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Text Book On Instrumentation Update Latest09
Text Book On Instrumentation Update Latest09
Text Book On Instrumentation Update Latest09
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Science and Engineering Technology depends on the
technique of measurement for a significant achievement
in research and production.
The human senses cannot provide exact quantitative
information about the events occuring in our environment
and thus scienctific instruments are employed to enable
human to observe and measure aspects of ph ysical
universe beyond the range and precision of an unaided
human senses.
J are the essential extensions of human
sensing and perception without which scientific
exploration of nature would be impossible. Basic to all
engineering is design and basic to all design is the
measurements. Whatever exists, exists in some amounts
and thus needs to be quantified. If an engineer or
scientist were to be deprived of his measuring devices, his
discorveries or intellectual works would be reduced to
guessing and speculation.
ccan be defined as a means for describing
the various physical and chemical parameters of
materials in quantitative terms. It is the process by which
one can convert physical parameters to meaningful
number. The result of measurement is expressed as:
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(yards to feet) and 12 (feet to inches). The metric system
is an alternative set of units, which includes for instance
the unit of the meter and its centimeter and millimeter
subdivisions for measuring length.
All multiples and subdivisions of basic metric units are
related to the base by factors of ten and such units are
therefore much easier to use than Imperial units.
However, in the case of derived units such as velocity, the
number of alternative ways in which these can be
expressed in the metric system can lead to confusion. As
a result of this, an internationally agreed set of standard
units (SI units or Syst`emes Internationals d·Unit´es) has
been defined, and strong efforts are being made to
encourage the adoption of this system throughout the
world. In support of this effort, the SI system of units will
be used exclusively in this book. However, it should be
noted that the Imperial system is still widely used,
particularly in America and Britain. The European Union
has just deferred planned legislation to ban the use of
Imperial units in Europe in the near future, and the latest
proposal is to introduce such legislation to take effect
from the year 2010
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To measure an unknonwn we must have acceptable unit
standard for the property that is to be assessed. Since
there are virtually hundreds of different quantities that
man is called upon to measure, it would seem that
hundreds of different standard units would be required.
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Table 1.1 below shows the six basic S.I quantity and
units of measurement, with their unit symbol:
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, respectively. So the dimensional symbol for the derived
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The units in actual use are divided into submultiples for
the purpose of measuring quantities smaller than the unit
itself. Futhermore, multiples of units are designated and
named so that measurement of quantities much larger
than the unit is facilitated. Table 1.1 lists the decimal
multiples and submultiples of units.
Name Symbol Equivalent
Tetra T 1012
Giga G 109
Mega M 106
Kilo K 103
Milli m 10-3
Micro 10-6
Nano n 10-9
Pico p 10-12
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Standard of measurement classified by their function and
application in the following categories:
1.c International standards
2.c Primary Standards
3.c Secondary standards
4.c working standards
are defined by
international agreement. They represent certain units of
measurements to the closest pos sible accuracy that
production and measurement technology allow. These
standards are maintained at the International Bureau of
weights and measures in America and not available to the
ordinary user of measuring instruments.
are maintained by
national standards laboratories in different parts of the
world. The National Bureau of standards (NBS) in
America, National Physical Laboratory (NPL) in Britain,
and Physikalisch Technische in Germany. The primary
standards represent the fundamental units and some of
the derived mechanical and electrical units. Primary
standards are not available for use outside the national
laboratories. One of the main functions of primary
standards is the verification and calibration of secondary
standards.
are the basic reference standards
used in industrial measurement laboratories. These
standards are maintained by the particularly involved
industry and are generally sent to the national standards
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A % scale is shown below in figure 1.2 below.
The scale is cramped at the begining and the graduation
are uneven throughout the range. The ammeter shown
has a f.s.d. of 15A.
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Today, the techniques of measurement are of immense
importance in most facets of human civilization. Present
day applications of measuring instruments can be
classified into three major areas.
The first of these is their use in regulating trade, applying
instruments that measure physical quantities such as
length, volume and mass in terms of standard units.
The second application area of measuring instruments is
in monitoring functions. These provide information that
enables human beings to take some p rescribed action
accordingly.c For example, regular study of a barometer
allows us to decide whether we should take our umbrellas
if we are planning to go out for a few hours. Whilst there
are thus many uses of instrumentation in our normal
domestic lives. The majority of monitoring functions of
instrumentation exist to provide the information
necessary to allow a human being to control some
industrial operation or process. In a chemical process for
instance, the progress of chemical reactions is indicated
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by the measurement of temperatures and pressures at
various points, and such measurements allow the
operator to take correct decisions regarding the electrical
supply to heaters, cooling water flows, valve positions etc.
The third application of measurement instrumentation is
in its use as part of automatic feedback control systems.
Figure 1.1 shows a functional block diagram of a simple
temperature control system in which the temperature Ta
of a room is maintained at a reference value T d. The value
of the controlled variable T a, as determined by a
temperature-measuring device, is compared with the
reference value T d, and the difference e is applied as an
error signal to the heater. The heater then modifies the
room temperature until T a = Td.
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1.c Define Measurement and discuss its importance
in engineering and scientific works.
2.c Explain the term
of measurement.
3.c Analyse the unit of the following Physica l
quantities and write their basic S.I Units and
dimension; i. Pressure ii. Torque, iii. Density.
4.c What do you understand by Standard of
measurement? Explain four types of Standards
that you know.
5.c Discuss the application of measurement
techniqes in;
i.c Trade regulation
ii.c Our day to day activities.
iii.c Industrial process.
iv.c Automatic feedback control system.
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There are certain characteristics of instruments that
influences the choice we make for our measurement.
Depending of the quantity or variable we want to measur e
certain attribute like accuracy, cost, range, sensitivity
e.t.c of measuring instruments affects our choice of
choice of them. These influencial factors are described in
the following section.c
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It represent how $
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approaches the c c of the variable being
measured. The deviation of the measured value from the
true value is the indication of how accurate the reading
is. In practice, it is more usual to quote the
figure rather than the accuracy figure for an instrument.
Inaccuracy is the extent to which a reading might be
wrong, and is often quoted as a percentage of the full -
scale (f.s.) reading of an instrument. If, for example, a
pressure gauge of range 0²10 bar has a quoted
inaccuracy of 1.0% f.s. (1% of fullscale reading), then the
maximum error to be expected in any reading is 0.1 bar.
This means that when the instrument is reading 1.0 bar,
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the possible error is 10% of this value. The knowledge of
the accuracy figure of an instrument will provide us the
estimate of the expected error of measurement using such
instrument.
For example:
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It is defined as that region enclosed by the limits within
which a particular quantity is measured. Choice of range
is very important in measurement, if you choose a range
too small for the signal being measured, it may damage
the instrument and if the range chosen is too large the
percentage expected error is increased. Thus the range
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that will be chosen for a particular measurement should
be such that the indication is close to the full scale
deflection specification of the instrument.
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The range 0-150V is too large for the true value of the
measured voltage and thus the percentage error increases
as the measure value decreases. The the choice of range
should be such that the measured value will be close to
the full scale deflection of the range.
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It is algebraic difference of the upper and lower limits of
the range. For example The span of a (0 to10) voltmeter is
Span= 10-0=10 state. But the span for (-10 to +10)
voltmeter is Span= 10-(-10) =20 state
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It·s the change of circuit parameter, characteristic, or
behaviour due to instrument operation without
maintainance.
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It represents the ratio of output signal to a change in
input, or it represent the response output of the
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instrument to a change of its input. It is a measure of the
change in instrument output that occurs when the
quantity being measured changes by a given amount.
Thus if the value of the measured quantity is plotted
against the output value of an instrument, the sensitivity
of the instrument is given by the slope of the straight line
graph.
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Graphical representation of instrument
sensitivity.
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The smallest change in input that the instrument can
respond to, or the ratio of output to smallest change in
input.
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The deviation of the measured value from the true value.
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The complete statement of any measurement result has
three elements: the in terms of which the result is
stated; a which states the magnitude of the result
in terms of the chosen unit; and its 1the
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experimenter·s estimate of the range wit hin which the
result may differ from the actual value of the quantity.
Any physical measurement is uncertain to some extent,
and errors are present in all phases of the measurement
process.
No measurement can be made with perfect accuracy, but
its important to find out what the accuracy actually is ,
and how different errors have entered to the
measurement. So study of error is a first steps in finding
ways to reduce them. Errors may come from different
sources and are usually classified under two main
heading:
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These are types of errors that have known reasons, and
can be avoided, reduced or eliminated, and estimated.
These errors are subdivided into:
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,cMisreading of instruments and observation errors.
,c Improper choice of instrument, or the range of
instrument.
,cIncorrect adjustment or forgetting to zero.
,c Erroneous calculations, computation mistakes, and
estimation errors.
,cNeglect of loading effects.
,cWrong positioning of the user.
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,c Damaged equipment such as defective due to loading
effect or worn-out parts.
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,cCalibration errors.
,cBearing friction or loose gears.
,cComponent nonlinearities.
,cLoss during transmission.
,cinproper position of equipment (vertical or horizontal).
,cerror due to static charge.
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,cChange in temperature, pressure and Humidity.
,cStray electric and magnetic fields.
,cMechanical vibration.
,cWeather variations (day, night, and four s easons).
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cis an act or process of making adjustments
or marking on an index scale so that the readings of a
measuring device conform to an accepted and certified
standard. Errors that can generate from these process are
classified as 1types of which are
discussed as follows:
i. uc : This occur when the pointer or indication
of the instrument does not read zero when no input signal
is applied to it. If the indicated reading from instrument
with Zero error is plotted compared with the correct
reading from a standard guage the graph will be as shown
in figure 2.2a.
ii. "c : In the effect of Range error, the
instrument may be correct at the minimum (i.e zero
reading, when there is no input signal), but it deviates
from the actual value in the range of the instrument. The
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graph of the indicated reading compared with the correct
reading from a standard guage is shown in figure 2.2b.
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It is the root mean square deviation and the standard
deviation represents the variation of the reading from the
mean value, for a finite number of reading.
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It is defined as mean square stand ard deviation
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It is the maximum chance (50%) that any given
measurement will have a random error not greater than
r. Probable error
is given by
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1.c Briefly describe eight (8) factors that affects the
choice of instrument to be used for a measurment.
2.c A thermometer has a range from -20 to 1500C. The
accuracy is guaranteed to ±3% f.s.d. If the true
value under measurement is 90 0C, determine the
possible values that can be indicated by th e
thermometer.
3.c Defferentiate between the range and the span of an
instrument. Explain how the choice of range in a
measurement affects the readings from such
measurment.
4.c A digital thermometer reads from -120 to + 300 0C.
The accuracy is guaranteed to plus or minus 2%
f.s.d. Determine the possible true values of the
measured temperature if the thermometer reads
800C.
5.c In an experiment involving temperature
mesurement, the following readings were recorded
in 0C: 20.1, 19.8, 20.3, 20.1, 19.7. 20.1,19.8, 19.6,
19.7, 20.1.
Calculate:
i. Arithmetic mean (X)
ii. Deviation from the mean (d)
iii. Average deviation (D)
iv. standard deviation (ǔ)
v. Variance (V)
vi. probable error (±r)
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Electrical indicating and test instruments can be
classified under the following headings;
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instrument.
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An
instrument are the instrument that use
analogue signal (signal varying in continuous fashion and
take on an infinite number of values in any given range)
to display the magnitude of quantity under measurement.
The
instrument use digital sign al (signal which
vary in discrete steps and take up only finite different
values in a given range, (like binary signal which take
only two levels zero and one) to indicate the results of
measurement in digital form.
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In
instrument the measured value is given in
term of instrument constants and the deflection of one
part of the instrument e.g. tangent galvanometer, and
Rayliegh current balance. In these instruments no
calibrated scale is necessary. While in
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Digital meters have been developed to satisfy a need for
higher measurement accuracies and a faster speed of
response to voltage changes than can be achieve d with
analogue instruments.
The binary nature of its output reading can be readily
applied to a display that is in the form of discrete
numerals. It also has a very high input impedance (10Mƺ
compared with 1² 20 kƺ for analogue meters).
The ability to measure signals of frequency up to 1MHz
and the common inclusion of features such as automatic
ranging, which prevents overload and reverse polarity
connection etc. are the advantages of Digital meters over
analogue.
Moreover, the greater cost of digital meters due to the
higher manufacturing costs compared with analogue
meters makes the analogue meter preferable in a
situation where cost is of importance .
The block diagram of a simple digital meter is shown in
figure 3.1 below:
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signal. The output of the pulse generator is one of the
inputs of an AND gate circuit. The output of the pulse
generator is a train of pulses. The output of the AND gate
is, thus, a positive trigger train of duration T second and
the NOT circuit changes it into a negative trigger train.
The counter, then, starts counting the number of triggers
in T seconds which is proportio nal to the magnitude of
signal to be measured. The counter can be calibrated
according to the type of signal been measured say voltage
or current.
Thus, it can be observed from the above description that
the digital meter described above, is basically, an analog-
to digital converter (ADC) which converts an analog signal
into a train of pulses, the number of which is proportional
to the magnitude of the input signal. With appropriate
signal conditioning of the input signal, digital meter can
be used to measure many electrical and physical
quantities such as a.c. voltages, d.c. and a.c. current,
resistance, temperature, pressure, etc.
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Analogue meters are relatively simple and inexpensive
and are often used instead of digital instruments,
especially when cost is of particular concern.
Whilst digital instruments have the advantage of greater
accuracy and much higher input impedance, analogue
instruments suffer less from noise and isolation
problems. Because analogue instruments are usually
passive instruments that do not need a power supply,
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The principle of operation of
these instrument are discussed in detail in the following
section.
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A moving-coil meter is a very commonly used form of
analogue voltmeter because of its sensitivity, accuracy
and linear scale, although it only responds to d.c. signals.
Moving-coil instruments also called ^
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(PMMC) meter or (D·Arsonval) meter or
galvanometer all are the same instrument, a coil of fine
wire is suspended in a magnetic field produced by
permanet magnet. According to the fundamental law of
electromagnetic force, the coil will rotate in the magnetic
field when it carries an electric current by electromagnetic
(EM) torque effect. A pointer which is attached to the
movable coil will deflect according to the amount of
current to be measured which is applied to the coil. The
(EM) torque is counter balanced by the mechanical torque
of control springs attached to the movable coil also. When
the torques are balanced the moving coil will stop and its
angular deflection represent the amount of electrical
current to be measured against a fixed reference, called
scale. If the permanent magnet field is uniform and the
spring linear, then the pointer deflection is also linear.
If a current I is being carried by the coil, the force F
applied to the conductor by the magnetic field of flux B is
given by:
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If the flux density B is made constant (by using
parmanent magnets) and the conductor is a fixed lenght
(say, a coil) then the force will depend only on the current
flowing in the conductor.
In the design of a moving-coil instrument a coil is placed
centrally in the gap between shaped pole pieces. The coil
is supported by steel pivots, resting in jewel bearings, on
a cylindrical iron core. Current is led into and out of the
coil by two phosphor broze spiral hairsprings which are
wound in opposite directions to minimize the effect of
temperature change and to limit the coil swing (i.e to
control the movement) and return the movement to zero
position when no current flows. Current flowing in the
coil produces forces, the direction being obtained by
Fleming·s left-hand-rule. The two forces, FA and FB,
produce a torque which will move the coil in a clockwise
direction, i.e move the pointer from the left to right. Since
the force produced is proportional to the input current,
then the scale is linear (see figure 2.0).
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(a) (b)
Figure 3.2 Moving-coil Instrument
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For an excitation current I, the torque produced that
causes the vane to turn is given by:
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where is the mutual inductance and V is the angular
deflection. Rotation is opposed by the controlling spring
as shown in figure 3.9, that produces a backwards torque
given by:
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V
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pointer shows the squared root of this value, i.e. the
r.m.s. current.
Electrodynamic meters are typically expensive but have
the advantage of being more accurate than moving -coil
and moving-iron instruments. Voltage, current and power
can all be measured if the fixed and moving -coils are
connected appropriately.
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Types of Moving-coil Moving-iron Moving-coil
instrument rectifier
Frequency - 20-200Hz 20-100kHz
limits
Advantages 1. Linear scale. 1. Robust 1. Linear scale
2. High construction. 2. High
sensitivity 2. Relatively sensitivity
3. Well shielded cheap 3. Well shielded
from stray 3. Measures dc from stray
magnetic fields. and ac magnetic fields
4. Lower power 4. In frequency 4. Low power
consumption. range 20- consumption
100Hz reads 5. Good
rms correctly frequency
regardless of range.
supply wave-
form.
Disadvantages 1. Only suitable 1. Non-linear 1. More
for dc scale expensive that
2. More 2. Affected by moving iron
expensive then stray magnetic type
moving iron fields 2. Errors
type 3. Hysteresis caused when
3 Easily errors in dc supply is non-
damaged circuits sinusoidal
4 Liable to
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temperature
errors
5. Due to the
inductance of
the solenoid,
readings can
be affected by
variation of
frequency.
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resistance should be much larger than the impedance of
the circuit being measured and also usually much larger
than the internal resistance of the moving coil
instrument. Resistor used in this situation is called a
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In figure 3.3 below, a moving coil instrument with an
internal resistance r a, designed as an ammeter to
measure a full-Scale-deflection current of Ia. Its range of
measurement is increased to measure a higher current of
I, by connecting a 1 Rs. Is is the value of the diverted
current by the shunt resistor R s. The value of the resistor
2 for any desired current J, can be calculated by equation
3.1.
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VPQ = VRS
Iara = ISRS
............................ equation 3.1
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1. A moving-coil instrument gives a f.s.d when the
current is 40mA and its resistance is 25ƺ. Calculate the
value of the shunt to be connected in paralled with the
meter to enable it to be used as an ammeter for
measuring currents up to 50A.
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When using a moving-coil instrument as a voltmeter it is
always connected in parallel with the element being
measured, and measures the voltage between the points
across which it is connected. A moving coil instrument
(galvanometer) can be converted into a voltmeter by
connecting a high value resitance (ca lled ) in
series with it as shown in figure 3.4 below.
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Figure 3.4
The Voltage range desired to be measured by the
instrument is given as ', Ia is the f.s.d current of the
moving coil instrument, ra is the internal resistance of
the instrument, Rm is the required for the
instrument the measure the desired voltage range, while
the Im is the curent that passes through the resistor Rm.
In this case the resistor Rm is in series with the moving
coil instrument, therefore Ia = Im, the shunt resistor Rm
can thus be calculated by equation 3.2
V = Va + Vm
= Iara + ImRm
Ia = Im (since and r a and Rm are in series)
V = Iara + IaRm
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V = Ia (ra + Rm)
' â Ë .............................. equation 3.2
(c : A moving-coil instrument having a
resistance of 10ƺ, gives a f.s.d when the current is 8mA.
Calculate the value of multiplier to be connected in series
with the instrument so that it can be used as a voltmeter
for measuring p.d up to 100V.
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Where ra = resistance of instrument = 10ƺ
RM = resistance of mutiplier.
I = toal permissible instrument current = 8mA = 0.008A.
V = total p.d required to give f.s.d = 100V
V = Va + Vm = Ira + IRM
i.e. 100 = (0.008) (10) + (0.008)R M
thus RM =
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Hence for the moving-coil instrument to be used as a
voltmeter with a range 0 ² 100 V, a resistance of value
12.49kƺ needs to be connected in series with the
instrument.
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A moving coil instrument (or galvanometer) can be
designed to measure D.C Signals like current (ammeter),
Voltage (voltmeter), Resistance (ohmeter) etc., of different
ranges, by connecting different values of shunt or
multiplier as the case may be. The sections below
describes how these can be achieved.
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The current range of d.c ammeter can be further extended
by a number of shunts selected by a range switch; such
ammeter is called a multirange ammeter. This can be
designed by Direct or Indirect Method. c
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In direct method, the circuit design is shown in figure 3.5
below, the shunt resistors R s1, Rs2 and Rs3 are connected
parallel to the galvanometer an also parallel to one
another. When one is connec ted the other two are
disconnected, and thus each of the three resistor presents
different ranges of current measurements I s1, Is2 and Is3 in
the instrument.
The value of each of the shunt resistors R s1, Rs2 and Rs3
can be calculated independently using e quation 3.3.
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Figure 3.5
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Figure 3.6
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For Range I 1:
Rs1 = Ra + Rb +Rc
For Range I 2:
Rs2 = Rb +Rc
i.e; Ra = Rs1 ² Rs2 ...................................... (3.4)
For Range I 3:
Rs3 = Rc
Rb = Rs2 ² Rs3 ....................................... (3.5)
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Design a multirange ammeter by using
to
give the following ranges 10mA, 100 mA, 1A, 10A, and
100A. If d·Arsonval meter have internal resistance of 10 º
and full scale current of 1mA.
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The circuit design is shown below.
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Design an ammeter by $c c to provide an
ammeter with current ranges 1A, 5A, and 10A, with a
PMMC meter of internal resistance 50º and full scale
current of 1mA.
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In this method each series resistance of multirange
voltmeter is connected directly with Moving -coil meter to
give the desired Voltage range as shown in figure 3.7. The
various multipliers can be calculated using equation 3.6.
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In this method one or more series resistance of
multirange voltmeter is connected with Moving -coil meter
to give the desired range as shown in figure 3.8. The
series resistance can be calculated using equation 3.7,
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Figure 3.8
At range V1:
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At range V2:
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........................ (3.8)
At range V3:
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............... (3.9)
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The analogue multimeter is a multi -function instrument
that can measure current and resistance as well as d.c.
and a.c. voltage signals. Basically, the instrument
consists of a moving -coil meter with a switchable bridge
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rectifier (as discussed in moving -coil rectifier instrument)
to allow it to measure a.c. signals, as shown in Figure
3.11. A set of rotary switches allows the selection of
various multiplier and shunt resistors, which make the
instrument capable of measuring both voltage and
current over a number of ranges. An internal power
source is also provided to allow it to measure resistances
as well. Whilst this instrument is very useful for giving an
indication of voltage levels, the comprom ises in its design
that enable it to measure so many different quantities
necessarily mean that its accuracy is not as good as
instruments that are purposely designed to measure just
one quantity over a single measuring range.
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Electronic voltmeters differ from all other forms of
analogue voltmeters in being active rather than passive
instruments. They have important advantages compared
with other analogue instruments. Firstly, they have a
high input impedance that avoids the circuit loading
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problems associated with many applications of
electromechanical instruments.
Secondly, they have an amplification capability that
enables them to measure small signal levels accurately.
The standard electronic voltmeter for d.c. measurements
consists of a simple direct coupled amplifier and a
moving-coil meter, as shown in Figure 3.14 (a). For
measurement
of very low-level voltages of a few microvolts, a more
sophisticated circuit, known as a chopper amplifier, is
used, as shown in Figure 3.14(b). In this, the d.c. input is
chopped at a low frequency of around 250 Hz, passed
through a blocking capacitor, amplified, passed through
another blocking capacitor to remove drift, demodulated,
filtered and applied to a moving-coil meter.
Three versions of electronic voltmeter exist for measuring
a.c. signals. The
is essentially a
direct-coupled d.c. electronic voltmeter with an additional
rectifying stage at the input. The output is a measure of
the average value of the measured voltage waveform. The
second form, known as a 4
, has a
half-wave rectifier at the input followed by a capacitor.
The final part of the circuit consists of an amplifier and
moving-coil meter. The capacitor is charged to the peak
value of the input signal, and therefore the amplified
signal applied to the moving-coil meter gives a reading of
the peak voltage in the input waveform.
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Finally, a third type is available, known as an 4
, which gives an output reading in terms
of the r.m.s. value of the input waveform. This type is
essentially a thermocouple meter in which an
amplification stage has been inserted at the input.
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The standard device and methods available for measur ing
change in resitance, which is measured in units of
(º), include the d.c bridge circuit, the voltmeter-ammeter
method, the resitance-substitution method, the digital
voltmeter and the ohmmeter. Apart from the ohmmeter,
these instruments are normally only used to measure
medium values of the resistance in the range of 1 º to
1Mº. Special instruments are available for obtaining
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high-accuracy resistance measurements outside this
range.
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The voltmeter²ammeter method consists of applying a
measured d.c. voltage across the unknown resistance and
measuring the current flowing. Two alternatives exist for
connecting the two meters, as shown in Figure 3.15. In
Figure 3.15(a), the ammeter measures the current flowing
in both the voltmeter and the resistance. The error due to
this is minimized when the measured resistance is small
relative to the voltmeter resistance.
In the alternative form of connection, Figure 3.15(b), the
voltmeter measures the voltage drop across the unknown
resistance and the ammeter. Here, the measurement
error is minimized when the unknown resistance is large
with respect to the ammeter resistance. Thus, method (a)
is best for measurement of small resistances and method
(b) for large ones.
Having thus measured the voltage and current, the value
of the resistance is then calculated very simply by Ohm·s
law. This is a suitable method wherever the measurement
inaccuracy of up to 1% that it gives is acceptable.
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In the voltmeter²ammeter method above, either the
voltmeter is measuring the voltage across the ammeter as
well as across the resistance, or the ammeter is
measuring the current flow through the voltmeter as well
as through the resistance. The measurement error caused
by this is avoided in the r esistance-substitution
technique. In this method, note the voltmeter and the
ammeter readings with the unknown resistance in the
circuit, then temporarily replaced it by a variable
resistance. Adjust the variable resistance until the
measured circuit voltage and current are the same as
existed with the unknown resistance in place. The
variable resistance at this point is equal in value to the
unknown resistance.
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The ohmmeter is a simple instrument in which a battery
applies a known voltage across a combination of the
unknown resistance and a known resistance in series, as
shown in Figure 3.16. Measurement of the voltage, Vm,
across the known resistance, R, allows the unknown
resistance, Ru, to be calculated from:
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Where Vb is the battery voltage.
Ohmmeters are used to measure resistances over a wide
range from a few milliohms up to 50M º. The
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Ohmmeter
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and widely used method which depends on an instrument
reading being adjusted to read zero current only. The
method assumes:
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if there is any deflection at all, then some current is
flowing and if there is no deflection, then no current flows
(i.e null condition).
Examples where the method is used are in the
Wheatstone bridge and in the d.c potentiometer
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The $ccis a null-balance instrument used
for determining values of e.m.f·s and p.d·s by comaprison
with a known e.m.f or p.d. In Figure 1.13, using a
standard cell of known e.m.f, E 1, the slider S is moved
along the slide wire until balance is obtained (as
explained in the earlier in the wheatstone bridge), shown
as length l 1.
The standard cell is now replaced by a cell of unknown
e.m.f. E2 (see figure 2.13b) and again balance is obtained
(shown as l 2).
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1. Define digital and analogue instrument. Hence
explain with an appropriate block diagram, the principle
of operation of a Digital meter.
2. A moving-coil instrument gives a f.s.d when the
current is 40mA and its resistance is 25ƺ. Calculate the
value of the shunt to be connected in paralled with the
meter to enable it to be used as an ammeter for
measuring currents up to 50A.
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3. A moving-coil instrument has a coil resistance of 100ƺ
and gives a full-scale deflection (FSD) for a current of
500Ǎ. Determine the value of shunt resistance required
if the instrument is to be employed as an ammeter with a
FSD of 5A.c
4. A moving-coil meter with a coil resistance 100ƺ and a
full scale deflection current of 100 Ǎ is to be used in the
voltmeter circuit as shown in figure below. The voltmeter
ranges are to be 50. Determine the required value of
resistances for each range.
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The
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is a device that
allows the
of electrical signals, weather they
are voltage, current; power, etc., to be displayed primarily
as a function of . The oscilloscope depends on the
movement of an electron beam, which is then made
visible by allowing the beam to impinge on a phosphor
surface, which produces a visible spot.
The cathode ray oscilloscope is probably the most
versatile and useful instrument available for signal
measurement. In its basic form, it is an analogue
instrument and is often called an to
distinguish it from digital storage oscilloscopes which
have emerged more recently.
The analogue oscilloscope is widely used for voltage
measurement, especially as an item of test equipment for
circuit fault-finding, and it is able to measure a very wide
range of both a.c. and d.c. voltage signals. Besides
measuring voltage levels, it can also measure other
quantities such as the frequency and phase of a signal. It
can also indicate the nature and magnitude of noise that
may be corrupting the measurement signal. The more
expensive models can measure signals at frequencies up
to 500MHz and even the cheapest models can measure
signals up to 20 MHz. One particularly strong merit of the
oscilloscope is its high input impedance, typically 1M º,
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which means that the instrument has a negligible loading
effect in most measurement situations. As a test
instrument, it is often required to measure voltages whose
frequency and magnitude are totally unknown. The set of
rotary switches that alter its timebase so easily, and the
circuitry that protects it from damage when high voltages
are applied to it on the wrong range, make it ideally
suited for such applications. However, it is not a
particularly accurate instrument and is best used where
only an approximate measurement is required. In the best
instruments, inaccuracy can be limited to 1% of the
reading but inaccuracy can approach 10% in the
cheapest instruments. Further disadvantages of
oscilloscopes include their fragility (being built around a
cathode ray tube) and their moderately high cos t.
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This type of input is provided on more expensive
oscilloscopes. Two input terminals plus a ground terminal
are provided for each channel, which allows the potentials
at two non-grounded points in a circuit to be compared.
This type of input can also be used in single -ended mode
to measure a signal relative to ground by using just one of
the input terminals plus ground.c
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The purpose of a timebase is to apply a volta ge to the
horizontal deflector plates such that the horizontal
position of the spot is proportional to time. This voltage,
in the form of a ramp known as a sweep waveform, must
be applied repetitively, such that the motion of the spot
across the screen appears as a straight line when a d.c.
level is applied to the input channel. Furthermore, this
timebase voltage must be synchronized with the input
signal in the general case of a time-varying signal, such
that a steady picture is obtained on the oscilloscop e
screen. The length of time taken for the spot
to traverse the screen is controlled by a 5
switch,
which sets the length of time taken by the spot to travel
between two marked divisions on the screen, thereby
allowing signals at a wide range of frequencies to be
measured.
Each cycle of the sweep waveform is initiated by a pulse
from a pulse generator. The input to the pulse generator
is a sinusoidal signal known as a triggering signal, with a
pulse being generated every time the triggering signal
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crosses a preselected slope and voltage level condition.
This condition is defined by the and
switches. The former selects the voltage level on the
trigger signal, commonly zero, at which a pulse is
generated, whilst the latter selects whether pulsing
occurs on a positive - or negative-going part of the
triggering waveform.
Synchronization of the sweep waveform with the
measured signal is most easily achieved by deriving the
trigger signal from the measured signal, a procedure that
is known as . Alternatively, )
can be applied if the frequencies of the
triggering signal and measured signals are related by an
integer constant such that the display is stationary.
External triggering is necessary wh en the amplitude of
the measured signal is too small to drive the pulse
generator, and it is also used in applications where there
is a requirement to measure the phase difference between
two sinusoidal signals of the same frequency. It is very
convenient to use the 50 Hz line voltage for external
triggering when measuring signals at mains frequency,
and this is often given the name .
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This consists of a series of attenuators and pre -amplifiers
at the input to the oscilloscope.
These condition the measured signal to the optimum
magnitude for input to the mainamplifier and vertical
deflection plates, thus enabling the instrument to
measure a very wide range of different signal magnitudes.
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Selection of the appropriate input amplifier/attenuator is
made by setting a 5
control associated with each
oscilloscope channel. This defines the magnitude of the
input signal that will cause a deflection of one division on
the screen.
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This allows the position at which a signal is displayed on
the screen to be controlled in two ways. The horizontal
position is adjusted by a 6 knob on the
oscilloscope front panel and similarly a
knob controls the vertical position. These controls adjust
the position of the display by biasing the measured signal
with d.c. voltage levels. c
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Digital storage oscilloscopes consist of a conventional
analogue cathode ray oscilloscope with t he added facility
that the measured analogue signal can be converted to
digital format and stored in computer memory within the
instrument. This stored data can then be reconverted to
analogue form at the frequency necessary to refresh the
analogue display on the screen. This produces a non -
fading display of the signal on the screen.
The signal displayed by a digital oscilloscope consists of a
sequence of individual dots rather than a continuous line
as displayed by an analogue oscilloscope. However, as the
density of dots increases, the display becomes closer and
closer to a continuous line, and the best instruments
have displays that look very much like continuous traces.
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The density of the dots is entirely dependent upon the
sampling rate at which the analogue signal is digitized
and the rate at which the memory contents are read to
reconstruct the original signal. Inevitably, the speed of
sampling etc. is a function of cost, and the most
expensive instruments give the best performance in terms
of dot density and the accuracy with which the analogue
signal is recorded and represented. Besides their ability to
display the magnitude of voltage signals and other
parameters such as signal phase and frequency, some
digital oscilloscopes can also compute signal parameters
such as peak values, mean values and r.m.s. values. They
are also ideally suited to capturing transient signals when
set to single-sweep mode. This avoids the problem of the
very careful synchronization that is necessary to capture
such signals on an analogue oscilloscope. In addition,
digital oscilloscopes often have facilities to output
analogue signals to devices like chart recorders and
output digital signals in a form that is compatible with
standard interfaces like IEEE488 and RS232.
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graticule. Among the timebase controls is a ¶variable·
switch which gives the sweep speed as time per
centimeter, This may be in s/cm ro s/cm, a large
number of switch positions being available. Also on the
front panel of a c.r.o is a amplifier switch marked in volts
per centimeter, with a large number of available switch
positions.
(i) with $c"c
conly the Y amplifier
¶volts/cm· switch on the c.r.o is used. With no voltage
applied to the Y plates the position of the spot trace on
the screen is noted. When a direct voltage is applied to
the Y plates the new position of the spot trace is an
indication of the magnitude of the voltage. For example,
in Figure 4.1 with no voltgae applied to the Y plates, the
spot trace is in the centre of the screen (initial position)
and then the spot trace moves 2.5cm to the final position
shown on application of a d.c voltage. With the ¶volt/cm·
switch on 10 volts/cm the magnitude of the direct voltage
is 2.5 x 10 volts/cm. i.e. 25volts.
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Since r.m.s Voltage =
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Describe how a simpe c.r.o is adjusted to give (a) a spot
trace, (b) a continous horixontal trace on the screen,
explaining the function of the various controls.
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the repetition rate of the sawtooth is sufficient for the
persistence of the vision time of the sc reen phosphor to
hold a given tance.
= 0.52ms
(b) Frequency, f = â â
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3. For the c.r.o display of a pulse waveform shown in
figure 4.4 the ¶time/cm· switch is on 50ms/cm and the
¶volts/cm· switch is on 0.2V/cm. Determine (a) the
periodic time, (b) the frequency, (c) the magnitude of the
pulse voltage.
(b) Frequence, f = G-
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The alternative way of using an oscilloscope x to measure
frequency is to generate 8 . These are
produced by applying a known reference -frequency sine
wave to the y input (vertical deflection plates) of the
oscilloscope and the unknown frequ ency sinusoidal signal
to the x input (horizontal deflection plates). A pattern is
produced on the screen according to the frequency ratio
between the two signals, and if the numerator and
denominator in the ratio of the two signals both represent
an integral number of cycles, the pattern is stationary.
Examples of these patterns are shown in Figure 5.3,
which also shows that phase difference between the
waveforms has an effect on the shape. Frequency
measurement proceeds by adjusting the reference
frequency until a steady pattern is obtained on the screen
and then calculating the unknown frequency according to
the frequency ratio that the pattern obtained represents. c
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A signal generator is an electronic device that generates
repeating or non-repeating electronic signals (in either the
analog or digital domains). They are generally used in
designing, testing, troubleshooting, and repairing
electronic or electroacoustic devices. There are man y
different types of signal generators, with different
purposes and aplications.
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It is a general purpose generator, a device which produce
simple repetitive waveforms. Such device contain an
electronic oscillator, a circuit that is capable of creating a
repetitive waveform. The most common waveform is a sine
wave, but sawtooth, step (pulse), square, and triangular
waveform oscillators are commonly available. Function
generators are typically used in simple electronics repair
and design; where they are used to stimulate a circuit
under test. A device such as an oscilloscope is then used
to measure the circuit·s output.
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A pitch generator is a type of signal generator optimized
for use in audio and acoustics applications. Pitch
generators typically include sine waves over the audio
frequency range (20Hz-20kHz). Pitch generator are
typically used in conjunction with sound level meters,
when measuring the acoustics of a room or a sound
reproduction system, and/or with oscilloscope or
specialized audio analyzers.
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1. In general electronics use, when measuring AC voltage
signals, what do the two axis (horizontal and vertical) of
the oscilloscope screen represent?
2. The core of an analog oscilloscope is a special type of
vacuum tube known as a Cathode Ray Tube, or CRT.
With a suitable diagram explain how a CRT functions.
What goes on inside the tube to produce waveform
displays on the screen?
3. With the aid of a suitable block diagram, describe an
Oscilloscope.
4. For the square voltage waveform displayed on a
cathode ray oscilloscope shown in the figure bellow, the
volt/cm switch is on 40volt/cm and the time/cm switch
is on 5ms find (a) its frequency, (b) its peak-to-peak
voltage.
c
5 For the sinusoidal waveform shown in figure (b), the
Volt/cm switch is on 50volts/cm and time/cm switch is
on 5ms determine (a) its frequency, (b) the peak -to-peak
voltage, (c) the r.m.s. ! ))"
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The earlier chapters in this book have been essentially
concerned with describing ways of producing high -
quality, error-free data at the output of a measurement
system. Having got the data, the next consideration is
how to present it in a form where it can be readil used
and analysed. This chapter therefore stats by covering the
techniques available to either display measurement data
for current use or record it for future use. Following this,
standards of good prectice for presenting data in either
graphical or tabular form are covered, using either paper
or a computer monitor screen as the display medium.
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Measurement signals in the form of varying electrical
voltage can be displayed either by an oscilloscope or else
by any of the electrical me ters described in the earlier
chapters of this book. However, if signals are converted to
digital form, other display options apart from meters
become possible, such as electronic output displa ys or
using a computer monitor.
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Electronic displays enable a parameter value to be read
immediately, thus allowing for any necessary response to
be made immediately. The main requirement for displays
is that they should be clear and unambiguous. Two
common types of character formart used in displays are,
seven-segment and 7 x 5 dot matrix, are shown in figure
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Mechanical chart recorder are a long -established means
of making permanent records of electrical signals in a
simple, cheap and reliable way. Mechanical chart
recorders are either of the galvanometric type or
potentiometric type. Both of these work on the same
principle of driving chart paper at a constant speed past a
pen whose deflection is a function of the magnitude of the
measured signal. This produces a time history of the
measured signal.
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These work on the same principle as a moving -coil meter
except that the pointer draws an ink trace on paper, as
illustrated in Figure 5.2, instead of merely moving against
a scale. The measured signal is applied to the coil, and
the angular deflection of this and its attached pointer is
proportional to the magnitude of the signal applied.
Inspection of Figure 5.3(a) shows that the displacement y
of the pen across the chart recorder is given by
y = R Sin V.
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galvanometric recorders concluded are restricted by its
systems moment of inertia and spring constants reduces
and limit the maximum bandwidth to about 100 Hz.
Ultra-violet recorders work on very similar principles to
standard galvanometric chart recorders, but achieve a
very significant reduction in system inertia and spring
constants by mounting a narrow mirror rather than a pen
system on the moving coil. This mirror reflects a beam of
ultra-violet light onto ultra-violet sensitive paper. It is
usual to find several of these mirror -galvanometer
systems mounted in parallel within one instrument to
provide a multi-channel recording capability, as
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illustrated in Figure 5.7. This arrangement enables
signals at frequencies up to 13 kHz to be recorded with a
typical inaccuracy of 2% f.s. Whilst it is possible to
obtain satisfactory permanent signal recordings by this
method, special precautions are necessary to protect the
ultra-violet-sensitive paper from light before use and to
spray a fixing lacquer on it after recording. Such
instruments must also be handled with extreme care,
because the mirror galvanometers and their delicate .
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The two formats available for presenting data on paper
tabular and graphical one and the relative merits of these
are compared below. In some circumstances, it is clearly
best to use only one or other of these two alternatives
alone. However, in many data collection exercises, part of
the measurements and calculations are expressed in
tabular form and part graphically, so making best use of
the merits of each technique.
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A tabular presentation allows data values to be recorded
in a precise way that exactly maintains the accuracy to
which the data values were measured. In other words, the
data values are written down exactly as measured.
Besides recording the raw data values as measured,
tables often also contain further values calculated from
the raw data. An example of a tabular data presentation
is given in Table 5.1. This records the results of an
experiment to determine the strain induced in a bar of
material that is subjected to a range of stresses. Data
were obtained by applying a sequence of forces to the end
of the bar and using an extensometer to measure the
change in length. Values of the stress and strain in the
bar are calculated from these measurements and are also
included in the table. The final row, which is of crucial
importance in any tabular presentation, is the estimate of
possible error in each calculated result. A table of
measurements and calculations should conform to
several rules as illustrated in Table 5.1:c
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Presentation of data in graphical form involves some
compromise in the accuracy to which the data are
recorded, as the exact values of measurements are lost.
However, graphical presentation has important
advantages over tabular presentation.
(i) Graphs provide a pictorial representa tion of results
that is more readily comprehended than a set of tabular
results.
(ii) Graphs are particularly useful for expressing the
quantitative significance of results and showing whether a
linear relationship exists between two variables.
Figure 5.8 shows a graph drawn from the stress and
strain values given in the Table 5.1. Construction of the
graph involves first of all marking the points
corresponding to the stress and strain values. The next
step is to draw some lines through these data points th at
best represents the relationship between the two
variables. This line will normally be either a straight one
or a smooth curve. The data points will not usually lie
exactly on this line but instead will lie on either side of it.
The magnitude of the excursions of the data points from
the line drawn will depend on the magnitude of the
random measurement errors associated with the data.
(iii) Graphs can sometimes show up a data point that is
clearly outside the straight line or curve that seems to fit
the rest of the data points. Such a data point is probably
due either to a human mistake in reading an instrument
or else to a momentary malfunction in the measuring
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(iv) No attempt should be made to draw the graph outside
the boundaries corresponding to the maximum and
minimum data values measured, i.e. in Figure 5.8, the
graph stops at a point corresponding to the highest
measured stress value of 108. 5.
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The procedure of drawing a straight line or smooth curve
as appropriate that passes close to all data points on a
graph, rather than joining the data points by a jagged line
that passes through each data point, is justified on
account of the random errors that are known to affect
measurements. Any line between the data points is
mathematically acceptable as a graphical representation
of the data if the maximum deviation of any data point
from the line is within the boundaries of the identified
level of possible measurement errors. However, within the
range of possible lines that could be drawn, only one will
be the optimum one. This optimum line is where the sum
of negative errors in data points on one side of the line is
balanced by the sum of positive errors in data points on
the other side of the line. The nature of the data points is
often such that a perfectly acceptable approximation to
the optimum can be obtained by drawing a line through
the data points by eye.
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1.c Explain the advantage(s) of electronic digital
display over analogue one.
2.c Compare the principle of a Moving-coil recorder
with that of an Ultra-violet recorder, dicussing
the advantages of the latter over the former.
3.c Differentiate between a tabular and graphical
representation of data. Enumerating the merits
and demerit of each one.
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Temperature measurement is very important in all
spheres of life and especially so in the process industries.
However, it poses particular problems, since temperature
measurement cannot be related to a fundamental
standard of temperature in the same way that the
measurement of other quantities can be related to th e
primary standards of mass, length and time. If two bodies
of lengths l1 and l2 are connected together end to end, the
result is a body of length l1 + l2. A similar relationship
exists between separate masses and separate times.
However, if two bodies at the same temperature are
connected together, the joined body has the same
temperature as each of the original bodies.
This is a root cause of the fundamental difficulties that
exist in establishing an absolute standard for
temperature in the form of a relationship between it and
other measurable quantities for which a primary standard
unit exists. In the absence of such a relationship, it is
necessary to establish fixed, reproducible reference points
for temperature in the form of freezing and boiling points
of substances where the transition between solid, liquid
and gaseous states is sharply defined. The J
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and defines six #)
for reference
temperatures in terms of:
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: A thermoelectric
current cannot be sustained in a circuit of a single
homogeneous material by the application of heat alone,
regardless of how it might vary in cross section.
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= 0.0517 mV/0C
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Resistance thermometer, also called resistance
temperature detector (RTDs), are temperature sensors
that exploit the predictable change in electrical resistance
of some metals with changing temperature. The
resistance ideally varies linearly with temperature
according to the relationship:
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R2 = resistance at T 2
R1 = resistance at T 1
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A sample of metal resistance versus temperature has the
following measured values:
T(0F) R(º)
60 106.0
65 107.6
70 109.1
75 110.2
80 111.1
85 111.7
90 112.2
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Find the linear approximation of resistance versus
temperature between 60 0 and 90 0F.
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Since 75 0F is the midpoint, this will be used for T 0 so the
R0 = 110.2º, Then the slope can be found from equation
5.2:
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Thus, the linear approximation for resistance is
R(T)= 110.2[1+0.001875(T-75)]º
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These are semiconductor resitance sensors, unlike
metals, thermistors respond negatively to temperature.
That is, as the temperature of the semiconductor material
is increased their resistance decreases. The symbol of
thermistor is shown in figure 6.3 below
. Symbol of Thermistor
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Thermal expansion methods of temperature measurement
make use of the fact that the dimensions of all
substances whether solids, liquids or gases, change with
temperature. Instruments operating on this physical
principle include the liquid-in-glass thermometer, the
bimetallic thermometer and the pressure thermometer.
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The bimetallic principle is probably more commonly
known in connection with its use in thermostats. It is
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1. The table below shows the hot junction temperatures
T2 of a thermocouple when the reference junction
temperature T1 is maintained at 0 0C with the
corresponding outputs e.m.f E 0 in mV. Plot the graph of
T2-T1 against E 0. Hence find the sensitivity of the
thermocouple.
E0 (mV) T2-T1(0C)
10 156
20 312
30 468
40 623
50 780
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Pressure measurement is a very common requirement for
most industrial process control systems and many
different types of pressure-sensing and pressure -
measurement systems are available. However, before
considering these in detail, it is important to explain some
terms used in pressure measurement and to define the
difference between absolute pressure, guage pressure and
differential pressure.
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pressure of a fluid and the absolute zero of pressure.
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the pressure of a fluid and atmospheric pressure.
Absolute and guage pressure are therefore related by the
expression:
Absoulte pressure = Gauge pressure + Atmospheric pressure
Thus, guage pressure varies as the atmospheric pressure
changes and is therefore not a fixed quantity.
This term is used to describe the
difference between two absolute pressure values, such as
the pressures at two different points within the same
fluid.
In most applications, the typical values of pressure
measured range from 1.013 bar (the mean atmospheric
pressure) up to 7000bar. This is considered to be the
normal pressure range, and a large number of pressure
sensors are available that can measure pressures in this
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The diaphragm, shown schematically in figure 7.1, is one
of three types of elesatic element pressure transducer.
Applied pressure causes displacement of the diaphragm
and this movement is measured by a displacement
transducer. Different versions of diaphragm sensors can
measure both absolute pressure (up to 50bar) and guage
pressure (up to 2000bar) according to whether the space
on one side of the diaphragm is respectivel y evacuated or
is open to the atmosphere. A diaphragm can also be used
to measure differential pressure (up to 2.5 bar) by
applying the two pressures to the two sides of the
diaphragm. The diaphragm can be either plastic, metal
alloy, stainless steel or ceramic. Plastic diaphragm s are
cheapest, but metal diaphragms give better accuracy.
Stainless steel is normally used in high temperature or
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corrosive environments. Ceramic diaphragms are
resistant even to strong acids and alkalis, and are used
when the operating environment is particularl harsh.
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The bellows, schematically inllustrated in figurre 7.2, is
another elastic-element type of pressure sensor that
operates on very similar principles to the diaphragm
pressure sensor. Pressure changes within the bellows,
which is typically fabricated as a seamless tube of either
metal or metal alloy, produce traslational motion of the
end of the bellows that can be measured by capacitive,
inductive or potentiometric transducers. Differe nt
versions can messure either absolute pressure up to (2. 5
bar) or guage pressure (up to 150 bar).
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The Bourdon tube is also an elastic element type of
pressure transducer. It is relatively cheap and is
commonly used for measuring the guage pressure of both
gaseous and liquid fluids. It consists of a specially shaped
piece of ova-section, flexible, metal tube that is fixe d at
one end and free to move at the other end. When pressure
is applied at the open, fixed end of the tube, the oval
cross-section becomes more circular. In consequence,
there is a displacement of the free end of the tube. This
displacement is measured by some form of displacement
transducer, which is commonly a potentiometer.
The three common shapes of Bourdon tube are shown in
figure 7.3. The maximum possible deflection of the free
end of the tube is propostional to the angle subtended by
the arec through which the tube is bent. For a C -type
tube, the maximum value for this arc is somewhat less
that 360 0. Where greater measurement sensitivity and
resolution are required, spiral and helical tubes are used.
These both give a much greater deflection at the free end
for a given applied pressure. However, this increased
measurement performance is only gained at the expense
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Manometers are passive instruments that give a visual
indication of pressure values. Various types exist.
The U-tube manometer, shown in Figure 7.4a, is the most
common form of manometer. Applied pressure causes a
displacement of liquid inside the U -shaped glass tube,
and the output pressure reading P is made by observing
the difference between the level of liquid in the two
halves of the tube A and B, according to the equation
^ l
Where l is the specific gravity of the fluid. If an
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unknown presure is applied to side A, and side B is open
to the atmosphere, the output reading is guage pressure.
Alternativel, if the side B of the tube is sealed and
evacuated, the output reading is absolute pressure. The
U-tube manometer also measures the differential
pressure (4 ", according to the expression ( 4 "=l1if
two unknown pressures
, are applied
respectively to sides A and B of the tube.
Output readings from U-tube manometers are subject to
error, principally because it is very difficult to judge
exactly where the meniscus levels of the liquid are in the
two halves of the tube. In absolute pressure
measurement, an addition error occurs because it is
impossible to totall evacuate the closed end of the tube.
U-tube manometers are typically used to measure ga uge
and differential pressures up to about 2 bar. The type of
liquid used in the instrument depends on the pressure
and characteristics of the fluid being measured. Water is
a cheap and convenient choice, but it evaporates easil
and is difficult to see. Nevertheless, it is used extensively,
with the major obstacles to its use being overcome by
useing coloured water and by regularl topping up the
tube to counteract eveporation. However, water is
definitely not used when measureing the pressure of
fluids that react with or dissolve in water. Water is also
unsuitable when high-pressure measurements are
required. In such circumstances liquids such as aniline,
carbon tetrachloride, bromoform, mercur or transformer
oil are used instead.
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The well-type or critern manometer, shown in figure
7.4(b), is similar to a U-tube manometer but one halt of
the tube is made very large so that it forms a well. The
change in the level of the well as the measured pressure
varies is negligible. Therefore, the liquid level in only one
tube has to be measured, which makes the instrument
much easier to use than the U -tube manometer. If an
unknown pressure P1 is applied to port A, and port B is
open to the atmosphere, the guage pressure is given by
P1=hl. It might appear that the instrument would give a
better measurement accurac than the U-tube manometer
because the need to subtract two liquid level
measurements in order to assive at the pressure value is
avoided. However, this benefit is swamped by errors that
arise due to the typical cross-sectional area variations in
the glass used to make the tube. Such variations do not
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1.c Define the following; i. Absolute pressure, ii.
Guage pressure and iii. Differential pressure, as
they apply to pressure measurement.
2.c Relating their principle of operation, differentiate
between the a diaphragm and a manometer in
pressure measurement.
3.c Describe how a diaphragm can be employed to
measure Absolute, guage and differential
pressure.
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A very important measurement in many liquid chemical
processes (industrial, pharmaceutical, manufacturing,
food production, etc.) is that of pH.
pH is a parameter that quantifies the level of acidity or
akalinity in a chemical solution. It defines the
concentration of hydrogen atoms in the solution in
grams/litre and is expressed as:
pH = log 10[1/H+]
where H+ is the hydrogen ion conc entration in the
solution.
The value of pH can range from 0, which describes
extreme acidity, to 14, which describes extreme akalinity.
Pure water has a pH of 7.
The common pH scale extends from 0 (strong acid) to 14
(strong caustic), with 7 in the middle representing pure
water (neutral) (figure 5.1):
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In its most common interpretation, pH is used to specify
the degree of acidity or basicity of an aqueous solution.
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pH is defined as follows: the lower -case letter "p" in pH
stands for the negative common (base ten) logarithm,
while the upper-case letter "H" stands for the element
hydrogen. Thus, pH is a logarithmic measurement of the
number of moles of hydrogen ions (H +) per liter of
solution. Incidentally, the "p" prefix is also used with
other types of chemical measurements where a
logarithmic scale is desired, pCO 2 (Carbon Dioxide) and
pO2 (Oxygen) being two such examples.
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The logarithmic pH scale works like this: a solution with
10-12 moles of H+ ions per liter has a pH of 12; a solution
with 10-3 moles of H+ ions per liter has a pH of 3. While
very uncommon, there is such a thing as an acid with a
pH measurement below 0 and a caustic with a pH above
14. Such solutions, understandably, are quite
concentrated and ) reactive.
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The most widely used method for measuring pH is the
glass membrane electrode. As illustrated schematically in
Figure 8.2, a pH meter measures the electrical potential
difference (voltage) that develops between a glass
membrane pH indicator electrode and a reference
electrode immersed in the sample to be tested. The
indicator and reference electrode are commonl y combined
into a single, functionally equivalent, probe, referred to as
a combination electrode. The glass membrane of th e
indicator electrode develops a pH -dependent potential, as
as a result of ion-exchange between hydrogen ion in
solution and univalent cations in the glass membrane.
The sensitivity of the glass electrode membrane potential
to changes in pH is small, so a suitably designed
reference electrode and a high input impedance meter are
required in order for the potential to be precisely
measured.
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this causes serious difficulties, special forms of low -
resistivity glass electrode are now available that have
smaller time constants.
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at least two solutions of knonw pH. Most commonly used
commercially available calibration buffers ( ##
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and 10.00.
1. The first step to take is usually related to temperature
correction. The pH meter must be able to measure
temperature or use external temperature probe because
the butter pH changes with temperature.
2. The next step is to put the electrode into pH 7.00
buffer. Take care not to hit the bottom of the beaker with
the electrode. Wait for the reading to stabilize. Rinse the
electrode with distilled water from a wash bottle into an
empty beaker before immersing it into new solution.
3. The next step will depend on the solution you want
your pH meter to measure. If you plan to measure pH in
acidic solutions, use pH=4.01 buffer. If you plan to
measure high pH use pH=10.00 buffer.
4. After you are ready, then you can take yo ur
measurement.
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1. Define pH and with a simple sketch, describe a pH
scale.
2. Determine the number of moles of H + ions per liter of
a solution with pH of 8.6.
3. What is pH meter; With a suitable diagram briefly
describe the function of pH electrode in pH meter.
4. Explain the basic steps involved in calibration of a pH
meter.
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a lower value by means of a Transformer. The main
voltage can be stepped up where high DC voltages are
required.
From the transformer the AC voltage is fed to a rectifier
circuit consisting of one or more diodes. The recti fier
converts AC voltage to DC voltate.
This DC is not steady as from a battery. It is pulsating.
The pulsations are smoothed out by passing them
through a smoothing circuit called a filter. In its spmples
form the filter is a capacitor and resistor. Any remaining
small variations can, if necessary, be removed by a
regulator circuit which gives out a very steady voltage.
This regulator also removes an variations in the DC
voltage output caused by the AC mains voltage changing
in value. Regulators are available in the form of integrated
circuits with only three connections.
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Rectification is an electronic circuit process of converting
an AC signal into a DC signal, this is done by a rectifier. A
rectifier (or simply called a diode) is a semic onductor that
conducts electricity in just one direction. Rectifier circuits
generally take the form of either half-wave rectification or
full-wave rectification.
1
circuit is
the simplest circuit, consisting of a single diode
connected in series with the source. This type of circuit
converts wave or cycle of the AC source into a DC supply.
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converts both half cycles of the AC into a DC supply.
Although there are several methods available, the most
common circuit is that of the bridge rectifier which uses
four individual rectifying diodes connected in a Sbridgedµ
configuration to produce the DC output.
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Figure 9.3: ! "
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Figure 9.3(d) is the waveform of the input voltage. The
voltages at points A and B on the transformer are
changing in opposite directions. When A is increasing in a
positive direction, B is increasing negatively. During the
first half ccle, A is positive and B is negative, D1 has
positive on its anode, D2 has negative on its cathode.
Both are forward biased.
Current flows around the circuit formed by these diodes,
the load and the transformer winding, as shown in figure
9.3 (b). During the next half cycle, A is negative and B is
positive D4 has positive on its anode, D3 has negative on
its cathode. Both are forward biased Current flows
around the circuit as shown in figure 9.3(c). Since the full
cycle is used this circuit is called a full -wave rectifier and
the ouput waveform of the current that flows in the
circuit is as shown in figure 9.3(e).
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Thiscis the process of locating and repairing malfunctions
in equipment by means of systematic analysis and
testing. For you to become a good electronics tech nician
or troubleshooter you will need to have a thorough
understanding of electronics, test equipment,
troubleshooting techniques, and system repair. All
scientist does not need to be an electronic technician, but
if you make use of electronic equipment in the laboratory
it is require of you to have the basic knowledge of what
goes wrong when you equipment malfunction so that you
can inform the electronic technician appropriately in a
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instrument.
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Use the following as a guide to help you find and repair
basic electronic/electrical circuits.
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Before you attempt to repair a piece of equipment be sure
you understand how the equipment operates. Refer to
operator·s manuals, technical manuals, and any other
documentation that applies to the equipment that seems
to be faulty in some way. A lot of technicians bypass this
step and go directly to in -depth troubleshooting just to
find out that the real problem was user error.
Familiarize yourself with the circuit or system operation;
this will help you determine what functions work and
what functions seem to be Tnot working properlyµ. Make
sure you obtain as much information as you can fro m the
person reporting the fault so as to understand if there is;
1. Circuit failure ² A malfunction or failure in a
component or circuit or
2. User Error ² Incorrect use of controls, system or
circuit.
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Refer to the equipment system diagram and list all the
likely circuit blocks that you feel may be the cause of the
malfunction that you have isolated during step 1.
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A THalf-Split Methodµc. 3
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here to isolate the faulty circuit block. As an example a
system may have a good input signal and a bad output
signal. Instead of checking every circuit block a test point
is chosen midway in the system between i nput and
output. If the signal is bad that means the problem will
likely be in the first half of the system.
cAlways look for the obvious, for example; power not
connected, input disconnected (i.e. cable from an
antenna).
Use your senses; sight, sou nd and smell. Check for burnt
components, crackling connections etc.
If it looks like the whole system is dead and you have
checked for the obvious (fuses, power source ² 220 VAC)
then you probably have a power supply problem. Use a
voltmeter to measure the ac input and the dc outputs of
the power supply.
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Having found the faulty circuit block the next step will be
to find the faulty component(s)c Most equipment
manufactures will include a troubleshooting guide as a
part of their operating/service manual. These guides will
often point directly at circuits in the circuit block that
may be the cause of the problem. Manufacturers
troubleshooting guides may also include voltage, current
and waveform information to assist you in
troubleshooting.
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Troubleshooting and repair of a system in most cases
must be completed quickly as equipment failure (down
time) can cost considerable loss of money due to l ost
productivity. There are two techniques often used to
expedite repair.
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cis a method of troubleshooting
often used in the industry to expedite repair. This rapire
technique requires that the service tech nician be totally
familiar with the system operation. The technician would
quite simply power down the system, pull out the faulty
component and replace it with an equal known good
component.
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is a method of
troubleshooting that may lessen the repair time. In this
method the service technolog ist/technician would have
located the faulty circuit (general area of the fault). The
technician would replace components in the circuit, one
at a time with known good comonents (having the same
electrical ratings) until the problem is resolved. This
method may seem to take time, but it can save time for
hard to find problems.
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Completing the repair might be easy ² changing a fuse.
Replacing a power cord. Usually repair will require the
removal and replacement of a component. Your
knowledge of desoldering and soldering techniques will
make the repair process much easier.
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It is very important to make a sketch of the circuit you
are working on, to record the placement and orientation
of the component and any wiring prior to removing it.
This sketch will assist you when you go to replace the
component to make sure you position it properly. Also be
sure to handle static sensitive components carefully .
If you believe you have completed the repa ir to the system
you will need to test it to be sure it perform s properly
according to specification given by the manufacturer.
Following the testing and verification of the system you
will need to complete a Uservice reportµ.
These are some reasons to fil l out a service report:
1.c To create a historical record for a piece of
equipment
2.c To record the repair to assist with any future
repairs.
3.c To show reliability of the equipment over time.
4.c To maintain a record of repair time and cost.
5.c To record contacts with off site service perso nel.
6.c To identify a manufacturers design flaw.
7.c To supply a service report to the owner.
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1.c What is a power supply unit? Explain its important
in electronic instruments and equipments.
2.c Describe with the block diagram the components of
a simple power supply units, explain the
importance of each component to the operation of
the PSU.
3.c What is Rectification? Discuss with a suitable
diagram, the difference between an half -wave
rectifier and a full-wave rectifier.
4.c Define trouble shooting, as it applies to electronic
instruments.
5.c Discuss in detail, the basic steps involve in
troubleshooting an electronic device.
6.c As an electronic techicia, design a service report for
a device you just repaired.
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c c &'c A course in Electrical & Electronic
Measurements & Instrumentation;
2 =
>>,
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Benedict, Robert P.; Fundamentals of Temperature and
Pressure and Flow Measurements 3rd ed; *A0
; 1>+/
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##J # 1>>
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Pragnell, R.F. (1989); The modern condensation dewpoint
hygrometer;
1££19/B99.
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