Food Engineering Principles

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Lecture 1 Slide No. 1 Slide No. 2
Content of Lecture
UNITS
1. Primary dimensions and physical variables
UNIT CONVERSION 2. Understand units for measurement: base
IDEAL GAS units and derived units
REAL GAS 3. Understand SI units and Engineering units

4. Unit Conversion
5. Ideal Gas -Ideal Gas Law
Dr. Dang Quoc Tuan 6. Partial Pressure
Food Technology Department 7. Partial Volume
International University - VNU 8. Real Gas
International University Dept Food Technology Food Engineering Principles International University Dept Food Technology Food Engineering Principles
1 2
Slide No. 3 Slide No. 4
Concept of Technology Science vs. Engineering

• Materials Engineering: is the discipline, art and profession of
• Methods (production procedures)
TECHNOLOGY=
• Machines
4M acquiring and applying technical, scientific and
• Organization (management) mathematical knowledge to design and implement
materials, structures, machines, devices, systems, and
processes that safely realize a desired objective or
Materials Transformation Products inventions.
Procedures - To create a process, device, which has not been existed
Machines Finance in the nature.
Engineering: Emphasis on physical and mathematical

Efficiency sciences, mathematical formulations, quantitative
Quantity Quality models and approaches to complex systems.
3 4
Food Engineering Unit & Dimensions

Food process engineering can also be defined as “the Dimension: A physical entity that can be measured or
science of conceiving, calculating, designing, building, observed
and running the facilities where the transformation 7 Primary Dimensions
processes of agricultural products, at the industrial level
and as economically as possible, are carried out.” Unit
Parameter Symbol Name Sym
Engineer in the food industry should: bol
-know the basic principles of process engineering 1 length l. metre m
-able to develop new production techniques for agricultural products.
- be capable of designing the equipment to be used in a given process. 2 mass m kilogram kg
3 time t second s
The main objective of food process engineering is to study:
-the principles and laws governing the physical, chemical, or biochemical 4 electric current I ampere A
stages of different processes thermodynamic
- the apparatus or equipment by which such stages are industrially carried 5 temperature T kelvin K
out.
6 amount of substance n mole mol
Focus: transformation processes of raw materials into final products. 7 luminous intensity Iv candela cd
5 6
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Secondary dimensions SI & Engineering Units

Examples?: • The MKS system:
Volume – Meter-Kilogram-Second
Speed • Systeme International d’Unites – SI
Molarity (International System of Units)
Molality – Based on MKS extension, adopting 4 more base
Density units
Pressure • The CGS system:
Viscosity – Centimeter-gram-second
Specific Heat – All CGS mechnical units are derived from these
Heat transfer coefficient three based units
Power – The CGS derived unit for force is dyne
(1 dyne = 1g.cm/s2)
7 8
SI & Engineering Units Length

• American Engineering System (English Units, Imperial
Units): Length is a measure of the distance between two
points.
– Foot-Pound-Minute system
Some units of length are:
– Commonly used the US industry SI System: meter(m)
– Only few countries not considering SI as an official cgs System: centimeter (cm)
measurement system English System: inch (in)
– Scientific literature often use SI units foot (ft)
Some conversion factors are:

• 1 meter = 100 cm = 1000 mm = 39.37 in = 3.2808 ft
• 1 feet = 12 inch = 30.48 cm = 0.30448 m
• 1 inch = 0.0254 m = 2.54 cm = 25.4 mm
• 1 mile = 1.6093 km
US, Myanma, Liberia
9 10
Mass Time
Mass is a measure of quantity of material. Mass and
weight are two distinct things. Time measures the ordering of events by comparing them
Mass measures the resistance of an object to changes in to some regular periodic phenomena such as the orbiting
motion of the earth around the sun, the rotation of the earth on its
Weight measures the downward force exerted on an axis, the swinging of a pendulum or the vibration of an
object by a gravitational field atom
Some units of length are: Some units of length are:

SI System: kilogram(kg) SI System: second (s)
cgs System: gram (gm) cgs System: second (s)
English System: pound (lbm) English System: minute (min)
hour (hr)
1 kg = 1000 grams = 2.2046 lbm Some conversion factors are:
1 Lbm = 16 ounces = 453.592 grams = 0.4534 kg 1 hour = 60 minutes = 3600 seconds
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Temperature
Temperature
It is not easy to give precise definition of temperature
 We perceive temperature as a measure of our physiological to
K = oC + 273.15;
“hotness” or “coldness”
oC = K – 273.15
 Thermal energy is a measure of the average kinetic energy
associated with this motion. oR = oF + 459.8
 If energy is transferred at an equal rate in each direction, we oC /100 = (oF-32)/180
say the objects are at the same temperature.
oF = oC (9/5) + 32
 Temperature is usually measured by measuring the
expansion of some materials such as a gas or mercury.
100 oC
Some units of length are: • Convert 212 °F into oC
SI System: Kelvin (K)
cgs System: Celcius (oC)
English System: Fahrenheit (oF)
Rankine (oR)
• Convert 72 oC into oF 161.6 oF
13 14
Electric Current Conversion

When charged particles (usually electrons) move • Convert 10 grams into pounds
through a conductor, we say that an electric 1 Ib = 0.4536 kg
current is flowing. We measure this current by
1000 g = 1 kg
counting the number of charges that pass a
point each second: " We define one coulomb
1 kg 1 Lb
as 6.25 x 1018 charged particles. 10 g = 10 g* = 0.022 Lb
1000 g 0.453kg
Some units of current are: • The “Factor-Label” Method:

6.25 x 1018 charges per second = 1 Ampere (A)
- Units, or “labels” are canceled, or
0.001 Amperes = 1 milliampere (mA)
“factored” out
15 16
Unit conversion Unit conversion

• Factor label method • Steps:
Regardless of conversion, keeping track of – 1. Identify starting & ending units.
units makes things come out right
– 2. Line up conversion factors so units
Must use conversion factors cancel.
The relationship between two units
– 3. Multiply all top numbers & divide by each
Canceling out units is a way of checking bottom number.
that your calculation is set up right!
– 4. Check units & answer.
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Derived Units
Units in Equations
• Addition/Subtraction: All terms must have the
same units
• Multiplication/Division: Units may cancel, like
variables
• Homogeneity: Units on both sides of the "=“
sign must be the same
• Transcendental Functions: (sinx, lnx, ex) the
argument (x) does not have a dimension
19 20
Speed and Velocity

Derived & Supplementary Units

• Speed = distance / time
• Speed has magnitude only. Velocity is a
vector quantity
• Velocity is a vector quantity
• Instantaneous velocity
• meter per second (m/s)

• Feet per minute (ft/min)
• Miles per hours (mph)
21 22
Acceleration Force and Weight

We define force a a push or pull. Newton’s first law:

Force = Mass x Acceleration = F = m.a
Some units of force are:

Instantaneous Acceleration SI system: Newtons = kg.m/sec2
cgs System: Dyne = gram.cm/sec2
American Engineering System: lbf = lbmft/sec2
Some units of acceleration are:

Weight= downward force exerted due to a gravitational filed
SI System: m/sec2
Near the surface of the earth, this acceleration
cgs System: cm/sec2 has the following magnitude
Royal System: ft/sec2
m/hr2 SI System: g = 9.806 m/sec2
cgs System: g = 980.6 cm/sec2
Royal System: g = 32.17 ft/sec2
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Mass and Weight Pressure

• The force normal to unit area of the system
Some units of mass and weight are:
boundary
• [P] ≡ [N/m2] ≡ [Pa]
Mass Weight
• The standard atmospheric pressure is the
SI System Kilogram (kg) Newtons (N)
pressure produced by a column of mercury
cgs System Gram (gm) Dynes (dyn) 760 mm high
Royal System Pounds mass (lbm) Pound force (lbf)
• 1 atm = 14.69 psi = 1.01325 bar
• 1 bar = 105 Pa =0.1 MPa = 100 kPa
25 26
Pressure Slide No. 27 Slide No. 28
Pascal Newton per square meter (Pa = N/m2) Unit Conversion for Pressure
Bar 1×105 Pa = 100 kPa
atm Standard atmosphere • 1 atm = 101.325 kPa = 760 mmHg = 14.696 psi
psi Pound per square inch (lbf/in2) • 1 at = 1 kgf/cm2 = 98.0665 kPa
kgf/cm2 A technical atmosphere (symbol: at) is a non-SI • 1 Pa = 1 N/m2 = 10−5 bar = 10.197×10−6 at
unit of pressure equal to one kilogram-force per
square centimeter. = 9.8692×10−6 atm = 7.5006×10−3 torr
cmHg Centimeter of mercury (cmHg) = 145.04×10−6 psi
cmAq Centimeter of water (cmH2O) • 1 torr = 133.322 Pa
Torr The ratio of 760 to 1 standard atmosphere; a unit • 1 psi = 6.894 kPa
of pressure commonly used in vacuum
measurements. It was named after Evangelista
Torricelli, an Italian physicist and mathematician
who discovered the principle of the barometer in
1644.
27 28
Work and Energy Power

• Work is done on an object whenever force is applied to it and the Power measures the rate of doing work or the rate of
object moves.
• If an object is moving without a force being applied (a satellite moving
energy expenditure (amount E spent in unit of time).
in space, for example), no work is done on that object. Some units of power are:
• If a force is applied but the object does not move (if you push on a
large boulder, for example), still no work is done on the object.
SI System: watt (W) = joules/sec
• Energy is defined as the ability to do work
Am. Eng. System: Horsepower (hp)
Some units of work and energy are: = 550 ft lbf / sec
SI System: Joules (1) = Newton meters = 0.7457 kW
cgs System: Ergs = Dyne centimeters
American Engineering System: foot poundsforce = ft lbf
= 42.44 BTU/min
British Thermal Unit = BTU Some conversion:
Some useful conversion units are:
1 Joule (J)= 107 ergs = 0.7376 ft.lbf 1 kW = 1.341 HP
1 BTU = 1055 J = 1.055 kJ. 1 HP = 550 ft lbf/sec = 0.7457 kW = 42.44 BTU/min
1 Dyne = 10-5 N
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Volume Density
• 1 liter = 1000 cubic cm (or cc) Defined as mass per unit volume with dimensions
(mass)/(length)3
• 1 gallon = 4 quarts = 8 pints = 128
ounces • Solid Density, True Density (rt)
• Particle Density: Particle density accounts for the
• 1 gallon = 3.785 liters presence of internal pores in the particle. This density
is defined as a ratio of the actual mass of a particle to
its actual volume.
• Flow rate = Volume / time • Bulk Density (rb): Bulk density is defined as the mass of
• m3 per second particles occupied by a unit volume of bed.
• Gallons per minutes
• Convert 5 gallon into liters

• Convert 3 liters into gallons
31 32
Density
Porosity, Packing Factor

Densities of Some Commercial Products (gm/cm3) • The void space in bio-materials can be described by
determining the Porosity, which is expressed as the
Water 1.00 volume not occupied by the solid material.
Lipstick 0.99
Toothpaste 1.52
Milk Chocolate 1.29
Dark Chocolate 1.31
Petroleum Jelly 0.88
Peanuts 1.09
Peanut Butter 1.12
where
Bath Soap 1.04 • Vp = volume of pore
Particle Density
Floating Bath Soap 0.93 • Vt = total volume
Mayonnaise 1.02 = Solid Density • Vs = volume of solid
English Mustard 1.22 • rs = solid density
• rb = bulk density
33 34
Specific Gravity
Concentration and Mass Fraction
 Water is so common that most people have a fair idea of
its density: one cm3 weighs one gram.
 Because of this familiarity, it is useful to express the
density of other materials relative to that of water.
 We define: Mass Fraction:
This is the mass of a component per unit of mass of the
solution or mixture. If we have n components with W1
mass units of component 1, W2 mass units of component
Example: Gold is 19.3 times as heavy as the same volume of water so its
S.G. = 19.3. 2, etc., the mass fraction of component i is:
Notation:
meaning that cadmium hydroxide at 15oC is 4.79 times as

dense as water at 4oC.
The specific gravity of a liquid is commonly measured with
Mass fraction: "Mass fraction, wet basis" and "Mass Fraction, Dry Basis"
a hydrometer
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Degrees Brix
Slide No. 37
Mass Percent and Part per Million Slide No. 38
 Degrees Brix ( °Bx) is the sugar content of an Mass Percent = 100* (Mass Fraction)
aqueous solution.
 One degree Brix equivalent to: 1 g of sucrose in 100
g of solution. Parts per Million (ppm)
 as percentage by weight (% w/w).
This is the mass of a component per million units of mass
in the mixture or solution.
 The refractive index, nD, for sucrose solutions of It is useful for components that are present in very low
various strengths by weight has been measured and concentrations.
tables of nD vs. °Bx published. ppm = 106 .(Mass of component /Mass of mixture )
 It is possible to use these tables to calibrate a
Example: If 10 kg of flour contains 50 mg of Pesticide, the conc. of
REFRACTOMETER so that it reads directly in °Bx.
Pesticide is:
Concentration = 106 .(50x10-6 kg)/10 kg = 5 ppm
1a
37 38
Moisture Content
MC db = MC wb
• Amount of water present in a moist sample
1 - MC wb
Two bases are widely used to express moisture content
Moisture content dry basis Moisture content wet basis MC db MC wb

MC db MC wb Moisture content dry basis
Moisture content wet basis
MC wb = MC db
1 + MC db
39 40

Mass Fraction, Dry Basis Molecular Weight
Mass Fraction. Dry Basis:
If a mixture contains water, the mass fraction or mass Molecular weight equal to the sum of the
percent can be computed based on only the dry matter that atomic weights of the constituent elements
would remain if all the water were removed. If Wwater is the
mass of the water and this is one of the n masses
Atomic weight equal, on the average, to the
number of protons and neutrons per atomic
nuclei
Problem: A block of Cheddar cheese has the following composition
Water 37.4 kg
Protein 26.2 kg Example:
Fat 32.5 kg Water (H20) has a molecular weight of 2 x l + 16 = 18.
Carbohydrate 2.1 kg Glucose (C6H1206) has a molecular weight of (6 x 12)+(12 x 1)+(6 x16) = 180.
Ash 3.7 kg
What is the Mass Percent of protein, dry basis and wet basis?
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Moles Molarity and Molality

Moles: Molarity is defined as the number of moles of a material
A quantity of a substance whose weight in grams equals per liter of solution or mixture
its molecular weight is called a gram-mole.
Similarly, if a weight in kilograms equals its molecular
weight is called a kg-mole.
Example: The molecular weight of NaCl is 58.5 so if 29.25 grams of NaCl is
dissolved in water and brought to a volume of 1 liter, the resulting solution is
0.5 molar
Molality is defined as the as the number of moles of

material per kg of solvent
Example:
32 grams of oxygen is 1 gram-mole
180 kg of Sucrose is one kg-mole Example: The molecular weight of glucose is 180 so if 45 grams of glucose are
dissolved in 2 kg of water, the resulting solution is 0.25 molal
43 44

Mole Fraction, Mole Percent and Molar
Volume
Mole Fraction: defined as the number of moles of that
constituent divided by the total number of moles of all
constituents
Mole Percent is defined as 100 times the mole fraction
Molar Volume is defined as the volume occupied by one

mole of a substance. It can be expressed in
m3/mole, ft3/mole, liters/mole
Example: At standard temperature and pressure (STP = 0oC and 1 atmosphere),
an ideal gas has a molar volume of 22.415 liters/mole
45 46
Example 1:
• Test the equation dimensional consistency and
determine units of h
• Solution:
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Example 3: Covert a moisture content of 85 %

Example 2:
wet basis to moisture content dry basis
Milk is flowing through a full pipe whose MC wb = 0.85
diameter is known to be 1.8 cm.
The tank calibrated in cubic feet, and it is From equation MC db = MC wb
found that it takes 1 h to fill 12.4 ft3. 1 - MC wb
MC db = 0.85
• What is the velocity (m/s) of flow of the liquid
in the pipe? 1 - 0.85
MC db = 5.67
Ans: 0.381 m/s
= 567 % db
49 50
Example 4: A food is initially at moisture content of 90 Example 5: The 10 kg of food sample at a

% dry basis . Calculate the moisture content in wet basis moisture contents of 75 % wet basis. What is the
amount of water?
MC db = 0.90
MC db mass of water
MC wb = % Wet basis =
1 + MC db mass of water +mass of dry solids
MC wb = 0.90 0.75
1 + 0.90 =
1.00
MC wb = 0.4736
10 kg of product = 7.5 kg water + 2.5 kg dry solids
= 47.36 % wb
51 52
Problems Problems
1. A food is initially at a moisture content of 90% dry basis.

• Convert 20 kPa to units of atm and psi Calculate the moisture content in wet basis.
2. 10 kg of food at a moisture content of 320% dry basis is
• Convert 50 in2 .lbm/sec2 to units of dried to 50% wet basis. Calculate the amount of water
joules and cal. removed.
3. A batch of 5kg of food product has a moisture content of
• Convert 450 BTU/lb to kcal/g 150% dry basis. Calculate how much water must be
• Convert 1,545.3 (ft.lb / lb-mole R) to removed from this product to reduce its moisture content to
20% wet basis.
(L.atm)/(g-mol.K) 4. Convert 90% wet basis moisture content into dry basis
moisture content
5. Convert 200% dry basis moisture content into wet basis
moisture content
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Slide # 55 Slide # 56
Outline:
IDEAL GAS Concept of Pressure
- Ideal Gas vs Real Gas
- Concept of Pressure
- Absolute, Gauge
Pressure
- Vacuum
- Boyle’s Law
- Charles Law
- Avagadro’s Law
- van Hoff’s Ideal Gas
Law
- Gas Constant
- Dalton’s Law
- Partial Pressures Molecules exerting force
- Amagat’s Law on the wall –> pressure
- Partial Volumes
55 56
Definition and Units of Pressure

Slide # 57
Absolute, Gauge pressure, Slide # 58
Vacuum
Pressure = P = Force/Area = F/A
Units of Pressure: Vacuum = 0.3 atm

SI: Pascal (Pa) = 1 N/m2 Abs. pressure = 0.7 atm
kPa = 1000 Pa
American Eng. System: lbf /in2 = psi Standard Atmospheric Pressure
Others: mm Hg = Torr 1 atm
inches Hg 1.013 Bar
Bar = 105 Pa 760 mm Hg
29.92 in Hg
101.4 kPa
14.7 psi Absolute, Gauge Pressure, Vacuum:
33.9 ft H2O
Convert 28.6 psi to mmHg? - Absolute Pressure: -------------------- psia
mmHg
- Gauge Pressure: ----------------------- psig
760 mmHg
28.6 psi . = 28.6 psi x 51.7 = 1479 mmHg - Vacuum: Atmospheric Pressure – Absolute Pressure
14.7 psi psi - A perfect vacuum = 0 absolute Pressure
(label-factor technique) or -1 gauge pressure
57 58
Different pressure scales Boyle’s Law: Pressure-Volume

Relationship
29.4 14.7
2 Atm
Gauge
Absolute Pressure
Pressure
14.7 0.0
1 Atm
8.8 5.9 Vacuum

0.6 Atm
Absolute
Pressure
0.0 -14.7 14.7
Perfect Vacuum Boyle’s Law: Volume inversely proportional to its
pressure
Fig : Absolute and Gauge Pressure (at fixed T and for a fixed amount of gas)
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Charles Law: Temperature-Volume Slide # 61

Gay-Lussac’s Law:
Slide # 62
Relationship Further development of the Charles Law

Solving Equation (5), pressure is fixed:
Charles Law:
Effect of T on volume change;
At the same P:
V = Vo + Vo β (T - To)
at To = 0 °C,
Vo –volume at oC
β- coefficient of thermal expansion By precise measurement he found:
β = Vo/273.15
61 62
The Kelvin scale of Temperature:

Concept of Absolute Zero

Temperature If we use the new scale, called
Kelvin scale,
Then simplified Eq:
Volume
P1
50
P1
40 Vo
P2
P2
Intercept = Vo
V (mL)
30 Vo
P3
For the same pressure, fixed
amount of gas:
Slope = Vo/273.15 20
-273.15oC
P4
10 0 Temperature (K)
When T = -273.15
0
Then V = 0 -300 -200 -100 0 100 200 300 400
t (oC)
Rankine scale is similar to the Kelvin scale, the unit is the
same as oF, and at oR equal to – 459.7oF
63 64
Charles – Gay-Lussac Law

Avogadro’s Law
“At constant pressure, the volume of a At the same T and P, equal volume (V) of any
given mass of an ideal gas increases or
decreases by the same factor as its gas contains the same number of molecules
temperature on the absolute
temperature scale (i.e. the gas expands
as the temperature increases)” - One gram-mole of gas contains 6.02x1023 molecules
- That is the Avagadro’s number
- At standard T and P (STP = 0oC and 1 atm),
1 gram-mole occupy 22.4 L; in that 22.4 L there are
6.02x1023 molecules
 We can use the Avagadro’s number to calculate the

density of a gas at specific T, and P
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The Ideal Gas Law Ideal gas-state variables

(van Hoff’s)
•P
•V
•T
R – proportionality constant, whose value depends on units

of P, V, and T
67 68
The Ideal Gas Law

The Gas Constant

For a fixed quantity of gas, n is a constant, so: ENERGY
nR = PV/T = constant R – proportionality constant, whose value depends on units of P, V,

and T
At T= 0oC and P= 1 atm, 1 gram-mole of any

gas occupies 22.415 L.
Substituting to the above Equation:
For one mole:
PV= RT
69 70
Values for the gas constant, R: Slide # 71 Slide # 72
Values for the Gas Constant, R

Meaning of the Gas Constant
Units of Work or Energy
Units of Units of Value of Units of
Quantity Temperature R R
Pressure Volume
Atmosphere Liter g-mole Kelvin 0.08206 L.atm / g-mol.K
Atmosphere cm3 g-mole Kelvin 82.057 cm3.atm / g-mol.K
Atmosphere m3 kg-mole Kelvin 0.08206 m3 .atm / kg-mole K
Pascal m3 kg-mole Kelvin 8,314.34 m3 Pas / kg-mole K •Force times length (force times distance) equals work
lbf/ ft2 ft3 lb-mole Rankine 1,545.3
ft lb / lb-mole R •PV is a measure of work performed by expanding gas
Joule kg-mole Kelvin 8,314.34 J /kg-mol.K
Calorie kg-mole Kelvin 1987.2 Calorie / kg-mole.K R is the energy

BTU lb-mole Rankine 1.9872 BTU / lb-mol.R needed to raise 1
psi. ft3 lb-mole Rankine 10.731 psi.ft3/lb-mol.R mole of gas by 1
mmHg. Liter g-mole Kelvine 62.361 mmHg.L/g-mol.K degree.
ft lbr lb-mole Rankine 1,545.3 ft lbr / lb-mol.R
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Review of Ideal Gas
Other forms of the Gas Law:  Pressure
Force exerted by random molecular collisions against surfaces
• Units: Force/Area: Pascals = Newtons/m2 (Pa)
• Units of Energy/Volume: (Newton * m)/m3 ;
• Units of Momentum Flux: (mass * velocity)/s/m2
Atmospheric Pressure
• Force exerted by total atmospheric mass being accelerated downward
 State Variables
Pressure (p), temperature (T), and volume (V) or density (ρ)
Relationships between state variables

• Pressure increases with increasing temperature at constant volume
P(MW) = ρ*RT • Pressure increases with decreasing volume (increasing density) at
constant temperature
Density = ρ = P(MW)/RT • Volume increases (density decreases) with increasing temperature at

constant pressure
Molecular Weight = MW = ρ*RT/P  Equation of State

Relates all three state variables
If any two are known the third can be determined
73 74
Gas Mixture and Partial Pressures Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressures:

Pressure exerted by each gas is called Partial Pressure
The total pressure exerted by a gaseous mixture
is equal to the sum of the partial pressures, i.e.
PT =P1 +P2 +P3 + ... + Pn

Fixed Volume
75 76
Moles and Pressures: Moles and Pressures:

When the ideal gas law is applied to each R, T, VT are the same for each component:
component of the gas mixture:
Substituting these equations into Dalton's law:
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Moles and Pressures: Partial Volumes:

 Initially, 3 containers: a 3L
Solving for Pi for each component: tank of O2; an 1L tank of N2;
and a 2L tank of CO2, all at
the same pressure, say 2 atm.
 Now, completely pump the
contents of all three tanks
into a single tank of 16L.
 The pressure will still be 2
atm.
 Although thoroughly mixed,
we can imagine that each gas
= mole fraction still occupies a portion of the
total volume.
of gas i
 We call this portion, the
partial volume of the
particular gas.
79 80
Amagat’s Law of Partial Volumes: Moles and Volumes:

The ideal gas law for the mixture and for each component
The total volume occupied by a mixture of gases of a mixture :
is equal to the sum of their partial volume:
PVT = nTRT, and PV1 = n1RT, PV2 = n2RT, PV3 = n3RT, …
Adding these equations for each component:

PVT =PV1 +PV2 +PV3 + ... = n1RT +n2RT +n3RT + ...
PVT=P(V1 + V2 + V3 + ... ) = (n1 +n2 +n3 + ... )RT
VT = the total volume of the mixture
Vi = the partial volume of the ith gas in the
mixture.
- partial volumes, like partial pressures, are
additive.
81 82
Slide # 83
Example 6: Slide # 84
Moles and Volumes: 0.0485 lb of an unknown gas is placed in a 0.794 ft3

container. It’s temperature is 523.67oF and its pressure is
14.7 psia. What this gas could be?
Solution 6:
Using Amagat’s Law, replace (Vl+V2+V3+ ... ) with VT

R =? 10.731 (psi.ft3)/)(lb-mol.R)
= mole fraction of gas i = yi

CO2
so Vi = yiVT
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Application:
Example 8:
If the composition of a gas mixture is known, the Estimate a thickness of the air blanket on the earth.
density of the mixture at a particular T and P can be
calculated. Solution 8:
Example 7: Knowing MW (air) = 1.16 g/L = 1.16 kg/m3
Air is assumed to contain 79.0 mole% of N2 and
21.0mole% of O2. Calculate the density of air at
temperature of 70oF and 742 mmHg.
Solution 7: The height of the air slope:
For 1 mole of air: 0.79 mol N2 + 0.21 mol O2
MW (air) = 0.79X28 + 0.21x32 = 28.8 g/mol
P(MW) = ρ.RT
Then density (air) =
85 86
Example 9 : Slide # 87
Solution 9a : Slide # 88
A baby with a compromised heart may need air with Assume ideal gas conditions, so the mole number is
higher oxygen content the regular air to perfuse her proportional to volume.
entire body adequately. Gas is available at the
following composition, expressed as volume%: O2: So mole percent of each gas is: O2: 25.0%; N2: 73%;
25.0%; N2: 73%; CO2: 2.0%. CO2: 2.0%.
So mole fraction of each gas is:
(a) For laboratory studies, the gas is bottled at a O2: x=0.25;
pressure of 400 kPa. Calculate the partial pressure of N2: y=0.73;
each of the gas components. CO2: z=0.02.
(b) Assume that the gas is bottled in a 2.0-L rigid vessel. Partial Pressure:
The temperature in the lab is 22oC. The gauge on the
gas bottle reads 1200 psig. How many moles of gas For O2: PO2 = x.P = 0.25*400 kPa = 100 kPa
are in the bottle? How many moles of each component For N2: PN2 = y.P = 0.73*400 kPa = 292 kPa
are in the gas? For CO2: PCO2 = z.P = 0.02*400 kPa = 8 kPa.
87 88
Solution 9b : Slide # 89 Slide # 90
Volume: V = 2.0 L = 0.02 m3

CONCEPT OF REAL GAS
Temperature: T = 22 °C = 295.15 K
IDEAL GAS:
- Molecule does have a significant volume
Absolute Pressure = Atmospheric + Gauge Pressure
- Intermolecular force is so weak (negligible
P (psia) = 14.7 + P (psig) attraction or repulsion)
P = 14.7 + 1200 = 1214.7 psi
REAL GAS:
- Molecules occupy significant
space
- Attraction and/or repulsions
Gas constant R = 8314.34 m3.Pa/ kgmol.K between molecules
(Van der Waals intermolecular
So, n = 0.06826 kgmol = 68.26 g-mol force )
89 90
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9/10/2019
STATE FUNCTION
EQUATION OF STATE (EOS) Peng-Robinson EOS
• State function=relationship b/w two or more system
variables. Soave-Redlich-
• If the relationship = equation --Equation of state (EOS) Kwong EOS
EOS for the Ideal Gas:
R – proportionality constant, whose
value depends on units of P, V, and T
van der Waals EOS for a Real Gas:
91 92
Equation of state (EOS) for Ideal Gas Z- value for a real gas
PV
Z= --------- = 1
nRT
For a real gas
93 94
Further Readings:
1. R. Paul Singh, Dennis R. Heldman. 2009.
Introduction to food engineering. Academic
Press. 4th Edition. (Ch. 1)
2. Toledo, R.T. 2007. Fundamentals of Food
Process Engineering. 3nd Edition. Springer,
New York, NY. (Ch. 1 + 2 + 4)
HW:
S.H. : 1.1; 1.3; 1.5
TO: 2.3; 2.5; 2.12

HW: 4.1; 4.2; 4.5 1
95 96
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9/10/2019

Lecture 1 Slide No. 1 Slide No. 2

REAL GAS 3. Understand SI units and Engineering units

Slide No. 3 Slide No. 4

Concept of Technology Science vs. Engineering

Engineering: Emphasis on physical and mathematical

Slide No. 5 Slide No. 6

Food Engineering Unit & Dimensions

Slide No. 7 Slide No. 8

Secondary dimensions SI & Engineering Units

Slide No. 9 Slide No. 10

SI & Engineering Units Length

Some conversion factors are:

Slide No. 11 Slide No. 12

Some units of length are: Some units of length are:

Slide No. 15 Slide No. 16

Electric Current Conversion

Some units of current are: • The “Factor-Label” Method:

Slide No. 17 Slide No. 18

Unit conversion Unit conversion

Slide No. 19 Slide No. 20

Speed and Velocity

Derived & Supplementary Units

• meter per second (m/s)

Acceleration Force and Weight

We define force a a push or pull. Newton’s first law:

Some units of force are:

Some units of acceleration are:

Slide No. 25 Slide No. 26

Mass and Weight Pressure

Pressure Slide No. 27 Slide No. 28

Work and Energy Power

• Convert 5 gallon into liters

Porosity, Packing Factor

meaning that cadmium hydroxide at 15oC is 4.79 times as

Moisture content dry basis Moisture content wet basis MC db MC wb

Slide No. 41 Slide No. 42

Slide No. 43 Slide No. 44

Moles Molarity and Molality

Molality is defined as the as the number of moles of

Slide No. 45 Slide No. 46

Mole Percent is defined as 100 times the mole fraction

Molar Volume is defined as the volume occupied by one

Slide No. 47 Slide No. 48

Slide No. 49 Slide No. 50

Example 3: Covert a moisture content of 85 %

Slide No. 51 Slide No. 52

Example 4: A food is initially at moisture content of 90 Example 5: The 10 kg of food sample at a

Slide No. 53 Slide No. 54

1. A food is initially at a moisture content of 90% dry basis.

Definition and Units of Pressure

Units of Pressure: Vacuum = 0.3 atm

Different pressure scales Boyle’s Law: Pressure-Volume

8.8 5.9 Vacuum

Charles Law: Temperature-Volume Slide # 61

Relationship Further development of the Charles Law

The Kelvin scale of Temperature:

Concept of Absolute Zero