Chapter 20 Outline

• Endocrine Glands and Hormones

• Hypothalamic Control of the Endocrine System
• Pituitary Gland
• Thyroid Gland
• Parathyroid Glands
• Adrenal Glands
• Pancreas
• Pineal Gland and Thymus
• Endocrine Functions of the Kidneys, Heart, Gastrointestinal
Tract, and Gonads
• Aging and the Endocrine System
• Development of the Endocrine System
 Introduction
• ______ glands are ductless organs.
• They secrete their molecular products
(hormones) into the bloodstream.
• All endocrine organs have an extensive
distribution of many blood vessels.
• The endocrine system and the nervous system
both function to communicate signals throughout
the body to bring about homeostasis.
– Table 20.1 lists similarities and differences between
the two organ systems.
Comparison of the Endocrine
and Nervous Systems
Organs of the Endocrine System
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Hypothalamus
Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
Oxytocin (OT)
Regulatory hormones

Pineal gland
Pituitary gland
Melatonin
Anterior pituitary secretes:
Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)
Growth hormone (GH)
Luteinizing hormone (LH)
Thyroid gland Parathyroid glands
Melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH)
Calcitonin (CT) (located on posterior surface
Prolactin (PRL)
Thyroid hormone (TH) of thyroid)
Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)
Parathyroid hormone (PTH)
Posterior pituitary releases:
Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) Thymus
Oxytocin (OT) Thymopoietin
Thymosins
Heart
Atriopeptin

Adrenal glands Gastrointestinal (GI) tract

Cortex: Cholecystokinin (CCK)
Corticosteroids Gastric inhibitory peptide (GIP)
Medulla: Gastrin
Epinephrine (E) Secretin
Norepinephrine (NE) Vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP)

Kidney Pancreatic islets

Calcitriol Glucagon
Erythropoietin (EPO) Insulin
Somatostatin
Pancreatic polypeptide

Testes (male)
Androgens
Inhibin

Ovaries (female)
Estrogen
Inhibin
Progesterone

Figure 20.1
 Overview of Hormones
• Endocrine glands produce informational
molecules called ______.
• Hormones can only affect cells (target
cells) or organs (target organs) that have
receptors for a specific hormone.
• Cells or organs that do not possess
receptors for a specific hormone do not
respond to that hormone.
 Classes of Hormones
• The study of the structural components of the
endocrine system, the hormones they produce,
and the effects of these hormones on target
organs is termed endocrinology.
• There are three major classes of hormones
based on their chemical structure:
1. ______ hormones—growth hormone
2. ______ hormones—estrogen
3. ______ amines—thyroid hormone
 Control of Hormone Secretion
• Hormone secretion is regulated by a self-
adjusting mechanism called a feedback
loop.
• There are two types of feedback loops:
1. ______ feedback loop
2. ______ feedback loop
 Negative Feedback Loop
• In this type of loop, the stimulus starts the
process like an elevation in blood glucose
(eating a meal).
• The hormone secreted in response to
elevated glucose is insulin.
• Insulin brings about a decrease in blood
glucose.
 Negative Feedback Loop

Figure 20.2
 Positive Feedback Loop
• Only a few examples in the human body
• In this type of loop, the stimulus doesn’t
produce an opposite and counteracting
effect like a negative feedback loop
• The stimulus accelerates the process
 Positive Feedback Loop

Figure 20.2
 Hypothalamic Control of the
Endocrine System
• The hypothalamus is the interface
between the nervous system and the
endocrine system and is the master gland
of the endocrine system.
• It controls and oversees most endocrine
functions.
• It is located in the inferior region of the
diencephalon just superior to the pituitary
gland.
 Mechanisms of Hypothalamic
Control
The hypothalamus controls most endocrine activity
in three ways:
1. Controls release of ______ hormones from
the anterior pituitary gland
2. Secretes oxytocin (OT) and antidiuretic
hormone (ADH) from the posterior pituitary
gland
3. Controls the stimulation and secretion activities
of the adrenal medulla
 Mechanisms of Hypothalamic
Control

Figure 20.3
 Pituitary Gland
• Also called the ______
• Located just inferior to the hypothalamus
• Housed within the sella turcica of the
sphenoid bone
• Connected to the hypothalamus by a thin
stalk called the ______
• Divided into ______ and ______ lobes
 Pituitary Gland

Figure 20.4
 Anterior Pituitary
• Also known as the adenohypophysis
• Divided into three distinct areas:
1. Pars ______
2. Pars ______
3. Pars ______
 Control of Anterior Pituitary
Hormone Secretions
• Hormones secreted from anterior pituitary
gland are regulated by regulatory
hormones secreted from the
hypothalamus.
• These regulatory hormones from the
hypothalamus to the anterior pituitary
travel through a blood vessel network
called the hypothalamo-hypophyseal
portal system.
Regulatory Hormones Secreted
by the Hypothalamus
 Hypothalamo-Hypophyseal
Portal System

Figure 20.6
 Hormones of the Anterior
Pituitary
There are seven major hormones secreted from
the anterior pituitary:
1. ______ stimulating hormone (TSH)
2. ______ (PRL)
3. ______ hormone (ACTH)
4. ______ hormone (GH)—also called
somatotropin
5. ______ stimulating hormone (FSH)
6. ______ hormone (LH)
7. ______ hormone (MSH)
 Anterior Pituitary Hormones,
Target Organs, and Effects
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Hypothalamus

Median eminence

Infundibulum

Anterior pituitary Posterior pituitary

Muscle

Thyrotropic cells secrete Somatotropic cells secrete

thyroid-stimulating hormone growth hormone (GH), which acts
(TSH), which acts on the on all body tissues, especially bone,
thyroid gland. muscle, and adipose connective tissue.

Thyroid Adipose Bone

connective tissue
Mammary gland
Mammotropic cells secrete Gonadotropic cells secrete
prolactin (PRL), which acts on follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)
mammary glands and testes. and luteinizing hormone (LH)
which acts on the gonads (testes
and ovaries).
Testis Testis Ovary

Corticotropic cells secrete Pars intermedia cells secrete

adrenocorticotropic melanocyte-stimulating hormone
hormone (ACTH), which acts (MSH), which acts on melanocytes
Adrenal in the epidermis.
on the adrenal cortex.
cortex

Adrenal gland Melanocytes

Figure 20.7
 Posterior Pituitary
• Derived from the embryonic
diencephalon
• Comprised of the following regions:
– pars nervosa
– infundibular stalk
• Neural connection between the
hypothalamus and the posterior pituitary
is the hypothalamo-hypophyseal tract
 Hypothalamo-Hypophyseal Tract
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Hypothalamus
Paraventricular nucleus

Supraoptic nucleus

Hypothalamo-hypophyseal tract

Optic chiasm
Infundibulum

Posterior pituitary

Anterior pituitary
Telodendria

Figure 20.8
Pituitary Gland Hormones
 Thyroid Gland
• The largest gland entirely devoted to
endocrine activities
• Located just inferior to the thyroid cartilage
and anterior to the trachea
• Butterfly shape with right and left lobes
connected by a midline ______
 Thyroid Gland

Figure 20.9
 Thyroid Follicle
• Functional unit of the thyroid gland
• Comprised of simple cuboidal cells that
produce an iodinated glycoprotein called
______ (TGB) that is stored internally as a
colloid
• The follicle cells and the internal storage
area for TGB is collectively called the
______ follicle
 Thyroid Follicle Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Thyrohyoid muscle

Thyroid cartilage
Common carotid artery

Superior thyroid vessels

Cricoid cartilage
Left lobe of thyroid gland

Isthmus of thyroid gland

Right lobe of thyroid gland

Inferior
thyroid artery

Trachea
Inferior
thyroid veins
(a)

Follicular cells

Capillary Parafollicular cell

Thyroid follicle
Connective
tissue
capsule

Follicle lumen (contains colloid)

LM 400x

(b)
a(right): © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc./Photo and Dissection by Christine Eckel; b(right): © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc./Photo by Dr. Alvin Telser

Figure 20.9
 Parafollicular Cells
• Large endocrine cells located between
thyroid follicles called ______ cells
• Secrete ______, which helps to regulate
serum calcium
 Thyroid Gland–Pituitary Gland
Negative Feedback Loop
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Hypothalamus
stimulatory
1 A stimulus (e.g., low body temperature)
causes the hypothalamus to secrete inhibitory
thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH), Negative feedback
which acts on the anterior pituitary. inhibition
TRH

5 Increased body temperature is detected by the

hypothalamus, and secretion of TRH by the
hypothalamus is inhibited. TH also blocks the
interactions of TRH from the hypothalamus
and anterior pituitary to prevent the formation
of TSH.
2 Thyrotropic cells in the
anterior pituitary release Anterior
thyroid-stimulating pituitary
hormone (TSH). Target organs in body
TSH

4 TH stimulates target cells to increase metabolic

activities, resulting in an increase in basal body
temperature.
TH

3 TSH stimulates follicular cells of the thyroid

gland to release thyroid hormone (TH).

Figure 20.10
 Parathyroid Glands
Small glands
(usually four)
embedded on
the posterior
surface of the
thyroid gland

Figure 20.11
 Parathyroid Glands
There are two types of cells that are seen in
the parathyroid gland:
1. ______ cells (principal cells)—secrete
parathyroid hormone (PTH) that helps
regulate serum calcium
2. ______ cells—function unknown
 Cells of the Parathyroid Gland Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Connective tissue capsule

of parathyroid gland

Oxyphil cell

Chief cells
Muscles on posterior
side of pharynx

Capillary

Thyroid gland
(posterior aspect)

Parathyroid glands Chief cells

Esophagus

Trachea
Oxyphil cells
LM 135x

(a) Posterior view (b) Histologic views

Figure 20.11 b: © Victor Eroschenko

 Parathyroid Hormone
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Ca2+ ions 1 Low blood calcium (Ca2+) levels are

PTH molecules detected by the parathyroid gland.

2 Parathyroid hormone (PTH)

is secreted into bloodstream.

4 Rising Ca2+
in blood inhibits Bloodstream
PTH release.

3 Target organs respond to

PTH, or its effects, to increase
blood calcium levels:
Bone • Osteoclasts resorb bone
connective tissue, releasing
Ca2+ into the bloodstream.

• Kidney retains Ca2+ and

promotes activation of an
Kidney inactive form of vitamin D to
calcitriol, an active form of
vitamin D.

• Small intestine increases

absorption of more Ca2+
under the influence of calcitriol.
Intestine

Figure 20.12
Thyroid and Parathyroid Hormones
 Adrenal Glands
• Paired glands anchored on the superior border
of the two kidneys; also called suprarenal glands

Figure 20.13
 Adrenal Glands
• Divided functionally into an outer adrenal
______ and an inner adrenal ______

Figure 20.13
 Adrenal Cortex
Three distinct layers of cells (from superficial to
deep):
1. Zona ______—produce
mineralocorticoids, the main one being
aldosterone
2. Zona ______—produce glucocorticoids,
the main one being corticosterone
3. Zona ______—produce the sex hormones,
estrogen- and testosterone-related hormones
Adrenal Cortex Hormones
 Adrenal Medulla
• Forms the inner core of the adrenal gland
• Consists of ______ cells, which are modified
cells of the sympathetic division of the
autonomic nervous system
• These cells secrete ______ and ______

Figure 20.13
Adrenal Cortex and Medulla
 Pancreas
• Located between the duodenum and
spleen and posterior to the stomach
 Pancreas
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Pancreatic islet cells

Inferior Abdominal
vena cava aorta
Spleen Alpha cell

Body of Beta cell

pancreas
Blood
capillary Delta cell

Bile
duct F cell

Pancreatic
ducts
Tail of
Pancreatic
pancreas
acinus
Alpha cell

Duodenal Beta cell

papilla
Delta cell

F cell
Duodenum
of small
intestine

Head of
pancreas
Pancreatic islet

Diaphragm

Celiac trunk

Inferior Spleen
vena cava

Liver (cut)

Pancreatic
Body of acini
Gallbladder pancreas

Head of
pancreas

LM 150x

Duodenum Abdominal Left Tail of

aorta kidney pancreas

Figure 20.14
(a) (b)

a: © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc./Photo and Dissection by Christine Eckel; b: © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc./Photo by Dr. Alvin Telser
 Pancreas
• Both an exocrine (ducted gland) and endocrine
(ductless) gland
• About 98–99% of pancreatic cells are ______
acini that produce alkaline pancreatic secretions
into ducts
• The remaining 1–2% of cells are small clusters
of endocrine cells called ______ islets (islets of
Langerhans)
• The hormones of the islet cells closely regulate
the level of blood glucose
 Pancreatic Islets
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Pancreatic islet cells

Inferior Abdominal
vena cava aorta
Spleen Alpha cell

Body of Beta cell

pancreas
Blood
capillary Delta cell

Bile
duct F cell

Pancreatic
ducts
Tail of
pancreas Pancreatic
acinus
Alpha cell

Duodenal Beta cell

papilla
Delta cell

F cell
Duodenum
of small
intestine

Head of
pancreas
Pancreatic islet

Diaphragm

Celiac trunk

Inferior Spleen
vena cava

Liver (cut)

Pancreatic
Body of acini
Gallbladder pancreas

Head of
pancreas

LM 150x

Duodenum Abdominal Left Tail of

aorta kidney pancreas

Figure 20.14 (a) (b)

a: © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc./Photo and Dissection by Christine Eckel; b: © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc./Photo by Dr. Alvin Telser
 Pancreatic Islets
Comprised of four different types of
endocrine cells, each secreting a different
hormone:
1. ______ cells—secrete glucagon
2. ______ cells—secrete insulin
3. ______ cells—secrete somatostatin
4. F cells—secrete pancreatic polypeptide
Pancreatic Hormones
 Pineal Gland
• Secretes ______, which is involved in
maintaining the 24-hour circadian cycle
and sexual maturation
• It is located in the posterior region of the
epithalamus
 Pineal Gland and Thymus Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Hypothalamus
Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
Oxytocin (OT)
Regulatory hormones

Pineal gland
Pituitary gland
Melatonin
Anterior pituitary secretes:
Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)
Growth hormone (GH)
Luteinizing hormone (LH)
Thyroid gland Parathyroid glands
Melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH)
Calcitonin (CT) (located on posterior surface
Prolactin (PRL)
Thyroid hormone (TH) of thyroid)
Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)
Parathyroid hormone (PTH)
Posterior pituitary releases:
Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) Thymus
Oxytocin (OT) Thymopoietin
Thymosins
Heart
Atriopeptin

Adrenal glands Gastrointestinal (GI) tract

Cortex: Cholecystokinin (CCK)
Corticosteroids Gastric inhibitory peptide (GIP)
Medulla: Gastrin
Epinephrine (E) Secretin
Norepinephrine (NE) Vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP)

Kidney Pancreatic islets

Calcitriol Glucagon
Erythropoietin (EPO) Insulin
Somatostatin
Pancreatic polypeptide

Testes (male)
Androgens
Inhibin

Ovaries (female)
Estrogen
Inhibin
Progesterone

Figure 20.1
 Thymus
• Located just superior to the heart and just
deep to the sternum
• Larger in infants and children than in
adults
• Functions in association with the lymphatic
system to regulate and maintain body
immunity
Other Organs with Endocrine
Functions
 Pituitary Gland Development

Figure 20.15
 Thyroid Gland Development

Figure 20.16