gandharas, the Madrakas, the Matsyas, the Trigartas,
the Tanganas, the Khasas, the Pancalas, the Videhas, the Kulindas,
the Kasi-kosalas, the Suhmas, the Angas, the Nishadhas,
the Pundras, the Kichakas, the Vatsas, the Kalingas, the Taralas,
the Asmakas, and the Rishikas (i.e. south-western Rishikas located
in Maharashtra) (8.8) and numerous other tribes including
the Kaikeyas, Kambojas, Ambasthas and Videhas, etc.
Asmaka Sumantu, a sage
Asmaka Sumantu was a sage among the sages who assembled
in Kurukshetra, during the last days of Kuru hero Bhishma. (12,47)
References
1. Mahabharata of Krishna Dwaipayana Vyasa, translated to
English by Kisari Mohan Ganguli
2. Law, Bimala Churn (1926). "3. The Asmakas or
Assakas". Ancient Indian Tribes. Motilal Banarsidas.
Mahajanapada49
Assaka
Main article: Assaka
The Country of Assaka or the Ashmaka tribe was located
in Dakshinapatha or southern India. In Buddha's time, the
Assakas were located on the banks of the river Godavari(south
49
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahajanapada; Courtesy Wikipedia, subject
to their conditions as cited elsewhere.
144
Vibhakar V. Lele
of the Vindhya mountains). The capital of the Assakas was

Potana or Potali, which corresponds to Paudanya
of Mahabharata. The Ashmakas are also mentioned by Pāṇini.
They are placed in the north-west in the Markendeya
Purana and the Brhat Samhita. The river Godavari separated
the country of the Assakas from that of the Mulakas (or
Alakas).
The commentator of Kautiliya's Arthashastra identifies
Ashmaka with Maharashtra. The country of Assaka lay outside
the pale of Madhyadesa. It was located on a southern high
road, the Dakshinapatha. At one time, Assaka included Mulaka
and abutted Avanti.[13]
Mahajanapada
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Mahajanapada
←
c. 600 BCE–c. 300
BCE →
←
145
Vibhakar V. Lele
Map of the 16 Mahajanapada
___________________________________________________
146
Vibhakar V. Lele
CHAPTER 22
***
AGNIHOTRA
AGNICAYANA50
"Athirathram" redirects here. For the Malayalam film, see

Athirathram (film).
The Atiratra Agnicayana (ati-r trá agní-cayana "the building up of

the fireplace performed overnight") or Athirathram is the piling of
the altar of Agni. It is a rauta ritual of the Vedic religion and is
considered to be the greatest ritual as per the Vedic ritual
hierarchy.[1] It has been claimed as the world's oldest surviving
ritual.[2] Its mantras are first attested in the Yajurveda
Samhitas (Taittiriya, Kathaka; Vajasaneyi) of the Kuru
Kingdom, c.1000 BCE, and its theological explanations are in the
Brahmana texts. The practice of this ritual was generally
discontinued among Brahmins by the late Vedic period, during the
rise of Jainism and Buddhism in India. Nevertheless, a continuous,
unbroken 3,000 year tradition has been claimed to exist among a
few Nambudiri Brahmin families in Kerala, South India.
The entire ritual takes twelve days to perform, in the course of

which a great bird-shaped altar, the Uttaravedi "northern altar" is
built out of 1005 bricks. The liturgical text is in chapter 20 to
25th of Krishna Yajurveda. The immediate purpose of the
Agnicayana is to build up for the sacrificer an immortal body
that is permanently beyond the reach of the transitoriness,
suffering, and death that, according to this rite, characterize
man's mortal existence.[3]
50
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agnicayana: Courtesy Wikipedia, subject to
147
Vibhakar V. Lele
The ritual emerged from predecessor rituals, which were

incorporated as building blocks, around the 10th century BC, and
was likely continuously practiced until the late Vedic period, or the
6th century BC. In post-Vedic times, there were various revivals of
the practice, under the Gupta Empire in the north (ca. 4th to 6th
century), and under the Chola Empire in the south (ca. 9th century),
but by the 11th century, the practice was held to have been
discontinued, except for the Nambudiris of Kerala.
To observe the ritual, goat sacrifice is essential.[4] Since animal

sacrifice is frowned upon by Hindu society since the end of the
Vedic age and is a punishable offense in modern India, all
documented Agnicayanas have been performed without sacrifice
and may therefore be deemed incomplete.
In 1975 Indologist Frits Staal documented in great detail the

performance of an Agnicayana performed by Nambudiri Brahmins
according to Samaveda tradition[5] at Panjal, Kerala.[6][7] The last
performance before that had been in 1956, and the Nambudiris
were concerned that the ritual was threatened by extinction. It had
never before been observed by outsiders. The scholars contributed
towards the cost of the ritual, and the Nambudiris agreed that it
should be filmed and recorded. The ritual was performed from 12
to 24 April 1975. An effigy was used to symbolize the goat
sacrifice, due to overwhelming opposition by animal protection
groups.[4] Staal (1989) bases a general analysis of the similarities
of grammar and ritual on this performance.
After the 1975 Agnicayana, there have been several more

Nambudiri performances: in 1990 Agnicayana was performed at
Kundoor, and in 2006 at Sukapuram.[7] Belief holds Sukapuram to
be one among the 64 villages originally established by
Parashurama, the sixth avatar of Vishnu after creating Kerala by
throwing his axe into the ocean. The Somayagam (Agnistoma) was
performed for the first time in 222 years at Aluva from 25 April till
1 May 2009.[8]
An Athirathram Yagna was conducted at Panjal (Trichur district,

Kerala), home to most of the yagnas in Kerala including the 1975
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Vibhakar V. Lele
one and where most of Samavedic Namboodiris reside from April

4–14, 2011.[9]
Since then two more Athiratrams were conducted at Kodakara

(Trichur district, Kerala) from March 23 to April , 2012, featuring
rare Aaswalaayana (Pakazhiya) –Boudhaayana combination. The
last Athirathram of this type was performed 112 years ago.[10]
The ritual was also performed for the first time outside Kerala by
Nambudiris from 21 April 2012 to 2 May 2012 at Bhadrachalam
(Khammam district, Andhra Pradesh).[11]
Ref: Tull, Herman (1989). The Vedic origins of karma: cosmos as

man in ancient Indian myth and ritual. SUNY Press. p. 108. ISBN
978-0-7914-0094-4.
Staal, Frits (1975-76) The Agnicayana Ritual in India, 1975-

1976 (supplied) 76.2.1 1975-1976
Hyla Stuntz Converse (November 1974). "The Agnicayana Rite:
Indigenous Origin?". History of Religions 14 (2): 81–95.
doi:10.1086/462716. JSTOR 1062002.
Schechner, Richard (1989). Between theater and anthropology.
University of Pennsylvania Press. p. 96. ISBN 978-0-8122-1225-9.
"Officials in Yaga". Athirathram.org.
Frits Staal (1983) Agni, the Vedic ritual of the fire altar
"Worshipping the sun". The Hindu. 2005-08-05.
"SOMA YAGYAS" (PDF). The Vedic Society.
More information can be found at http://athirathram2011.com.
http://www.threthagni.com/threthagni.html
http://khssevatrust.com/athirathram-2012-1.html
Frits Staal, Agni, the Vedic ritual of the fire altar (1983).
Frits Staal, Rules Without Meaning. Ritual, Mantras and the
Human Sciences, Peter Lang: New York- Bern-Frankfurt am Main-
Paris, 1989.
Itti Ravi Mamunne, Agni and the Foreign Savants EJVS 10
(2003) [1]
http://www.athirathram.org/
Content is available under CC BY-SA 3.0 unless otherwise
noted.
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AGNIHOTRA51
A Brahmin priest making offerings of ghee (clarified butter) into a

sacred fire.
Agnihotra is a Vedic yajña (ritual or sacrifice) performed in Hindu

communities. It is mentioned in the Atharvaveda (11:7:9) and
described in detail in the Yajurveda Samhita and the Shatapatha
Brahmana (12:4:1). The Vedic form of the ritual is still performed
by the Nambudiri Brahmins of Kerala [1] and by a small number of
Vaidiki Brahmins in South Asia.[2] Modern versions of the
Agnihotra are promoted by various individuals and groups as a
non-sectarian ritual for the healing and purification of the
atmosphere and as a primary source of vibhuti or sacred ash.[3]
The Vedic Agnihotra
The central part of the Agnihotra consists of making two offerings

of brown rice (unpolished) into the fire exactly at, slightly before,
or even after the time of sunset and sunrise, along with Vedic
mantras that relate the fire and the sun to each other: 'agnir jyotir,
jyotiḥ sūryaḥ sv h ' in the evening, but the reverse 'sūryo jyotir,
jyotir agniḥ sv h ' in the morning. This preserves the sun over
night, which is also one of the interpretations of the ritual given in
the Samhitas and Brahmanas.[4]
This small rite is surrounded by a large number of additional

actions and is followed by the worship of the three (or five) sacred
fires (agny-upasth na). The ritual is performed by a Brahmin priest
for his own or the benefit of a sponsor (yajam na). The Vedic
Agnihotra takes about 15 minutes in current performances.
There is a simplified version of the Agnihotra in the Grihyasutras

and in later post-Vedic texts.
51
https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Agnihotra Courtesy Wikipedia, subject to
150
Vibhakar V. Lele
Ref: Swami Parmeshwaranand (1997), Encyclopaedic Dictionary

of Puranas, Sarup & Sons, p. 906, ISBN 978-81-7625-226-3
Bhatt, G.P. (2003), Skanda Purana Pt. 19 (Aitm Vol. 67) Ancient
Indian Tradition And Mythology, Volume 67, Motilal Banarsidass
Publishers Pvt. Ltd., p. 346, ISBN 978-81-208-1984-9
Dhar, Bharat B. (2001), Proceedings of the 27th International

Conference of Safety in Mines Research Institutes, Volume 2,
Oxford & IBH Pub. Co. Pvt. Ltd., p. 1167, ISBN 978-81-204-1152-
4
H.W. Bodewitz. The daily evening and morning offering

(Agnihotra) according to the Br hmaṇas. Leiden : Brill, 1976
Content is available under CC BY-SA 3.0 unless otherwise

noted.
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Vibhakar V. Lele
CHAPTER 23
***
THE SHATAPATHA BRAHMANA ON

AGNIHOTRA
THIRD ADHYÂYA - FIRST BRÂHMANA52
2:3:1:11. The Agnihotra, doubtless, is the Sun. It is because he rose

in front (agre) of that offering 1, that the Agnihotra is the Sun.
2:3:1:22. When he offers in the evening after sunset, he does so
thinking, 'I will offer, while he is here, who is this (offering);' and
when he offers in the morning before sunrise, he does so thinking, 'I
will offer, while he is here, who is this (offering):' and for this
reason, they say, the Agnihotra is the Sun.
2:3:1:33. And when he sets, then he, as an embryo, enters that
womb, the fire; and along with him thus becoming an embryo, all
these creatures become embryos; for, being coaxed, they lie down
contented 2.The reason, then, why the night envelops that (sun), is
that embryos also are, as it were, enveloped.
2:3:1:44. Now when he offers in the evening after sunset, he offers
for the good of that (sun) in the embryo state, he benefits that
embryo; and since he offers for the good of that (sun) in the embryo
state, therefore embryos here live without taking food.
2:3:1:55. And when he offers in the morning before sunrise, then he
produces that (sun-child) and, having become a light, it rises
shining. But, assuredly, it would not rise, were he not to make that
offering: this is why he performs that offering.
2:3:1:66. Even as a snake frees itself from its skin, so does it (the
sun-child) free itself from the night, from evil: and, verily,
52
Excerpt from The Satapatha Brahmana, Part I, Sacred Books of the
East, Vol. 12 translated by Julius Eggeling [1882] Ref. http://www.sacred-
texts.com/hin/sbr/sbe12/sbe1248.htm
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Vibhakar V. Lele
whosoever, knowing this, offers the Agnihotra, he frees himself

from all evil, even as a snake frees itself from its skin; and after his
birth all these creatures are born; for they are set free according to
their inclination.
2:3:1:77. Then, as to his taking out the Âhavanîya (from the
Gârhapatya) before the setting of the sun;--the rays, doubtless, are
all those gods; and what highest light there is, that, indeed, is either
Pragâpati or Indra. Now all the gods approach the house of him
who performs the Agnihotra: but whosesoever (offering) they
approach before the fire has been taken out, from that the gods turn
away, and he fails in it; and after the failure of that (offering) from
which the gods turn away, people say, that, whether one knows it or
not, the sun went down on account of that (fire) not having been
taken out.
2:3:1:88. And another reason why he takes out the Âhavanîya
before the setting of the sun, is this. In like manner as, when one's
better comes to visit one, he would honour him by trimming his
house, so here: for whosesoever (offering) they approach, after the
fire has been taken out, his Âhavanîya (house) they enter, in his
Âhavanîya they repose.
2:3:1:99. Now when he offers in the evening after the sun has set,
he thereby offers to them after they have entered his fire-house; and
when he offers in the morning before sunrise, he offers to them
before they go away. Therefore Âsuri said, 'The Agnihotra of those
who offer after sunrise we regard as useless 1: it is as if one were to
take food to an empty dwelling.'
2:3:1:1010. That which affords (the means of) subsistence is of two
kinds; namely, either rooted or rootless. On both of these, which
belong to the gods, men subsist. Now cattle are rootless and plants
are rooted. From the rootless cattle eating the rooted plants and
drinking water, that juice is produced.
2:3:1:1111. Now when he offers in the evening after sunset, he
does so thinking, 'I will offer to the gods of this life-giving juice:
we subsist on this which belongs to them.' And when he afterwards
takes his evening meal, he eats what remains of the offering, and
whereof oblative portions (bali) have been distributed all round 2;
for he who performs the Agnihotra eats only what remains of the
offering.
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Vibhakar V. Lele
2:3:1:1212. And when he offers in the morning before sunrise, he

does so thinking, 'I will offer to the gods of this life-giving juice:
we subsist on this which belongs to them.' And when he afterwards
takes his meal in the day-time, he eats what remains of the offering,
and whereof oblative portions have been distributed all round; for
he who performs the Agnihotra eats only what remains of the
offering.
2:3:1:1313. Here now they say,--All other sacrifices come to an
end, but the Agnihotra does not come to an end. Although that
which lasts for twelve years is indeed limited, this (Agnihotra) is
nevertheless unlimited, since, when one has offered in the evening,
he knows that he will offer in the morning; and when one has
offered in the morning, he knows that he will again offer in the
evening. Hence that Agnihotra is unlimited, and in consequence of
this its unlimitedness, creatures are here born unlimited. And,
verily, he who thus knows the unlimitedness of the Agnihotra, is
himself born unlimited in prosperity and offspring.
2:3:1:1414. Having milked 1 he puts that (milk) on (the Gârhapatya
fire), because it has to be cooked. Here now they say, 'When it rises
to the brim, then we shall offer it!' He must not however let it rise
to the brim, since he would burn it, if he were to let it rise to the
brim; and unproductive indeed is burnt seed: he must not, therefore,
let it rise to the brim.
2:3:1:1515. He should not offer it without having put it on the fire;
for since this is Agni's seed, therefore it is hot (srita, 'cooked'); and
by putting it on the fire, it is indeed heated: let him, therefore, offer
(of the milk) only after he has put it on the fire.
2:3:1:1616. He illumines it (with a burning straw) 1 in order that he
may know when it is done. He then pours some water to it (with the
sruva), both for the sake of appeasement, and in order to
supplement the juice. For when it rains here; then plants spring up;
and in consequence of the plants being eaten and the water drunk,
this juice is produced: hence it is in order to supplement the juice
(that he pours water to it); and therefore, if it should happen to him
to have to drink pure milk, let him have one drop of water poured
into it, both for the sake of appeasement, and in order to
supplement the juice.
2:3:1:1717. Thereupon he ladles four times (milk with the sruva
into the Agnihotra ladle 2), for in a fourfold way was that milk
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Vibhakar V. Lele
supplied 3. He then takes a kindling-stick (samidh), and hastes up

(to the Âhavanîya, with the ladle) to make the libation on the
burning (stick) 4. He offers the first libation (pûrvâhuti) without
putting down (the spoon) beside (the fire, on the grass-bunch). For,
were he to put it down beside (the fire), it would be as if, in taking
food to somebody, one were to put it down on one's way thither.
But when (he makes the libation) without previously putting it
down, it is as if, in taking food to somebody, one puts it down only
after taking it to him. The second (libation he then makes) after
putting it down: he thereby makes these two (libations) of various
vigour. Now these two: libations are mind and speech: hence he
thereby separates mind and speech from each other; and thus mind
and speech, even while one and the same (samâna), are still distinct
(nânâ).
2:3:1:1818. Twice he offers in the fire, twice he wipes (the spout of
the spoon), twice he eats (of the milk), and four times he ladles 1;--
these are ten (acts), for of ten syllables consists the virâg stanza,
and the sacrifice is virâg (shining): he thereby converts the sacrifice
into the virâg.
2:3:1:1919. Now what he offers up in the fire, that he offers to the
gods; and thereby the gods are (admitted to the sacrifice) 1. And
what he wipes off (the spoons), that he offers to the fathers and
plants; and thereby the fathers and plants are (admitted). And what
he eats after offering, that he offers to men; and thereby men are
(admitted).
2:3:1:2020. Verily, the creatures that are not allowed to take part in
the sacrifice are forlorn; to those creatures that are not forlorn he
thus offers a share at the opening of the sacrifice; and thus beasts
(cattle) are made to share in it along with (men), since beasts are
behind men 2.
2:3:1:2121. On this point Yâgñavalkya said, 'It (the Agnihotra)
must not be looked upon as a (havis-) sacrifice, but as a domestic
sacrifice (pâkayagña); for while in any other (havis-)sacrifice he
pours into the fire all that he cuts off (from the sacrificial dish and
puts) into the offering spoon,--here, after offering and stepping
outside 3, he sips water and licks out (the milk); and this indeed (is
a characteristic) of the domestic offering.' This then is the animal
characteristic 1 of that (Agnihotra), for the domestic offering
pertains to beasts (or cattle).
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Vibhakar V. Lele
2:3:1:2222. Now the first of these libations, doubtless, is the same

as that which Pragâpati offered in the beginning 2; and as those
(gods) thereupon continued (to sacrifice) 3,--namely, Agni, that
blower (Vâyu), and Sûrya,--so this second libation is offered.
2:3:1:2323. What first libation (pûrvâhuti) is made, that is the deity
of the Agnihotra 4, and to that (deity) it is accordingly offered; and
what second one (uttarâhuti) is made, that indeed is equivalent to
the Svishtakrit (Agni, the maker of good offering); whence he
offers it on the north part (of the fire), since that is the region of the
Svishtakrit 5. Moreover, this second libation is made in order to
effect a pairing, for a couple forms a productive pair.
2:3:1:2424. These two libations, then, form a duad: the past and the
future, the born and the to-be-born, the actual 6 and the hope, the
to-day and the morrow,--(these are) after the manner of that duad.
2:3:1:2525. The past is the self, for certain is that which is past, and
certain also is that which is a self. The future, on the other hand, is
progeny; for uncertain is that which is to be, and uncertain also is
progeny.
2:3:1:2626. The born is the self, for certain is that which is born,
and certain also is the self. The to-be-born, on the other hand, is
progeny; for uncertain is what is to be born, and uncertain also is
progeny.
2:3:1:2727. The actual is the self, for certain is what is actual, and
certain also is the self. And hope is progeny, for uncertain is hope,
and uncertain also is progeny.
2:3:1:2828. The to-day is the self, for certain is what is to-day, and
certain also is the self. The morrow is progeny, for uncertain is the
morrow, and uncertain also is progeny.
2:3:1:2929. Now that first libation is offered on account of the self:
he offers it with a sacred text, for certain is the sacred text, and
certain also is the self. And that second one is offered on account of
progeny: he offers it silently, for uncertain is what (is done)
silently, and uncertain also is progeny.
2:3:1:3030. [In the evening] he offers (the first libation), with the
text (Vâg. S. III, 9, 10), 'Agni is the light, the light is Agni, Svâhâ!'
and in the morning with, 'Sûrya (the sun) is the light, the light is
Sûrya, Svâhâ!' Thus offering is made with the truth; for, truly, when
the sun goes down, then Agni (fire) is the light, and when the sun
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Vibhakar V. Lele
rises, then Sûrya is the light; and whatever is offered with the truth,
that, indeed, goes to the gods.
2:3:1:3131. Here now Takshan recited for Âruni 1, who wished to
obtain holy lustre (brahmavarkasa, inspired nature), 'Agni is lustre,
light is lustre;'--'Sûrya is lustre, light is lustre.' Holy lustre,
therefore, he obtains whosoever, knowing this, thus offers the
Agnihotra.
2:3:1:3232. That (other text), however, has the characteristic form
of generation. In saying, 'Agni is the light, the light is Agni, Svâhâ!'
he encloses that seed, the light, on both sides with the deity; and the
seed, thus enclosed on both sides, is brought forth: thus enclosing it
on both sides he causes it to be brought forth.
2:3:1:3333. And when, in the morning, he says, 'Sûrya is the light,
the light is Sûrya, Svâhâ!' he encloses that seed, the light, on both
sides with the deity, and the seed, thus enclosed on both sides, is
brought forth: thus enclosing it on both sides he causes it to be
brought forth; and this, indeed, is the characteristic form of
generation.
2:3:1:3434. But Gîvala Kailaki said 1, 'Âruni merely causes
conception to take place, not birth: let him therefore offer with that
(text, in par. 32) in the evening.
2:3:1:3535. Then, in the morning, by the text, "The light is Sûrya,
Sûrya is the light," he places that seed, the light, outside by means
of the deity; and the seed thus brought outside he causes to be born.'
2:3:1:3636. They also say, 'In the evening he offers Sûrya in Agni,
and in the morning he offers Agni in Sûrya 2.' Such, indeed, is the
case with those who offer after sunrise; for when the sun sets then
Agni is the light, and when the sun rises then Sûrya is the light.
Here no offence is committed on his (the sacrificer's) part; but an
offence is indeed committed where offering is not made distinctly
to that deity (viz. Agni or Sûrya resp.), which is the deity of the
Agnihotra. He says 1, 'Agni is the light, the light is Agni, Svâhâ!'
and not, 'To Agni Svâhâ!' and in the morning, 'Sûrya is the light,
the light is Sûrya, Svâhâ!' and not, 'To Sûrya Svâhâ!'
2:3:1:3737. He may also offer (in the evening) with this text (Vâg.
S. III, 10), 'Along with the divine Savitri--,' whereby it (the
sacrifice) becomes possessed of Savitri for his impulsion; '--along
with the Night, wedded to Indra--,' whereby he effects a union with
the night, and makes it (the sacrifice) possessed of Indra, for Indra
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Vibhakar V. Lele
is the deity of the sacrifice; '--may Agni graciously accept! Svâhâ!'

whereby he offers to Agni in a direct manner.
2:3:1:3838. And in the morning with, 'Along with the divine
Savitri--,' whereby it becomes possessed of Savitri for his
impulsion; '--along with the Dawn, wedded to Indra,' or 'along with
the Day . . . .--,' whereby he effects a union either with the day or
the dawn 2, and makes it (the sacrifice) possessed of Indra; for
Indra is the deity of sacrifice; '--may Sûrya graciously accept!
Svâhâ!' whereby he offers to Sûrya directly: hence he may offer in
this way.
2:3:1:3939. They then spake, 'Who shall offer this unto us?'--'The
priest (brâhmana)!'--'Priest, offer this unto us! What is to be my
share then? The residue of the Agnihotra!' Now what he leaves in
the ladle, that is the residue of the Agnihotra; and what remains in
the pot, is as (the rice for oblations which) one takes out from the
enclosed part (of the cart) 1. And if anyone is to drink it, at least
none but a Brâhman must drink it 2: for it is put on the fire (and
thereby consecrated), and hence none but a Brâhman must drink it.
Footnotes
327:1 Apparently an etymological play on the word agnihotra =
agre hotrasya, cf. II, 2, 4, 2.
327:2 Îlitâ hi sere (serate, Kânva rec.) samgânânâh.
329:1 Vikkhinna, ? lit. 'cut off (from its recipient).'
329:2 Bali is the technical term of the portions of the daily food
that have to be assigned to all. creatures.
330:1 For other ceremonies preceding those above, see I, 3, 3, 13
seq. According to Kâty. IV, 14, 1 he has the Agnihotra cow--
standing south of the sacrificial ground and facing the east or north-
-milked by anybody except a Sûdra. The vessel to be used is of
earthenware, and must have been made by an Ârya. The Adhvaryu
then takes the vessel, and having entered the Âhavanîya house by
the east door and passed over to the Gârhapatya, puts it there on
coals previously shifted northwards from the fire.
331:1 According to Kâty. IV, 14, 5 the Adhvaryu illumines the
milk with a burning straw; pours some water to it with the sruva or
dipping-spoon; then illumines it once more; and lifts up the pot
three several times, putting it down each time further north of the
fire. Thereupon he warms the two spoons; and wipes them with his
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Vibhakar V. Lele
hand; and having warmed them once more, he says to the sacrificer,
'I ladle!' The latter, while standing, replies, 'Om, ladle!'
331:2 For the Agnihotra-havanî, or offering-spoon (sruk), used at
the morning and evening libation, and made of Vikankata wood
(Flacourtia Sapida), see p. 67, note 2. In the case of those who
make five cuttings from the havis (pañkâvattin, cf. p. 192 note) he
takes five sruva-fuls. Kâty. IV, 14, 10, Comm.
331:3 Viz. by the four teats of the udder. Comm.
331:4 While holding a billet or kindling-stick (samidh) over the
(handle of) the milk-ladle, he [first holds the latter close over the
Gârhapatya fire, and thereupon] takes it to the Âhavanîya,
keeping p. 332 it on a level with his mouth, except in the middle
between the two fires, where he lowers it for a moment to the level
of his navel. He then crouches down [bending his right knee, and
looking eastwards, by the north-west corner of the Âhavanîya], puts
the billet on [the centre of] the fire, and makes the first libation
(pûrvâhuti) on the burning stick (see the formula, par. 30. The
sacrificer, as usual, pronounces the dedicatory formula, viz. 'This to
Agni!' and, 'This to Sûrya!' respectively). Thereupon he lays down
the ladle on the kûrka [a grass-bunch, placed behind the Âhavanîya
fire-place, to serve as a seat, and to wipe the hands on; according to
others, a flat piece of Varana wood], then takes it up again and
silently makes the second libation (uttarâhuti) on the north part of
the fire. Kâty. IV, 14, 12-17 with Schol.
332:1 He ladles four sruva-fuls of milk into the Agnihotra ladle,
and makes in the Âhavanîya fire two libations from this milk (so as
to leave the larger quantity in the ladle to be eaten). He then wipes
twice the spout of the ladle. [In each of the two other fires he
thereupon makes likewise two libations with the sruva, of one
spoonful each.] The milk left in the ladle he eats, on the completion
of the six libations, by twice taking it out with his ring-finger.
333:1 Tasmâd devâh santi; anvâbhaktâh ('allowed to share in the
sacrifice') has probably to be supplied here from the next
paragraph.
333:2 Instead of this paragraph, the Kânva text reads: 'Behind men
are beasts; behind the gods are birds, plants, trees, and whatever
else exists here. Thus he makes these creatures share in the
sacrifice, those that are not forlorn here.' Compare I, 5, 2, 4.
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Vibhakar V. Lele
333:3 Utsripya is variously explained by the commentators here

and on Kâty. IV, 14, 27, as 'having gone out,' or 'having slowly
moved forward,' or 'having risen,' or 'having poured out (the milk).'
334:1 Pasavyam rûpam,--that is to say, its relation to the pasu or
animal sacrifice; and hence also to the idâ at the haviryagña; cf. I,
7, 4, 19.
334:2 See II, 2, 4, 4 seq.
334:3 See II, 2, 4, 18.
334:4 That is to say, it represents the chief offering at the
haviryagña, which is followed by the (oblation to Agni) Svishtakrit.
See I, 7, 2, 1 seq.
334:5 See I, 7, 3, 20.
334:6 Âgatam, 'what has arrived or come to pass,' 'the
accomplished.'
335:1 The Kânva text has,--Here now Daksha said to Âruni, 'For
one wishing to obtain brahmavarkasa one should offer with this
text, "Agni is lustre, light is lustre;"--"Sûrya is lustre, light is
lustre:" a brahmavarkasin, then, he becomes for whomsoever they
so sacrifice.'
336:1 have made Gîvala's speech extend to the end of par. 35, as is
done, no doubt correctly, in the Kânva text.
336:2 The Kânva has,--Now they say, 'In the evening they offer
Agni in Sûrya, and in the morning they offer Sûrya in Agni.' But
see the formulas (par. 30), where 'light' is to be taken as Sûrya and
Agni respectively.
337:1 Here the Kânva text begins a new paragraph. The author's
object seems to be to show that those who offer the Agnihotra after
sunrise, commit a mistake in not offering to Sûrya unmistakably;
for while before sunrise, Sûrya is still reposing in Agni, and the
oblation, in being poured into the fire, is consequently made to
Sûrya directly, those offering after sunrise should rather use the
formula 'To Sûrya Svâhâ!' Cf. paragraph 9.
337:2 Instead of 'ahnâm voshasâm vâ,' I adopt 'ahnâ voshasâ va,'
from the Kânva reading 'ushasâ vâhnâ vâ.'
338:1 Yathâ parînaho nirvaped evam tat. The Kânva text has:
Yathâ (yayâ MS.) koshthâ parînaho vâ nirmimîtaivam tat.
338:2 Or, 'anybody may drink it, but none but a Brâhman may
drink it.' According to the Schol. on Katy. IV, 14, II, the milk
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Vibhakar V. Lele
which is left in the pot may be drunk by a Brâhman, but by no one

else; not even in his own house is a Kshatriya or Vaisya allowed to
drink it. [Next: II, 3, 2. Second Brâhmana]
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Vibhakar V. Lele
CHAPTER 24
***
PARAHURAMA AVATARA53
Parashurama
Lithograph By Raja Ravi Varma Depicting Parashurama With His

Axe
53
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parashurama: Courtesy Wikipedia, subject to
162
Vibhakar V. Lele
Affiliation Avatar Of Lord Vishnu

Abode Mahendragiri
Weapon Axe(Parshu), Vijaya,Bhargavastra
Parshurama(Parashuram) is the sixth avatar of Lord Vishnu. He

is the son ofRenuka and one of the saptarishi Sage Jamadagni. He
lived during the last Treta,Dvapara Yuga's and is one of the seven
immortals or Chiranjivi of Hinduism. He received an axe after
undertaking terrible penance to please Lord Shiva, who in turn
taught him the martial arts.
Parashurama is most known for ridding the world
of Kshatriyas twenty-one times over after the mighty
king Kartavirya Arjuna killed his father. He played important roles
in the Mahabharata and Ramayana, serving as mentor to
Bhishma, Drona and Karna. Lord Parashurama and Ravana's
son Indrajit are believed to be the only humans who ever possessed
the three ultimate weapons of trinity i.e. Brahmanda
Astra, Vaishnava Astra and Pashupatastra. Parashurama was a
disciple of Lord Shiva and learned the scriptures and the arts of
warfare from Lord Shiva. He then acquired celestial weapons from
Lord Shiva and the other gods on Lord Shiva's instructions.
Lord Shiva personally trained Parashurama for decades in the art of
warfare. Bhargavastra was his personal celestial weapon
and Vijaya was his personal bow which was gifted by Lord Shiva.
Parashurama also fought back the advancing seas to save the lands
of Konkan and Kerala.
Parashurama is worshipped as mool purush, or founder, of
the Niyogi Bhumihar Brahmin, Chitpavan,
Devrukhe, Daivadnya, Mohyal, Tyagi, Anavil andNambudiriBrah
min communities.Along with sage Vyasa ,sage Kripa and Drona's
son sage Ashwatthama, Parashurama is considered to be foremost
among the rishis in Kaliyuga.[1][2] Parashurama will also become
one of the Saptarishi in the 8th Manvantara along with sage Vyasa,
sage Kripa and Drona's son sage Ashwatthama.[3] Parashurama is a
mighty Maharathi and he will reappear as the martial instructor
of Vishnu's 10th avatar Kalki.
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Vibhakar V. Lele
Lineage
The exact birthplace of Bhargav Parashurama is contested,
although the history of his lineage took place in the Haihaya
Kingdom located in modern day Maheshwar.
The grandfather of Bhargava Parashurama was a
great rishi named Rucheeka, who was son of a famous sage Bhrigu.
Parshuram is also the Kul-guru of Bharadwaj and Kashyap gotra.
Parshuram (is a Brahmin of Bhargava Gotra). One day, the rishi
was traveling through the countryside seeking a bride. At the time,
there were two dominant clans, the Bharat-Suryavamsha or Solar
Dynasty and the Chandra-vamsha or Lunar Dynasty. The ruling
King Gadhi belonged to the Lunar Dynasty and had a beautiful
daughter, Satyavati, who was unwed. Rucheeka visited the king,
who entertained him at his court. The rishi was besot with the
beauty of Satyavati and at the end of the evening he asked the king
to have her as his bride.
The king was taken aback, but could not deny the request of a
Brahmin. As such, he agreed to give his daughter away to the rishi,
but on condition that Rucheeka give him one-thousand horses, all
with one ear black and the body entirely white. The rishi agreed to
the demand of the king. He then did penance to Varuna and was
blessed with the horses that the king had requested. Rucheeka then
married Satyavati after fulfilling wishes of the King.
Satyavati adjusted well to an ascetic life as she was blessed with a
good countenance, but she did not have any children. Meanwhile,
at the kingdom, her father had no heir to the throne as well and this
also worried Satyavati. One day, Rucheeka asked her what was
wrong and she told him of her concerns for the kingdom.
Then Rucheeka helped both Satyavati and her mother. He gave
Satyavati two potions, one for her mother so that she would have a
mighty Kshatriya son and one for Satyavati so that she would have
a son that would become a great sage. Satyavati gave the potions to
her mother. However, not trusting the sage, her mother switched
the containers.
In time, both mother and daughter found they were expecting
children. However, the sage noticed that when he looked at his wife
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Vibhakar V. Lele
he saw a Kshatriya aura and he asked what had happened. Satyavati

told Rucheeka, to which he responded, "Now our son will be a
great warrior instead of a sage." Satyavati begged the rishi to
instead make her grandson become the great warrior and her son a
rishi. Seeing her distress, Rucheeka acquiesced. Satyavati gave
birth to a son, Jamadagni, who became a great saptarishi, while her
grandson Bhargav was sixth incarnation of Vishnu and one of the
greatest warriors of all ages.
Birth
The exact location of his birth is contested, although puranas claim
that he was born at Renuka Tirth as the sixth incarnation of Lord
Vishnu. His father, Jamadagni, was a direct descendant
of Brahma. Renuka gave birth to four sons before
Parashurama: Vasu, Viswa Vasu, Brihudyanu and Brutwakanwa.
Before the birth of their fifth son, Jamadagni meditated with his
wife Renuka at Tape Ka Tiba near Renuka lake for divine
providence. With the blessing of Lord Shiva, Vishnu answered
their wishes and was born from the womb of Renuka as their fifth
and youngest son, whom they named Rambhadra, or Rama.
Renuka & The Clay Pot
Goddess Renuka was known for her chastity and devotion to her
husband. Such was her faith, that she was able to fetch water from
the river in a pot of unbaked clay, with the pot held together only
by the strength of her devotion.
One day while at the river, a group of Gandharvas in a chariot
passed by in the sky above. Filled with desire for only a moment,
the unbaked pot she held dissolved in the river. Afraid to return to
her husband, she waited at the river bank, uncertain of what to do
next. Meanwhile, Jamadagni noticed his wife had not returned.
Through his yogic powers, he divined all that had taken place and
was enraged. The rishi called his eldest son, handed him an axe and
asked the boy to kill his mother. Horrified, the boy refused and so
Jamadagni turned him to stone. He then asked each of his sons and
as they refused, one by one, he turned them to stone. Finally only
his youngest son, Parashurama was left. Ever obedient, the boy
beheaded his mother.
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Vibhakar V. Lele
Pleased Jamadagni then offered two boons to Parashurama. The

boy asked that his mother be brought back to life and his brothers
to be returned from stone to flesh. Impressed by the affection and
devotion of his son, Jamadagni granted his request.
Parashurama obtained The Divine Weapon Parashu From Lord
Shiva and the Vijaya Bow From Lord Indra
Shri Parashurama, clipped the thousand arms of Kartavirya Arjuna
(Sahastrarjun), one by one, with his Parshu and killed him. He
repelled his army by showering arrows on them. The whole country
greatly welcomed the destruction of Kartavirya Arjuna
(Sahastrarjun). The king of Deities, Indra was in possession of
Lord Shiva's Vijaya Dhanusha. Indra was so pleased that he
presented this most beloved Vijaya (bow) to Shri Parashurama on
instruction from Lord Shiva. Dev Indra had destroyed demon
dynasties with this bow. By the fatal arrows shot with the help of
this Vijaya bow, Shri Parashurama destroyed the
miscreant Kshatriyas twenty one times.
Later Shri Parashurama presented the Vijaya bow to his
disciple Karna when he was pleased with his intense devotion to
the Guru. Karna used this bow to fight on the 17th day of the
Kurukshetra war. Karna become unconquerable with help of Vijaya
presented to him by Parashurama.
Kartavirya Sahastrarjun & The Haihaya Kingdom

Main articles: Kartavirya Arjuna and Haihayas
The time of Parashurama was a tumultuous one for the Indian

subcontinent, with puranas indicating frequent battles between
several rival Kshatriya clans and kingdoms. Parashurama lived
within the Haihaya kingdom, located in modern day Maheshwar on
the banks of the Narmada River. The generations of enmity
between the Kshatriya Haihaya and the Brahmin Bhargavas, from
whom Parashurama hailed, were mentioned in
the Mahabharata numerous times.
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Vibhakar V. Lele
Dattatreya, embodiment of the holy trinity Trimurti, whom

Kartavirya worshiped and who would later deliver the Tripura
Rahasya to Parashurama
The Haihaya were ruled by a powerful and cruel king

named Kartavirya Arjuna. He was the incarnation of Sudarshana,
Lord Vishnu's Celestial weapon, Chakrathat had taken birth in
human form. In addition, Kartavirya worshipped a divine being
known as Dattatreya, embodiment of Trimurti and descendant of
the saptarishi Atri. For his obeisance, Dattatreya had granted the
king a flying golden chariot that would travel wherever he wished
and one-thousand arms.
With these boons, Kartavirya became immeasurably powerful,
conducting many military conquests after which he
made Mahishmati in present day Maheshwar capital of his
kingdom. Kartavirya became so powerful that he was even able to
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Vibhakar V. Lele
defeat and imprison the demon king Ravana at the Godavari.

Ravana, in turn, would later be the nemesis of the Ramayana.
Genocide Of Bhrigu & The Sacred Cow

The violent persecution of Brahmins by Kshatriya had at the time
spanned generations. Aurva, great-grandfather of Parashurama,
recalled a vivid childhood experience:
While lying unborn, I heard the doleful cries of my mother and
other women of the Bhrigu race who were then being exterminated
by the Kshatriyas. When those Kshatriyas began to exterminate the
Bhrigus together with unborn children of their race, it was then that
wrath filled my soul. My mother and the other women of our race,
each in an advanced state of pregnancy, and my father, while
terribly alarmed, found not in all the worlds a single protector.
Then when the Bhrigu women found not a single protector, my
mother held me in one of her thighs. — Mahabharata 1:182
As the third book of the Mahabharata begins, Akritavrana, a
disciple of the avatar speaks:
With pleasure shall I recite that excellent history of the godlike
deeds of Rama, the son of Jamadagni who traced his origin to the
race of Brigu. — Mahabharata 3:117
As Rama grew older, he was sincere in his piety and pleased Lord
Shiva with the performing of excruciating tapas. As blessing, he
was granted the Parashu of Shiva, after which he was known
as Parashurama or 'Rama with axe'.
Soon after Parashurama received his blessing, King Kartavirya of
the Haihaya came upon the hermitage of Jamadagni The visit
happened at a time Parusharama was away in the forest
gathering yagna and although the king had a massive entourage, the
saptarishi was able to serve the king a grand feast. When Kartavirya
asked how he was able to do so, Jamadagni showed him a blessed
Kamadhenu cow, given to Jamadagni by Indra, which was able to
grant wishes. Kartavirya was covetous and wanted the calf as his
own. The rishi refused and Kartavirya stole the sacred animal.
Returning home, Parashurama was infuriated and traveled to the
royal palace. Brandishing his axe, he decimated its guards and
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Vibhakar V. Lele
killed the mighty King Kartavirya, retrieving the calf. When he

returned home, his father was pleased, but seeing the blood stained
axe of Parashurama, also concerned. He cautioned his son he must
be aware of wrath and pride. Parashurama accepted the reprimand
of his father, in penance and went on a pilgrimage to holy places
for one year in purification.
Meanwhile, the sons of Kartavirya discovered their father at the
palace and knew that only Parashurama could have killed him. In
revenge, they traveled to the hermitage and murdered Jamadagni,
surrounding the rishi and shooting him to death with arrows like a
stag. Afterwards, they decapitated his body and took his head with
them.
When Parashurama returned home, he found his mother next to the
body of his father, crying hysterically as she beat her chest twenty-
one times in a row. Furious, he hunted down the sons of Kartavirya
at the palace. He killed them all and returned with the head of his
father to conduct the cremation. Parashurama then vowed to enact
genocide on the war-mongering Kshatriyas twenty-one times over,
once for each time the hand of his mother hit her chest.
Vengeance Against Kshatriya
Parashurama then travelled the whole of Earth, killing all men of
the Kshatriya caste, guilty or innocent. The first book of the
Mahabharata writes:
In the interval between the Treta and Dwapara Yugas,
Parashurama, great among all who have borne arms, urged by
impatience of wrong, repeatedly smote the noble race of
Kshatriyas. And when that fiery meteor, by his own valour,
annihilated the entire tribe of the Kshatriyas, he formed at Samanta-
panchaka five lakes of blood. - Mahabharata 1:2
One legend describes Parasharuma returning to a village after battle
in what is now the Badami Taluka, Bagalkot district of Karnataka.
While the warrior-sage washed his axe beyond a sharp turn in the
river Malaprabha, unknown to him, village women were cleaning
their clothes downstream. His mighty axe stained the entire river
red and the women exclaimed "Ai hole!" translating to 'Oh, what a
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Vibhakar V. Lele
river!' This is said to be the etymology of the present-day

village Aihole.
There is another legend that some of the fisherman community of
Kerala who were settled in the coastal areas, receiving word as
Parashurama approached, took the fisherman thread split it into two
sacred threads that marked them twice-born, hid them in the forest
and traveled south. Parashurama then gave their land to them.
After he had finally rid the world of Kshatriyas, Parashurama
conducted the Ashvamedha sacrifice, done only by sovereign kings
and gave the land he had conquered to the Brahmin head-priests,
who performed the yagya Kashyapa. After seeing the bad condition
of some Brahmins in northern India involved in priestly services
Parshuram gave him the land that he had conquered. The
Ashvamedha demanded that the remaining Kshatriya kings either
submit to Parashurama or stop the sacrifice by defeating him in
battle. They were unable to do either and so perished.
Parashurama is unique in that although he is the sixth avatar of
Vishnu, as an immortal, he has also lived to see the subsequent
incarnations of Vishnu in Rama and Krishna. Parashurama played
an important role in both Ramayana andMahabharata.
Different Epochs
There are a number of stories of Parashurama in different Puranas,
detailing his interactions with different gods of the Hindu pantheon
and even occurring during different Yuga due to his
being Chiranjivi.
Beating Back The Arabian Sea
Puranas write that the western coast of India was threatened by
tumultuous waves and tempests, causing the land to be overcome
by the sea. Parashurama fought back the advancing waters,
demanding Varuna release the land of Konkan and Malabar. During
their fight, Parashurama threw his axe into the sea. A mass of land
rose up, but Varuna told him that because it was filled with salt, the
land would be barren.
Parashurama then did a tapasya for Nagaraja, the King of Snakes.
Parashurama asked him to spread serpents throughout the land so
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Vibhakar V. Lele
their venom would neutralize the salt filled earth. Nagaraja agreed
and a lush and fertile land grew. Thus, Parashurama pushed back
the coastline between the foothills of the Western Ghats and the
Arabian Sea, creating modern day Kerala.
The coastal area
of Kerala, Konkan, Karnataka, Goa and Maharashtra, are today also
known as Parashurama Kshetra or Land of Parashurama in
homage. Puranas record that Parashurama placed statues of Shiva at
108 different locations throughout the reclaimed land, which still
exist today. Shiva, is the source of Kundalini energy and it around
his neck that Nagaraja is coiled and so the statues were in gratitude
for their baneful cleansing of the land.
Then he took a winnowing basket, or Surpa, and threw it at the sea.
The water retreated and from the place the basket fell at Gokarna,
land rose again. This land is called Kerala, or 'Siirparaka'
(Brahmanda Purana, Chapters 98 and 99). It is also said that while
beating back the sea, Parashurama fired an arrow from his mystical
bow that landed in Goa at Benaulim, creating Salkache Tollem or
'Lotus Lake'.
Request To Shiva
According to Hindu tradition, Parshurama reclaimed the land of
Konkan after donating the earth to Maharshi Kashyap. Then he
requested different Gods and Goddesses to settle in the newly
created land and to take responsibility of various clans. Parshuram,
being a devotee of Shiva, requested Shiva to give him audience
every day, while he is living in the newly created land. Lord Shiva
accepted his request. Lord Parshuram also brought 60 'Vipras' to
settle in Konkan. One such Vipra named 'Vyad' installed a
Shivlinga at Guhagar. In this era, since evil thoughts are supposed
to prevail, Gods are to remain in their invisible forms. Accordingly
Lord Shiva decided to remain in invisible form in the Shivalinga
installed by Vyad Muni. The same Shivalinga is this well
known Vyadeshwar. Thus, Lord Shiva stays at Guhagar in the
'Vyadeshwar' Shivalinga from years together. According to another
history, in the era of King Sakuran, the Vyadeshwar Shivalinga was
re-invented and the Temple, which we see today, was constructed.
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Vibhakar V. Lele
Rambhoja
Kshetra scripture has a legend in which a king named Ramabhoja
worshipped Parashurama. He was the ruler of the lands between
Gokarna and Kanyakumari and was proclaimed king of the entire
Parashurama Kshetra. While performing Aswamedha yajna, he was
plowing the land, but mistakenly killed a snake that was a raksha in
disguise. In repentance, Rambhoja was directed by Parashurama to
build a rajathatpeetha or large silver pedestal, with the image of a
serpent at its four corners in obeisance. Parashurama also ordered
that he distribute gold to the needy equal to his own weight
asTulabhara.
Rambhoja performed the ashwamedha yajna successfully and
Parashurama appeared before him again, declaring that he was
pleased. To this day, the silver pedestal remains a center of
pilgrimage. The surrounding land is known as Thoulava, in
remembrance of the Tulabhara of Rambhoja.
Sanyasa & End Time

By the end of the Vedic period, Parashurama had grown weary of
bloodshed and became a sanyasi, giving up his possessions to
practice penance. The first book of the Mahabharata writes:
The son of Jamadagni, after twenty-one times making the Earth
bereft of Kshatriyas, wended to that best of Mountains Mahendra
and there began his ascetic penance. —Mahabharata 1:14
He traveled to central India at the northern end of the Eastern Ghats
and western Odisha and ascended the Mahendra Mountains. Before
he left, Parashurama distributed the territories he conquered among
a clan of Brahmins called the Bhumihar, who ruled for many
centuries. Kingdoms included
the Cheras, Pandyas, Dravida, Mushika, Karnata and Konkana.
Unlike other incarnations of Vishnu, Parashurama is
a Chiranjivi and is said to still be doing penance today
in Mahendragiri. The Kalki Purana writes that he will reemerge at
the end of Kali Yuga to be the martial and spiritual guru of Kalki,
the tenth and final avatar of Vishnu. It is foretold that he will
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Vibhakar V. Lele
instruct Kalki to perform a difficult penance to Shiva, and receive

the celestial weaponry needed to bring about end time.
Along with sage Vyasa,sage Kripa and sage Ashwatthama,
Parashurama is considered to be foremost among the rishis
in Kaliyuga. Parasurama will also become one of the Saptarishi in
the 8th Manvantara along with sage Vyasa, sage Kripa and
sage Ashwatthama.
Name
Parashu means 'axe' in Sanskrit; hence, Parashurama literally
translates as 'Rama with axe'. He is also known as
Bhrigupati, Bhargava and Bhargava R ma. Regional variations
include:
 Indonesian: Ramaparasu
 Javanese: Ramabargawa
 Khmer: Reamsor (from R masūra) or Reameyso (from
R mīṡvara)
 Thai: Ramasun (Thai: รามสูร)
 Malay: Pusparama
Parashurama Temples
There are numerous temples and statues of Parashurama throughout
the Indian subcontinent, some of which include:
 Parashurama temple, Attirala, a vernacular name for Hatyarala.

Cuddapah district, Andhra Pradesh.
 Parshurama temple, Sohnag, Salempur,Deoria District, Uttar
Pardesh
 Parashurama Kunda, Lohit District, Arunachal Pradesh, where
Parashuram washed his sins after committing matricide
 Akhnoor, Jammu, Jammu and Kashmir
 Fort Songadh, Gujarat
 Gudimallam, Chittoor, Andhra Pradesh
 Harpur, Zamania, Ghazipur, Uttar Pradesh
 Jalalabad, Shahjahanpur, Uttar Pradesh
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Vibhakar V. Lele
 Kumbhalgarh, Rajasthan
 Khatti, near Phagwara, Punjab, India
 Maniyar, Ballia, Uttar Pradesh
 Mahurgarh, Maharashtra
 Parashurama Mandir, Chiplun Maharashtra
 Sri Kalakama Parashurama Temple,
Darbetadka, Belthangady, Karnataka
 Shree Parashurama Temple, Sanyasikatte, Karnataka
 Parashurama Temple, Banavasi, Karnataka
 Painguinim, Canacona, Goa
 Rajkot, Gujarat
 Shivpuri, Akkalkot, Khopoli, Maharashtra
 Shivsar Talao Pond Statue, Phalodi, Jodhpur, Rajasthan
 Sri Parasurama Swamy Temple, Thiruvallam, 6 km south
of Thiruvananthapuram Kerala
 Tosh, Manikaran, Kullu, Himachal Pradesh
 Padubelle, Udupi, Karnataka, India
 Kojra, Sirohi, Rajasthan, India
 Parashurama Mandir, Mokama, Bihar, India
 Parshuram Kutiya, Nirmand, Kullu, Himachal Pradesh
Parashurama Kshetras
Seven Kshetras are popularly known as Parashurama Kshetras

or Parashurama Srishti:[5]
1. Udupi
2. kukke Subramanya
3. Kumbasi
4. Koteshwara
5. Shankaranarayana
6. Kollur
7. Gokarna
174
Vibhakar V. Lele
References
1. K M Ganguly (1883-1896). The Mahabharata, Book 13
Anusasana Parva, Section CL sacred-texts.com, October 2003,
Retrieved 2014-02-11
2. Vishnu Purana -Drauni or Asvathama as Next VyasaRetrieved
2015-03-22
3. Vishnu Purana -Asvathama,Kripa,Vyasa & Parashurama as Next
saptarishi's Retrieved 2015-02-15
4. K M Ganguly(1883-1896) Karna to Salya about the cheating of
Lord Indra for benfiting Arjuna October 2003,Retrieved 2015-03-
08
5. Chandra, Suresh (1998). Encyclopedia of Hindu Gods &
Goddesses. Sarup & Sons. p. 376.
Additional Sources
 Parkhe B, Ramayashogatha (1975, 2008) -

http://www.parkhepariwar.com/
 Sharma DR, - http://www.bhagwan-parashuram.com/
 Potdar J, Bhagwan Parashurama
 Mehrotra NC, Shahjahanpur Etihasik Evam Sanskritik
Dharohar (1999) Pratiman Prakashan 30 Kucha Ray Ganga
Prasad Allahabad, Uttar Pradesh
 Parashurama Patrika Quarterly Magazine
 Bhagwan Parashuram-K M Munshi
External links Media related to Parashuram at Wikimedia

Commons
 108 Parashurama Kshetras published by Shaivam and Google

Maps
_____________________________________________
175
Vibhakar V. Lele
Ganapati Temple at Ganapati Pule District Ratnagiri
Coastal Shipping at Velneshwar
176
Vibhakar V. Lele
DEAR READER:
If you have reached this page, it means that you must have found my book
interesting. I also write on the Yoga of the Gita and Dnyaneshwari by
saint yogi Shri Dnyaneshwar. It is based on what I have learnt from saint
Dnyaneshwar’s commentary on the Bhagavad Gita. I welcome you to my
further books on the subject, to be published under the main title Yoga of
Gita with subtitles on the topics they deal with. The subject of Gita,
Dnyaneshwari and its Yoga is vast. Hence it will be my endeavour to
explain the matter in such a way that the reader can read easily read the
forthcoming books.
Thanks for your patronage.
V.V.LELE
AUTHOR
A SHORT LIST OF MY BOOKS

1. YOGADA SHRI DNYANESHWARI [योगदा रीञाने्वरी] [Marathi
language] and its 12 independent parts
Kundalini Yoga [Yoga of Gita Expounded By Saint Dnyaneshwar]:
1. Autobiography of A Natha Siddha Yogi
2. Philosophy And Yoga of Gita And Dnyaneshwari
3. Introduction To Gita And Dnyaneshwari
4. Pantharaja: Kundalini Yoga Practice * Methods And Processes
5. एका नाथसिध यो्याचे आ्मव्ृ त [Marathi] [eka Natha Siddha Yogyache
Atmavritta]
6. Chitpavan Konkanastha Brahmins’ History [Pre- And Proto-]
7. Sarasvati River – The Ancestral Home of Chitpavan Brahmins
177
Vibhakar V. Lele
1
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VIBHAKAR V.

Contact: Email: vibvitle@gmail.com

This book heavily borrows from WIKIPEDIA as shown at respective

Interested persons may refer to respective WIKIPEDIA Web Pages. The

HE IS A PROFESSIONAL ENGINEERING CONSULTANT

AND A RESEARCHER, WITH MANY TOPICS OF INTEREST.

His topics of interest include Mathematics, Astronomy, Cosmogony,

He researches into Oriental Disciplines of Philosophy, Mysticism, Yoga,

His books as follows have already been published on various platforms:

1. YOGADA SHRI DNYANESHWARI [योगदा रीञाने्वरी] [Marathi

THE ANCESTRAL HOME OF CHITPAVAN BRAHMINS

This book is a sequel to the book ‘Chitpavan Konkanastha

This book was possible owing to impromptu feedback by Dr.

As informed by him, the historic narration is due Mr. Ramakrishna

In the book on Chitpavan Brahmins Origins of this author, it was

In this case, it is the Maithili Brahmins, one time old neighbours of

This author finds the hand of providence in this discovery of the

Both these sources were in Kannada language, unknown to this

acquaint them with its central ideas, a short synopsis from it is

I hope that the interested Chitpavan Brahmins and scholars would

THE AUTHOR ............................................................................ 4

INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK ................................ 1

SYNOPSIS OF CHITPAVAN KONKANASTHA BRAHMINS’

Expression of Gratitude ............................................................... 6

BRIEF DETAILS ........................................................................ 1

VYADESHVARODAYA KAVYA (1627 AD) by MAHA-

9. How did Karnataka Brahmins know the etymology of

15. The Sahyadri Khanda calls the ‘Chitpavans’ as

Sarasvati River – The Ancestral Home of

Important Information ................................................................. 1

INTERPRETATION OF THE EVIDENCE OF DR. JHA ....... 11

Parashurama Connect ............................................................ 14

ADDITIONAL BACKGROUND ................................ 19

CONCLUSION FROM DISCUSSIONS ......................... 21

Neighbours of Maithili Brahmins .............................................. 21

DR JHA’S COMMUNICATIONS of June 2015 ................. 28

Previous Settlements ................................................................. 28

History of Sarasvati ................................................................... 28

Essence of e-mails exchanged with Dr. Jha............................... 42

Vedic Attestation of Agnihotri Brahminsvati on Sarasvati River

Letter from Dr. Ambujkishore Jha To This Author .............. 60

SARASVATI RIVER ............................................. 61

Recent Research on the Sarasvati River .................................... 64

What is the real reason behind drying up of Saraswati River? .. 71

SARASVATI RIVERINE GEOMPORPHIC ACTIVITY ....... 97

HIMALAYAS AND INDIAN SUB-CONTINENT ........... 102

VEDIC ANCESTORS - SHIVALIK RANGES ................ 109

Siwalik region ................................................... 109

Geology ................................................................................... 110

Siwalik .......................................................... 112

ORIGIN OF SARASVATI RIVER............................. 113

ADI BADRI ..................................................... 113

Himalayan peaks of Uttarakhand ............................... 116

History ..................................................................................... 124

Geographical extent ................................................................. 128

Alexander's Conflict with the Kambojas ............................. 136

MITHILA (ANCIENT) ......................................... 139

Ancient history and myths ....................................................... 140

ASMAKA/ASSAKA ........................................... 141