DISTRIBUTED GENERATION II:

FUEL CELLS
WIND ENERGY
SOLAR ENERGY

Riah Ann DR. Fermin-Cayanan, REE

Nhowel F. Jimenez, REE
Mark Adrian Lunaria, REE
Kurt Ryan D. Velasco, REE

EE249 Smart Grid

Michael C. Pacis, PhD

Professor
I. INTRODUCTION

WHAT IS DISTRIBUTED GENERATION?

Distributed generation is an approach that employs small-scale technologies to produce

electricity close to the end users of power. DG technologies often consist of modular (and

sometimes renewable-energy) generators, and they offer a number of potential benefits. In

many cases, distributed generators can provide lower-cost electricity and higher power

reliability and security with fewer environmental consequences than can traditional power

generators.

In contrast to the use of a few large-scale generating stations located far from load centers--

the approach used in the traditional electric power paradigm--DG systems employ numerous,

but small plants and can provide power onsite with little reliance on the distribution and

transmission grid. DG technologies yield power in capacities that range from a fraction of a

kilowatt [kW] to about 100 megawatts [MW]. Utility-scale generation units generate power in

capacities that often reach beyond 1,000 MW.

CLASSIC VS DISTRIBUTED GENERATION

The current model for electricity generation and distribution in the United States is

dominated by centralized power plants. The power at these plants is typically combustion (coal,

oil, and natural) or nuclear generated. Centralized power models, like this, require distribution

from the center to outlying consumers. Current substations can be anywhere from 10s to 100s of
miles away from the actual users of the power generated. This requires transmission across the

distance.

Figure 1 CLASSIC GENERATION

Disadvantages of classic or centralized generated system:

 Transmission distance issues - When power is carried over long distance, voltage tends to

drop due to resistance in cables.

 Greenhouse gas emission - diesel reciprocating engines often used as back-up distributed

generators tend to be the worst performers in terms of greenhouse gas emissions.

 Production of nuclear waste - Nuclear waste is the material that nuclear fuel becomes after

it is used in a reactor. The waste, sometimes called used fuel, is dangerously radioactive, and

remains so for thousands of years. When it first comes out of the reactor, it is so toxic that if
 you stood close to it while it was unshielded, you would receive a lethal radioactive dose

within a few seconds and would die of acute radiation sickness within a few days

 Inefficiencies & power loss – due to large number of individual generators, inefficiencies

and power losses tend to increase. Also as indicated in transmission distance, electricity is lost

when flowing into the transmission and distribution lines.

 Location of power lines - A Centralized Generated system has a central location of power

being generated before the generated power is transmitted, distributed and made available to

consumers. Clearly, power generated at the central station cannot be the same as the total sum

of power supplied to consumers.

 Security related issues - the medium to long term availability or the diversity of fuel

options from producing the power; consideration of neither low cost of availability reduction

nor loss of grid or plant.

Many of these issues can be mediated through distributed energies. By locating, the

sources near at the end-user location the transmission line issues are rendered obsolete.

Distributed generation (DG) is often produced by small modular energy conversion units like

solar panels. These units can be stand-alone or integrated into the existing grid. Frequently,

consumers who have installed solar panels will contribute more to the grid than they take out

resulting in a win-win situation for both the power grid and the end-user.
 Figure 2 DISTIBUTED GENERATION

Distributed generation takes place on two-levels: the local level and the end-point level.

Local level power generation plants often include renewable energy technologies that are site

specific, such as wind turbines, geothermal energy production, solar systems (photovoltaic and

combustion), and some hydro-thermal plants. These plants tend to be smaller and less

centralized than the traditional model plants. They also are frequently more energy and cost

efficient and more reliable. Since these local level DG producers often take into account the local

context, the usually produce less environmentally damaging or disrupting energy than the

larger central model plants.

 Fuel cells also provide an alternative route to a DG technology. These are not as

environmentally reliant as the previously mentioned technologies. These fuel cells are able to

provide electricity through a chemical process rather than a combustion process. This process

produces little particulate waste.

At the end-point level the individual energy consumer can apply many of these same

technologies with similar effects. One DG technology frequently employed by end-point users

is the modular internal combustion engine.

II. DISTRIBUTED GENERATION RESOURCES

In this part, we will discuss the three (3) resources that are parts of the distributed

generation: the fuel cells, solar or photovoltaic system and the wind energy.

A. FUEL CELLS

A fuel cell is a device that uses hydrogen

and oxygen to create electricity. Fuel cells are

more energy-efficient than combustion engines

and the hydrogen used to power them can come

from a variety of sources. If pure hydrogen is use

as a fuel, fuel cells emit only heat and water,

eliminating concerns about air pollutants or

Figure 3 FUEL CELL CONSTRUCTIONS
greenhouse gases.

One of the more common types of fuel cell is the Polymer Electrolyte Membrane (PEM)

fuel cell. The PEM fuel cell consists of an electrolyte membrane sandwiched between an anode

(negative electrode) and a cathode (positive electrode).

Fuel Cell Components

1. Polymer Electrolyte Membrane (PEM)

The PEM is a thin, solid, organic compound, typically the consistency of plastic wrap

and about as thick as 2 to 7 sheets of paper. This membrane functions as an electrolyte: a

substance that conducts charged ions (in this case protons), but does not conduct electrons. This

allows the solution to conduct electricity. This membrane must be kept moist to conduct

particles through it.

Figure 4 FUEL CELL COMPONENTS

2. Anode

The anode is the electrode at which oxidation (loss of electrons) takes place. In a fuel cell,

the anode is electrically negative. The anode is composed of platinum particles uniformly

supported on carbon particles. The platinum acts as a catalyst, increasing the rate of the

oxidation process. The anode is porous so that hydrogen can pass through it.

3. Cathode

The cathode is the electrode at which reduction (gaining of electrons) takes place. In a

fuel cell, the cathode is electrically positive. The cathode is composed of platinum particles

uniformly supported on carbon particles. The platinum acts as a catalyst, increasing the rate of

the reduction process. The cathode is porous so that oxygen can pass through it.

4. Flow Plates

The Flow plates perform several important functions: (1) they channel hydrogen and

oxygen to the electrodes, (2) they channel water and heat away from the fuel cell, and (3) they

conduct electrons from the anode to the electrical circuit and from the circuit back to the

cathode.

How Fuel Cells Works?

Polymer Electrolyte Membrane (PEM) fuel cells used in automobiles—also called Proton

Exchange Membrane fuel cells—use hydrogen fuel and oxygen from the air to produce

electricity. The diagram below show how a PEM fuel cell works.
Figure 5 HOW FUEL CELL WORKS
The Chemical Process

Hydrogen fuel (H2) is channel to the anode, where the

catalyst separates the hydrogen's negatively charged electrons

from the positively charged protons. The membrane allows

the positively charged protons to pass through to the cathode,

but not the negatively charged electrons.

The negatively charged electrons must flow around the

membrane through an external circuit. This flow of electrons

forms an electrical current.

At the cathode, the negatively charged electrons and

positively charged

hydrogen ions (protons)

combine with oxygen to

form water (H20) and heat

Figure 6 THE CHEMICAL PROCESS

Fuel Cells Applications

1. Transportation - Fuel cells can be used to provide propulsion or auxiliary power for

transportation applications including cars, trucks, buses, trains, ships, and submarines.

They have been used to provide auxiliary power on spacecraft for decades.

2. Stationary Power - Stationary fuel cell units can be used for backup power, power for

remote locations, stand-alone power plants for towns and cities, distributed generation

for buildings, and co-generation (in which excess thermal energy from electricity

generation is used for heat).

3. Portable Power - Fuel cells can be used to power a variety of portable devices, from

handheld electronics like cell phones and radios, to larger equipment such as portable

generators. They can be used for almost any application typically powered by batteries

but can last up to three times longer before refueling.

B. WIND ENERGY

Wind energy (or wind power) refers to the process of creating electricity using the wind,

or air flows that occur naturally in the earth’s atmosphere. For thousands of years, people have

used windmills to grind grain and pump water. Today, modern machines called wind turbines

are used to make electricity. To produce a lot of electricity, many wind turbines can be placed

together on wind farms. Good sites for wind farms are often found on windy hilltops, open

plains, and shorelines.

Types of Wind Energy:

1. Utility-scale Wind

Wind turbines that range in size from 100 kilowatts to several megawatts, where the

electricity is delivered to the power grid and distributed to the end user by electric utilities or

power system operators.

Figure 7 UTILITY - SCALE WIND

2. Distributed or "small" Wind

Single small wind turbines below 100 kilowatts that are used to directly power a home,

farm or small business and are not connected to the grid.

 Figure 8 DISTRIBUTED OR “SMALL” WIND

3. Off-shore Wind

Wind turbines that are erected in large bodies of water, usually on the continental shelf.

Offshore wind turbines are larger than land-based turbines and can generate more power.

Figure 9 OFFSHORE WIND

How Wind Turbine Works?

Figure 10 HOW WIND TURBINE WORKS

1. A wind turbine turns energy in the wind into electricity using the aerodynamic force

created by the rotor blades. When the wind flows across the blade, the air pressure on

one side of the blade decreases. The difference in air pressure across the two sides of the

blade creates both lift and drag. The force of the lift is stronger than the drag and this

causes the rotor to spin.

2. The rotor is connected to the generator, either directly (if it's a direct drive turbine) or

through a shaft and a series of gears (a gearbox) that speed up the rotation and allow for

a physically smaller generator.

3. This translation of aerodynamic force to rotation of a generator creates electricity.

How Wind Energy Gets to You?

1. The turbines in a wind farm are connected so the electricity they generate can travel

from the wind farm to the power grid.

2. Once wind energy is on the main power grid, electric utilities or power operators will

send the electricity to where people need it.

3. Smaller transmission lines, called distribution lines, collect electricity generated at the

wind project and transport it to larger "network" transmission lines, where the electricity

can travel across long distances to the locations where it is needed.

4. Finally, smaller distribution lines deliver electricity directly to your town, home or

business.

C. SOLAR POWER

Nowadays, power plants such as coal, nuclear, thermal etc. play a big role in our

community as a large source of energy. However, as we all know that this power plant also

emits a pollution which is bad for the environment more specifically in ozone layer and that is

where renewable energy comes in. Renewable energy is a reliable source of energy utilizing the

natural resources like sun rays, heat from the ground, tidal power etc. Even renewable energy

has lower efficiency compare to coal power plants etc., it is pollution free and can be considered

as unlimited source.
 A solar panel also known as photovoltaic cells simply converts the lights to electricity,

usually it harness the sunlight because most of the light is coming from the sun. People can

harness the sun's energy in a few different ways:

Photovoltaic cells - convert sunlight into electricity

Solar thermal technology - heat from the sun is used to make hot water or steam

Passive solar heating - letting the sun shine through windows to heat the inside of a

building

What is Photovoltaic?

Photovoltaic is the direct conversion of light into electricity at the atomic level. Some

materials exhibit a property known as the photoelectric effect that causes them to absorb

photons of light and release electrons. When these free electrons are captured, there is an

electric current result that can be used as electricity.

Construction of Solar or Photovoltaic Cell

Solar cell contains a PN junction

with a glass that is made extremely thin

so that the incident light can passed

thru it easily. When the sunlight hits the

glass which is on the top of the solar

panels, it travels from N type to P type

Figure 11 CONSTRUCTION OF SOLAR CELL
Silicon.
 Solar Panel is essentially a collection of solar cells connected in series. It is arranged in a

way that it can maximize the incident light that can be harness from the sun.

Figure 12 SOLAR PANEL

How does Photovoltaic Cell Works?

Figure 13 HOW PHOTOVOLTAIC CELL WORKS

A solar photovoltaic (PV) cell turns sunlight into usable electricity in two general steps:

1. Sunlight hits the surface of the photovoltaic cell. Light is absorbed and knocks electrons

loose.

Light strikes a photovoltaic cell and is absorbed by the semiconducting material it is made

from (usually silicon). This incoming light energy causes electrons in the silicon to be

knocked loose, which will eventually become the solar electricity you can use in your home.

2. A semi-conductor converts the light into electricity. Loose electrons flow, creating a current.

The current is captured and transferred to wire.

There are two layers of silicon used in photovoltaic cells, and each one is specially treated,

or ―doped‖, to create an electric field, meaning one side has a net positive charge and one

has a net negative charge. This electric field causes loose electrons to flow in one direction

through the solar cell, generating an electrical current. Once an electrical current is

generated by loose electrons, metal plates on the sides of each solar cell collect those

electrons and transfer them to wires. At this point, electrons can flow as electricity through

the wiring to a solar inverter and then throughout your home.

Three generation of Solar Panels

1.) First Generation – this is the type of solar panels which are most popular and also commonly

available in the market. It also has the highest efficiency of all the generations however it is also

the most expensive. Mainly it contains a doped semiconductor which is silicon.

2.) Second Generation – this type is usually available in market also. It utilizes mainly thin-film

technologies that are also often commercially available such as copper indium gallium selenide

or cadmium telluride etc.

3.) Third Generation – also known as Dye Sensitized Solar Cell (DSSC). DSSC mainly uses a

molecular absorber like, raspberry juice, grape juice or mangosteen. Molecular absorber comes

from fruit that has anthocyanin content that makes the fruits red in color.

BENEFITS OF DISTRIBUTED GENERATION

The table below shows the benefits of the distributed generation in terms of energy cost

savings, savings in transmission and distribution losses and congestion costs, deferred

transmission and distribution capacity, system reliability benefits, power quality benefits, land

use effects, reduced vulnerability to terrorism.

HOW THIS DISTIBUTED GENERATION RESOURCES WORKS ON GRID?

Conventional power stations, such as coal-fired, gas, and nuclear powered plants, as

well as hydroelectric dams and large-scale solar power stations are centralized and often

require electric energy to be transmitted over long distances. By contrast, Distributed Energy

Resources (DER) systems are decentralized, modular, and more flexible technologies, that are

located close to the load they serve, albeit having capacities of only 10 megawatts (MW) or less.

These systems can comprise multiple generation and storage components; in this instance they

are referred to as hybrid power systems.

DER systems typically use renewable energy sources, including small hydro, biomass,

biogas, solar power, wind power, and geothermal power, and increasingly play an important

role for the electric power distribution system. A grid-connected device for electricity storage

can also be classified as a DER system and is often called a distributed energy storage system

(DESS). By means of an interface, DER systems can be managed and coordinated within a smart

grid or a microgrid. Distributed generation and storage enables collection of energy from many

sources and may lower environmental impacts and improve security of supply.

WHAT IS A MICROGRID?

A microgrid is a local energy grid with control capability, which means it can disconnect

from the traditional grid and operate autonomously.

The grid connects homes, businesses and other buildings to central power sources,

which allow us to use appliances, heating/cooling systems and electronics. But this

interconnectedness means that when part of the grid needs to be repaired, everyone is affected.
 This is where a microgrid can help. A microgrid generally operates while connected to

the grid, but importantly, it can break off and operate on its own using local energy generation

in times of crisis like storms or power outages, or for other reasons.

A microgrid can be powered by distributed generators, batteries, and/or renewable

resources like solar panels. Depending on how it’s fueled and how its requirements are

managed, a microgrid might run indefinitely.

HOW MICROGRIDS WORKS?

A microgrid connects to the grid at a point of common coupling that maintains voltage

at the same level as the main grid unless there is some sort of problem on the grid or other

reason to disconnect. A switch can separate the microgrid from the main grid automatically or

manually, and it then functions as an island.

 REFERENCES

Dg.history.vt.edu. (2019). Introduction to Distributed Generation.

https://www.dg.history.vt.edu/ch1/introduction.html

Energy.gov. (2019). Office of Energy Efficiency & Renewable Energy.

https://www.energy.gov/eere/office-energy-efficiency-renewable-energy

Touran, N. (2019). What is Nuclear Waste?. Whatisnuclear.com.

https://whatisnuclear.com/waste.html

Vernimmen.be. (2019).
http://www.vernimmen.be/ftp/An_introduction_to_distributed_generation.pdf

YouTube. (2019). Distributed Energy Resources – Microgrids.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5uSOp9tvVrA&feature=youtu.be&fbclid=IwAR2W
KYDWjLwO0-X1gBjgAEwmm2oJbVbH695BmVT3Co28SjoySZzWTbi96PM

Basics of Wind Energy. (n.d.).

https://www.awea.org/wind-101/basics-of-wind-energy

Baxter, D. (2018, October 19). SaskPower announces second utility-scale wind energy project in
a month. https://globalnews.ca/news/4574184/saskpower-announces-second-utility-
scale-wind-energy-project-in-a-month/

Distributed Wind Research. (n.d.).

https://www.nrel.gov/wind/distributed-wind.html

Hillsdon, M. (2019, February 11). Offshore wind is on the rise, but what does the future hold?
https://www.raconteur.net/sustainability/offshore-wind-energy

How Do Wind Turbines Work? (n.d.).

https://www.energy.gov/eere/wind/how-do-wind-turbines-work

How Microgrids Work. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://www.energy.gov/articles/how-

microgrids-work
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The group MASTERS OF THE NORTH would like to extend our sincerest gratitude to

all the persons who helped us in the creation of the video and documentation for this project -

our Professor, Michael C. Pacis, PhD., in giving us opportunity to make such video presentation

that helped us to research more and understand the distributed generation; and to the students

of Bulacan State University who helped us in creating the video presentation.

 MASTERS OF THE NORTH

Riah Ann DR. Nhowel F. Mark Adrian Kurt Ryan D.

Fermin-Cayanan, REE Jimenez, REE Lunaria, REE Velasco, REE

MEMBERS’ CONTRIBUTION

Riah Ann DR.

Nhowel F. Mark Adrian Kurt Ryan D.
Breakdown of contribution Fermin-
Jimenez Lunaria Velasco
Cayanan

1. Research contributions
a. Distributed Generation √ √
b. Fuel Cells √
c. Wind Power √ √
d. Solar Power √ √
e. Micro grid √
2. Documentation & Compilation √
3. Video presentation
a. Editing √
b. Review and Finalization √ √ √ √
4. Expenses
a. Paper √ √ √ √
b. Print out of documents √ √ √ √
c. Ring binding √ √ √ √
d. Video editor √ √ √