Foundations on Expansive Soils

3. FOUNDATIONS ON EXPANSIVE SOILS

3.1. Background (Principle of Foundation Engineering, Alemayehu Teferra, Chapter-9)

9.1 General
The problems associated with expansive soils were not recognized in Ethiopia for many years for
the obvious reason that most of the modern small masonry or brick houses built were located on
sites that did not cause foundation problems. In the last thirty years, however, residential
buildings were erected in areas where expansive soils are predominant. These are clay soils
which may be black or grey in colour. They have a potential for heaving with an increase of
moisture content and they shrink with a corresponding decrease of moisture content. Numerous
research works have been conducted in many parts of the world to study the behaviour of these
soils [4,16].

Structures crack, if their foundations are not adequately designed to withstand the stresses and
strains caused by alternate heaving and shrinkage of the foundation soil. Cracks do not only
affect the structural safety and aesthetics of the building but also bring about additional financial
burden to owners for repair if the structure is to be salvaged at all.

Before going into the discussion of the design of foundations on expansive soils, it is necessary
to examine briefly the outstanding characteristics of expansive soils.

9.2 Origin, Mineralogical Composition and Characteristics of Expansive

Soils

The parent materials of expansive soils may be classified into two groups[1]. The first group
comprises the basic igneous rocks such as basalt, dolerite sills and dykes, gabbros, etc., where
feldspar and pyroxene minerals of the parent rocks decompose to form montmorillonite – the
predominant mineral of expansive soil – and other secondary minerals. The second group
comprises sedimentary rocks that contain montmorillonite, and break down physically to form
expansive soils. There are indications that confirm that the expansive soils of Ethiopia are
derived from both groups[13].

It is a known fact that the three most important groups of clay minerals are montmorillonite,
illite, and kaolinite, which are crystalline hydrous aluminosilicates. Of these groups it is the clay
mineral montmorillonite that presents most of the foundation problems. Essentially,
montmorillonite is a three-layered mineral having a single octahedral alumina sheet sandwiched

Lecture Note - By Alemayehu Teferra. ( Prof.) Page 1

Foundations on Expansive Soils

between two silica sheets [4]. The units are stacked one above the other like leaves of a book.
The bonds are comparatively weak, and water can enter between the sheets causing them to
expand readily. When water is removed from the boundary, the sheets contract. Thus soil
containing substantial amounts of montmorillonite will exhibit high shrinkage and swelling
characteristics. Experience shows that swelling problems arise when soils contain more than
20% montmorillonite mineral [11].

9.3 Identification of Expansive Soils

In addition to visual identification, laboratory tests are necessary to assess the swelling potential
of the clay.

The expansive clay soils prevalent in Ethiopia are either black (black cotton soil) or dark grey.
The direct tests which provide information on the amount of heaving that is to be anticipated are
free swell and swelling pressure tests [13]. Apart from these direct tests, soil mechanics practice
for determining the engineering characteristics of expansive soils is usually based on the
Atterberg Limits, sometimes in conjunction with grain size analysis. One way of using these test
results was developed by Casagrande[3], who plotted the liquid limit against the plasticity index
(Fig. 9.1). Employing this plasticity chart, many authors found that the A-line in the chart
generally defines the expansive soil, since the great majority of plots, representing soils known to
be expansive, fall above this line. The location of the expansive soils of Addis Ababa is also
indicated in Fig. 9.1.

Some authors have related the swelling potential of expansive soils with their respective
plasticity index. Table 9.1 gives the relationship between the swelling potential of clays and the
plasticity index according to Chen [4].

Table 9.1: Relation between Swelling Potential and Plasticity Index of Clays According to
Chen[4]

Swelling Potential (S) Plasticity Index (IP)

Low 0 -15
Medium 10 -35
High 20 – 55
Very High >55

Anderson et al [1] suggested empirical relations from which they were able to relate the degree
of expansion with the plasticity index.

Lecture Note - By Alemayehu Teferra. ( Prof.) Page 2

Foundations on Expansive Soils

100

90
Predominant location
80 of Addis Ababa
Expancive soils[ 15 ]
70
G
( Per cent )

60
0)
wL = 30 wL = 50 -2
50 3 (Lw
0 .7
=
IP
P I

40
Plasticity Index

E
30 ne
- li
A
20
B F
10
A D
C
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120

Liquid limit ,w ( Per cent )

L
A = Cohesionless soils

B = Inorganic clays of low plasticity

C = Inorganic silts of low compressibility

D = Inorganic silts of medium compressibility and organic silts

E = Inorganic clays of medium plasticity

F = Inorganic silts of high compressibility and organic clays

G = Inorganic clays of high plasticity

Fig. 9.1: Plasticity chart [3]

Lecture Note - By Alemayehu Teferra. ( Prof.) Page 3

Foundations on Expansive Soils

Following their investigation they came up with the following empirical equation:

S  0.23 I p  3.12 (9.1

where
S = swelling potential
IP = plasticity index.

Based on Eq. (9.1), they presented the relationship shown in Table 9.2.

Table 9.2: Relationship between Plasticity Index and Swelling Potential

Degree of Expansion Plasticity Index Swelling Potential

IP S
Low 20 1.5
Medium 20 - 31 1.5 - 4.0
High 31 - 39 4.0 - 6.0
Very High 39 6

Defining activity as the ratio of the plasticity index to the percentage of the clay fraction(minus 2
micron size) present in the sample, two different types of charts were presented by different
authors to identify the swelling potential of expansive soils.

The first chart, known as the Activity chart, is a plot of plasticity index versus clay fraction. De
Bruyn et al [7] plotted experimental data and found three distinct groupings according to the
activity of the soils. The soils were classified as Bad, Medium and Good according to their
property with regard to their effect on buildings erected on them. Here again the location of the
predominant expansive soils of Addis Ababa are indicated (Fig. 9.2). The second chart is
presented by Seed et al [12], where activity versus clay fraction is presented (Fig. 9.3).
Additional information on expansive soils is found in [14].

Using the above information judiciously, one would get a fair idea of the degree of potential
expansiveness of any soil under consideration.

Lecture Note - By Alemayehu Teferra. ( Prof.) Page 4

Foundations on Expansive Soils

100

90
Predominant location
of Addis Ababa
80 Expancive soils[ 15 ]

70
( Per cent )

60

50
P I

40
2 .0
Plasticity Index

M
D

IU
BA

ED
ty

0
t iv i

30
1.
Ac

i ty
tiv
Ac

20 y 0.5
Ac ti v i t
OD
GO
10

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Clay fraction of sample ( Per cent )

Fig. 9.2: Activity chart [ 7 ]

Lecture Note - By Alemayehu Teferra. ( Prof.) Page 5

Foundations on Expansive Soils

5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5
5

3
Activity

2
VERY HIGH

MEDIUM
HIGH
1

Swelling potential%= 25
LOW Swelling potential
%= 5
Swelling potential%= 1.5
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

Per cent clay sizes ( finer than 0.002 mm )

Fig. 9.3: Classification chart for swelling potential according to Seed et al [ 12 ]

Lecture Note - By Alemayehu Teferra. ( Prof.) Page 6

Foundations on Expansive Soils

3.2. Methods of Preventing Damage (Principle of Foundation Engineering, Alemayehu T.)

9.4 Methods of Preventing Damage

In order to minimize or to eliminate the danger of damage to buildings because of heave and
shrinkage, the following methods have been used [4]:
a. Moisture control
b. Soil stabilization
c. Structural measures.
9.4.1 Moisture Control
The main cause of heaving and shrinkage is the fluctuation of moisture under and around the
structure in question. In any site, depending upon the topographical, geological and weather
conditions, the natural ground water fluctuates. In a country like Ethiopia, where there are
distinct dry and wet seasons, the fluctuation of the ground water table during these periods is
large. Each site has its own characteristic active zone. This is the zone under the ground surface
in which the fluctuation of the moisture content is large. In some areas of Addis Ababa,
shrinkage cracks as deep as two to three meters are common occurrences during the dry season.
This seasonal fluctuation of the moisture content along the depth becomes minimal from
approximately three to four meters down-wards. In addition to the fluctuation of the ground
water one should also consider free water which may seep under foundations, or the effect of
evaporation which would cause moisture migration.
Hence a satisfactory solution to the problem would be to devise an economical way of stabilizing
the soil moisture under and around buildings. It does not matter whether the moisture content is
high or low, as long as it can be maintained constant throughout the year.
Depending upon the existing conditions, some prefer to keep the soils as wet as possible
throughout the year. Based on this approach, two methods have been presented by Deb and
Chandra, India [8]. These methods consist of providing
a. sand drains
b. a flexible water-proof apron with sand drains.

The second method was found to be more effective and applied with reasonable success. Here
auger-bored holes of 20cm in diameter and 2 meters depth are drilled at 2 meters center to center
and about 1 meter away all around the building. The holes are filled with coarse sand and are
connected by surface drains. A watertight apron of 1 meter width is built around the building
(Fig. 9.4, and Fig. 9.5).

Lecture Note - By Alemayehu Teferra. ( Prof.) Page 7

 Two - way reinforcement
D.P.C 10 c/c 25

3.5 cm
 11.5 cm
Watertight apron

1 : 10
:1 20 cm
1
Foundations on Expansive Soils

Perforated
cover

5 cm mortar

Lecture Note - By Alemayehu Teferra. ( Prof.)

100 cm

20 cm
80 cm

Coarse sand or Compacted red ash at high water content

200 cm
red ash filter

Fig. 9.4 : Detail of typical apron and sand drains

Page 8
 Sand drains
Ø 20 cm of 2.0m spacing
Foundations on Expansive Soils

B
Building Apron
1m

Lecture Note - By Alemayehu Teferra. ( Prof.)

20 cm . wide drain

Page 9
Fig. 9.5 : Location of sand drains around a typical building to be treated
Foundations on Expansive Soils

The other approach is to prevent the migration or flow of water to the vicinity of the building by
providing horizontal and vertical moisture barriers, and also subsurface and surface drainage.

Horizontal moisture barriers are installed around a building in the form of membranes. The
purpose of the horizontal barriers is to prevent excessive intake of surface moisture. Widely
used horizontal membranes are polyethylene membrane, concrete aprons and asphalt membrane,
extending beyond the limits of backfill [4].
Vertical moisture barriers are used around the perimeter of the building to cut off the source of
water that may enter the under slab soil. To serve as barriers in this category, one may use
polyethylene membrane, concrete, or other durable impervious material. The depth of the
barriers should be equal to or greater than the depth of moisture fluctuation. Backfill materials
may be used as vertical moisture barriers provided they are well compacted.

The subsurface drainage system is used to intercept the gravity flow of free water, to lower the
ground water or perched water, and to arrest the capillary moisture movement. For this purpose
intercepting and peripheral drains are installed [4]. It should be borne in mind that positive
outlets should be provided for subsurface drainage.

For proper surface drainage, the ground surface around the building should be graded so that
surface water will drain away from the structure in all directions. Roof downspouts must be
directed away from the structure so that water does not seep into the foundation soil. They
should extend well beyond the perimeter of the foundation and should be properly drained away.

9.4.2 Soil Stabilization

Soil stabilization consists of one of the following operations:

a. Prewetting or flooding the in situ soil to achieve swelling prior to construction

b. Compaction control, i.e., decreasing the density of the foundation soil
c. Soil replacement, i.e., replacing the swelling soil by non-heaving soil
d. Chemical stabilization, i.e., changing the swelling characteristic of the soil by
addition of chemicals.
9.4.2.1 Prewetting or Flooding
This is an old established procedure. The reasoning behind this operation is that, by completely
flooding the site under consideration prior to construction, the soil will heave and a potential
danger of cracking after the structure is erected will be eliminated.

Lecture Note - By Alemayehu Teferra. ( Prof.) Page 10

Foundations on Expansive Soils

Prewetting may produce successful results if the depth of the active zone is not too large and if
the moisture migration is controlled. Experience has shown [6] that it is extremely difficult to
saturate high plasticity clays within a reasonable period of time. Expansion of partially saturated
clays may continue after completion of the structure for many years. One should also bear in
mind that prewetting may reduce the bearing capacity of the soil and may also be responsible for
causing settlement. Prewetting has been effectively used for stabilizing soil beneath floor slabs,
pavement or canal linings. However, its application for building foundations is still questionable
and risky.

9.4.2.2 Compaction Control

Investigations have revealed that expansive clays expand very little when compacted at low
densities and high moisture, but expand more when compacted at high densities and low
moisture. Hence the approach to compact swelling clays at moisture content slightly above their
natural moisture content and at low density should give good results. The main advantage of
using this approach is that the swelling potential can be reduced without the negative effects
caused by introducing excessive moisture into the soil, in which moisture migration to the
underlying moisture-deficient soil takes place. Even though the required depth of compaction
depends on the potential expansiveness of the soil and on the magnitude of the structural load, it
may in general be adequate to compact to a depth of 1.5 to 2 metres.

9.4.2.3 Soil Replacement

Soil replacement is the simplest and easiest solution for slabs and footings founded on expansive
soils. The expansive foundation soils are replaced by non-heaving materials. The strength of the
method lies in the selection of the replacement material and the depth of replacement.

If the active zone is very deep, it is not desirable that moisture migrate to the underlying
expansive soil. For such condition material selected for replacement should be impervious non-
expansive soil. Engineering judgment should be used in deciding on the thickness of the
replacement. It should always be remembered that the replaced soil serves as a cushion, and
even if the deep-seated soil swells, the movement due to heave will be regulated.

A combination of soil compaction and soil replacement may be economical if the depth of
replacement is large. The area of replacement should extend beyond the perimeter of the
envisaged structure.

Lecture Note - By Alemayehu Teferra. ( Prof.) Page 11

Foundations on Expansive Soils

The required degree of compaction of the replaced soil depends on the type of the structure.
90% of Standard proctor density should be adequate for slabs. For footings the degree of
compaction of 95% to 100% should be achieved [4].

Soil replacement provides the safest method for slab-on-ground construction. The slab should be
separated by slip joints from the rest of the structure. Surface drainage should be properly
provided.

9.4.2.4 Chemical Stabilization

By chemical stabilization is meant the process of mixing additives like lime, cement, organic and
inorganic chemicals to expansive soils, so as to retard their potential expansiveness.

The addition of lime reduces the plasticity of the soil and hence its swelling potential. Lime has
been used as a stabilizing agent for centuries. The amount of lime required to stabilize expansive
soils ranges from 2 to 8 per cent by weight. Its relative abundance makes its use popular. It is
often used successfully in the construction of highways and airports.

The action of cement on clay minerals is to reduce the liquid limit, plasticity index and the
potential volume change. Tests indicated that the effect of cement and of lime was about the
same in reducing soil expansion, but the shrinkage of air-dried specimens was reduced from 25%
to 50% with cement stabilization [16]. Even though cement stabilization has been mainly used
in highway construction, it appears to have also a great potential for use to stabilize the under
slab soil in structures.

Some organic and inorganic chemicals have also been tested for their effectiveness in stabilizing
expansive soils. Most of the chemicals were tested in laboratories. Their economical use in the
field has not yet been reported.

9.4.3 Structural Measures

The structural measures that should be undertaken in order to minimize or, if possible, to
eliminate damages of structures due to heaving are dependent on the design of the structure. One
may opt for one of the following three methods, depending upon the site and architectural
conditions. The methods are

a. Floating foundation
b. Reinforcement of brick walls
c. Foundations on piles.

Lecture Note - By Alemayehu Teferra. ( Prof.) Page 12

Foundations on Expansive Soils

9.4.3.1 Floating Foundation

The term floating foundation is used in a broad sense. In this category are included stiffened
slabs, rigid rafts and flexible rafts. The types of foundations in this category that have been tried
in Ethiopia are the stiffened slab and rigid rafts. Flexible rafts have not yet been used and will
not be discussed here.

Stiffened slab foundations are essentially slab-on-ground construction with main beams
supporting the wall loadings.

The slab and the beam rest on compacted, non-heaving material. The non-heaving material that
is frequently used and which is abundantly available in Ethiopia is red volcanic ash.

The slabs are designed assuming that they are anchored (fixed) in the beams and that a pressure
of 20 kN/m2 acts from the soil. This magnitude is indeed small when considering that swell
pressures varying from 300 to 500 kN/m2 are commonly found. The beams are designed as
beams on an elastic foundation, using the appropriate modulus of sub grade reaction.

Before the slab and beams are cast, about one meter of the expansive soil is removed from the
plan area of the building. The soil is flooded with adequate water, and sufficient time is given
for it to swell. For practical reasons it is preferred to continuously saturate the foundation soil
rather than prevent the migration of moisture. On top of the expansive soil the compacted red
ash is placed at high water content. Sand drains are also provided around the plan area of the
building. The sand drains are 20cm in diameter and 2 meter deep and spaced at an interval of 2
meters, center to center and at about 1.0 meter away all around the building. The holes are filled
with coarse sand and are connected by surface drains. A watertight apron of 1.0m width is paved
around the building. It is provided with a gradient sloping away from the building so that the
accumulated water will be directed into the surface drains. It is suggested to cover the surface
drains with perforated precast concrete slabs in order to retard evaporation. At times it may be
necessary to add extra water to keep the sand drains saturated all the time (Fig. 9.4 and Fig 9.5).

Such a method of construction has been tried in Addis Ababa, and the results have been mixed.
In some areas the buildings did not show any sign of distress, while in some areas considerable
cracking has been witnessed. Systematic research on such a phenomenon has not been done. It
is clear from the outset, however, that such methods of construction would be effectively used in
areas where the fluctuation of the ground water table is not too large. Before deciding on this
method, the engineer should get sufficient information regarding topography, ground water level
if available, drainage and depth of the expansive soil.

Lecture Note - By Alemayehu Teferra. ( Prof.) Page 13

Foundations on Expansive Soils

Design procedure for such stiffened slab has been recently published [9]. The effectiveness of
the method has yet to be proved in the future.

The other type of floating foundation that has been used in the design of dwellings on expansive
soils is a rigid mat. A heavily reinforced rigid mat is placed on leveled soil. The walls and
columns are then built on the foundation. The rationale in this design is that the rigid mat will
eliminate any differential heave, and the structure will “ride on” without suffering any internal
distress. Cost-benefit analysis should be made before deciding on such a design.

9.4.3.2 Reinforcement of Brick Walls

Investigations in South Africa indicate that reinforced brick walls seem to offer the most
satisfactory and economical solution to the problems of heaving [13].

Before full-scale houses were built on expansive soils, a number of single walls were built
subjected to various loadings. Artificial heaving conditions were produced by jacking the
bottom of the wall, and crack patterns were studied.

After making the necessary observations, a full-scale house was built so that the information
gained from the tests on a model house and in single walls could be checked when applied to a
complete house.

The experimental house was made as flexible as possible by not joining the internal walls to the
external walls, and by having breaks in the brickwork at most of the internal door-ways. The
internal walls were thus broken up into smaller units, preferably of either “T” or “L” shapes for
stability against overturning. One of the aims of this semi-empirical design method is to
strengthen the brick walls by including reinforcement in the brickwork in areas where cracking
takes place. From experimental observations, it was found that cracks appear at the top and
bottom of walls and where openings exist, i.e., windows, doors, etc.

The other aim is to make the structure semi-flexible. Hence one should provide open joints in
the brickwork so that when a heave takes place the building will conform to the new ground
shape, and consequently reduce the bending moment developed in the walls.

The two recommended ways of forming such open joints are either to leave straight vertical gaps
of approximately 1.5cm width in the brick work, with no mortar, piping, conduit, wood or other
materials in the gap; or to construct certain internal doorways so that they act as open joints.

Lecture Note - By Alemayehu Teferra. ( Prof.) Page 14

Foundations on Expansive Soils

To form an open joint at an internal doorway, the door frame must go up to the ceiling level
with no brickwork over the frame; the area above the door can either be fitted with a fanlight or
be closed in with a cardboard panel.
Typical wall details of open joints are reproduced in Fig. 9.6[10].

A large number of houses were built in South Africa, and the design procedure of Boardman [2],
which is summarized hereunder, has proved to be successful.

(i) Layout

The first consideration in the design of a building is the layout of the walls and the location of
the open joints. The internal wall should be so laid out and jointed that the individual wall units
form “T” and “L” shapes in plan, for stability against overturning.

Points at which open joints should be made are

a. wherever an internal wall meets an external wall, except for short straight internal
walls which should be unstable laterally, unless built continuous with the exterior
walls.
b. at re-entrant angles in the external walls.
c. in straight walls longer than 15 meters.
d. at most of the internal doorways, so that the internal walls are divided into smaller
units which move independently without cracking.

The number and size of openings in the wall must be kept to a minimum. For the method to be
successful it is desirable that the following conditions are observed:

Lecture Note - By Alemayehu Teferra. ( Prof.) Page 15

Foundations on Expansive Soils

External wall

1.5cm clear gap

Flat steel
1.5cm clear gap wall anchor
5 x 5cm wooden cover steel shoe
strip nailed to outer
wall only Plaster

Plaster

(a) Internal wall (b) Internal wall

Detail of open joint between inner and outer
wall
( a ) using wooden cover
strips
Gap ( b ) using steel
1.5shoe
cm gap
Weather strip Outside

Pressed steel
Inside strip fixed
corner moulding
to one end
(secured by screws
to both walls)

Internal wall

d) Expansion joint in external

c) Detail of open joint wall
between inner and outer
walls using a metal cover
strip. An open joint in the
outer wall is also shown.

Fig. 9.6: Typical wall details in split construction according to

Overseas Building Notes [ 10 ]

Lecture Note - By Alemayehu Teferra. ( Prof.) Page 16

Foundations on Expansive Soils

a. There should be no window opening wider than 2.5 meters.

b. There should be no door opening or opening of similar height wider than 1 meter in
external walls.
c. No opening in an external wall should be nearer than 1 meter from the end of the
wall. Verandahs or porches which require very large openings in walls should be
separated from the main structure by open joints if possible, and should be placed in
front of the façade or should be placed beside the main structure.

(ii) Loads

The loads considered are the dead load of the walls, the roof load, and the load due to any floor
carried by the wall. The total load is divided by the length of the wall and is considered as a
uniformly distributed load which is carried by the wall itself.

(iii) Bending Moment

The bending moment in the wall is calculated using the following equation:
wl 2
M (9.2)
16
where
w = uniformly distributed load
l = length of wall.

(iv) Suggested Allowable Stress in Reinforced Brickwork

a. Stress in mild steel, fs = 12 kN/cm2.

b. Compression in brickwork, fc = 0.28 kN/cm2.
c. Bond strength between rods and brickwork, u = 0.060 kN/cm2.
d. Shear stress in brickwork, τ = 0.020 kN/cm2.
e. Modular ratio, n = 24.

(v) Main Steel at Top and Bottom of Wall

The main steel calculated is placed in the first two continuous horizontal joints in the brickwork
comprising the foundation, that is, after concrete strip footings have been built with brickwork to
form one horizontal surface over all the footings. An equal quantity of steel is also placed in the
last two horizontal joints at the top of the wall. Some or all of the main steel should be bent
around the corners.

Lecture Note - By Alemayehu Teferra. ( Prof.) Page 17

Foundations on Expansive Soils

(vi) Horizontal Steel above Opening

The beams over openings must be at least six courses of brickwork high and the following steel
should be placed in the first horizontal joint above the openings in a wall:
a. Openings up to 1.0 meter span require two steel bars of  10.
b. Openings over 1.0 meter and up to 2 meters span require two bars of  12 or three of
 10.
c. For openings over 2 meters span, the beam over the opening must be designed to
carry its dead load plus the roof load carried by it, using the usual formula for
designing reinforced concrete structure with appropriate reinforced brickwork
constants. The reinforcement must not be less than two bars of  12, if the opening
exceeds 2 meters span.
The steel should extend at least 60 diameters past the sides of the openings. If the ends of the
steel over adjacent openings are less than 30cm apart, the rods should not be cut but should be
run continuously over those openings.
Hangers made of galvanized wire should pass over this steel and extend down into the vertical
joints between the soffit bricks. This will prevent any of the soffit bricks falling away from the
steel.
(vii) Horizontal Steel below Openings

This steel should be placed in the first continuous joint below the opening:
a. When the sum of the widths of openings in a wall is less than 30% of the length of the
wall, the same steel should be placed under the opening as is to be placed above the
opening.
b. When the sum of the widths of openings in a wall is more than 30% but less than 50%
of the length of the wall, the steel just under the openings should be 1⅓ times that
above the openings and continuous where possible.

c. When the sum of the widths of the openings is more than 50% but less than 70% of
the length of the wall, the steel below the openings should be the same as the main
steel and, where possible, run the whole length of the wall.

d. When the openings are so numerous that the columns between the openings are very
slender, the wall must be considered as two separate beams acting together, the one
below the windows and the other above. It is recommended that such walls should
not be used with this type of construction, as it is not possible to reinforce the vertical
column between the openings satisfactorily.

Lecture Note - By Alemayehu Teferra. ( Prof.) Page 18

Foundations on Expansive Soils

(viii) Vertical Steel

The diameter of the vertical steel must be  12 or more. Vertical rods should be placed at the
end of walls and on each side of all openings. The number of rods required at any particular
point is as follows:

a. If the sum of the spans of the openings is less than 30% of the length of the wall, one
rod should be placed at each end of the wall and one rod adjacent to each side of each
opening.

b. If the sum of the spans of the openings is more than 30% but less than 50% of the
length of the wall, two rods must be placed at each end of the wall, and two rods
adjacent to the sides of the openings nearest each end. One rod must be placed on
each side of all other openings.

c. If the sum of the spans of the openings is more than 50% but less than 70% of the
length of the wall, two rods must be placed adjacent to all openings and three rods at
each end of the wall.

d. Any wall with openings of more than 70% of its length must have the same vertical
reinforcing as in c above, but fine cracks will develop when movement takes place.

The vertical steel should start just below the main steel in the bottom of the walls. To give the
vertical steel good end anchorage to assist the bond, it must be firmly held at the ends against the
brickwork. The best way of achieving this is by threading the rods for a length of 2cm at the
bottom and 8cm at the top, and using nuts to hold 5  5  ½ cm steel plate washers against the
brickwork. When building in the vertical steel, care must be taken to see that the bottom washer
is tight against the bricks laid on top of it, and that the nut is against the underside of the plate.

When the brickwork is complete to the top of the wall, a portion of the threaded top end will
protrude, and the washer is placed over this, and the top nut is then tightened. Typical wall
reinforcements are given in Figs. 9.7 to 9.9.

Lecture Note - By Alemayehu Teferra. ( Prof.) Page 19

 4 Ø 12 3 Ø 12

.6
2 Ø 12 2 Ø 12 2 Ø 12

1.50
2. 00
1.50
1.00
1.85
1.50
2. 65
1.50
1.50
Foundations on Expansive Soils

1.30
2.00
I III IV
00. 3

1 Ø 12 II 1 Ø 12
29. 2 = d

1 Ø 12 2 Ø 12
2 Ø 12 2 Ø 12 2Ø12

Lecture Note - By Alemayehu Teferra. ( Prof.)

2 Ø 12 3 Ø 12

1.00
3 Ø 12 3 Ø 12 D.P.C

15.00 m
3 Ø 12 4 Ø 12
80. 0

Elevation of wall

Fig. 9 . 7: Typical wall reinforcement [ 4 ]

Page 20
Foundations on Expansive Soils

4 12 4 12
3 12 3 12

Plaster Plaster

2 12
12 Gauge hanger

Window

2 12 steel
roads
threaded at
both
3 12 ends

Floor Floor
Clear space
30 - 40 cm

D.P.C D.P.C

3 12 3 12
4 12 4 12
7. 5 cm

7. 5 cm

58 cm 58 cm

Fig. 9.8: Typical cross - section of reinforced brick wall [ 4 ]

Lecture Note - By Alemayehu Teferra. ( Prof.) Page 21

Foundations on Expansive Soils

2.5 cm

5.0 cm
60 cm

60 cm

Steel

Plaster

Mortar

2 5.8 cm 1 .5 cm

Fig. 9.9: Detail of main horizontal steel at corner [ 4 ]

Lecture Note - By Alemayehu Teferra. ( Prof.) Page 22

Foundations on Expansive Soils

(ix) Design Details

Besides the provision of open joints and incorporation of steel, there are many other details of
special nature which have to be correctly executed.

a. Damage to the floors can be avoided by suspending them from the foundation walls.
b. Special attention must be given to the edges of the ceilings by not attaching them to
the wall.
c. Damp proofing of the walls below floor level is essential. The method of damp
proofing, as it forms a plane of weakness, is equally important. It would be
sufficient to use a layer of asphalt-impregnated felt sheeting. However, the sheeting
should be stepped up and down at about one meter interval as shown in the
illustrative example (Fig. 9.7).
d. The outside steps must not be built against the brickwork but must have a layer of
soft-board built in between the steps and the brickwork.
e. Water piping coming out of the ground and through an external wall must be cranked
so that it will have only a slight anchoring effect before being deformed.
f. It is extremely important that earthenware sewer pipes be jointed with bitumen and
not cement mortar, so as to render them slightly flexible. Asbestos pipes with
flexible rubber joints should be used for the sewers. Experience has shown that
glazed stoneware pipes fail at almost every joint with seasonal movements of the
ground, resulting in serious leakages which greatly increase the ground movement.
g. To prevent rain soaking into the ground near the house, impervious channels should
be provided to lead the water from the down pipes and to discharge it well away
from the building, into a storm-water drain if available.

Since reinforced brickwork is unknown in Ethiopia, brick layers, foremen and other supervisors
are unfamiliar with the techniques required when including reinforcement in brickwork. Further,
the importance of correctly placing the steel and attending to small details may not be fully
appreciated. It is stressed that when using this method all joints in the brickwork must be
carefully filled.

Lecture Note - By Alemayehu Teferra. ( Prof.) Page 23

Foundations on Expansive Soils

Faults, repeatedly noticed on various housing projects carried out in other parts of the world,
which would have been eliminated with a full appreciation of what is required, were

a. inaccurate placing of steel bar

b. the vertical steel starting at wrong levels
c. the vertical steel not being of the correct length
d. the mortar not being well worked around the vertical steel
e. the vertical joints in the brickwork not being properly built
f. the clear gaps not being kept free of mortar
g. the clear gaps not being thoroughly cleaned after plastering the walls containing them
h. the plumbers and electricians placing pipes and conduit in a clear gap to save cutting
the separate chases in the brickwork.

It is also important that the mortar used should be of good quality. It is recommended that no
lime be used in any mortar for reinforced brickwork. A suitable mortar is one part cement to
four parts of clean sand.

Corrosion of the steel reinforcing is a very important factor in reinforced brickwork, and must
always be considered before adopting this type of construction.

9.4.3.3 Foundation of Piles

Pile foundations provide a suitable solution for a variety of structures located on heaving soils.
They may prove economical in areas where considerable heave is to be expected, and the
additional cost can be balanced against the saving in future maintenance. In the category of pile
foundations, one of the following may be used:

a. Straight bored piles for foundations in shallow expansive soils

b. Belled or single under-reamed piles for foundations of light structures in deep layers
of expansive soils
c. Double under-reamed piles for foundations of heavier structures in deep layers of
expansive soils.

Lecture Note - By Alemayehu Teferra. ( Prof.) Page 24

Foundations on Expansive Soils

The piles should be placed well below the active zone where the seasonal fluctuation of the
moisture content is minimum. Depending upon the depth at which the moisture content is
constant, one opts for one of the above three methods (Fig. 9.10).

In the design of the pile foundation in expansive soils, two factors should be considered. These
are
(i) the ultimate bearing capacity
(ii) the tensile stress developed along the shaft as result of heaving.

The ultimate bearing capacity may be determined by using Eq. (8.70). In calculating the skin
friction component, the friction over the first two meters’ length of piles at the top should be
neglected since over this length, generally, major shrinkage cracks exist.

Lecture Note - By Alemayehu Teferra. ( Prof.) Page 25

 Beam Beam Beam

Air gap Ground surface Air gap Ground surface Air gap

D D D

h h 2.0 m (min)
Uplifting

enoz
enoz

evi t c A
evi t c A
Foundations on Expansive Soils

pressure

Reinforcement

Lecture Note - By Alemayehu Teferra. ( Prof.)

~ 0.40 m

h1 Skin
1.5 B
friction h1

enoz
enoz

el bat S
el bat S
B B

a) Straight shaft b) Single under-reamed c) Double under-reamed

Fig. 9.10 : Details of different pile systems for expansive soils

Page 26
Foundations on Expansive Soils

For the straight bored piles, if the combined effect of the weight of the dead load and the skin
friction does not balance the uplift force due to swelling, the whole pile may be lifted and cause
structural damage to the building. One may estimate the total uplifting force from the following
relations (Fig. 9.10a)

U  D f uh (9.3)
where
D = diameter of pile
u = swelling pressure
h = depth of pile in the active zone
f = coefficient of uplift between concrete and soil
U = total uplift force.

According to Chen [4], the value of f may be taken as 0.15, and the value of the swelling
pressure acting on the pier for soils with high degree of expansion is about 490 kN/m2, and for
soils with medium degree of expansion is about 245 kN/m2.

The critical factor which should be considered is the tension force produced within the pile as the
result of the swelling pressure. This force becomes more critical on belled or under-reamed piles
located in deep layers of expansive soils.

The principle underlying the use of under-reamed pile foundations for structures erected on
expansive soils is one of anchoring the building down, at that depth where changes in the
moisture content and the subsequent volumetric expansion of the soil will be negligible. The
bottoms of the piles are belled out with special under-reaming tools, and it is this under-reamed
section which provides the anchorage for the pile.

In order to understand the mechanics of the development of tensile stresses in the piles, it is
adequate to discuss the simple theory of Collins [5].

Consider an under-reamed pile of circular cross-section anchored to the bottom of an expanding

layer of soil as shown in Fig. 9.11.

Due to the skin friction between the soil and pile, tensile forces should be expected to be
produced. Considering elemental strip as shown, the small increment of tension will be

T   D  hF (9.4)

Lecture Note - By Alemayehu Teferra. ( Prof.) Page 27

Foundations on Expansive Soils

Lecture Note - By Alemayehu Teferra. ( Prof.) Page 28

Foundations on Expansive Soils

where
F = frictional force per unit area between pile and soil at the depth h
h = elemental strip at depth below the expanding soil
D = pile diameter.
Total tension at depth h:

T    DF  h (9.5)
The surface of a drilled cast in-situ pile is rough; hence one can assume an intimate contact
between soil and pile. It is reasonable therefore to assume that the frictional force occurring
between the soil and the pile at any point is equal to the shear strength of the soil in a vertical
direction at that point. When a certain amount of movement has been developed it could
mobilize the whole of the shear strength which is given by Coulomb’s equation:

S  c   tan  (9.6)
where
 = inter granular pressure acting normal to the surface of sliding
c = cohesion
 = angle of internal friction.

Ignoring corrections for pore water pressure and identifying k as the ratio between inter granular
pressures on the horizontal and vertical plane, i.e.,
h
k
v
Then, (9.7)
 h  k v
Hence  h  k  h (9.8)

For a uniform diameter pile, it can be assumed that the friction on the surface of the pile can be
considered as equal to the shear strength of the soil in a vertical direction, i.e., F = S.

Hence
h
T    D(c  k  h tan  )dh (9.9)
0

The finally gives the following relationship:

D
T (2ch  k  h 2 tan  ) (9.10)
2

Lecture Note - By Alemayehu Teferra. ( Prof.) Page 29

Foundations on Expansive Soils

At the bottom of the pile, T equals zero. Hence there must be a transition zone near the under-
reamed section and the tension variation along the pile is as indicated in Fig. 9.11c.

If a vertical load P is applied at the top of the pile, one obtains

D
P T  (2ch  k  h 2 tan  ) (9.11a)
2
or
D
T (2ch  k  h 2 tan  )  P (9.11b)
2
The effect of P is to shift the zero line of the force diagram by an amount P. The above equation
holds good for all points between the surface of the soil and the top of the under-ream, and the
unknowns in the expression are k, c, and. The values of c, , and  can be obtained from
laboratory tests on undisturbed samples. It should be pointed out that the type of test carried out
will have an influence on the value of c and  for the same soil.

The two types of tests that are usually carried out for determining the soil parameters are
unconsolidated drained or consolidated drained triaxial tests. In tests conducted in South Africa,
actual cracks in test piles occurred at depths which conform to the conditions k = 1, and with
shear characteristics as found in the consolidated drained triaxial tests.

Once the probable curve for the tensile forces in piles has been obtained, it can be extended to
greater depths.

Using the soil parameters for the k condition adopted, and repeating the calculations for a range
of pile diameter, a chart can be compiled [13].

From the chart, values of T + P can be read off for any pile with dimensions within normal
limits. Thus if the diameter and the load of the pile are known, the required amount of tensile
steel at any depth can be determined.

For the safe anchorage power of the under-ream, Collins [5] suggests the values given in Table
9.3. The values have been compiled with a factor of safety of 2 for a 25cm diameter pile. For
piles other than 25cm in diameter, values may be obtained by assuming that, other factors being
equal, the anchorage power varies as the square of the diameter.

Lecture Note - By Alemayehu Teferra. ( Prof.) Page 30

Foundations on Expansive Soils

Table 9.3: Safe anchoring power of under-ream on 25cm diameter pile in kN[5]

Under-Ream Ratio Depth in meters

B/D 3 6 9 12
1.5 18 27 36 45
2 59 90 118 150
2.5 122 191 255 318
3 232 345 473 595

While using under-reamed pile foundations, it is necessary to consider the following:

a. There should be a clear space of at least 50cm under all grade beams, and this space
must remain clear throughout the life of the building. If the soil in between the piles
rises, and if the space becomes completely closed, the soil will press upwards against
the beam and might cause damage to the building.
b. Attention must be paid to drains and water pipes so that considerable movement can
take place without rupture of the pipes.
c. External constructions in contact with the soil must be completely free of the
building.

Lecture Note - By Alemayehu Teferra. ( Prof.) Page 31