Finite Element Method for Structural Engineers (A Basic Approach) The book presents the basic ideas of the finite element method so that it can be used as a textbook in the curriculum for undergraduate and graduate engineering courses. In the presentation of fundamentals and derivations care had been taken not to use an advanced mathematical approach, rather the use of matrix algebra and calculus is made. Further na effort is being made to include the intricacies of the computer programming aspect, rather the material is presented in a manner so that the readers can understand the basic principles using hand calculations. However, a |ist of computer codes is given. Several |ilustrative examples are presented in a detailed stepwise manner to explain the various steps in the application of the method. A fairly comprehensive references list at the end of each chapter is given for additional information and further study, Wail N. Al-Rifaie is Professor of Civil Engineering at the University of Technology, Baghdad, Iraq. He obtained his Ph.D from the University College, Cardiff, U.K. in 1975. Dr. Wail established the Civil Engineering Department at the Engineering College in Baghdad and was. the Head for nearly seven years. He received the Telford Premium Prize from the Institution of Civil Engineering (London) in 1976. His main areas of research are: Box girder bridges, folded plate siructures, frames and shear walls including dynamic analysis. He is the author of three books an structural analysis in Arabic Ashok K. Govil is Professor in the Department of Applied Mechanics, Motilal Nehru Regional Engineering College, Allahabad, India and was also Head of the same department for over five years. He obtained B.E. degree in Givi| Engineering (1963) from BITS, Pilani, India, and M.S, (1968) and Ph.D., (1977) from the University of iowa, lawa City, U.S.A. Dr. Govil's main areas of fesearch are: Optimal design of structures, fail-safe design of structures, and finite element method. He has written several research papers and technical reports, and developed many. Computer programmes for optimal design of structures including dynamic analysis and vulnerability reduction, i SS: ——— —<—== ——$—- = 8 PusLisiec: FOR OME WORLD NEW AGE INTERNATIONAL (P) LIMITED, PUBLISHERS New Delhi » Bangalore * Chennai » Cochin « Guwahati + Hyderabad Jalandhar + Kolknia * Lucknow » Mumbai » Ranchi Visit us at www.newagepublishers.comFinite Element Method for Structural Engineers (A Basic Approach) Wail N. Al-Rifaie Ashok K. Govil ° Pusustaia Fon one WwoRLD NEW AGE INTERNATIONAL (P) LIMITED, PUBLISHERS New Delhi * Bangalore + Cone nai Costin s Crate» i By ras Jalandhar * Kolkata * Lucknow Visit us at ereicitage ibtideat comCopyright © 2008, New Age International (P) Ltd., Publishers Published by New Age International (P) Ltd., Publishers First Edition: 2008 All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any farm, by photostat, microfilm, xerography, or any other means, or incorporated into any information retrieval system, electronic or mechanical, without the written permission of the copytightowner, Branches: © 36, Malikarjuna Temple Street, Opp. ICWA, Basavanagudi, Bangalore. © (080) 26677815 * 26, Damodaran Street, T. Nagar, Chennai, © (044) 24353401 © Hemsen Complex, Mohd. Shah Road, Paltan Bazar, Near Starline Hotel, Guwahati, © (0361) 2543689 © No, 105, Ist Floor, Madhiray Kaveri Tower, 3-2-19, Azam Jahi Road, Nimboliadda, Hyderabad, © (040) 24652456 * RDB Chambers (Formerly Lotus Cinema) 106/4,1st Floor, $.N. Banerjee Road, Kolkata, © (033) 22275247 © 18, Madan Mohan Malviya Marg, Lucknow, © (0522) 2209578 © 142C, Victor House, Ground Floor, N.M. Joshi Marg, Lower Parel, Mumbai, © (022) 24927869 © 22, Golden House, Daryaganj, New Delhi, (011) 23262370, ISBN : 978-81-224-2410-2, Rs. 160.00 C-08-05-2573 Printed in India at Nisha Emerprises, Delhi. PUBLISHING FOR ONE WORLD NEW AGE INTERNATIONAL (P) LIMITED, PUBLISHERS 4835/24, Ansari Road, Daryaganj, New Delhi-110002 Visit us at www.newagepublishers.comPREFACE The finite clement method is one of the most popular numerival tech- niques used for obtaining an approximate solution ef complex prablems in various fields of enginccring. In the beginning, the method was developed as an extension of matrix methods for the analysis of structural engineering problems. However, later it has also been recognized as a most powerful method for analysing problems in other fields of engineering, such as fluid mechanics, soil mechanics, rock mechanics, heat flow, ete. The generality of its application coupled with the availability of high speed electronic digital computers, has put finite element method in wide use. It has also been in- cluded in the curriculum of engineering colleges. The aim of this book is to present the basic ideas of the finite element method so that it can be used as a text boole in the curriculum for under- graduate and graduate enginezring courses. In the pre dium of funda- mentals and derivations, care has been taken to usc matrix algebra and calculus only, rather than an advanced approach. It may be mentioned further that the computer programming aspect has not been included but the material is presented in such a manner thai the readers can understand the basic principles using hand calculations. However, a list of computer codes is given in Appendix G. The book is divided into eight chapters. The first Chapter intreduves the basic concepts of the finite clement method und in Chapter 2, tions of elasticity are presented. Chapter 3 discusses the struetuy tion and also describes the commonly uscd elements in structural a Chapter 4, methods for determining stillucss characteristics und transform: ation of matrices are given. In Chapters 5 and 6, element stiffness properties are derived. In Chapter 7, gencral formulation of the finite clement method is presented with the help of suituble examples. illy in Chapter 8, examples are presented to illustrate the varivus ba: ps in the applica- tion of the method. The references listed at the end of cach chapter are those in which readers can find additivnal information or detailed developments. In the end, six appendices ave provided which give details of matrix algebra, reactive forces, section properties, sulution of simultaneous equations, SI units and bibliography of some additional references. Wail N. ALRifaic Baghitad, Tray Ashok K. Govil April, 1991CONTENTS Preface : tit Chapter 1_ INTRODUCTION TO FINITE ELEMENT METHOD 1 L1_Introduction and General Description _1 1.2 IMvstrative Example 2 References 8 Chi 2_ BASIC EQUATIONS FROM LINEAR ELASTICITY THEORY 0 2.1 Introduction 9 22_Siress and Strain Components 9 2.3 Equations of Static Equilibrium 11 2.4 Strain—Displacement Equations 13 2.5 Compatibility Equations 13 2.6 Generalized Hooke’s Law (Constitutive Equations) 14 2.7 Plane Strain and Plane Stress_15 References 18 ‘Chapter 3_ STRUCTURAL IDEALIZATION 19 2.1 _Intraduction 19 lization or Discretization 19 3.3 Types of Structural Elements 22 References 26 Chapter 4_ METHODS OF DETERMINING STIFFNESS PROPERTIES AND ITS TRANSFORMATION 27 4.1 Introduction 27 4.2 Elementary Approach—Using Basic Definition 28vi Contents: 4.3 General Approach—Using Displacement or Shape Functions 29 44 Transformation of Reference Coordinate Systems 33 Reference 39 ‘Chapter 5 DERIVATION OF STIFFNESS PROPERTIES FOR EL NTS 41 Pin-Jointed Plane Bar Elements 40 5.2_Plane Beam Elements 49 3.3 Pin-Jointed Space Bar Elements_68 5.4 Space Beam Elements 71 References 75 Chapter 6 DERIVATION OF STIFFNESS PROPERTIES FOR ‘TWO-DIMENSIONAL ELEMENTS 6.1 Triangular Plate Elements (In-Plane Forces) 76 6.2 Rectangular Plate Elements (In-Plane'Forces) 84 63 Triangular Plate Elements (In-Bending) 92 6.4 Rectangular Plate Elements (In-Bendin; 99 References 108 Chapter 7_ FORMULATION OF FINITE ELEMENT METHOD 109 . ion of Conti 09 L2_Generation of Basic Data 109 2.3 Determination of Transformation Matrix 3 74 Assembly of the Overall Stiffness Mat 16 7.5_Elimination of Restrained Degrees of Freedom 122 7.6 Determination of Equivalent Applied Nodal Forees 125 2.7 Calculation of Nodal Displacements, Forces and Stresses 130 nee: Chapter § APPLICATION OF FINITE ELEMENT METHOD 133 8.1 Analysis of Pin-Jointed Structure 133 8.2 Analysis of Beam__148Contents vii 8.3__Analysis of Decp Beam _157 Problems 162 ‘Refcrences 167 Appendix A_ MATRIX ALGEBRA 168 Appendix B REACTIVE FORCES FOR RESTRAINED BEAM EL Appendix C_ PROPERTIES OF SECTIONS 182 Appendix D_ SOLUTION OF SIMULTANEOUS EQUATION. 186. Appendix E_ Si UNITS FOR STRUCTURAL ENGINEERS 192, Appendix F_ BIBLIOGRAPHY 194. Appendix G_ COMPUTER CODES. 196 Index wt Copyrighted materialCHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION TO FINITE ELEMENT METHOD 1.1 INTRODUCTION AND GENERAL DESCRIPTION ‘The finite element method represents an extension of matrix methods for the analysis of framed structures to the analysis of the continuum struc- tures. The basic philosophy of this method is to replace the structure or the continuum having an unlimited or infinite number of unknowns by a mathematical model which has a limited or finite number of unknowns at certain chosen discrete points. The method is extremely powerful as it helps to accurately analyse structures with complex geometrical properties and loading conditions. In finite element method, @ structure or a continuum, as shown in Fig. 1.1(a) and (b), is discretized and idealized by using a mathematical model which is an assembly of subdivisions or discrete elements. These discrete elements, known as finite clements, ate assumed to be interconnec- ted only at the joints called nodes. Simple functions, such as polynomials, are chosen in terms of unknown displacements (and/or their derivatives) at the nodes to approximate the variation of the actual displacements over each finite element. The external loading is also transformed into equiva- lent forces applied at the nodes. Next, the behaviour of each element independently and later as an assembly of these elements is obtained by relating their response to that of the nodes in such a way that the following basic conditions are satisfied at each node: 1. ‘The equations of equilibrium 2. The compatibility of displacements 3. The material constitutive relationship The equations, which are obtained using the above conditions, are in ‘the form of force-displacement relationship. Finally, the force-displacement equations are modified to incorporate the given boundary conditions and then these modified equations are solved to obtain displacements at the nodes which are the basic unknowns in the finite element method. An example illustrating the basic procedure of the method described above is presented in the subsequent section.2 Finite Element Method fer Structural Engineers Tail boom Discretization of the tail boom (a) idealization of helicopter tall boom [1.1] Original structure Typical node Section of dam Diseretization of the dam sectiby (b) Ideallzation of dam [1.2] Fig. 1.1 Structural idealization, 12 ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLE Figure 1.2 shows a Jinear spring system which is one of the most ele- mentary systems that can be examined from a finite element viewpoint.Introduction to Finite Element Method 3 AS ha p preen——et —" 1.2 A simple Jinear spring system. ‘This system has two Unear spi connected in series with spring stiffuesses k, and ky. The left-hand end is rigidly fixed while the right-hand ends free to move. Further, it is assumed that under the action of applied load, these springs can have displacements in x-coordinate direction. Thus, forces, displacements and spring stiffnesses are the only parameters in this system. Also for a linear spring, the applied force F is proportional to the resulting displacement A and may be expressed as Fea kh (LD where k is the constant of proportionality which defines the stiffness of the spring. Thus, knowing the value of & and F in Eq. (1-1), the displacement will be given by 1 aageF (1.2) which is sufficient to describe fully the deformed state of an elastic spring. Now considering the system in Fig. 1.2, the first step in the finite ele- ment method is to subdivide the system into diserete elements. Defining each spring to be an element, the idealized linear spring system consists of two elements and three nodes as shown in Fig. 1.3. The forces (F,. F,, Fa) and the associated displacements (A,, A,,4,) at the nodes are also shown in the figure. For convenience the direction of the forces and the displace- ments shown in Fig. 1.3 are taken as positive. Fy dy ty Fy, iy Fy ay Element ley) Element (e, Node(?!) Node (2) Node (3) Fig. 1.3 Discretization of the system, Next, in order to ablain the response of each element, free body diagrams of isolated spring elements are considered, as shown in Fig. 1.4. Tt may be noted that for these elements, interpolation functions to describe the displacements over the element are not needed and may be obtained directly using Eq. (1 2) Now, assume that node (1) is displaced by A, duc to force Fy, with node (2) fixed in position as shown in Fig. 1.5(a). Using Eq, (1.1), the force-displacement relation for the node (1) may be expressed as4 Finite Element Method for Structural Engineers Fit ky Fy,tz Fy? ky wwe ' ey ? 2 e a Fig. 1.4 Free body diagrams of isolated spring elements. Fy, = kA, (1.3) Applying the equilibrium of forces (ZF, = 0) for the spring {e,) one obtains Fu + Fy = (4) or Fy =—Fa=— hits as where Fp, is the reactive force at node (2) due to Ay at node (1). Similarly, now assume that node (1) is fixed and node (2) is displaced by Ay due to force Fy, applied at node (2), as shown in Fig. 1.5 (b). Then, ‘the foree-displacement equation at node (2) may be expressed as a k F; fn ~ q ‘2 7 ey (a) Node (1) displaced by bysNoge(2) tinea 2 hy Fy F. B, , 2 a z v {b) Nade (1) fixed) Nade (2) displaced by Az {c) Superposition of case la) ana case(b) Fig, 1.3. Force-displacement relationship for element (¢,). Faq Kybs (1.6) Applying the equilibrium condition (ZF, = 0), we get Fat Fp=0 (1.7)Introduction to Finite Element Method 5 Fy=- Kade (1.8) where Fy, is the reactive force at node (1) due to A, at node (2). Now using the principle of superposition, one obtains the case shown in Fig. 1.5 (c), i-c.. adding up algebraically the two cases shown in Fig. 1.5(@) and (b). Thus, we obtain Fae Fat Fas (9) and Ra=Fut ly (1.10) where F, and F, are the forees at node (1) and (2), respectively. Substitut- ing the values of Fy, Fy, Fa, and Fy, in Eqs. (1.9) and (1.10), we obtain the forces in terms of displacements as Frm kyhs — kydy (ay Fym = Kyhy + Kite (1.12) In matrix notation, these equations may be rewritten as K, hh - 4 fen “ad fi “9 FR) i-m& &) le and in condensed form {FO ss [PY (A (1.14) Equation (1.14) defines the element force-displacement or equilibrium equation for element (e,). In this equation, square matrix [A]? is known as element stiffness matrix; the column vectors {A} and {F)(% are defined as nodal displacement and nodal force vectors, respectively. .The superscript defines the clement number. Following a similar approach as for clement (¢,), the force-displace- ment relationship for element (e,) may be expressed as Fy ky — ky] (ay { = | (1.15) FAY L-k Red Us and in condensed form LE} = [iyo cayien (1.16) Once the equilibrium or force-displacement equation for cach element is known, the equation for the whole system may then be obtained by following the pringiple of superposition.6 Finite Element Method for Structural Engineers Although, the matrices [k]!©? and [k]fe are of the same order, they may not be added directly as they relate to different sets of displacements, For this simple example, the equilibrium equations may casily be expanded by inserting rows and columns of zeros in such a way that both sets of qua- tions are related to all the possible displacements (ic. A., Ay and u,) of the system. Thus, Eqs. (1.13) and (1.15) after expansion, may be expres- sed as; For element (€) Fy ky —k 07 (4, Fep=|—k ky Of 44,), and (uy Fy o 0 ds For element (e) Fy fo 0 0) (as Fp=|0 ky —ka} tas (1.18) Fy) LO —hy hyd bay Using the principle of superposition and applying the rule of matrix addi- tion (sce Appendix A). we obtain Fy kk 07 fay Fap=| ki kytky — ha \ (19) Fy 0 -k ky) tay Tt may be pointed out that the procedure of expanding element equi equations is lengthy and hence direct superposition is used as expl Chapter 7. In condensed form, Eq. (1.19) may be expressed as {F}=[K] {a} (1.20) ‘The matrix equation (1.20) represents the equilibrium or force-displace- ment cquation for the linear spring system shown in Fig. 1.2. In this equa- tion, square matrix [K] is known as overall stiffness matrix and its elements are usually subscripted as ky to denote their location in the ith row and Jch column; the column vectors {A} and {F} are known as nodal displace- ment and nodal force vectors, respectively. It may be noted that the form of equilibrium or force-displacement equation (1,20) remains the samc, irrespective of the type of problem and idealization.Introduction to Finite Element Method 7 Now to obtain the solution of the problem, we use Eq. (1.19) or its condensed form Eq. (1.20), It may be noted that so far no limitations has been placed on any of the displacements Ay. dy and A,. Hence, ap ‘of any external loading will result in moving the system as a rigid body. Thus, before solving for unknown displacements, Eq. (1.19) needs to be modified to incorporate boundary conditions so as to prevent the rigid body motion of the structure, For the linear spring. system shown ia Fig. 1.2, node (I) is fixed, i.e. A, = 0; hence rewriting Eq, (1 19) in partitioned form as Fy Ay=0 iy Ay (1.21) As Equation (1.21) contains two unknown displacements (A, and A,) and one unknown reactive force (F;). Forces F, and F, are known as applied forces and are equal to 0 and P, respectively. Thus from Eq. (1.21) and noting that A, = 0, we obtain Ay (Fi=[—ky 9 { a (1.22) fe ‘ {3 1.2m Solving Eq. (1.23) for unknowa displacements, we obtain 4, = Pik, (1.24) a= P (Cha + ka)fhakad (1.25) Knowing displacements A, and A,, the reactive forces F, may be obtained using Eq. (1.22). Thus, Ro-P (1.26) Finally the internal forces in the elements may be determined using forces-displacement relations Eqs. (1-13) and (1.15). If Pj, and Ps are the internal forces in springs (e,) and (e,), then Pa =k, (dy — 4) (1.27) Pay = ey (O3 — As) (1.28) where A, = 0; A, and 4, are given by Eqs. (1.24) and (1.25), respectively.8 Finite Element Method for Structural Engineers This completes the solution using finite element method. It may be men- tioned that the finité clement method involves extensive computations, mostly repetitive in nature. Hence the method is suited for computer pro- gramming and solutions of the problems can be obtained easily using pro- gramming om electronic digital computers. However, in this book, without going into the intricacies of computer programming, the basic concepts and the development of the method are presented in a simple manner. Further for easy understanding of the various steps in the method, illustrative examples with hand calculations are given in Chapter 8. These examples are taken from the field of structural engineering, nevertheless the method is general and can also be applied equally well to other fields of engineering. REFERENCES 1.1 Govil, A-K., 18. Arora and E.J., Haug, “Optimal Design of Frames with Substructuring, Computers and Structures, An International Journal. Vol 12, No. 1, 1980, 1-2 Clough, R.W., “The Stress Distribution of Norfork Dam,” Structures and Materials Research, Department of Civil Engineering, University of California, Berkeley, Series 100, Issue 19, 1962.CHAPTER 2 BASIC EQUATIONS FROM LINEAR ELASTICITY THEORY 2.1 INTRODUCTION To provide a ready reference for the development of the general theory of the finite element method applied to the problems of structural analysis, some of the concepts and basic equations of lincar elasticity theory are summarized in this chapter. The equations are given without derivation or proof and apply to homogeneous isotropic materials. 2,2 STRESS AND STRAIN COMPONENTS 2.2.1 Stress Components A state of stress exists in a body acted upon by external force. These external forces are, in general, of two kinds which may act on a body. If v Fig. 2.1 Definition of the components of stress.to Fi Element Method for Structural Engineers they act over the surface of the body, they are ealled surface forces and are expressed in terms of foree per unit area; if they are distributed throughout the volume of the body, they are called body forces and are expressed in terms of force per unit volume. For example, a force such as the hydro- static pressure which is distributed over the surface of a body, is called a surface force; while gravitational and centrifugal forees, which are distri- buted over the volume of the body are called body forces. ‘The state of stress, which exists in a body acted upon by external forces, is completely defined in terms of six components of stress as shown in Fig. 2.1. In vector form, it is expressed as a foo 8 } | t QA) | Jj where Gx, oy, , = components of normal stresses Typ Tyzr Tex = COMponents of shear stresses It may be pointed out here that we have designated only three components of shear stress because only these are independent. In the next section by considering the equilibrium of an elemental volume, it is shown that Fay Tyas Tee = Tay O00 Tye = Tar Notation Used ‘Components of normal stresses (o., o,, 9.) carry a single subscript which indicates that the stress acts in the direction of subscript and on a plane whose outernormal is in the direction of subscript. Components of shear stresses (tzy, Tye, Tax) carry a double subscript, The first subscript denotes the plane on which it acts and the second subscript denotes its direction. Sign Convention Stresses acting on a positive face of the elemental volume in a positive coordinate direction are positive; those acting on a negative face in a nega- tive direction are positive; and all the others are negative. A positive face is one on which a normal vector directed outward from the element, points in a positive direction.Basic Equations ftom Linear Elasticity Theory 2.2.2 Strain Components Corresponding to the six stress components, the state of strain ata point can be divided into six strain components. In a vector form, the state of strain is expressed as “4 | | r | = | . (2.2) | te J where ts, €, and ¢, = components of normal strains ‘fem Yor and Yz¢ = components of shear strains The notation and sign convention used for the strain components are the same as those for the stress components. 2.3 EQUATIONS OF STATIC EQUILIBRIUM The equilibrium of an clastic body in a state of stress is governed by three partial differential equations for the nine stress components. These equations are derived by considering the equilibrium of forces and moments acting on an elemental volume of a body. Consider a small rectangular Parallelopiped of a body shown in Fig. 2.2. It is subjected to a general system of positive three-dimensional stresses as well as to Positive body force-componems ¥, ¥, Z in x, y,z directions, respectively. Summing all forces in the x-direction, and using the condition 3F; = 0, we get (2 + Beavy dydz — oz dydz + (tye + ee dy) ded tye ded + (tye + Seas) dxdy ~ tyxdudy + ¥ drdydr = 0 Collecting terms, we obtain (+ fe & Bey x) dxdydz = 0 Thus, the condition EF, = 0 gives ie ve + Shae 5 etx=o (2.3ay12 Finite Element Method for Structural Engineers as (dxdydz) is not necessarily equal to zero. Similarly, summing forces in yand z directions, we obtain Otar 4 Gey 4 Otay. 6 BF, = 0, SE batt at = 0 2.3) Bes. Ot: | Ga, BF = 0, Gay Fey Bey zo 0 (2.30) Fig. 2.2 Stress and body force components on an elemental volume of a body. On Face OAA'O': op, Tyne On Face BCC’: ey + dye + oe aye ee On Face OACB + Gy, Taxetoy On Face O'ACB': 04-4 22 des tan + OE des yy + de Likewise, a balance of moments about the three coordinate directions shows that in the absence of body moments Tap = toe Typ = Tey AOD Tee = tar G34) Equations (2,38, b, c) must be satisfied at all points of the body. The stresses vary throughout the body, and at the surface or boundary they must be in equilibrium with the forces applied on the surface. Let the components of the surface forces per unit area on the boundary of the body be denoted by ¥, ¥, Z, then equilibrium at the surface is as follows Re loti tay $0 tee VI syst oy $A ty 4) tab Mt ty Ea oyBasic Equations from Linear Elasticity Theory 13 where J, 7, and n represent the direction cosines of the outward normal to the surface at the point of interest. 24 STRAIN—DISPLACEMENT EQUATIONS The deformed shape of an elastic structure under a given system of Toads can be described completely by three displacements w, v and w in x, y and z directions respectively. The positive directions of the displacements correspond to the positive directions of the coordinate axes. The relations ‘between the components of strain and the displacement components are oe eB) “Git EB) EP CF-—N 8 o 4, bu , Qudu | Be ay | aw dw wRtptna tat dw dy bubw | av gy | Gwow wn Gtatpet pet ee du dw, dugu | avév | ow aw Yo as t te? dear + fede t oe ae For small deformations, the strain-displacement relations are linear and the expressions for the strain components, given by Eq. (2.5), can be sim- plified by retaining only the first order or linear terms and neglecting the second order terms, that is aa go ga uaa ¥ = 3: _ ou + au Yer = Bt Fe te oe a ae My as as) If the body experiences large (finite) deformations or strains, higher order terms must be retuined as in Eq (2.5). These terms represent significant changes in the geometry of the body and thus are called geometric non- linearities. 2.5 COMPATIBILITY EQUATIONS ™ order that strain-displacement Eq. (2.6) give a set of single-valted continuous solution for the three displacement components, some condi- tions must be imposed on the components of strain. These conditions,14. Finite Element Method for Structural Engineers lity conditions, are obtained by eliminating displace- ment components in Eq. (2.6) and can be expressed as follows Bee 8 five 4 te Bre > (-Re+ + %) — Bie 4 Ae &) Bm Te ' x Her Ox Ors. | Ot oe 1 ey ) 7) Oye Oey Be ayer ast + ay Bis Ba, Pe rae OFT Equations (2.7) are the six equations of strain compatibility which must be satisfied in the solution of three-dimensional problems in clasti 2.6 GENERALIZED HOOKE’S LAW (CONSTITUTIVE EQUATIONS) For a general anisotropic material, the six components of stress are ex- pressed as a linear function of the six components of strain and vice versa. ‘This is known as generalized Hooke's law and can be expressed as pe) fo c* | % | Cu “ o & 4 b= 1 5 (2.8) Tor ter | Te \" U Te d a Yo In matrix notation {oe} =[C] fe} (2.9) By inversion, the strains may be expressed as {e}=[2]{2} (2.10) where [Dy = [cr (2.11)Basic Equations from Linear Elasticity Theoty 15 The matrix [C] is termed as th: material stiffness matrix, while its in- verse [D] is the marerial flexibility matrix. Equation (2.9) or (2.10) repre- sents the constitutive law for a linear, elastic, anisotropic, and homogeneous material. For homogencous isotropic clastic materials, only two physical constants are required to express all the elastic constants in Hooke's Law. Hence, in terms of Young's modulus (£) and Poisson's ratio (v}, the matrices [C] and [D] can be expressed as pie *ooY 0 O | v YOY 0 0 v v 0 oO E — lay | 0 0 0 GF 6 (2.12) o 0 o o 1 | o 0 9 @ 0 and flowy 0 0 04 ~ olay oo 0 o | tl-y yoo 0 0 | i= = (2.13) 0 0 om+y 0 0 | ;2 8 © 9 wey 0 | | Lo o 6 o 0 4) im terms of modulus of or Bulls modulus (K). These Sometimes matrices [CJ and [P] are ex; rigidity (G) and modulus of volume expans constants, in terms of £ and v, are dvi Kay (2.14) 2.7 PLANE STRAIN AND PLANE STRESS In many practical situations. the three dimensional problem can be reduced to a two dimensions! problem, There are two important types of two-dimensional problems ia fi elasticity theory which are known as plane strain and plane stress’ problems. These two casey are discussed separately and the foregoing equations of elasticity theory are16 Finite Element Method for Structural Engineers presented in a simplified form. In both the cases, it is assumed that the body force Z is zero, and X and ¥ are functions of x and y only, 2.7.1 Plane straio It is state of strain in which er = Ys: = Y:z = 0and only strains e, ey and yz» exist. The body suffers displacements in one plane only, ie. Z component of body force is taken as zero. Stress Components: {o]= [ex ey tay]? (2.15a) a = (ex + 45) (2.15b) Strain Components: {Q=le 6 tel (2.16) jum Equations: Box | ates theta (2.17) ée, da, Stow 4 Se = ax t By +Y=0 Strain-Displacement Relations: (2.18) au, ay ver Bt Compatibility Equations: Ses, Bey _ Byer 19 Be Tae andy 18) Constitutive Equations: l= [Ht (2.20) where {o} and (s) are given by Eqs. (2.15a) and (2,16), respectively; and clasticity matrix [4] is given by Imv ow 07 o £ ¥ l= = asym | 21) | | JBasie Equations from Linear Elasticity Theory 17 24.2 Plane stress In-plane stress problem, the components of stress normal to the x-» plane are ero i.t., 0; = txe = tye =O. Stress Components: fo} [ex oy tay (2.22) Strain Components: fe}=[ee ce Gay]? (2-234) v (ex + &)) (2.236) oe Static Equilibrium Equations: s+ +X¥m0 (2.24) Bry , Bry Get gi tyq0 Strain-Displacement Relations: au an z ee = (2.25) ou a Yay a Prd Compatibility Equations: ee, oe, tae (2.26) Constitutive Equations: fo} = [dl feb (2.27) where 4 | o | (2.28) iv | 2 It should be pointed out that in a state of plane stress, «, is not equal to zero, but is given by ea eet. (2.29)18 Finite Element Method for Structural Engineers REFERENCES 2.1 Timoshenko, S., and J.N, Goodier, Theory of Elasticity 3rd ed. McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York, 1951 2.2 Wang. C.T., Applied Elasticity, McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York, 1953. 2.3 Love, AEH., A Treatise on Mathematical Theory of Elasticity, Dover Publications, New York, 1944. 2.4 Sokolnikoff, LS., Mathematical Theory of Elasticity Ind ed., McGraw- Hill Book Company, New York, 1956. 2.5 Sechler, E.E , Elasticity in Engineering, John Wiley & Sons, New York 1952. 2.6 Southwell, R.V., An Jutroduction fo the Theory of Elasticity, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1936.CHAPTER 3 STRUCTURAL IDEALIZATION 3.1 INTRODUCTION The first and most important step in the finite element method of structural analysis is to generate, using finite number of discrete clemeuts, a mathematical model which should be as near as possible equivalent to the actual continuum. Such @ formulation of a model is referred to as structural idealization or discretization. In this chapter, the underlying principles of structural idealization are discussed followed by the most commonly used structural clements, which are employed in the subsequent chapters, are described. 3.2. STRUCTURAL IDEALIZATION OR DISCRETIZATION The continuum is a physical body, a structure or a solid which needs to be analysed. The subdivision or discretization process of the eantinuum is essentially an exercise of engineering judgement. These subdivisions are called elements, and are connected to the adjacent elements only at limi- ted number of points called nodes (Fig. 3,1) Thus, in the idealization of the continuum, we have to decide the number, shape, size and configuration of the elements in such a way that the original body is represented by it as closely as possible. Hence, the general objective of such an idealization is to discretize the body into finite number of elements sufficiently small so that the simple displacement models can adequately approximate the true solution, At the same time, it may be pointed out that too many small subdivisions will lead to extra computation effort. No effort here is being made ta discuss as to how many elementsshould be employed in any particular problem, rather it is suggested that two or three cases with different number of elements or fineness of meshes should be considered. The results thus obtained can be used in establishing the rate of con- vergence and enhance confidence in the idealization employed. The structures, in general, may be divided into two categories 1. Skeletal structures—Trusses, beams. frames, etc. 2, Continuous structures—Folded plates, box girders, deep beams, etc, The structural idealization and analysis of skeletal structures20 Finite Element Method for Structural Engineers pose no problem and can be done accurately as the assumed mathe- matical model is similar to the actual structure, The elements in the model formulation of these structures may easily be defined by the lengths between the two nodes as shown in Fig. 3.1. In the second type of struc- Tyoical nodes Typital elements. 4a) Plone truss, Typieat nodes. Typical elements tp) Beam typkcal elements Typical nodes / te) Frome Fig. 3.1° Skeletal structures, tures, mathematical modelling presents some difficulties as the elements used are multidimensional and continuously attached to adjacent elements as shown in Fig. 3.2. This aspect is discussed in Chapter 6. However, in discretization of both the types of'structures, it is assumed that theelements are attached to the adjacent elements only at the nodal points and have constant material properties. Also it is assumed that the elements of ske- letsl structures are straight and prismatic; similarly the elements of canti- muous structures are assumed to have constant thickness. Thus, the location of nodes for both the types of structures are located at placesStructural Idealization 21 ja) Details of toided plate model supports ment idealization [3.1] Fig, 3.2 Continuum structure, where abrupt changes in geometry, loading or material properties occur. Examples of these natural subdivisions are shown in Fig. 3.3. Noss 1 2 Nodes {o) Concentrated loaas and supports: Node {p) Abrupt change in teading22 Finite Element Method for Structural Engineers Nodes" (c) Abrupt change in section properties Steel Copper Node (8) abrupt change in matertal properties Fig. 3,3 Natural subdivision of strecture or continuum, It is evident from the above discusssion that the structural idealization is simply a process whereby 2 complex continuum is modelled as an assembly of discrete structural clements satisfying the conditions stated in Chapter 1, Now in the next sub-section, various types of structural elements are described. 33° TYPES OF STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS: ‘The structural elements are of various types. The shape or configura- tion of these discrete clements depends upon the geometry of the continuum and upon the number of independent space coordinates (c.g, x, ¥, or 2) necessary to describe the problem. Thus, based on the space coordinates, a finite element can be classified as a simple one-, two-, or three-dimensional element Here in this section, only the most commonly used one-, and two- dimensional elements with straight boundaries are described and in the next chapter, stiffness characteristics for these elements are derived, 3.3.1 One-Dimensional Elements A one-dimensional element may be represented by a straight line whose ends, such as I and 2, are nodal points (Fig. 3.4a). These elements are referenced in a coordinate system }nown as local or element coordinate system. In this sytem, x-axis is defined by element axis which isa line joining the two nodes of the elements. One-dimensional elements are used when the geometry, material properties. and dependent variables such as displacements can all be expressed in terms of one independent space coor- dinate which is measured along the ‘element axis. Examples of structures using this type of element are skeletal structures such as trusses, frames, etc. (Fig. 3.1). It may be pointed out that for skeletal structures, element and global coordinate systems generally do not coincide.Structural Idealization 23 3.3.1.1. Pin-Jointed Bar Element ‘The pin-jointed bar or truss clement shown in Fig. 3.4 (b), is the simplest structural element and is assumed to be pin connected at both ‘the ends. The bar element is also assumed to have constant cross-sectional area (A) and modulus of elasticity (E) over its length (L), external loads are applied at the nodes and the effect of self-weight is neglected. Thus for a plane structure, this element has four degrees of freedom, two at each node; whereas for a space truss it is six, three at each node. This clement carries a one-dimensional stress distribution as it is assumed to resist only axial force. 3.3.1.2 Beam Element The beam element shown in Fig. 3.4 (c) is also known as frame element. For a plang structure, this element has six degrees of freedom, three at each node i.c., axial and in-plane transverse displacements, and in-plane rotation, whereas for a space structure, it has twelve degrees of freedom, six at each node, i.e., three displacements and three rotations in the three coordinate directions. i node ail Node (a) Typical representation of one-dimensional element DOF sé (b) Pin-jointed plane bar or truss element (©) Plane beam or frama element Fig, 3.4 One dimensional elements,24 Finite Skement Method for Structural Engincers 3.3.2 Two-Dimensional Elements The elements shown in Figs. 3,5 and 3,6 are two-dimensional elements. These elements are of constant thickness and with straight boundaries. Many problems in solid mechanics such as plane strain, plane stress, plate bending, cto., could be idealized using these elements. It may be noted that for small deflections, the in-plane and transverse deformations can be un- coupled [3.5]. Thus, these clements for in-plane forces and in bending are considered separately. Y DOFsé ° x 1a) Triangular plate element {in-plane forces) o (b) Rectangular plate stement (in Fig. 3.5 Two dimensional elements witt 2 forces) iaeplane forces, 3.3.2.1 Triangular Plate Element (In-Plane Forces) The simplest two dimensional clement is a triengular plate element with in-plane forces, Fig. 3.5 (a). It has three nodes with two degrees of freedom at each node. Thus total degrees of freedom for this element are six.Structural Idealization 25 3.3.2.2 Rectangular Plate Element (In-Plane Forces) Rectangular plate element can be obtained by combining two triangular plate elements. This element has four nodes with two degrees of freedom at each node, Thus cach rectangular element with in-plane forces has eight degrees of freedom as shown in Fig. 3.5 (b). 3.3.2.3 Triangular Plate Element (in-Bending) In this case, elements are subjected to only bending, i.c., out-of-plane forces. The clement has nine degrees of freedom, three at each node i.e., transverse displacement and rotations about x and » axes (Fig. 3.6 a). (>) Rectangula! plate element in bending Fig. 3.6 Two dimensional elements in bending.36 Finite Element Method for Structiral Engineers 3.3.2.4 Rectangular Plate Element (In-Bending) Like in the previous case, only bending is considered, The element has twelve degrees of freedom, three at each node as shown in Fig. 3.6 (b). In the next Chapter, methods for detiving element stifffess properties are presented and in Chapters 5 and 6 these properties are derived for the elements discussed in this chapter. REFERENCES: BA 3.2 3.3 34 35 Rockey, K.C., and H.R, Evans, “An Experimental and Finite Ele- ment Study of the Behaviour of Folded Plate Roofs Containing Large Openings”, International Asso for Bridge and Structural Engi- neering, Vol. 36-I of the “Publications”, Zurich 1976. Desai, S. Chandrakant and John F., Abel, Introduction to the Finite Element Method—A Numerical Method for Engineering Analysis Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, New York, 1972. Gaylord, Jr. Edwin H., and Charles N., Gaylord (Edited by), Struc~ tural Engineering Hand Book, Second Edition, McGraw-Hill Book Company New York, 1979. Zienkiewicz, O.C., B.M., Irons, J. Ergatoudis.S. Ahmad and F.O., Scott, “Isoparametric and Associated Element Families for Two- and three-Dimensional Analysis", FEM Tapir The Technical University of Norway, Trondheim 1969, Timoshenko, S.P. and §., Woinowsky-Krieger, Fheory of Plates and Shells, McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York, 1959.CHAPTER 4 METHODS OF DETERMINING STIFFNESS PROPERTIES AND ITS TRANSFORMATION 4.1 INTRODUCTION It has been mentioned earlier (Chapter 1) that the basis of finite ele- ment method is the representation of a continuum or a structure by an assemblage of discrete elements called finite elements. These elements are assumed to be interconnected only at node points. In order to determine the force-displacement relationship or stiffness characteristics of the whole structure, which is required in this analysis, we must obtain first the stiff e Iy'z": Local or Element coordinate system ‘xyz: Global or Overall courdinate system Fig. 4.1 Local and Global coordinate systems.28 Finite Blement Method for. Structural Engineer: ess properties of individual elements. These stifiness properties are deter- mined, herein, using the following two approaches. 1. Elementary Approach——using basic definition 2. “General Approach—using displaceiment or shape functions. In this chapter, the two approaches for obtaining element stiffness properties are discussed; and later in subsequent Chapters 3 and 6, these methods are applied to pin.jointed bar elements, beam clements, trian gular and rectangular plate elements. The general principles discussed may also be used for deriving the required stiffaess properties of other types of elements. It should be mentioned that it is convenientto. develop stiffness charact- eristics particularly for one-dimensional elements in reference to local or clement coordinate system (Fig. 4.1). Analysis using finite element method requires that these characteristics for the entire structtire or continuum should be referenced in global or overall coordinate system which in general does not orient in the direction of local coordinate system. However, itis always possible to transform element stiffness characteristics from one coordinate aystem to another coordinate system. The general procedure for achieving this transformation is also presented herein. 4.2 ELEMENTARY APPROACH—USING BASIC DEFINITION Consider a prismatic element shown in Fig. 4.2 with known geometric and material properties. The clement js assumed to be fully restrained at both the nodes which are denoted by j and &. It is referred with respect to local coordinate system and has twelve degrees of freedom, six at each node. The numbers written beside the arrows indicate the possible displace- ments. The single-headed arrows denote translations, whereas the double- headed arrow denote rotations. Thus, at node / the translations are num- bered 1, 2, and 3and the rotations are numbered 4, $, and 6, Similarly, at the other node k, numbers 7, 8, and 9 denote translations and 10, 11, and 12 denote rotations. Now, in order to obtain the element stiffness characteristics by this approach, unit nodal displacements are imposed one at a time while all other nodal displacements are retained at zero. The resulting forces exerted on the element are obtained by determining the values of the restraint for- ces required to hold the distorted member in equilibrium. These restraint forces due to unit displacements define’ the element stiffacsses, Finally using the principle of superposition, the desired clementstifiness character istics are more commonly known as element stiffness matrix is obtained. The elementary approach discussed above uses the basic definition of stiffness. It enables the reader to have a clear picture of the force-displace- ment concept and to obtain the element stiffmess matrix without much mathematical manipulations. This method is applied to obtain the stiffnessMethods of Determining Stiffness Properties and its Transformation 29 5 § '" ee a f h Fig. 4.2. Restrained element. matrices of pin-jointed truss and beam elements. For other types such as triangular or rectangular plate elements which are more complex, this elementary approach becomes cumbersome, Hence a general approach is considered. 43 GENERAL APPROACH—USING DISPLACFMENT OR SHAPE FUNCTIONS The general derivation approach was first used by Turner at cl [4.1] to derive the stiffness matrix for a triangular plate clement for plane stress problems (see Chapter 2). This approach is general and can be used for any other type of element as well. There are four cssential steps in this derivation, which can be expressed as follows: STEP | : For each element, choose a set of functions that defines displace- ments uniquely within the element. These functions are called shape functions, displacement funetions, or displacement fields. Express these displacement functions in terms of the nodal displacements. introduce the strain-displacement equations and thereby deter- mine the state of clement strain corresponding to the assumed displacement field. STEP 3; Write the constitutive equations relating stress to strain. These equations introduce the influence of the material properties of the element. STEP 4 : Write force-di stiffness matrix. STEP lacement relationship and identify the element30 Finite Element Method for Structural Engineers Now using the steps presented above, stiffness matrix for a general finite element is derived. 4.3,1 Derivation of Element Stiffuess Characteristics Using General ‘Approach Consider a typical element (e) connected to other elements at the nodes J, m ete. STEP 1: Choose a displacement firnction (f(x, y, 2)} a8 nlx, ¥) {fee 9} = { \ for 2D elements aD vr) and : u(x, 3. 2) {fx y. 2)) S4 v(x ¥. 2), for 3D elements (4.2) w(x 9 2) where #, v and w are displacements within rhe element at (x,y, 2). Hereafter the arguments (x, ys 2) shall not be used for ease in writing. Now to obtain displacement function in terms of nodal displacements, it can be expressed in matrix form as {7} = [V1 {4} 4.3) where [iV] = matrix of shape functions {A} = column vector of nodal displacements. These quantities depend upon the type and dimensions of element. In expanded form, Eq. (4.3) can be expressed as {aa | = fo ENA [Me] one | aay where i, J, m = nodes of a typical clement (e) [Nj]. [Nj] = submatrices of matrix [N] {Ae}, {A)} = subvectors of nodal displacement vector (A} STEP 2: With displacements within the element known, the strains at any point can be determined. In matrix form, strain-displacement equations can be expressed as‘Methods of Determining Stiffness Properties and its Transformation 31 {o} = [5] {4} (4.5) In the above equation, matrix [B] is given by [B] = LL] [¥] (4.6) where [Z] matrix of a suitable linear operator. It may be pointed out bere that in case (L] is not linear operator, strain vector cannot be expressed by Ey. (4.5) As an example of a linear operator, consider a plane stress clement. For this clement, the strain-displacement equations are (see Chapter 2): au a . [x rz o7 _j} a a iy* {ha qe r= wy | o H {"} 47) laa l |e 2| av a ate J le al In the above equation, the linear operator matrix [L] is defined as ra e 0 =| 0 é 8 a 2 | a & STEP 3: Assuming general linear elastic behaviour of the material of element (e), the relationship between stresses and strains will be linear and of the form {ok = fH) fd (4.9) where (§] = elasticity matrix containing the appropriate mate- rial properties. For homogeneous and isotropic element experiencing plane stress, the stress-strain equations may be written as a [: . ol re etepaly 1 ot dy (4.10) Tay ° 0 Ge ter32 Finite Element Method for Structural Engineers In the above equation, the matrix [f] is defined as 1 , o:7 v 1 0 ts (ny Le 0 F | STEP 4: For writing the force-displacement relationship, we consider the rtual work approach. It states that for an elastic body to be in jum, the total virtual work is equal to zero. Mathemati- can be expressed as aire + | Bir, d= 0 (412) where 8/7, = Virtual work due to external forces 8; = Virtual work of internal forces per unit volume Now in order to obtain the clement stiffness characteristics, W’ and 8M; are expressed in terms..of force and displacement components, and then substituted in Eq, (4.12). Finally, the clement stiffaess matrix ‘is identi- fied. The derivation procedure is straight forward and is given below with- out much detailed explanation. Let (F) represent a vector of nodal forces corresponding to nodal displacement vector {4}; the virtual work 81”, may be given by BW, = {3A} (F} (4.13) where {8A} = vector of virtual nodal displacements. The virtual work of internal forces per unit volume is given by BH = (8eF {0} 14) Using Eq. (4.5), vector of virtual strain may be expressed as {80 =[B1 64} 15) The stress vector defined by Eq. (4.9) can also be expressed in terms of nodal displacements by using Eq. (4-5), a5 fo} = [414] (8} (4.16) Substituting in Eq. (4.14) the values of (84) and {e} from Eqs, (4.15) and (4.16), respectively, we obtain 8H, = — {BAY [BF [9 [8] (4) Gin Finally, substituting in Eq. (4.12) the values of 3, and 34’ from Eqs. (4.13) and (4.17), respectively, we obtainMethods of Determining Stiffoess Properties and its Transformation 33 (say (F} -{, {8.4}" (8) [9] [8] (4) dv = 0 (4.18) Noting that the nodal displacement vector is indepeudent of x, » and x coordinates, we obtain after rearranging the above equation, wr {e-[farmei}ab-0 ai Since virtual displacements are niot necessarily equal to zero, it implies that {F} = [R] (A) (4.20) where the stiffness matrix denoted by [A] is identified as wie | erwin ay an ‘This, the force-displacement relationship and the stiffness matrix for an eloment is given by Eqs. (4.20) and (4.21), respectively. The dimension cof clement stiffness matrix [X] will depend upon the degrees of freedom associated with the element. 44 TRANSFORMATION OF REFERENCE COORDINATE SYSTEMS In the preceding chapter, various types of elements were desotibed and it was seen that for one-dimensional elements, local and global reference coordinates are different, whereas for two-dimensional clements, these OXY T':Local coordinate system OXVZ 7 Global coordinate system! Fig. 4.3 Coordinate systema (orthogonal).34 Finite Element Mothod for. Structural Engineers reference systems are in general the same. Before discussing in the subse- quent chapters, how element stiffness characteristics are generated for cach type ef element and then assembled to obtain overall characteristics for the entire structure, we need to consider first the subject of transformation of reference coordinate systems. Consider two coordinate systems ox'y'r’ and oxyz shown in Fig. 4.3, and let the former system be referred to as local coordinate system and the latter as global coordinate system. In this section, rotation of coordinate axes for two and three dimensional vectors are formulated on a geometric basis, and later transformation of a general matrix equation is presented. 44.1 Rotation of Axes in Two-Dimensions Consider a force vector F* shown in Fig. 4.4 and let its components in Fig. 4.4 Rotation of axes in two-dimensions. x and y directions be Fy and F,, respectively. Thus, knowing the components F, and Fy, components Fz and Fy in x’ and y* directions can be expressed as Fy = Fy cos y+ Fy siny (422) Fy = —F, sin-y + Fy cosy (4.23) where y angle of rotation between the two coordinate systems. Using sym- bols ! = cos > and m= sin y, the above two equations can be expressed in matrix form as Fy tom Fy feb La) Ee} Fy -m ij] ly Equation (4.24) can be rewritten in condensed form as y=) (425)Methods of Determining Stif aes Properties and its Transformation 35 {F'} = force vector in primed coordinate system {6} = force vector in unprimed coordinate system [A] = rotation matrix. where These vectors and matrix are given as Fy (Fy= { } 26) Fy F) & 4.27) ~ { K | , doar [R] = [ ] (4.28) =m I Thus in general form, matrix [R] can be expressed as hom, [R) -- [ ] (4.29) hm where fy si, = ditection cosines of x" ig, My -= direction cosines of y Thus, A, == cos (x'x) = cos y my -= cos (x'p) = cos (90°—y) = sin y I, m, cos (y"x) = cos (91° + £03 ()"9) =r cosy The subscripts on and m refer to a and y’ axes. The numbers 1 and 2 denote x' and y directions, respectively. It is also possible to express the components Fy and Fy in terms of Fyr and Fy. This transformation ean be expressed as Fy r Far 608 ¢— Fyesin y (431) Fy = Fe tiny! Fp cosy (4.32) The above «quations in matrix form ean be expressed as (Fy = ERE Fy . 4.33) The transformation of force vectors (F*) to (F} can also be achieved by premultiplying both sides of Eq. (4.25) by inverse of rotation matrix [R] and noting that [AP [A] = [7] (4.34)36 Finite Element Method for Structural Engineers where [7] is identity matrix, we get fF} = [RP (FS (4.35) Now comparing Eqs. (4.33) and (4.35), we observe that [RF = [Ry (4.36) ‘Thus, the rotation matrix [R] is an orthogonal matrix (see Appendix A). ‘Now we transfer our attention to displacements. Since small displace- ments can be treated similar to force vectors, hence transformation equa~ tions similar to equations (4.25) and (4.33), can be written for displacements as {A} = 1] (4) (437) {A} = [RF {A} (4.38) where matrix [R] is given by Eq. (4.28), and displacement vectors (A’) and {A) are expressed as By (a) -{ i (4.39) by ws } = \° } (4.40) In the above equations, A. and A, are components of displacements in x’ and y’ directions; and A, and A, are in x and y directions, respectively. 44.2 Rotation of Axes in Three-Dimensions Consider a force vector F* chown in Fig. 4.5, The two sets of ortho- gonal axes oxyz and ox'y’s' are analogous to the two sets of axes in the two-dimensional case. Let the direction cosines of x’-axis with respect to x, ys zaxesbe 4, mand n,. These direction cosines are the cosines of the angles between the x'-axis and the three axes, x, y, and z, respectively. Similarly, let fy. sty, my define direction cosines for y-axis, and Jy. mig, My for z-axis. Following similar procedute as for the two-dimensional case, components Fy, F,and Fy of force F* can be expressed in terms of com- ponents F;, F, and F,, as Ft om m Fe Fyt=| hom «| F (al) Fa 4 tty my} SF,Methods of Determining Stiffness Properties and its Transformation 37 Fig, 4,5 Rotation of axes in three-imensions Defining rotation matrix as omy om [R]==| fy ty Me |» (4.42) i, amy My and force vectors {F*} and {F} in local and global coordinate systems, res- pectively, as Fe K (Ph=1 Fy pi UFh= 2) (4.43) Fe i Eq. (4.41) may be rewritten in condensed form as {Fy = TRY G44) Note that Eq. (4.44) has the same form as Eq. (4.25) for two-dimensional case. Thus matrix [A] defined by Eq. (4.42) is also orthogonal. Hence, ia- verse relation of Eq. (4.44) can be expressed as (FY = (RF FY G45)38 Finite Element Method for Structural Engineers As pointed out in the preceding sutsection, small displacements in this case can also be treated similar to force vectors. Hence, displacement vectors in the two coordinate systems mey be related to each ather by the same general matrix Eqs. (4.37) and (4.38) except’ that rotation matrix [R] will now be defined by Eq. (4.42) and displacement vectors will be expressed @5 be bs t= donb = day 49) be b. 443 Transformation of Matrix Equation The concepts of rotation of orthogonal coordinate axes have beon discussed in the preceding subsections for typical vectors such as force and displacement vectors. In this section, these are used in deriving matrix transformation equation. Consider in local coordinate system, a matrix ‘equation, e.g. a force-displacement rclationshi (Fy = [A] (8 a7 where {F’} and {A’) are defiricd as foree and displacement vectors; and (K*] is a square matrix which relates force and displacement vectors and called stiffness matrix. ‘The superscript prime (‘) on matrix and vectors defined local coordinate system. Now in order to transform the matrix equation (4.47) from local to global coordinate system, let matrix [7] defive the rotation matrix between these two coordinate systems. The matrix [T] is more commonly known as transformation matrix. Thus, using Eqs. (4.37) and (4.44), the displacement and force vectors (A’} and (F') in local coordinate system may be related to the corresponding vectors in the global coordinate system, as {O°} = (71 {4} (4.48) iF} = [T]{F} (4.49) where {A} and (F} are displacement and force vectors in global coordinate system. Substituting Eqs. (4.48) and (4.49) in Eq. (4.47), we get (THF) = [ADIT (a) (4.50) _Premultiplying the above equation by the inverse of the transformation matrix, we get I) = 2 e111 (4) (4.51) Defining matrix [X] as [x] = (71K V17] (4.52)Methods of Determining Stiffness Properties and its Transformation 39 and noting that CPi] = (4.53) where [J] is an identity matrix, then Eq. (451) may be rewritten as 4F) = [4] (4) (4.54) Thus the above matrix equation defines force-displacement relationship in global coordinate system. It may be pointed out that transformation matrix [7] is simply the collection of the direction cosines relating the two coordinate systems and it is an orthogonal matrix with the property (see Appendix A) (Th = (TF (4.55) that is, inverse of matrix [7] is equal to its transpose, Using the above property, Eq, (4.52) may be expressed (K] = (77 (X17) (4.56) Thus Eq. (4.56) defines the desiced matrix transformation. Relationships defined by Eqs. (4.48), (4.49) and (4.56) shall be used quite frequently in the subsequent chapters. Hence readers are suggested to familiarize them- selves with the coordinate transformation. REFERENCE 4.1 Tumer, M.J., R.W. Clough, H.C. Martin and L.C,, Topp, “Stiffness and Deflection Analysis of Complex Structures," J, Acronaut. Sci, Vol. 23, No. 9, September 1956,CHAPTER 5 DERIVATION OF STIFFNESS PROPERTIES FOR ONE-DIMENSIONAL ELEMENTS: In this chapter, stiffness properties of one-dimensional elements such as truss and beam elements, are derived using the methods presented in the preceding chapter. As pointed ont earlier, stiffness properties for these elements are first developed in local cocrdinate system and later using transformation of coordinate axes, these properties are transformed in slobal coordinate system. $.1 PIN-JOINTED PLANE BAR ELEMENTS: A pin-jointed plane bar element is the simplest type of truss element. It provides a good illustration of the two approaches for deriving the element stiffness characteristics. ‘Consider a typical prismatic plane truss clement (e) shown in Fig. 5.1. Fig. 5.1 Two dimensional truss element, Let L, A, and E be its length, cross-sectional area, and modulus of elasticity,Derivation of Stitfness Properties for One-Dimensional Elements 4! jy. The element is assumed to be homogeneous and isotropic, In Fig. 5.1, the clement is referred with respect to local coordinate system and its two nodes are denoted by Fand fwhere, at cach node, two components of displacement and the corresponding associated components of force may act, Since the nudes are pin connected, no moments can cxist there. Thus, a truss element h: es of freedom, Therefore, four equations are needed to deserib placement characteristics. In matrix form, these equations may be expressed as pau’ Kyl ks ‘ (a Aes! Kya" Kyy! As led fal ae Ra! “| I or in condensed form (Py = (eT (A4 G2) where [A] = element stiffness matrix of order (44) (a (F1}) = column vector ¢f nodal forces column vector of nodal displacements Both vectors are of order (4 » 5.1.1 Derivation of Plane ‘Truss-Element Stiffness Matrix Using Elementary Approach To find the various cocfficients of element stifiness mutrix [K'] by cle mentary formulation, displacement conditions are imposed one by one and corresponding restraint forces are computed using force-displacement relationships and equilibrium conditions. Finally using the principle of superposition, the desired clement stiffness matrix is obtained. The step by step procedure of this approach is as given below, Case 1. Let the node / of truss clement be fixed. Apply displacement 4, at the node fin x-direction and all ether displacements are kept equal to zero it, Ay = Ay =A,’ = 0 (Figure 5.2 a), The force-displacement equation at the node i may be written as Fy = AF ay, and (53) (S4)42° Finite Blement Method for Structural Engineers y= 8224320 (b} Case 2 node i fixed Fig, 5.2 “Imposed displacement conditions, Now applying the equilibrium conditions, we obtain By! = 0; Fj — Fj, or Ala- = Ay sand EF =0; Fi = — Fy or Fn 0 (5.5) (5.6) (6.7) (5.8)Derivation of Stiffness Properties for One-Dimensional Elements 43 Now apply displacement A,’ at the node # in y’-direction and keep all other displacements equal to zero ist, Oy’ = Ay’ = Ay’ = 0. Since the truss ele- ments resist only the axial forces, the force-displacement equation at the node / may be written as Fy = 0, and (9 Fi =0 (5.10) Applying the equilibrium conditions, we obtain Fy = Fy =0 (1) Case 2. Let the node f of the element be fixed. As in case 1, apply dis- placement 4,’ at the node j in x’-direction keeping all other displacements equal to zero ic, Ay = A’ 0 (Figure 5.2 b). The force-displace- ment cquation at the node j may be written as Fy ae ‘A,', and (5.12) 6.3) Considenng equilibrium of the element, we obtain IF! = 0; Ai =— Fy, or G9) — 42 ays and (15) BF = 0; Fi = 0 6.16) Lasily apply displacement 4,’ atthe node j in y’-direction keeping all other displacements equal to zero i.e. Oy’ = A,’ = 4,’ = 0. With the same reason- ing as in case I (4," 7 0), we can easily obtain Flak =Fi=Fi=0 GIN Now applying the principle of superposition, the total forces at the two nodes may be given by 1 fAE\ + . AEY 4, : 5 -(7) Ay + OA + ( T ) as +04, (5.184) Fy = O.Dy' + Ody + 0.8" + 0.8) (5.186) (5.180) Fy = 0.0! OA + Od! + 0.8, (5.18d)44 Finite Element Method for Structural Engineers ‘The above force-displacement equations can be rewritten in matrix form as fF) rio 0-1. 07 fay i! Std lA de; © © O 'O} [ay => 5.19) ley -1 0 1 0 Vay G8) Lnel Lo o o of lay ‘Thus, the stiffness matrix [k’] for a two dimensional truss element in local coordinate system is given by rio -1 OF o 0 09 oO wie E (5.20) o 1 0 Lo o 0 5.1.2 Derivation of Plane Truss-Element Stiffness Matrix Using General Finite Eloment Approach The basic steps in the general derivation of the clement stiffness matrix for a plane truss element (e) shown in Fig. 5.1 are now presented. These basic steps have been given in Section 4.3 of the preceding chapter. 5.1.2.1 Step 1, Displacement or Shape Funetion. Let v and v be the dis- placements at a distance x’ from the node (f) of the truss element (e) in x’ and y’ directions, respectively, By assuming a linear variation of displace- ments x and y between the two nodes (i) and (/) of the clement as shown in Fig. 5.3, we get we Ay 4 (dy — 4) z (2a) vey + (d= be) = (s.atb) Equations (5.21a) and (5.21b) can be re-written as wa (1-F) ar +7 os (6.223) x x - z) At Ea (5.226)Derivation of Stiffsess Properties for One-Dimensional Elements 45 ‘Thus, the displacement or shape function can be expressed in matrix form as f | ea i Les, ered —| © G@ INote truss element is the same as shown a ire Linear ay a3 ay 7 ip -—7—4 Voriation at displacement-u Linear i) ti Variation, of cisplacement-v Fig. 5.3. Variation of displacements, (5.23) where B= x'/L,46'~ Finite, Element, Method for-Stroctural Engineers Ia Ba, (5.23), the matrix [1] and column vector (A} ean be defined as a "| 529 m=("9 ip lo s . {A} = (4, Ay Aa’ Ay)? (5.25) and submatrices [Nj] and (1) are inp, 0 [v= [ | (5.26) 0 1-8 ps 0 ui] -| ] (6.27) Oo 8B, 5.12.2 Step 2. Strain-Displacement Relationship. For truss elements, only the strain in x’ direction exists and may be expressed as ym Se w= RE 20 where strain vector {e} consists of a single element e,'. Differentiating Eq. (5.228), the strain vector can be expressed in terms of nodal displacements by the following matrix equation Ay! a o+ o} . 6.29) Ay , La Now the matrix [J] defined in Eq. (4.5) may be expressed as L 1 w-[--o7¢ 4 620 5.1.2.3 Step 3. Stress-Strain Relationship. Fur truss elements, only linear component of stress cxists and the stress-strain relationship is expressed as {o} = [ET {<} (8.31) Thus, the elasticity matrix [4] of Eq. (4.11) is defined as W=(1 (5.32)Derivation of Stiffness Properties for One-Dimensional Elements 47 51.24 Step 4. Element stiffness Matrix [k'], Using Eq. (4.21), the stiffaess matrix [&’] for a plans truss element in local coordinate system may be.expressed as oO , 1 1 wi-fi 1 [Elzi-1 0 1 oa (5.33) 0 On matrix multiplication and taking constant terms outside the integral, we obtain 0 0 av (5.34) oO ol + For a prismatic element with cross-sectional area A and length L, we have [aan (535) Hence Eq, (5.34) becomes Loo -1 o 0 o (5.36) Oo 1 0 o 0 o of Equations (5.20) and (5,36) are the same and define the stiffness proper. ties of a plane truss element in local coordinate system Ifthe truss member is not prismatic, its length is divided into a number of finite elements and the cross-sectional area within each element is assumed to be constant. 5.1.3 Transformation of Plane Truss Element Stiffuess Matrix Consider @ typical plane truss element (e) framing into the structure at nodes (i) and (/) as shown in Fig. $.4. The nodes of the element are referr- ed with respect to global coordinate system (ixy), It may be pointed out48 Finite Element Method for Structural Engineers here that for the purpose of rotational transformation, it is immaterial whother one refers to the x and y set of coordinate axes or any other set of axes parallel to x, y set. Let the element coordinate axes x’ and y* make (4y,F) a7.) U7 (MEd Fig, 54 Rotation of axes for plane truss element. an angle y with the global axes x and y, respectively, This angle y is known as the angle of rotation and in terms of nodal coordinates it may be defin- ed as cos = 8 sin y = to (5.37) where L=viy—*y + (5.38) Now after the angle of rotation has been defined, the first step in the transformation of element stiffneis matrix from local coordinate system to global co-ordinate system is to find the transformation matrix [7]. Since plane truss element has two nodes with two degrees of freedom at each node, matrix [7] will be of order (4x 4) and can be expressed as TR) (Or T= (5.39) (9 [RL where [0] is a (2%:2) null matrix; rotation matrix [A] is also (2% 2) and is defined as (See Eq. 4.29) Am {a} = (5.40) tomy where direction cosines are defined asDerivation of Stiffness Properties for One-Dimensional Elements 49 Gan m, = cos (90° — y) = sin. y. (6.42) i, = cos (270° — y) = — sin y, and (5.43) my = cos (360° — y) = cos y (3.44) Using Eqs. (5.40) to (5.44) and denoting cas y= / and sin y= m, the transformation matrix [7] of Eq. (5.39) may be expressed at riom o o | —m 1 0 0 [rT] = G45) o oO 7@ m Lo Rewriting the matrix transformation Eq. (4.56) derived in the preceding chapter as oO -m it [4 = (TP eT (5.46) where (k] and [J’] are defined as stiffness matrices in global and local coordinate systems, respectively. Using Eqs, (5.18) or (5.36), and (5.45) and performing matrix multiplication defined by the above equation, one obtains pRB im = ly a 47 6 . a =P mim in can tm —mP im rit) Thus, Eq, (5.47) defines the desired element stiffness properties for a plane truss element in global coordinate system 5.2 PLANE BEAM ELEMENTS Consider a typical two-dimensional beam element (e) shown in Fig. 5.5. It is assumed to be straight with uniform cross section, Let E, L, 4, and J be the modulus of elasticity, length, cross-sectional area, and moment of inertia about z' axis, respectively. The beam is capable of resisting axial forces Fy and Fy’; shearing forces Fy and F,'; and bending moments Fy’ and F;'. The location and pasitive directions of these forces, along with the50 Finite Element Method for Structural Engineers corresponding displacements Ay’ to A,’, are also shown in Fig. 5.5. The placements are taken to be positive if they. are acting in the positive direction of the forces. Fig, 5.5 Two-dimensionsl beam element, As pointed out carlier, it is convenient to develop element stiffness matrix in local or element coordinate system (x’, y’, 2') The x axis.coinci- des with the centroidal axis of the element and is positive in the sense from itoj. The y' and 2’ axes are taken as p jal axes for the element, that is, the x’ — y' and x’ — 2‘ planes are principal planes of bending. It is also assumed that shear centre and the centroid of the element coincide so that twisting and bending of the element are not coupled, but may occur independently of one another. These restrictions are normally satisfied in beams and framed structures; however, it is possible to make a more general analysis if so desired. In this section, the stiffness matrix for a plane beam element in local coordinate system is developed and later it is transformed in global coordi- nate system. 5.2.1 Derivation of Plane Beam—Element Stiffmess Matrix Using Elementary Approach ‘The stiffness matrix [k’] for the plane beam element can be derived in a similar manner as for the truss element, that is, by assuming the displace. ments and rotations to be induced one ata time while all other nodalDerivation of Stiffness Properties for One-Dimensional Elements 5] displacements and rotations are kept as zero; finding the corresponding forces and moments at the two nodes; superimposing the results and finally identifying the element stiffness. matrix. Figure 5.6 and 5.7 show pictorially the restraint actions due to.the individual applied displacements or rotations at the two nodes of the ele- (b) Digploce:.ent Az in ¥' direction 83 " he (c} Zatation 43 about Z’ oxir Fig. 5.6 Restraint actions due to displacements and rotation at nade (4), ment. In each case, the restraint actions are shown as vectors. An arrow with a single bead represents a force vector and an arrow with a double head fepresents a moment vector. All vectors are drawn in the positive senses, but in cases where force or moment vectors are actually negative, a minus sign precedes the expression for the restraint actions. In order to show how these restraint actions are determined, consider the displacements and rotation applied at node (i).$2 Finite Element Method for Structural Engineers Consider Fig. $.6 (a) in which displacement (A,') in x’ direction at node @),is applied and all other displacements and rotations are kept as zero. ‘This case is similar to truss clement, The displacement (A,') causes a pure compressive force of magnitude (EA/L) Ay’. At the node (i) of the element, this compressive force is equilibrated by a restraint action of (EA/L) Ay in MRE! e (el Rotation dg about Z'axis Fig. 5.7 Restraint actions due to displacements and rotation at node (j). the positive x’ direction, and at the node (/) of the element the restraint action is (— EA/L} Ay All other resttaint actions are zero in this case, Mathematically it ean be expressed as a = a (548)Derivation of Suiffness Properties for One-Dimensional Elements $3 (3.49) (5.50) Case (b) of Fig. 5.6 involves a displacement (A,') of the node (i) in the y direction while keeping all other displacements and ratations equal to zero. This displacement causes both moment and shear in the element. Using slope-dellection equations, we get Fla at Ay! and 31 Fi -4 Ay! (6.52) From the conditions of equilibrium, we get EM, = 0: Ff = 8 Fe or Fi = (5.53) ER = 0: Fy By = — EP ays ana (5.54) BRI = 0: Fm A! (5.55) Finally in Fig. 5.6 (c), a rotation A,’ is applied at node (é) and all other displacements and rotation are kept as zero. Using slope-deflection cqua- tions, we get 4EI Fy = tEaysana (5.56) Fat Fl ay 657) From the conditions of equilibrium, we get zm, —0: Fy = OFT ay (5.58) ep m0: Ff = — a ond (5.59) ER (5.60) OF!$4 Finite Element Method for Structural Engineers Similarly at node (j) displacements A,’ and A,’ and rotation 4, are applied one at a time, keeping all other displacements and rotations equal to zero. The restraint actions are shawn in Fig, 5.7 and may be obtained in a similar manner as for the case of displacements and rotation applied at node (i). As an exercise, the readers are suggested to check the results ‘Now by using the principle of superposition, we obtain the following force-displacement equation : F’} = [k'] (4) 5.61 where 1F} = [RT (4) 6.61) [® 4, |r * and (5.62) ay ay Ay FA ‘1 -F 0 Qo 0 12El GEL 0 12Er (GET Tr PF “LT o «SEL «AEE gS SEY L L ~B L fe] = A eA (5.63) -E oO 0 = oO 0. o «Er 6E 0g RET GEL ER TF rT 0 SEL Eg _ SETAE cG L TF L Matrix [k’] given by Eq. (5.63) is the desired stiffaess matrix in local coordi- nate system for the plane beam element shown in Fig. 5.5; and it contains submatrices of the order 3x3 as given below: wa [Mt Hl any Wed Ry)Derivation of S{iffuess Properties for One-Dimensional Elements 35 where submatrices are expressed as ce oe | L 1 6 win) 0 Se ST, (365) 0 SEL AL L BB L {hj is the same as [| except for the fact that the term (6E1/L4) is replaced ‘by (— GENE); gy «T (5.66) and [k;,] is transpose of [&;,]. Note that element stiffness matrix [&’] is symmetric. In case the beam clement is acted upon by shear force and bending moment alone as shown in Fig. 5.8, only cases (b) and (c) of Figs. 5.6 and 5.7 need ta be considered. For this case, the element stiffness matrix is a (4x4) matrix and in local coordinate system, it is given as 12Er GEL Er GET) Tr FF -r F Ger 4er 6EI 251 a rT EE E e1= (3.67) EL 6Er WEL 6EF a 7 ae GEL 2Er SEL 41 LE — a 7 | ‘Note that the above stiffness matrix is also symmetric. The submatrices of Eq. (5.67) are of the order 2.2 and may be expressed as56 Figite Element Method for Structural Engineers IZEI GEE red EF (kia (3.68) Ger 461 Te t p_i2el 6 Er * a (5.69) 6Er 2ET TE TC. z Fig. 5.8 Plane beam clement with transverse fores and bending moment, Et 6 EF (3.70)Derivation of Stiffness Properties for One-Dimensional Elements 57 r 12e 6 EF- TE [Kl (5-71) = 6a 4 EI oF L 4.22 Derivation of Plane Beam-Element Stiffuess Matrix Using General Finite Element Approach 5.2.2.1 Step 1: Displacement or Shape Function ‘As mentioned earlici, a displacement function that uniquely defines the state of displacement at all points within the element is chosen. The displacement pattern can be represented by @ polynomial expression and the aim is to express the displacements at any point in the domain of the clement in terms of the nodal displacements. Thus, the assumed displace- ment polynomial must contain one unkaown coefficient for each degree of freedom possessed by the element. Consider the plane beam element (e) shown in Fig. 5.5. Let wand v be ‘the displacements in x’ and y' directions, respectively. These displacements as shown in Fig. 5.5 are specified in the domain of the element at a dis- tance x’ from the node (f). In order to derive the shape function matrix [7] for the plane beam element, we will first consider each displacement 1 and y separately, and then combine them to obtain the desired matrix [1] DISPLACEMENT v IN y'-DIRECTION The displacement y can be expressed by a third order polynomial us v=G4+6(F)+a(F ‘yee (7y 6.72 where C, to C, are unknown constants and can be determined by using the boundary conditions om slope and displacement at the two nodes of the element. Define @ to be the slope of the clastic curve at a distance x‘ from the node ({) and it can be obtained by differentiating Eg. (5.72) with respect to >, Thus 6 can be expressed as 6-4 (j)+20(% ) +30. (F 7) (5.73) Now applying the boundary conditions on slope and displacement at the two nodes, we get vjeno= Sf; C=ay (6.74) Blemo = Ay y= heb (5.75)58 Finite Element Method for Structural Engineers Viren = y's C+ G+ Ct Cm Ay! (5:76) Blan = Ags Cy + 2Cj+ 3C, = ASL (3.77) By knowing C,anu C, from the first two equations stated above, C, and C, may be obtained fram Eqs. (5.76) and (5.77). Thus, we get Cys —3Al—2SfL 434, ASL (5.78) Cy= JAS + AVE 2A, +4, (5.79) Substituting the values of constants C, to C, in Eq. (5.72), the displacement v in terms of nodal displacements, can be expressed as v= (Ay) + (s'E) (F)+ (-3Ay — 2AJL + 3A,’ — Ay L) (Gy (2 Ay 4 OyL —2 By + AG) (zy (5.80) Collecting terms, we get = (1 — 358+ 26%) Ay + @ — 26° + BY) LA,’ + GB — 26%) A,’ — (6° — BY) La,’ (5.81) where x gaz DISPLACEMENT u IN x-DIRECTION The displacement w at a distance x’ from node (f) can be expressed as a linear combination of axial displacement (u4) and bending displacement (wa). Thus unus + up (582) From the previous truss element, the axial displacement can be expressed as (see Eq. 5.19): ua = (1—p) Ay + pay (5.83) where p = x’}L (as defined earlier). In order to obtain bending displacement in terms of nodal displacements, we consider the simple beam theory. Consider a beam clement of length $x’ shown in Fig. 5.9. The displacement due to bending isDerivation of Stiffness Properties for One-Dimensional Elements 59 us = EF — G'H' = E'F’ — GH (5.84) From Fig. 5.9 (d) ug =(R +) 8 — RO= C8 (5.85) From Eq (5.81), @ is given by 5 ; 0 =F (08 + oy + (ap + 388) ay + (6m — 697) 28 — (25 — 3p) ay (5.86) Mix) 0 M Ins Bul /reutrat Asis ae ia) Beam betore bending tb} Cross-section (©) Stress or ‘strain vorlation Bx ot cuvoture Rodus of ates , Neutral loyer (4) Beam element 6x’ after bending Fig. 5.9 Simple beam theory.60 Finite Element Method for Structural Engineers By substituting the expression for 6 from Eq. (5.86) in Eq. (5.85), we get up = — 6(8 — BY) nA,’ + (1 — 48 + 38%) yLa, + 648 — BY) Ay’ — (28 — 39") qa,’ (5.87) where qaelk. Hence, after substituting expressions of w4 and ua in Eq, (5.82) and rearranging terms, we get w= (1 — 8) Ay — 6 (6 ~ 6) nd, + — 4p + 3p qLay + BA,’ + 6G — 8) m4," — (28 — 38%) nZA,’ (5.88) Using Eqs. (5.81) and (5.88), the displacement or shape function can be expressed in matrix form as {= { = IN] (a4 6.89) where the displacement vector (A’} is defined by Eq, (5.62) and the shape function matrix [1] is given by wt (‘ ~ 6-8" (1-48 F389 B 6G—B%y (2B —36t)ML O (L-38°+288) (B—28*+ PHL 0 (3p*—258) —Gt_pyz (5.90) In the above equation, the shape function matrix [W] which is of order (2x6), can be defined as (¥] = [Vd [NA (5.91) where submatrices [N,] and [Nj] are of order (23) and can be expressed as (1B) —60—B)y (148-4 38%}yL ] 692) 0 (=38+28) Gap BNL, [vi] = [ and 6 68-8), (2B 3BYyL | (5.93) [MJ] = [ 0 (36*— 288) PPLDerivation of Stiffness Properties for One-Dimensional Eiements 61 5.22.2 Step 2; Strain-Displacement Relationship For a beam clement, the only straincomponent that need to be consider- ed is the strain in x’-direction, Therefore, the strain vector is expressed as fe} = {eh (5.94) Differentiating the first row of Eq, (5.90), the strain vector can be given in terms of nodal displacements by the following matrix equation fe) {e) = [5] (04 (5.95) where matrix [2] is given by w=p[-! 6-3) -20-sE 1 61 —2p)y —2(1—38)nE ] 6.96) 5.2.2.3 Step 3: Stress-Strain Relationship In this case, elasticity matrix [}] of Eq. (4.11) contains a single term as only linear component of stress exists, Thus f = [41 (5.97) 5.2.24 Step 4: Stiffness Matrix (K'] Using Eq, (4.21), the stiffness matrix [K’] for a plane beam element in local coordinate system is expressed as wi f car ceieiar (598) where matrix [2] is defined by Eq. (5.96). The matrix [k'] is (66) and on matrix multiplication it is expressed by Eq. (5.99).(66'S) co aTsde — De Tilde— de Det — eee | eRe(e—E—Ze | 7e4CE—-VEe- 1 ade—De Te(de~ DE Det~ selde— Doe | ‘TMZ — Wee — e4(@e-D9e— | “z-D9— qulge—Dz— 3 ated —Dde-Tr Teddz— GEV — | Tede—De— sTa(Ge— Oe eee ~atde~ | THe - Ze Fede — Nz Vt (de —- Doe— | \ge—D9— | Féilde—Olde— Det feGe—Doe | “de—19 Tede — Dz “@z-D9e— | I- | Tide a(g2— D9 — d 4A eT 7 lal 62 Finite Element Method for Structural Engineers rcDerivation of Stiffness Properties for One-Dimensional Elements 6 ‘The integration of Eq. (5,99) as shown below, is carried out by integrating cach element at @ time, ie., element by element (See Appendix A), i -Bl, w=" (5.100) kn =F, (1—28hy d= 0, si I, ndf20 (5.401) 2], Q—3a)nd¥=0 (5.102) £& EA 4 - pI, aya ~ FA (5:103) kh = FI, (1258 at \, dda fy (5.104) 36ET be! ~ BE faa y aparias = =F fo + ae k= an (5.105) ky = I, (1—28) (2-36) 9 dv (5.106) BE rl 0-79 + 62%as! - erp 0-78 + 63d » _ 6ET 6 jase (5.107), Kae arf, (2-39) yt av (5.108) =H f (4-128 + 9B) dx 2 ke 4EL + (5.109) Kea ~aef, (2-38) (139) 78 av (5.110) #2 bs af (2-98 + 934 de?64 Finite Element Method for Structural Engineers . 2eF ky (rh) Similarly, other elements of stiffness matrix may be found by integrating element by element. Thus. we get [ £A EA 4 Ff a o -F oO 0 WEI GET 0 > 7 o o Hf Mtg (kl cA ma ($112) -F 0 o = @ 0 9 EF _6El 4 RET __ 6ET “Tor TOF o SE tr 4 _8ET AEF L i Lc BE E Equations (5.63) and (5.112) are the same and define clement stiffness matrix for a plane beam element in local coordinate system. 5.2.3. Transformation of Plane Beam—Element Stiffness Matrix As pointed out earlier, the first step in the transformation of element stiff ness matrix is to obtain the transformation matrix [T]. Consider the two dimensional beam element shown in Fig. 5.10. The nodes of the element are referred with respect to global coordinate system (ixy) and the nodal forces are shown both in local as well as in global coordinate system, The matrix equation relating forces in the local coordinate system to those in the global coordinate system can be derived as before, by resolving element force vectors in one set of coordinates into force vectors in anether set. Thus it can easily be demonstrated that for a plane beam clement shown in Fig. 5.10, the transformation equation is of the form (FP) = (71) (5.113) where {F'} = force vector in local coordinate system (F} = foree vector in global coordinate system [7] = transformation matrixDerivation of Stiffness Properties for One-Dimensional Elements 65 Nez LF, 5 ope A z 303 / U2 Fig, 5.10 Orientation of plane beam element in local and global coardinate system, In expanded form, these vectors and matrix ate expressed as Fy Fy Fy Fy Fe | h : = 114) Fi | K | " | LA \ FJ and (" (07 Iris (5.115) ti In above equation [0] is a (33) null matrix, and [R] is a (3X3) rotation ‘matrix which may be defined as (Eq. 4.42). hom omy [RI] bom (5.116) fy my My66 Finite Element Method for Structural Engineers where 4, m,, and m, are the direction cosines of x’-axis with respect to the 1x, Jy # axes; similarly fy, mg, mg corresponds for y’-axis; and fy ty. % For y-axis. It may be pointed out that for plane beam clement shown in Fig. 5.10, z and 2’ axes are parallel and normal to x-yand x’-y" planes. Thus, the rotation matrix for this element becomes hom [=| om 0 (3.117) o o 1 Let y be the angle of rotation between two sets of coordinate axes, the direction cosines are defined as = cos y= (5.118) (119) fg = 605 (270° — y) = — sin y (5.120) mz = e0s (360° — y) = cos 7 (5.121) where La VGj— a FO Designating cosy =f and sin y= mand using Eqs. (5.117) to (5.121). the transformation matrix of Eq. (5.115) may be expressed as from 0 9 6 @ =m i 0 O 0 0 o o 1 0 0 0 (7) = (5.122) oO 0 0 F m 9g 0 0 O -m ft a Lo o 0 0 o 1) Finally, the element stiffness matrix for a two dimensional beam clement in global coordinate system is obtained by substituting Eqs, (5.112) and (5.122) in Eq, (5.46). Thus, after matrix multiplication, we getor Derivation of Stiffness Properties for One-Dimensional Elements (eis) Foo oenouMEsg ta hy68 Finite Element Method fer Structural Engineers 5.3 PIN-JOINTED SPACE BAR ELEMENTS A pin.jointed space bar clement is a one-dimensional finite element 28 it can also be specified by the two nodes at the ends. These elements are also called space truss elements and are similar to plane truss elements ‘except that they lie in space instead of in a plane. Consider a typical space truss element shown in Fig. 511. Ewch ele- ment of longth L is assumed to have constant cross-sectional area A. The force and displacement cemponents in local coordinate system at the two nodes (f and /) of the element (e) are shown in Fig, 5.11, The space truss clement has six degrees of freedom, three at each node, It may be noted ros (8, 5 6) (FoF sFeb “ (a) ,tp. ay) (ALR) Fig. 5.11 Space truss element in local coordinate system, that the truss elements, whether plane or space, can resist only axial forces (see Chapter 3), Hence, derivations of element stiffness properties for both plane und space truss elements are similar. It is not presented here in detail but Jeft as an exercise for the students in order to familiarize themselves with the various stops. Noting that truss clement do not resist transverse components of the forces (i.e. normal to their axcs), the clement sti truss clement in local coordinate may be expressed as 1 0 0-1 o Of o 0 09 © 0 0 gea{| ° 9 0 0 0 O ke] = 5.124) lio 0 1 0 0 a2) o 0 9 0 6 6 Lo 9 0 0 oO ofDerivation of Stiffaess Properties for One-Dimensional Elements 69 43.1 Transformation of Element Stiffness Matrix Figure 5.12 shows space truss element referred both with respect to local and global coordinate system. This element has six degrees of fcee- dom and hence, in general, transformation matrix [7] will be of order (fg «FoF g) (de 105586) Ce Fay) Ay, By) Fig. $.12 Space wuss element in local global coordinu:e systems, (6x6). But knowing that ina truss element only axial deformations are assumed to take place, some simplification con be made in the transforma- tion of element stiffness matrix from local to global coordinate system. ‘Thus, considering only the allowable nodal displaccments (A,' and &,’) in the direction of x’, the transformation of noda! displacements from global to local coordinate system may be expressed a5 Ay! = Uy + mi, + 11, (6.125) Ag! = [dy + mdy + Hy (5.126) where A, to A, = nodal displacements in global system 1 = cosine of the angle between axes x and x m= ” x’ and y n= » x and z In matrix form these equations may be expressed asTQ Finite Element Methed for Structural Engineers | fi [ mon 0 0 07 /A, | = $127 Ae 0 0 0 tom ny jae Gan ‘Hence, the transformation matrix in reduced form becomes of order (2 > 6) and may be expressed as - fi mm # 0 0 9 = (5.128) 0 0 0 tom 4 where [T] is reduced transformation matrix. Similarly, element stiffness matrix defined by Eq. (5.124) cam also be candensed by considering only two allowable displacements A,' and Ay’. Thus, by eliminating rows and columns corresponding to other displace- ments in transverse directions, i.e, removing rows and columins with zero elements in Eq. (5.124), we get a reduced element stiffness matrix [F'] of order (2x 2), as 1-1 ey = £4 | (5.129) 1 1 It may be pointed out that such reductions are also possible for plane truss clements, Readers are suggested to perform this reduction as an excreise, Now substituting these reduced equations (3.128) and (3.129) in Eq. (5.46) and performing the matrix multiplication, we get el Tk wi [ (el el e139) [kel a) where submatrix is given by re im ln [kg] =} ml om® oamn (3.131) alm naDerivation of Stiffness Properties for One-Dimensional Elements. 71 Thus, Eq. (5-130) defines the desired element stiffness matrix of order (66) for @ space truss element in global coordinate system. s4 SPACE BEAM ELEMENTS Consider @ typical space beam element shown in Fig, 5.13. This element is also referred to as space frame clement. As in the preceding sections, the element is referenced with respect to local coordinate system (x', 9", z’), and the assumptions regarding its orientation are the same ag those made for plane beam elements. Fes Fy at Fig. 5.13 Space beam clement in local coordinate systems. The space beam element is assumed to be straight of length (Z) and of uniform cross-sectional area (A). Let / denote the torsional constant; J, and J, denote the principal moments of inertia of the cross-section of the ‘beam element with respect to y" and 2’ axes, respectively. It may be noted ‘that the torsional constant is not to be interpreted as the polar moment of inertia of the cross-section except in the special case of a circular cylindri- cal clement. The clement has twelve degrees of freedom, six at each node, and is capable of re: 2 forces and displacements as shown in Fig. 5.13. ‘These forces and displacements shown at the two nodes are taken to be Positive, and in vector form may be expressed as72 Finite Element Method for Structural Engineers Fy ay} Fl dy (5.132) Fy’, F,' denote axial forces Fy, F,), Fy, Fy denote shearing forees Fy, Fio denote twisting moments: Fy, Fi, Fs, Fia denote bending moments. Similarly, Ay, Ay’ denote axial displacements in x’-direction ‘By’, Ay’ denote transverse displacements in y-direction A,!, Ay! denote transverse displacements in z-direction Ag, Bip denote twists about x’-axis 4y', i: deaote rotations about y-axis ‘Ag’, Miz denote rotations about z’-axis, Now in the remaining portion of this section, the clement stiffness matrix is presented in local coordinate system and later details of transfor mation of coordinate axes are given. It may be pointed out that for these elements, the derivation of clement stiffness matrix is easier using clemen- tary approach rather than by general approach using displacement func- tions which is very long and cumbersome. Hence, following the elementary approach as presented in Section (5.2.1) for plane beam elements, the element stiffaess matrix for a space beam clement in local coordinate system may be exprested as thal (Ki w=! : (5.133) (kl [kyl ‘where (#) is a (12x12) symmetric matrix; and its submatrices of order (636) may be expressed ase Derivation of Stiffoess Properties for One-Dimensional Elements 73 o o o o oO 12Ely 6Ele zo ® . rr 0 12Ble ° _ ae 6 (5.134) Gly oO o Tr oO 0 | Ely 4E1, sr “=e 0 oF 0 z 0 6Ely 4Ele TT ° ° °F) 0 o 0 0 o Bie 6 0 o Se IEF, 6El, a a a Gle (5.135) 0 oO rT o o El, _ a 0 0 074 Finite Elemect Method for Structural Engineers EA 71 i 0 0 o o 0 ao HE og 0 0 Sle | o a a) l= Gh, 5.136), 0 0 o 0 0 0 0 oe a oe 0 | Ble Ble i ° ti 0 0 0 Be | and since matrix [&’] is symmetric, hence: (eid = [eI " 6.137) 54.1 Transformation of Element Stiffaess Matrix Consider the space beam element shown in Fig. 5.13, The matrix equation relating forces in the local coordinate system to those in the global system can be derived as before by resolving element forces in one set of coordi~ nates into forces in another set. Thus, it can be demonstrated that fora space beam element shown in Fig. 5.13, the transformation equation is of the form = 1) (5-138) where {F'] = force vector in local coordinate system {F} = force vector in global coordinate system {7} = transformation matrix In expanded form, these force yectors and transformation matrix, may bbe expressed as (PAC Ro Fal (5.139) (Fy =F Fy Faye Fal) and 6.49)‘Derivation of Stiffness Properties for One-Dimensional Elements 75 mom © o| © 1 TY I | LO ©) © Im (im fo =m =) m=) (5.141) where F, to F,, denote force components at the two nodes in global coor- dinate system which are similar to F/ to Fj,; [0] is a (3x3) null matrix; and [R] is a (3X3) rotation matrix which may be defined as (see Eq. 4,42). hom om [R)=|4 om (6.142) i In the above equation, (fy my. m), (ly Ma. My), and (Uy, My, 74) are'direction cosines of x’, y’ and 2’ axes with respect to (x, p, z) axes, respectively. ‘Now by substituting Eqs. (5-133) and (5.141) in Eq. (4.56), we obtain the desired element stiffness matrix for a space beam element in global co- ordinate system. In the next chapter stiffness properties are derived for two-dimensional elements. REFERENCES 5,1 Al-Rifaic, W.N., Theory of Structures, University of Technology Publication, Baghdad, 1984. 5.2 Gere, J.M., and W. Weaver Jr., Analysis of Framed Structures, D. Van Nostrand Company, Inc., New York, 1969.CHAPTER 6 DERIVATION OF STIFFNESS PROPERTIES FOR TWO-DIMENSIONAL ELEMENTS ‘The two-dimensional elements are multi-dimensional in-plane elements and unlike one-dimensional elements, these elements are referred with respect to a set of coordinate system which defines the plane of the continuum. In general, the derivations of element stiffmess matrices for these elements are long and complex, hence only general approach using displacement func- tions is presented. Readers are suggested to go through each step carefully and perform some computations themselves in order to generate confidence. 6.1 TRIANGULAR PLANE ELEMENTS (IN-PLANE FORCES) Consider a two dimensional triangular plate clement shown in Fig. 6.1. ‘The element is assumed to be of constant thickness, Subjected to only in- * ‘Triangular plate clement (in-plane forces)Derivation of Stiffness Properties for Two-dimensional Elements 77 plane forces, and the boundaries of interior elements are attached continuous- Jytothe surrounding elements. Each element has three nodes with two degrees of freedom at cach node. Thus, the total degrees of freedom for this plane element is six. The nodes of the clement are arbitrarily numbered in a clock- wise direction as 1, 2, and 3. Fig 6.1 shows clement orientation with res- pect to global coordinate system, modal coordinates, possible nodal displacements and the corresponding associated nodal forces at the three nodes of the element. It may be noted that no restriction has been imposed ‘on the orientation of the global coordinate system except that the orienta~ tion of the x-y plane and the plane of the continuum are parallel or the same. The nodal force and nodal displacement vectors for a triangular plane plate clement may be given by @D In the subsequent paragraphs, the element stiffness matrix in global coordinate system is developed using only the general formula approach Derivation of the transformation matrix is presented in the next chapter. 6.1.1 Derivation of Element Stiffness Matrix Using General Finite Element Approach 6.L1.1, Step 1: Displacement or Shape Function Referring Fig. 6.1, the displacements u and v at a point (x, y) within the domain of the element may be assumed as (6.1): wm et + Oy + ey (6.2) v= ek + GY + ey (6.3) where wand v are displacements in x and y directions respectively; and c, to ¢,are unknown constants which need to be determined using the boundary conditions at the three nodes of the element. Thus, we get lee Oat By = CH eet Oe Ultragy = Ass By = CX Vs Se (6.4) leew sa Asi Ag = ety + Gaya + oe‘78 Finite Element Method for Structural Engineers and Fhe Ai Mey +e te less nad Be Cot wt Ce (6.5) Plea Bei Be cut + Fs + ce Usiog the Cramer's rule (see Appendix-D), the above sets of simultaneous £quations are solved for constants ¢, to ey and c, to ¢y, Substituting the Values of these constants in Eqs, (6.2) and (6.3), and rearranging the terms, we obtain = UG, + Yue + sa) Bat (04 + dak + Spy + (Gy + Mx + xyy)Ay); and (6.6) vos Fl F Fast + vay) Os + (Gy + Yad + Had) Oy + Gs + Yar + 2uy) Od (6.7) where T= Aaa ~ Mahe, Op Vy — aby Sy = Uy — HG (6.8) Y= M— yy and xy =m — 4) for 1J,=1t03, (6.9) that is Ya eae In MeFi ua Py (10) Fey a= Xe Fy my (6-1) ws A is the area of the triangular element which is given as (see Appendix loom ow dad} low y (6.12) Tom Tt may be pointed out here that the assumed displacements given by Eqs. (6.6) and (6.7) in terms of modal displacements vary linearly along the edges of the triangular element. Further these displacements depend only on the nodal displacements of the two nodes on any particular edge of the element. This ensures the satisfaction of the compatibility of the displace- ments on two adjacent elements with a common boundary. Using Eqs. (6.6) and (6.7), the displacement or shape function {J} can be exprested in matrix form asDerivation of Stiffners Properties for Two-Dimensional Elements 79 ‘By Oa 0 oa 0 o-fh-afl an I. =I 8) 6.13) 0 a 0 a 0 w% ae where Oy = Oy + Yes + Hae) Oy = Oy PgX + Make (6.14) ty = Oy + Poot + Muy od (8) = (8g Bgrdel ‘In Eq. (6.13), the shape function matrix [A] of order (2x 6) can be defined jn terms of submatrices at the three nodes, as UN] = 1M) (a) EMI (6.15) where the submatrices of the order (2% 2)areas given below. The subscripts on N define the first, second and third node of the element. oO [Md = 4 [° ‘L (6.16) 1f* ° : o ia * Fe [° a 61) 6.1.1.2 Step 2: Strain-Displacement Relationship ‘The assumed shape function in terms of nodal displacements are known, and now we can proceed to determine the relationship between strain and nodal displacements. The plane plate problems may be divided into two separate classes, namely plane stress problems and plane strain problems. For both types of plane problems, the strain vector is expressed as (ser Chapter 7980 Finite Element Method for Structural Engineers Bue «| fF av =45 (6.19) [t= Zz + x Differentiating Eq. (6.13) and using Eq. (6.19), the strain components in ix form can be expressed as fem 7D 0 yn O due O18} (6.20) e = y10 Xn Oy 0 xu) {A} (6.21) Yor = syle Yo ia Ym tn Yi (A) (6.22) Thus combining Eqs. (6.20) to (6.22), we obtain the desired strain-displace- ment relationship as fe} = [3] (a) (6.23) where the matrix [8] is defined as Yo 0 Ye O yy O ] 1 l= 5y) 0 me 0 ty 0 xy (6.24) % Ys Sn Yn Xn Say Equation (6.23) indicates that the assumption of @ linear displacement field leads to a constant strain state in the element. Hence by Haoke's law, it also leads to # state of constant stress. Thus, the stress field satisfies the equations of strain compatibility and it also satisfies the equilibrium conditions 6.1.1.3 Step 3: Stress-Strain Relationship Assuming the material to be homogeneous and isotropic, the stress. strain relationship, in matrix form can be expressed as fo} = [4] {e} (6.25) where for plane elasticity problemDerivation of Stiffness Properties for Two-Dimensional Elements 1 Ox ts fo} = yoy 5 o-f 3 (6.26) Tay. er: and [9] is a (3x3) elasticity matrix. The terms of matrix [}] will depend upon whether the problem is one of plane stress or plane strain. Thus, for plane stress problem t ¥ 0 m= » too [5 (62) 1l—v ve ry and for plane strain problem 5 1 TS 0 ' We oats = 1 0 6.28) l= L 0 0 T=3J For convenience in formulating plane elasticity problems, let the clasti- city matrix [}] be expressed as tu Yn 0 Wi dn te 0 (6.29) LO 0 dey where, for plane stress problem tu = ta = F/U—v ba = da = VEIL), (6.30) Yes = ENA + vi82 Finite Element Method for Structural Engineers and for plane strain problem tu = der (1—-9EN + Jaa, dam b= ENC + s)CL—29, (6.31) tes = E120 +) 6.114 Step 4: Element Stiffness Matrix (k] The element stiffness matrix [A] is expressed as (see Eq. 4.21) t= |. 3 110) av ey ‘Where matrix [5] is explicitly given in terms of nodal coordinates by Eq. (6.24); and the elasticity matrix (}} by Eq. (6.29) in which the non-zero terms are given either by Eq. (6.30) or (6 31) depending upon whether it is a plane stress or plane strain problem. Note that the matrices [8] and [4] defined above, are independent of x and y coordinates. Hence, taking the constants outside the integral sign, the matrix Eq (6.32) can be re. written as [e) = [57 (9) (3) {ev (6.33) Since the thickness of the clement is assumed to be constant, the above equation further reduces to ()= (Ar) (3)? [4] [3] (6.34) where A= area of the triangular plate clement t= thickness of the triangular plate clement In terms of nodal coordinates, the area A is given by Eq, (6 12). Finally, after carrying out the matrix multiplication as shown in Eq (6.34), we obtain the desired element stiffness matrix given by Eq. (6.35).Geo) 2 p[wesselee me ne mpaloe ne spa |ee oe mba |e a ee ee ae Be mm | ey 1G i" te ng | ee my E Elocer se] ue wy mp lie me epg fee tee yy | tee te a ag My te aye ay Me ag mH ng Ry mp me ny z ‘ WORE hb) A Te Wd Mp |e ety #4 | me Se RA | By i Wy sty ag | mg tty tee ep tg my omy | ty omy Bp z | ' i a a By ee] Me A | ty ty 3 we ty ty | me ie ay m4 ua lowe we my | me mag g Bj me me She Lee ee Be H+ | Re Me HE He 4 | ee A sy mm |e my He mp | tie ay | see pe fee me mpl ee te spa [ie oe pa fee oe my | ate se emp [ee ne ny [ie comm [ae me og "i‘BA Finite Element Method for Structural Engineers ‘Thus, Eq. (6.35) defines the element stiffness matrix in’ global coordi. fates for a triangular plate element with in-plane forces and constant thickness. The matrix {k] is symmetrical and is of the order (6% 6). For plane stress and plane strain cases, the stiffness matrix can be obtained by substituting the corresponding values of ,, from Eq. (6.30) of (6.31) res- pectively. It may be pointed out that it is simpler in practice to perform the matrix multiplications of Eq. (6.34) numerically in the computer. 6.2 RECTANGULAR PLATE ELEMENTS (IN-PLANE FORCES) Consider a two dimensional rectangular plate element shown in Fig. 6.2. Y¥ | 25:5 Og, wet alas = | anh tea or __| Fig, 6.2 Rectangular plate element (with in-plane forces), The element is assumed to be of constant thickness f, with sides of length a and 6, and subjected to only in-plane forees. The nodes of the clement are arbitrarily numbered in clockwise direction as 1, 2, 3 ad 4. It has two degrees of freedom at each node and thus each element has eight degrees of freedom. The nodal forces and the corresponding associated nodal displacements shown in the figure may be expressed in vector form as (6.36)Derivation of Stiffaess Propertios for Two-Dimensional Elements 25 ‘The rectangular element shown in Fig. 6.2 is referred with respect to a set of coordinate axes which defines the plane of the continuum. For con- venience in the derivation of the element stiffness matrix, the origin of the coordinate system is taken at the lower left corner of the rectangle. Now in the subsequent paragraphs, the derivation of the element stiffness matrix for a plane rectangular plate element referred in global coordinate system ig presented in a straight forward manner as it is very similar to triangular clement of the preceding section. 6.2.1 Derivation of Element Stiffness Matrix Using General Finite Element Approach . 6.2.1.1 Step 1: Displacement or Shape Function In a plane clasticity problem, the state of displacement at any point (x, ») within the clement may be represented by two components w and ¥ in x and y directions, respectively, As mentioned before, this element has eight degrees of freedom. Hence polynomial representing the displacement, pattern will have @ total of eight unknown coefficients. Thus assumed displacements may be expressed‘as =Ox4 Gar ty tC (6.37) va Cat Caps Cua Cy (6.38) where C, to C, arc unknown constants, These coustants are determined using the nodal displacement conditions at the four nodes. Thus we get wy (0,0) Ag dy u| (0,6) = Ayy Ay 5 + Cy, wy (6.39) w]@d) = Ag a, = Cat Cab + Gb + uf (ae) = Ay A= Cat ee and ¥/ (0 = a5 =e ¥| (bys Ay A= COE, (6.40) ¥ | (a By as Ags Ay = Cy Coa 4. Gb FU tga) Ay Ay Cat Gp6 Finite Element Method for Structural Engineers: From the above two sets of simultaneous equations, constants C, to C, and C, to C, can easily be obtained in terms of nodal displacements, Substitu. ‘ting the values of these constants in Eqs. (6.37) and (6.38) and rearranging ‘the terms, the displacements u and y may be expressed as += (1-3) faeBa +3(1-f)a, (6.41) t= (I(t -2)a+( ears +5(1 Fa (6.42) dt may be seen that the displacements w and y defined above vary linearly along the edges and depend only on the nodal displacements of the two nodes defining the particular edge of the element. Thus, the assumed form of displacement distribution ensures that the compatibility of displacements on the boundaries of adjacent elements is satisfied. Now using Eq. (6.41) and (6.42), the displacement or shape function {f'} may be expressed in matrix form as AY via {"} (: 04 04 0 % ‘| th (ean vJ Lo 0, 0 a 0 a] )4, Ay where m=(t-Df-fpan (0-9) (6.44) 23, «=F (1-}) j‘Derivation of Stiffness Properties for Two-Dimensional Elements 87 Thus. from Eqs. (6,43) and (6.42) the shape function matrix [W] can be defined in terms of its submatrices at the four nodes as EN) = [Ed EM] EN] 4 dJoxer (6.45) where the submatrices Of order (2X2) are as given below. The subscripts on N define the node number. m-| (-a)'-) ° (6.46) (8-8 42 wae (as ° (6.47) (1-28 ca 0 iMl= ° 2 (6.48) _# IN = i) ° (6.49) 6.2.1.2 Step 2: Strain-Displacement Relationship For plane problems, the strain vector is expresssed as (see Chapter 2) ou & | . +e I fonwde bea = (6.50) Yay88 Finite Element Method for Structural Engineers Differentiating Eq. (6.43), we get the strain components as e=[-H(1-fo-F oF os(-Hojm «sy o~[e -(1-3)5 o(i-3}po Zo -4] fay 6.52) veL-(-B HD (3-4 ¥ xl y a 3-43 (-3) (a) (6.53) In matrix notation {8 = (811) (6.54) where the matrix [4] is defined as It is imteresting to note that these strains vary lincarly over the element. For example, from Eq. (6.31) it is ovident that, is independentDerivation of Stisfnass Properties for Two-Dimensional Elements 89 of x and varies linearly with y. Similarly from Eq. (6.52). is indepen- dert of y and linearly dependent on x whereas from Eq. (6.53) yay varies linearly with both x and y. 6.2.1.3 Step 3: Stress-Strain Relationship The relationship between stress and strain given by Eq. (6.25) is independ- ent of the shape of clement. So Eqs. (6.26) to (6.31) are also valid for the rectangular elements, Rewriting for the sake of clarity, fe) = 1) fe (6.56) where for plane elasticity problem ey ts oie ti dale 6.57) ty Yay fu ta oF and (=i va ts 0 | (6.58) Lo 0 t& For plane stress problem Yar = de = Biv), Yu = ta sev), (6.59) ba = FQ + Oh; and for plane strain problem fu ds = UWE + 1-29} tha = tn = vEMU + v= 29) (6.60) a= EAR + vi} 6214 Step 4: Etement Stiffness Matrix (&} ‘The element stiffness matrix [A] is of the order (8 x 8) and is expressed as90 Finite Element Method for Structural Engineers w= [wrt ierar (661 Sinee element has constant thickness, Eq. (6.61) reduces to =e ff car 102) axay (6.62) From Eg. (6.62), it can be seen that calculation of the element stiffness matrix [k} requires integration with respect to x and y since the matrix [B] isa function of the position variables. Hence, first the product (JF [gj [B] is evaluated and then the resulting matrix is integrated term by term, over the area of the clement. As an cxauple, evaluation of few terms of matrix (k] are shown below and the reader is recommended to obtain few other terms in order to familiarise himself with the procedure. x son tue dag) tare ef bea) en ty pp opie =tua (145) a+ tate (" (= b+ 3) de folie + At (663) where B = bfa and is known as aspect ratio. ton mmef HG) -2) Ie- Upon integration, we get % ab (6.64) Similarly other elements of stiffness matrix can be obtained. Thus, Eq, (6.65) defines the final element stiffness matrix in global coordinate system for a rectangular plate element subjected to in-plane forces.0 Derivation of Stiffness Properties for Two-Dimensional Elemens wd sujauuAS92° Finite Element Method for Structural Engineers 6.3 TRIANGULAR PLATE ELEMENTS (IN-BENDING) Consider @ plane triangular plate clement subjected to transverse: loading which is normal to the plane of the continuum. The transverse defles- tions and the thickness of the plate are assumed to be small. These limi: tations have already been discussed in Chapter 3. It may be mentioned here that in the small-deflection theory of thin plates, the transverse deflec- tion (w) are uncoupled from the in-plane deflections (u, ). Consequently, the stiffness characteristics of the element for the in-plane and transverse deflections are also uncoupled aad they can be calculated independently. The derivation of the stiffness matrix for the triangular element with in- plane loading has been presentcd in Section 6.1, In this section, the desi« vation is presented with transverse loading alone. Later in Chapter 7, the superposition of the stiffnesses are discussed, Figure 6.3 shows a triangular plate element of constant thickness f, It is referred with respect to a set of coordinate axes (x', ", 2") such that the direction of y’-axis coincides with the edge 1-2 and the origin is placed at node I, This orientation of the element is done in order to simplify the presentation of the results. The element has three degrees of freedom at each node, i.e. two rotations (@,-and 9) and a lateral displacement (w). Thus cach clement has nine degrees of freedom. The nodal forces and the corresponding nodal displacements shown in the figure may be expressed in vector form as Fig. 6.3 Triangular plate element in. beading,Derivation of Stiffness Properties for Two-Dimeasional Elements 93 AY far’) iF Ay! \ (6.66) y= db we Fal | ' tad Fy Lass where F/, Fy, Fy denote transverse (normal) forces F 1, Fy, Fy’ denote bending moments about x'=axis Fyi, Fel. Fy denote bending moments about y*-axis Similarly, Ay, «/, yf denote transverse displacements Ay’. Ay', A,' denote rotations about y-axis Ay’. Ag’, Aj! denote rotations about x-axis Now, the derivation of element stiffness matrix is presented step by step followed by its transfarmation in global caordinate system. 63.1 Derivation of Element Stifffess Matrix Using General Approach 6.3.1.1 Step 1: Displacement or Shape Function The first step in the derivation of element stiffness. matrix is to assume a deflection function which uniquely defines it within the clement, For triangular plaic element in beiiding, many displacement functions have been used, For an excellent discussion on displacement functions for this ele~ ment, the reader is referred to references (6.2, 6.3]. Inthe present derivation, the following polynomial for the transverse displacement (1) has been used. This polynomial was first introduced by Tochee {6.4] in an attempt to retain the symmetric form in x" and y'. wee beg bay Fee + OXY bey! +a? + yey + PY} + OUP (6.67) where ¢; to ¢ are unknown constants which need to be determined using the boundary conditions at the three nodes. After defining the transverse904 Finite Element Method for Structural Engineers écficetion, the rotation at any point in the domain of the element can be expressed as Oy Bm ee! Deg bey Oey" ECV + Sev (6.68) Oye — Tm leah Dean ew ob See ea + 2d (6.69) ‘Now using the following boundary conditions at the three nodes: Atnode 1: w le, gah 2 a te (6.70) -B jo, o) = At node 2: lex = hy ~ a ko nye Atnode 3: ow kev. yay (a's) and using the transverse displacement defined by Eq. (6.67), we obtain {a") = [C] eh (6.73) where the vectors are defined as (6.74)Detivation of Stiffness Properties for Two-Dimensional Elements 95 and the matrix [C] of order (9 x 9) is given by* 1 0 0 8 © 0 0 0 0 1 o o 0 0 o 1 0 © © 90 o 1 0 >» 0 0 OF I=]0 9 1 0 0 Wy 0 o-1 0 o -y' 0 oO =O! 1 oxy ok GP ay OP GP oo 1 0 xs 2%! o O -l GO —2x =! 0 —3Gy7 where Coy = Hata) esas Cox = 2g 95" + (2s'% and Cor — Osh — 2xy'ys! From Eq, (6.73), we can obtain the values of the unknown constants for each triangular clement either using Cramer's rule or matrix inversion. ‘Using matrix inversion, the unknown constants are obtained as fe} = (C) 7 07 (6.76) ‘The inverse of the matrix is dually. btained numerically for each element indivi- 63.1.2 Step 2: Strain-Displacement Relationship In case of a plate in bending, the state of strain at any point may be represented in terms of three components, namely, the curvature in the xadirection, the curvature in the /-direction and the twist, Using the flat-plate theory [6.5]. the components of strain in terms of displacements can bbe expressed a8 ‘The displasecent function delined by Eq. (6.67) cannot bo used when the values of pods! coordinates ace such that 27, = —.ry +, as, ia these eases, matrix (C) is Singular, To avoid this difficulty, displacement fusction suggested in reference [6 4) can ‘a utized,96 Finite Blement Method for Structural Engineers (677) (e} =| 5 | U where 2’ the distance measured from the middle surface of the plate element. Differentiating the displacement function given by Eq. (6.67) and substituting in the above equation, the strain components in matrix form may be expressed as : {e} = [0] (¢} (6.78) where vector {c} is given by Eq. (6.76), and matrix [D] is given by 002006 w 0 [j=-7/000002 0 w wy (6.79) 000020 0 4t’+>) 0 4ax9) Substituting the value of vector fe} ftom Eq. (6.74) in Eq. (6.78), we obtain the state of strain in terms of nodal displacements and rotations, as (e} = [VICI (a) (6.80) ‘Thus, the matrix [8] of Eq. (4.5) is defined as [4] = [2] [c+ (6.81) and its transpose is given as (ay = [er pr (6.82) 6.3.1.3 Step 3: Stress-Strain Relationship For a plate in bendins the relationship between stress and strain is the same as given by Eqs. (<6) and (6.57), and may be expressed as fo = [elf (6.83) where the elasticity mat: [1] for an isotropic plate element is given byDerivation of Stiffness Properties for Two-Dimensional Elements 97 Pleo s vical (6.84) i ° 63.1.4 Step 4: Elemens Stiffness Matrix (&') ‘The element stiffness matrix [&'] for a triangular plate element in bending is of order (929) and in torms of matrices [B] and (¥]it is defined as we = |, ar cal ay (685) where matrices [B] and [4] are given by Eqs. (6.81) and (6.84), respectively. Substituting in the above equation the values of these matrices, we obtain w=ucrr [f, tor toa] ter (686) It may be noted that for a porticular element, the terms of matrix [C] are eonstant. Hence the matrix and its inverse are taken out of the integral sign. The matrix product in the volume integral is of the order (9x9). ‘After matrix multiplication and integrating over thickness, ic. over zit may be expressed as Ee (Orr 1 0 dv = aoe eff 4 0 xI-9 ay oO 4 symmetric It 0 Idvx' 60x)" enV) Ml) Met) IR ty) (12 BO LP ny 0 Iay Séux'y’ 12 py» 3607 dx'dy" (6.87)98 Finite Element Method for Structural Engineers where [0,}. [03) and [0,1 are null matrices of order (33) (63) and (3. x6), respectively. The individual elements of the matrix Eq. (6.87) can be integrated term by term using the area integrals (see Appendix C), Now to obtain the desired clement stiffness matrix, the integrated matrix Eq. (6.87) is premultiplied by [[C}'FF and postmuttiptied by [Cl as shown in Eq. (6.86). The final expression thus obtained for the clement stiffness matrix for triangular plate element in bending, is not Presented here as the terms of the matrix (&') are complex and long, It is usual to Use the computer for the operations in its gencration. 6.3.2 Transformation of Element Stiffness Matrix, Consider a triangular plate clement (Fig. 6.4) referred in both local as well as in global coordinate systems. The nodal displacements shown in the figure aro referred to global coordinate system. Now using the transforma: tion of coordinate axes, the displacements in local coordinate system may Fig. 6.4 Displacements on a triangular plate element in reference to slobal coordinate system, be expressed in terms of global system as {a} = [7] (a) (6.88) Where (4'} is defined by Eq. (6.66); and (8) = fy dy Ay...457 (6.89)Derivation of Stiffness Properties for Two-Dimensional Elements 99 TR] (0) (0) IM=|0) () (6.90) 1 a a where {0} = (3%3) null matrix [A] = (3x3) rotation matrix Ay to A, = nodal displacements By Sy dy denote transverse displacements; gy dg, y denote rotations about y-axis; and ‘Ay Sy, de denote rotations about x-axis. ‘The rotation matrix [A] may be expressed as | 1 0 [}=|0 hom (6.91) o hm where: i, ®, = direction cosines for x’ axis Jy, m, = direction cosines for y¥’ axis Thus, finally substituting in Eq. (4.56) the values of matrices [k'] and [Tl from Eqs. (6.86) and (6.90) respectively, we get the desired element stiffness matrix [k] in global coordinate system for triangular plate clement in bending. As pointed out earlier some of the operations are performed using computer, hence matrix [&] is not presented in final form. 64 RECTANGULAR PLATE ELEMENTS (IN-BENDING) The derivation of element stiffness matrix for rectangular plate elements in bending is also complex and involves long tedious terms. Hence in this section, only the main steps are presented. Interested readers are referred to any of the references cited later in this section. Figure 6.5 shows dimensions of the rectangular plate clement and coordinates of the nodes, The thickness 1 of the plate is assumed to be small compared to other two dimensions, and the transverse defiection w in100 Finite Element Method for Structural Engineers #direetion of the plate under load is also assumed to be small compared to its thickness. The element is referred in global coordinate system and its nodes are numbered arbitrarily in clockwise direction. Each node has three degrees of freedom, Thus, the total degrees of freedom for this element are twelve. The positive directions of nodal forces/moments and the associated Possible nodal displacements/rotations are shown in Figure 6.5 and these, in vector form, may be expressed as Fig. 6.5 Rectangular plate element in bending, Fy Oy h={An Wada (6.93) Fy, ay where Fu Fu Fn Fig denote transverse (normal) forces Fa Fe denote bending moments about x-axis Fy Fy Fu Fix denote bending moments about p-axis Similarly, ‘Su My Ay dy, denote transverse (normal) displacements Ass As, denote rotations about y-axis Bu Se Me, dys denote rotations about xaxisDerivation of Stilfaess Properiies for Two-Dimensional Blements 101 6.4.1 Derivation of Element Stiffaess Matrix Using General Approach GAL. Step 1: Displacement or Shape Function Choosing the displacement function as in reference [6.6}, the transverse displacement w at a point (x,y) in the domain of the element may be expressed in terms of nodal displacements and rotations as w= [4] {4} (6.94) where nodal displacement vector {A} is defined by Eq. (6.93) and row vector i (30-3) | (9 5(-) “i(-P0 (-3)e-F) Bee ah ~( 3B Rie — 1 ie one 5 (WF: | | a | ( 6-2) 55-3 (-H (0-2) -i(t-a)ee | (1-2) 35 6-2) 5 (-3)+5(-3) 6-7) 2 (1-3 b gee | — (6.95)102 Finite Element Method for Structural Engineers After defining the transverse deflection, the rotation at any point (x, y) in the domain of the element can be expressed as for triangular plate element, that is oo (6.96) ow o--# (6,97) It may be pointed out here that the deffection function represented by Eq (6.94) ensures that the boundary displacements along the adjacent edges of the rectangulai plate elements are compatible but discontinuities slopes exist across the boundaries. However, there are other displace- ment functions which can satisfy both deflection and slope compatibility. For details readers are referred to references (6.7, 6.8]. 6.4.1.2 Step 2: Strain-Displacement Relationship The state of strain can be expressed by Eq. (6.77) of the previous section. Using Eq. (6.77) and (6 95), strain components in terms of nodal displace- ments and rotations can be expressed as {4 = [8] {a} (9.98) where vectors {2} and {AJ are defined by Eqs. (6.77) and (6.93); and matrix {B] of order (3x 12) is given by Eq. (6.99) as103 ‘Derivations of Stiffnes Properties for Two-Dimensional Elements £ @(2_{)2 f(g Ye 0 q(a- 2 t Mae x a(2-1 2L 9 Mz x oO $(€-=)(2-1) L ae BE y 3 E>)104 Finite Element Method for Stuctural Engineers 6.41.3 Step 3: Siress-Strain Relationship For rectangular plate element in bending, the elasticity matrix [}] is the same as for triangular plate element because it does not depend upon the shape of the element, Thus, matrix [4] is given by Eq. (6.84). 6.4.1.4 Step-4: Element Stiffness Matrix [&] ‘The clement stiffness matrix in terms of matrices [}] and [B] may be ex- pressed as (see Eq. 4.21): =f, ar ate ar (6.100) where matrices [}] and [B] are defined by Eqs. (6.84) and (6.99), respec tively. Since thickness of the clement is assumed to be constant, Eq, (6.100) reduces to wae |, carta as (6.101) where A isthe area of element. Now substituting the values of matrices [¥] and [8] in the’above equation, performing matrix multiplication and finally integrating term by term over the area of the rectangular clement, we obtain a symmetric matrix of order (12 12) as ga Pld Ul * Ta — vy ab [ed Kel where submatrices [kia] [tnd] and [ka] are of order (6x6) and their values are given in Tables 6.1 to 6.3, In these tables, 6 defines aspect ratio and is expressed as before, ic. P= ba. The numbers written outside the submat- rices define clement position in the matrix [4]. Also since matrix [&} is symmetric (6.102) [ae] = ral? (6.103) ‘Thus, Eq. (6.102) defines the element stiffness matrix for rectangular plate element in-bending. In the next chapter, formulation of the finite clement method is presented.3 Mylsaewgng 9 agry, s ¥ é z L ent aun eles Det | [(- it ° Ploy DE + ~ E | wal of] | au | < a(esfE+ |aorsnts | 5 a [(—1}= | ae—of+ as etel— tt] tel L ef fe-one+ [oir HDF + ale—DE+ e—9E — Gat+aDe voal— Geez Piet Det éz] — jon of Stiffness Properties for Two-Dimensional Llements Asam ez] oy WDE + Gd +p| aT = 406° Finite Element Method for Structural Engineers Py] aremgng 7'9 1981, 9 s - . ; ' = a ese leben | -)st ke Age = a 0 vie-nf | # (9 j meee | fl dol antl —)st = Aa = ‘ al (« ie + | ae—$+ ; al(s We rt [ i ] ed] i] iF = ‘Ss ste—uk— sl] atenf—e01] Ot | ote fs ae arene | Gren — . fers el | Geile ce vi 1) nye [1 ; z alle—1)E+ »{( i+ ; emake | ee aa af] a 7 af (v1) = J ater—ve + 7 a(t ate . wf Ww af ly —pt oe = + alo—ne + ate aoe DE + Cr-9t oto — a ats vet & okt : ei-]] G-d—dee— 23-] (tee —Derivation of Stiffness Properties for Two-Dimessional Elements 107 [olor p ind a[e— $+] “ aqele-e§ s+ w«|- py f— wy G8 or aterial Copyrighted m108 Finite Element Method for Structural Engincers REFERENCES 6.1 Turner, M.J., R.W. Clough., H.C. Martin and L.C. Topp, “Stiffness and Deflection Analysis of Complex Structures” J. Acronaut. Vol. 23, No. 9, September 1956. 6.2 Bazeley, G.P., Y.K. Cheung, B.M. Irons and 0.C. Zienkiewicz, Triangular Elements in Plate Bending: Conforming and Noncon- forn Solutions, Proc. Conf. Matrix Methods in Structural Mech., Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio, Oct. 26-28, 1965 AFFDLTR 66-80, 1966. 63 Clough, R.W. and ILL. Tocher, Finite Element Stiffness Matrices for Analysis of Plate Bending, Proc. Conf. Matrix Methods in Struc- tural Mech., Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio, Oct. 26-28, 1963, ABFDL TR 66-80, 1966, 6.4 Tocher, J.L., “Analysis of Plate Bending Using Triangular Elements", Ph.D. Dissertation, Civil Engineering Dept., University of California, Berkeley, 1962, 6.5 Timoshenko, S.P, and §. Woinowsky-Kricger, Theory of Plates and Shells, McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York, 1959. 6.6 Gallagher, R.H., R.A. Gellatly, J. Padlog and R.H. Mallet, “A Discrete’ Element Procedure for Thin-Shell Instability Analysis,” J. Am, Inst. Acron. Astron., Vel. 5, 1967. 6.7 Bogner, F.K., RH. Mallett, M.D. Minich and L.A. Schmit, Deve- lopment and Evaluation of Energy Search Methods of Nonlinear Structural Analysis, Flight Dynamies Lab. Rept, AFFDL TR 65-113, 1965. 6.8 Bogner, F.K., RL. Fox and ‘L.A. Schmit, “The Generation of Inter- element-Compatible Stiffness and Mass Matrices by the Use of Inter- polation Formulas”, Proc. Conf. Matrix Methods of Struct. Mech., Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio, Oct 26-28, 1965, AFFDLTR 66-80,1966.CHAPTER 7 FORMULATION OF FINITE ELEMENT METHOD Tn the preceding chapters, varidus aspects of finite clement method were considered, Tn this chapter, the basic steps in the formulation of any finite clement, analysis are presented, which may be briefly outlined 93 follows t Step 1, Discretization of continuum Step 2. Generation of basic data, ie., numbering of elements and nodes, degrees of freedom and element characteristics Step 3. Determination of transformation matrix for each element Step 4. Asssmbly of overall stiffness matrix Step 5. Elimination of rigid-body degrezs of freedom Step 6. Determination of equivalent applied nodal forces Step 7. Calculation of nodal displacements, forces and stresses Tn the subsequent sections each step is discussed in detail with suitable examples. 7.4 STEP i: DISCRETIZATION OF CONTINUUM The first step in finite element analysis is to idealize the continuum or structure using a limited or finite number of elements. These elements are assumed to be connected to each other only at the nodes. For details regarding discretization, the readers may refer to Chapter 3. 7.2 STEP 2: GENERATION OF BASIC DATA The generation of basic data pertaining to the structure includes num- bering of clements and nodes, computation of degrees of freedom, the elastic propertics of the material and section properties of cach element, The latter two data concerning material and section properties need no special consideration and can be obtained in a routine manner. Hence, in the subsequent paragraphs the generation of first two data are discussed,110 Finite Element Method for Streetural Engincers 7.2.1 Nombering of Elements and Nodes Numbering of elements is completely arbitrary and can be done in any systematic manner, The numbering of nodes can also be organized in any possible manner, depending mainly on personal preference. However, in order to improve the efficiency of the solution, it is desirable to adopt a system for node numbering so that the overall stiffness matrix is densed. This can be achieved by numbering the nodes in such a way that the maximum difference in the adjacent node numbers is as small as possible, This in turn minimizes the band width of the overall stiffness matrix (sec Appendix A). The s:mi-band width (SBW), which also includes the main diagonal, may be expressed as SBW = No. of degrees of freedom per node % (Largest difference in node numbers + 1) 7.) Ok lement © Node (9) Re-tangular pate elements with 3 DOF at each node (b) Pin joined tras elements with 2 0OF at each ande Fig. 7.1 Numbering of elements and nodes, Figure 7.1 shows some of the schemes of numbering of elements and nodes which are in common usage. For these structures with the node num bering as shown in the figure, the semi-band width may be expressed asFormulation of Finite Blement Method 111 Fig. 7.1 (@) : SBW = 32 (4+ 1) = 15 Fig. 711 (0): SBW = 2x G+1)—8 7.2.2 Degree of Freedom ‘Any structure of continuum has unlimited number of displacements. In finite element method, the deformed or elastic shape can be approximated with a good level of accuracy by assuming a limited or finite number of Gisplacements. This finite number of displacements is called the number of degrees of freedom of the structure, Now in order to explain this, consider the structures shown in Fig. 7.2, 7.3 and 7.4. M (E1,Uad f (EsiUab A Fig. 7.2. Plane frame with possible displecements, Figure 7.2 shows a plane frame whose nodes 5, ¢, and d are fixed; and the axial deformation is neglected. Thus, the frame has one degree of freedom represented by the in-plane joint rotation “@" at node a, Next consider the beam shown in Figure 7.3 (a). It is restrained in such a way that it cannot undergo displacement in horizontal direction. The node a is allowed to translate in the vertical direction and also allowed to rotate, whereas the node 5 is allowed to rotate only. Thus, the beam has three degrees of free- dom, if we neglect the axial deformation (see Figure 7.3 b). Lastly, consider plane truss shown in Figure 7.4 (a), It has five nodes and the displacement at cach node can be resolved into two components—one in the horizontal direction (x-coordinate) and the other ‘in the vertical direction (y-coordinate). There is no movement at the joint a as it is hinged, whereas the joint c, which is on roller support, moves only in the horizontal direction. Thus, this structure has seven degrees of freedom as shown in Fig. 7.4 (b)—two at112 Finite Element Method for Structuri! Engineers gb is ; L Fig, 7.3. Beam with possible displacements, (b) Fig. 7.4 Plane truss with possible displacements.Formulation of Finite Element Method 113 cach node b, Zand e, and one at c, Hence, it can be seen from the examples Gisqussed above that the number of degrecs of freedom for the structure is qual to the summation of the number of possible displacement components at each node. 73 STEP 3: DETERMINATION OF ‘TRANSFORMATION MATRIX ‘The elements of a structure, in general, will not have the same orien- tation. ‘Thus, it will require coordinate transformation from one system (cay, local) to another system (say, global) in order to apply the equi brium and compatibility conditions at the nodes. In this section, generation of transformation matrix for each element of a structure is presented by considering a plane frame shown in Fig. 7.5. The frame is referred in a positive global coordinate system (0—xyz) and the elements and the nodes are numbered in a clockwise direction. ¥ ‘The first step in the generation of transformation matrix is to determine the positive direction of the local or element coordinate system. This, in tum, depends upon how the elements of the structure are designated. Consider, for example, the clement number 7 which is defined by nodes 6,2), iss, the first node of the clement by Sand the second node by 2. (33,18) 3 (5,19) (23,19) 1 2 Sim: (5,7) (23,7) (37) 7 z (a) Element and node numbering114 Finite Element Method for Stroctural Engineers (6) Elaments referred In local and global coordinate systems: Fig. 7.5 Plane frame, ‘Thus, the positive direction of the local x’-axis, shown in Figure 7.5 (b), will be defined by the direction from the first node (5) to the second aode @ In the second step, the transformation angle (y) and the associated di- rection cosines are determined. The positive global coordinate system, which is assumed to follow right-hand-thumb rule, is shown in Fig. 7.5 (b). The transformation angle (7) is required to rotate the element so that the two coordinate systems coincide with each other. This angle (y) is measured from the global axes in a counterclockwise direction. Thus, for element number (7), y = 90° and the associated direction cosines for the two coordi- nate systems for this element are defined as 1 = cos 90° = 0 m =sin 90° =1 Similarly, transformation angle (y) and the associated direction cosines for all other clements can be obtained as given in Table 7.1. The above approach, presented for the determination of direction cosi- nes, gives the basic idea of transformation of coordinate axes and i normally preferred for some simple structures with hand calculations. For complex structures this approach is not used, rather the direction cosines are computed using the nodal coordinates defincd in Fig. 7 (a). As stated in Chapters 5 and 6, the direction cosines for an element (e) whose first node is (f) and second node is (J) may be expressed as :Formulation of Finite Element Method 115 Table 7.1 Transformation Angles and Associated Direction Cosines: Element | Direction cosines Tacos (x)= — (7.2) m = cos (x', ») = A where Le= WO) — 5 FO) = Yo and (xp yi) and (x), )) are nodal coordinates in global coordinate system. Thus, using equations (7.2) the direction cosines for clement number (7) can be expressed as 1-352 20 3) Similarly, direction cosines for other elements may be computed. The readers are suggested to compute few other direction cosines and check them from Table 7.1. It may be pointed out that the positive direction of x’. is the same as defined before, i.e., in the direction from the first116 Finite Element Method for Structieal Engineers node (i) to the second node (/). Also it may be noted that the positive directions of the nodal forces and nodal displacements will be the same as that of the coordinate axes, Finally, the transformation matrices defined in Chapters 5 and 6 for Various types of elements may casily be obtained by directly substituting the values of direction cosines. The transformation matrix for a plane frame element may be rewritten us (see Chapter 5) ' om 0 0 0 —- tT © 0 a 0 OAM a) MG kg tg IT} = a4) GONE ce! By hay tog | oo oe om op he | o 0 0 0 0 iJ where the superscript (e) on matrix [T] denotes the element number. Thus, for example, the transformation matrix for clement (7) may be ex- Pressed as oO 1 o 0 0 0 +1 0 O Oo 0 oO o 1 0 o oO (Ty = as) 0 o 0 oO 1 oO | 0 0 oO =I o oO Lo oO o 0 1 7.4 STEP 4: ASSEMBLY OF THE OVERALL STIFFNESS MATRIX The assembly of the overall stifffess matrix for the entire structure means synthesizing the element stifffiess matrices of the structure into one stiffness matrix. This requires first the generation of element stiffness mat- tices in global coordinate system and later the superposition of these Matrices with the satisfaction of the following two basic conditions : Equilibrium of Forces Compatibility of Displacementsy Formulation of Finite Element Method 117 In this section, the above requirements are discussed and the procedure for assembling the overall stiffness matrix is presented. 44.1 Determination of Element Stiffness Matrices in Global Coordinate System In Chapters 5 and 6, the element stiffness matrices [A"] for one- and two- ‘dimensional elements are derived ia local coordinate system. Thus, knowing, the matrix [A*] for each element and its transformation matrix (step 3), ‘one can obtain element stiffness matrix in global coordinate system by ‘using Eq, (4.56) which may be rewritten as [ey = Cpe? [eye (Ty (1. where the sup.:script (e) on matrices denotes element number. In cascs where local and global coordinate systems are parallel or coincide, steps 3 and 4 may be omitted and matrix (&]{4 is determined directly. Also for some simple one-dimensional clements, stiffness matrices are given in global system; hence fur such elements, matrix multiplication of Eq. (7.6) may be omitted. 742° Equilibrium of Forces Every element of the structure must be in equilibrium under the action of the applied forces, and the catire structure must also be in equilibrium. Thus, the number of equilibrium conditions depends upon the type and number of elements used in the overall structure, It is convenient to write the equilibrium conditions by representing the forces acting at the nodes of the structure: Hence, if / represents a typical node of « framed structure shown in Fig. 7.6, it will remain in equilibrium if tne summation of forces along the two orthogonal directions x and y, and the summation of mo- ments in the x-) plane are equal to zero, Mathematically, it may be expres- sed as r= re=0 2.7) EMyn =O In the above mentioned cquations of equilibrium, the summations must include the applied loads or moments. 4.4.3 Compatibility of Displacements Consider node (i) shown in Fig. 7.6. It has deflections along the two co- ordinate axes x and y; anda rotation about z-axis. Hence, there will be118 Finite Element Method for Structural Engineers ag in Fig. 7.6 Foreo resultants in (x-y) plane, three displacements at this node and these displacements must be compati- ble with the displacements at the end of any other element connected at this node. Thus, if the number of nodés in any structure is (n) and the degrees of freedom at cach node is (m), then the total number of compati- bility equations will be equal to (mn) which should be satisfied. 7.44 Procedure for Assembling Overall Stiffaess Matrix Now, as a result of satisfying the two basic conditions stated above, it is possible to place any element stiffness matrix in its appropriate location in the structure or over-all stiffness matrix, The procedure for assembling the stiffness matrix for the entire structure will be explained using the follow- ing example. Consider a framed structure shown in Fig. 7.7(a). It has four nodes (q, 6, c, d) with three degrees of freedom at each node, The nodes a and d act a8 hinged-supports, i.c., these nodes cannot be displaced horizontally or vertically but can only be allowed to rotate. The' properties of each ele- meant (¢,, ¢,, e) such as the length (Z), area (4) and moment of inertia (I) are indicated in the figure Figure 7.7(b) shows the degrees of freedom associated at each node of the elements. The degrees of freedom are numbered for both restrained and non-restrained displacements in global coordinate system. Numbers 1,2, 10 and 11 represent the restrained displacements for the two supports aFormulation of Finite Element Method 119 LAL O51,6-74,1 Fig. 7.7 Plane frame,120 Finite Element Method for Structural Engineers and d. Thus using Eq. (4.20), the force-displacement relationship for the elements of this frame can be written as follows: Element (¢,) (A) [a] A, | as x, Ay } = [eye ¢ (7.8) A ; | R [ 4s RJ 4 Element (¢,) i fas Fs Ay Fol dy om [A]OO 7.9) 5 (Ay & 79) A as AS ba Element (¢,) i 7 Ay } fy 4 | ‘ = [kR? a 4 (7.10) Fig Sw Fy ay | Fy Cad where the superscript on matrices [£] denotes element number. These cle ment stiffness matrices can be obtained using Eq, (7.6) and the limits on cach of the three clement-stiffness matrices can be seen in Fig. 7.8(@), (b) and (c). The numbers written above and on the right of these matrices in- dicate the degrees of freedom associated with these elements in global coordinate system,Formblation of Finite Element Method 121 Applying the conditions of equilibrium and compatibility, the next step is to assemble the overall stiffness matrix of order (12% 12) by putting the element stiffness. coefficients at the appropriate location of it, For example, the stiffness coefficient at location (1, 1) of the matrix (kJ) will be placed at location (1, 1) of the overall stiffness matrix [X]. The term (1, 2) of the matrix [k] * is placed at location (1, 2) of matrix [K] and so on. This process of transferring is continued for the remaining elements of matrix [k#%, which consist of (36) stiffness coefficients. Similarly, the terms of the stiffness (xy? ons tor (bi teh Fig. 7.9 Overall stiffness matrix for the frame of Fig. 7.7,122 Finite Element Method for Structural Engineers matrix of element (e,) of the frame can be put in the appropriate locations of the structure stifingss matrix, For example, the term at location (4, 4) of the element matrix [k}(* will take the position (4, 4) in matrix [K]; the term (4, 5) of matrix (AK will take the location (4,5) in matrix [K] and so on till all elements are transferred at the appropriate location in matrix [KX]. A similar procedure is followed for the third element (¢,). Thus the over-all stiffness matrix [X] of the structure is obtained. Figure 7.9 shows the locations of the stiffness coefficients of the three elements (c,), (e,) and (e,) in the overall stiffness matrix. It may be noted that matrix [A] is symmetric and hence one needs to generate only either lower or upper triangular matrix. Now using the same synthesizing procedure as for matrix [X], the overall force vector (F} may be obtained. The overall displacement vector (A) may be obtained by putting the values of nodal displacements at the appropriate locations. These vectors are of order (12x 1) and may be expressed as. a2 Now the overall force-displacement equation for the frame shown in Fig. 7.7(a) may be expressed as (Fy = [KT {4} (7.13) whore matrix (K] is given by Eq. (7.11) and vectors (F} and (A} are given by Eq. (7.12). The procedure of gencrating the overall stiffmess matrix, the overall force and displacement vectors for any structure is the same. The only difference is in the type of clement used, It may be pointed out that before solving Eq. (7.13) for unknown displacements, one needs to incorporate the prescribed boundary conditions. This aspect is discussed in the subsequent section. 7.5 STEP 5: ELIMINATION OF RESTRAINED DEGREES OF FREEDOM The displacement vector {A} defined in Eq. (7.13) includes both known (restrained or prescribed) and unknown nodal displacements. Thus in orderFormulation of Finite Element Method 123 to solve Eq. (7.13) for unknown displacements, one needs to take into account the known displacements. This operation of applying the known prescribed displacement conditions is called the climination of the rigid. ‘body degrees of freedom. There are many methods available for the inclu- sion of the prescribed displacement conditions and then solving the modified force-displacement equation for the unknown displacements. Interested readers are referred to references [7.27.6] as it is beyond the scope of this text book, Here in the subsequent paragraphs basic principles are presented for the elimination of the restrained degrees of freedom which may be useful in understanding the procedure and in hand calculations. In the basic approach, the foree-displacement relationship defined by Eq, (7.13) is modified by rearranging the displacements and force vectors and the stiffness matrix according to unknown and known displacements. In order to explain this, let the nodal displacement vector {4} be partitioned: {a)= teh (7.14) {Qu} = vector of n-unknown displacements {A,} = vector of r-specified displacements It may be noted that these displacements may comprise of both deflections and rotations or only rotations or only deflections, Similarly, the external force veetor (F} may be partitioned as: o-§{ (15) F where (F,) = vector of n-specified forces {F)} = vector of r-unknown reactive forces at the nodes where displacements are specified ‘The force-displacement Eq. (7.13) may also be partitioned in accordance with the partitioning of vectors {A} and (F}. Thus where submatrices {Kan}, (Ky), (Kie} and {Ky} are of order {axn), @x*), (rn) and (Fr) respectively. aE LF Ken124 Finite Element Method for Structural Engineers Now, expanding the first row of the above matrix equation, we get after rearranging the terms {Fa} — [Kar] (As) = [Kew] (Se) ain Defining, (Feet = {Fa} — [Ker] {Oe} (7.18) Eq. (7.17) may be written as {Fess} = [Kan] (On) (7.19) Equation (7.19) is the desired modified force-displacement relationship after eliminating the restrained degrees of freedom and is referred to as reduced force-displacement relationship. The matrix [Kea] and vector (Fez) are known as reduced stiffness matrix and effective nodal foree vector respectively. The unknown displacements can now be obtained by solving the matrix Eq. (7.19) which is discussed in section 7.7. Now for determining the reactive forces at the nodes where the displace- ments are prescribed, expand the’second row of the matrix Eq. (7.16), we get {Fr} = [Xre) {n} + [Xe] (Ae) (7.20) gq. (7.19) for {A,}, the reactive forces may be obtained using Eq. (7.20). It may be pointed out that, even ifthe prescribed nodal displacements are equal to zero, that is, {ar} = (O} (1.21) the reactive forces at these nodes will not necessarily be equal to zero. ‘Thus, by substituting Eq, (7.21) in (7.20), the reactive forces may be expressed as {EA} = [Ken] (a) (7.22) Also, for this case, the effective nodal forces defined by Eq. (7.18), will reduce to (Fan) = Fa) (7.23) Now in the subsequent sections, determination of equivalent applied nodal forces, unknown nodal displacements and forces are presented.Formulation of Finite Element Method 125 976 STEP 6; DETERMINATION OF EQUIVALENT APPLIED NODAL FORCES Asit has been mentioned carlier, in the finite clement method, forces on the structure are required to act only at the nodal points, In general, how- ‘ever, the actual forces applied on a structure do not satisfy this requ ment. In case loading consists of point loads, the structure is idealized, normally in such a manner that a node occurs at the point of application of the forces; whereas the distributed forces, such as pressure loading, self- weight, etc., must be replaced by cquivalent concentrated forces acting at the nodes. This conversion of distributed loads into equivalent nodal loads can be accomplished by using the principle of virtual work, Consider an element subjected to a distributed loading which is repre- sented by a vector of surfaces force (#} and let the equivalent concentrated forces at the nodes of the element be represented by the vector (Fi.g}- Applying the principle of virtual work, i.c., equating the work done by the actual distributed loads to the work done by the equivalent nodal forces during a virtual displacement, we have {8A)" {Feet = jer (é}ds (7.22) where (8/} = vector of distribution of virtual displacements. {8A} = vector of virtual displacements in the directions of nodal displacements From the relationship defined by Eq. (4.3), i.e, (f} = [W}(4}. (7.23) (87) = [4] Ba} (7.24) ‘Taking the transpose of Eq. (7.24) and substituting in Eq. (7.22) we get, after rearranging the terms, we obtain ay { {INF @) 45 — (Fog | =0 (725) Since virtual nodal displacements {84} are arbitrary, we obtain Fog) = | INF (9) as (726) ‘Thus, using Eq. (7.26) we may obtain the equivalent nodal forces for any distributed loading {#} acting on an clement. However, for one-dimensio- nal elements, it is usually possible to obtain statically equivalent nodal forees either by inspection or by method of restraining the nodes against all displacements, Now to illustrate the computation of equivalent nodal forces, two examples are presented.126. Finite Blement Method for Structural Engineers 7.6.1 Example Consider a plane beam element shown in Fig. 7.10(a). The beam is of Jength L and subjected to a uniformly dis ited load of intensity w, per ‘unit length. Using the results of Section 5.2.2, the transverse deflection (¥) at a distance x from node (1) may be expressed in terms of nodal displace- ments as. (a) Beam element with ‘nodal displacement eC peas wt 2 (b) Restrained beam element with reoctive torces wb feat Feng o 5 c ha wht _ wat Fleal*” 2 Fleql=* 43 {c) Equivalent nodal forces. Fig. 7.10 Beam element subjected to distributed londing.‘Formulation of Finite Element Method 127 | - a v= [(1—3p7+-26%) (626+ BY) L (3B 25%) —(—B9 L] | bs ; (7.27) Lad where x -== (7.28) and the matrix [] may be defined as (N) = (C1 — 38*-+ 26%) @ — 267 + BL G8" — 28) —G— BL] (7.29) Thus for this example, We have {g}dS = — wyde (1.30) Substituting Eqs. (7.29) and (7.30) in (7.26), and changing the variable (i.e. dx = Lap), we get eneel (B= 28 + YL {Fel = \. | or —289 (— wy Ldpy (7.31) L-@-pyL I Thus, 1 Fans [0 = 38+ 28(—w, Ea 732) By performing the integration, we obtain Fan = — 33) Similarly, by performing the integration of the remaining terms, the desired ‘vector of equivalent nodal forces may be expressed as 1 “3 { Feats . z Fy WN we (7.34) Foe i 2 (Fees128 Finite Element Method for Structural Engincers The equivalent nodal forces given by Eq. (7.34) can also be obtained by another approach which may be expressed as follows: Step 1: Restrain the nodes of the element against all possible displace- ments and compute the fixed-end reactive forces* due to the applied load (see Fig. 7.10b). (The values of fixed-end reactive forces for different loadings are given in Appendix B) Step 2: Reverse the direction of these reactive forces; then these reversed forees, as shown in Fig. 7-10(c), constitute the set of equivalent nodal forces. Thus, it is scen that the equivalent nodal forces obtained by two.approaches are the same. Jt may be mentioned that the latter procedure is simple and can conveniently be applied to one-dimensional elements subjected to any type of loading. 7.6.2 Example ‘Consider a rectangular plate element subjected to a constant upward pressure Pr per unit area (Fig. 7.11). It may be seen that the Plate is symmetrically Fea)? Fleait y Fig. 7.11 Rectangular plate element subjected to constant upward pressure Pe.Formulation of Finite Element Method 129 Joaded; hence one needs to compute the equivalent nodal forces only at one node, since Feemn * Feegis ™ Fieghs = Fteeno (7.35) Fey = Fens = Foon = Firm (7.36) Figh = Fiee = Feeds = Feeana 737 ‘Also for this problem {9} dS = p, dx dy (7.38) Now using the results of section 6.4.1.1, the transverse displacement w at 1 point (x, ») in the domain of the element is given by Eq. (6.94). Hence substituting in Eq. (7.26), the matrix [N,] corresponding to node (1) and Eq, (7.38), we get Foe a ft fe =P i; f (MJ? dedy (7.39) ten) where the transpose of matrix [Nj] is given by '-3-(-F)a('-4)-(-)0-Fe or - (25-2) om L fab -a0-a Upon expanding Eq. (7.39), we get ron nf ft -B-0-B)5(0-9 ee roan of O-J8C-H per a ran MELEE oan130 Finite Element Method for Siructural Engineers Upon jategrating Eq. (7.41), (7-42) and (7.43), we get ret (74a) i Thus using Eqs. (7.35), (7.36) and (7.37), equivalent nodal forces may be expressed for the remaining nodes. In the next sub-section, computation of nodal displacements, forces and stresses are presented. Fee giz a Fee = Ps ab Freshy. (3 | h I 7.7 CALCULATION OF NODAL DISPLACEMENTS, FORCES AND STRESSES As mentioned earlier, the basic unknowns in the finite element analysis are the nodal displacements. Hence, before the computation of element forces and stresses, nodal displacements in global coordinate system are computed; and later, using transformation of coordinate axes, these nodal displacements are computed for each element in local coordinate system. 04. ‘Calculation of Nodal Displacements in Global Coordinate System After determining the overall stiffness matrix, eliminating the restrained degrees of freedom and computing the cquivalent applied nodal loads, the unknown nodal displacements in global coordinate system may be obtained using Eq, (7.19). Premultiplying both sides of Eq. (7.19) by the inverse of matrix [nah We get (a) = (Kook? {Fri (7.48) noting that (Kas)~" [Kn] = [/]; where [7] is a (nn) identity matrix. Thus, Ea. (7.45) gives the desired valucs of the unknown nodal displacements in global coordinate system. It may be pointed out that the solution of simultaneous Eq. (7.19) can also be obtained by using other methods, some of which are given in Appendix D. For more details, readers may refer to references (74, 1.5, 7.6). 7.1.2 Calculation of Nodal Displacements in Local Coordinate System After determining the nodal displacements in global coordinate system for the entire structure, these displacements can be obtained at the nodes ofFormulation of Finite Element Method 131 each clement as its numbering system is known (see Step2). Thus using Eq. (4.48), one may obtain the element nodal displacements (&°)( in local evordinate system as: {a'yo = [Tyo faye (7.48) where {A} denotes nodal displacements at the nodes of the element (e) in global coordinate system and {7} denotes the element transformation matrix which is determined in section 7.3 for each clement. Thus, after obtaining the clement nodal displacements (A’}), element forces and stresses may be determined. 7.7.3. Element Nodal Forces ‘The forces at the nodes of element (¢) may be obtained by using the element force-displacement relationship defined by Eq. (4.20), which may be rewritten as! {Fy} = [eye faye (7.47) In the above equation, both element stiffness matrix and nodal displace- ment vector are known from earlier section. Hence, Eq. (7.47) gives. the desired clement nodal forces in local coordinate system. 7.7.4 Element Stresses ‘The stresses in an clement (e) may be determined (see Eq. 4.16) as: fev = [Ie [a] ayer 7.48) where matrices (](" and [B® may be obtained for the appropriate elemen, from either chapter 5 or 6. Thus, Eq. (7.48) gives the values of stress components in the element (e) in focal coordinate system, Inthe subsequent final chapter, examples are presented to illustrate the application of finite element analysis, REFERENCES faic, W.N. Theory of Structures, University of Technology Pub- wghdad, 1984. .S., Theory of Matrix Structural Analysis, McGraw- Hill Book Company, New York, 1968, 7.3 Desai, C8, and ILF. Abel, Iniroductton to the Finite Element Method, ‘Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, Naw York, 1972. TAK132 14 WS 16 Finite Element Method for Structural Engineers Gore, J-M, and W. Weaver Jr., Matrix Algebra for Engineers, Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, New York, 1965, Fox, L.. dn latraduction to Numerical Lincar Algebra, Oxford University Press, New York, 1965, Jensen, H.G. and G.A. Parks, “Eificiemt Solutions for Linear Matriy Equatians”, Proc, ASCE, J. ST. Dy, Vol. 96, ST, Jan. 1970.CHAPTER 8 APPLICATION OF FINITE ELEMENT METHOD chapter, examples are presented to illustrate the basic steps in the element method, given in the preceding chapter. First, solutions of examples which use one-dimensional elements, are given in detail using ations. Later an example which uses two-dimensional elements Finally, in the end of this chapter, additional problems of small dimensions are given as exercises. 81 EXAMPLE 1: ANALYSIS OF PIN-JOINTED STRUCTURE Consider a five member pin-jointed truss loaded as shown in Fig. Ex. (a). The members are assumed to be prismatic and of the same matei The cross-sectional properties (areas) are given in the figure and the modu- lus of elasticity of the material is taken to be 2x 10° N/mm. Now in order to analyse the structure using the finite element method, the step-wise pro- cedure stated in Chapter 7 is followed. 8.1.1 Step 1; Discretization of Structure Pin-jointed truss is a simple structure and can be diseretized using one-di- mensional truss elements. In this problem, members are assumed to be prismatic, hence each member may be taken as an clement. Thus the idealized structure has 5 elements and 4 nodes as shown in Fig. Ex. 1.1(b). 8.1.2 Step 2: Generation of Basic Duta The numbering of elements and nodes, as stated before, is completely arbitrary and can be done in any systematic manner. For this example, Fig. Ex. 1.1(b) shows the element and node numbering system; the elements are designated by ¢;, ¢y,..., ¢, and nodes by numbers in circles. The idealized structure shown in Fig. Ex. 1.1(b) is referred in global coordinate system: The possible nodal displacements and the associated134 Finite Element Method for Sirustural Engineers 1OkN 1500.mmé {a) ft’ Faroe Fart For (2000) &1 Fiat (b) (2000,2000) e3 @Q—« o *2 (2000,0) weeyee 0 te ors Fyeby Fig. Ex. 1.1 Pin-joidted truss, nodal foress for the unrestrained structure are also shown in the figure; these, in vector form, can be expressed as‘Application of Finite Element Method 135 ay CF a [5 a x wed’: med” (Ex. LD as ra Beat Ie r, Aad UA, It may be noted that the nodal forces and displacements at any node of truss element are designated first in x-direction and then in -direction according to the following system: Index Number—in x-direction : 27-1 in y-direction 2i where i is the node number. The basic data consisting of element description, mat section properties are given in columns (2), (3), and (4) of Table Ex. 1.1, respectively. Table Ex. 1.1 Basic Data and Direction Cosines Element | Direction Cosines E L Description _ ‘Number | ose wu) I m 3 | 6 7 2000 l 0 2000 1 0 2000 0 1 2000/7) 0.707 0.707 20002} 0.707 | —0.707136 Finite Element Method for Structural Engineers 8.1.3. Step 3: Determination of Transformation Matrices Figure Ex. 1.2 shows orientation of elements in local and global coordi- nate systems. As stated before, the po: direction of the clement or local x-axis for an element '(e) will be defined by the direction from the first node (/) to the second node (j). To give a physical picture of the transfor- mation of coordinate axes, the transformation angles required to rotate the ‘elements so that the two cbordinate system coincide with each other, are shown in Fig. Ex. 1.2. It may be noted that the angle (y) is measured from the global axcs in a counterclockwise direction snd y"-axis is located fol- towing the right-hand-thumb rule. i can be used in defining the transformation matrices. Here the second approach, which is more general, is used (see section 7.3). tye) A o %2 @ Fig. Ex. 1.2 Orientation of elements in local and global coordinate systems, Following the second approach for determining the transformation matrices, direction cosines are computed using the nodal coordinates in global system. These nodal coordinates are defined in Fig. Ex. 1.1(b). Thus, using Eq. (7.2), the direction cosines for element (e,) whose first nodeApplication of Finite Element Method 137 is (7 = 4) and second node is (j= 1) may be expressed as 1 005 (2, 3) = BA m= €05 (x, y) = (Ex. 1.3) where Substituting values of nodal coordinates in the above equations one obtains Le = 2000 mm, T= 1 and m0, (Ex. 1.4) Similarly, lengths and direction cosines of other elements may be obtained. Columns (5), (6) and (7) of Table Ex. 1.1 give these values for all the clements. Now the transformation matrices for the truss elements can be obtained by directly substituting the values of direction cosines im Bq. (5.45); rewritten as fiom 0 04 | —m 0 0 | IT} = | 0 1 “| (Ex. 1.5) Loo -m 7 rio o oF Jo 10 o| (7) = [Ty = : (Ex. 1.6) [° 1 9 | o 0 0 iJ fo 1 0 oF mip te (ry "| 0 6 0 |! (Ex. 1.7) Lo o-1 of138 Finite Element Method for Structural Engineers [ 0.707 0.707 0 0 | =0.707 0.707 0 0 (T= : (Ex. 1.8) | 0 © 0707 0.707 | Loo 0 -0.707 0.707 and 0.707 = —0.707 0 oy 0707 0.707 So 0 [Ty = (Ex, 1.9) | 0 0 0.707 “an | Lo o 0.707 0.707 8.1.4 Step 4; Assembly of Overall Stiffness Matrix The assembly of overall stiffness matrix for the entire structure consists of determining element stiffness matrices in global coordinate system and then assembly of these matrices to obtain the overall stiffness matrix. The clement stiffness matrices in global coordinate system can be ob- tained using Eq (7.6), which for a typical element (e) ean be expressed as (= ee (Ex.1.10) For truss clements, the transformation matrix [7 is defined by Eq. (Ex. 1,5); and the clement stiffness matrix [A’* in local coordinate system is defined by Eq. (5.20), as pu wy = 4 I Lo (Ex. 1.11) Substituting in the above equation, values of A,, FE, and L, from Table Ex. 1.1, one obtains 2 (Bx. 1.12) rr) —— 2 a aApplication of Finite Element Method 139 1 0-1 Of ‘ o 90 0 0 | a= 75 N/mm 2 LAD wey |- to 0| i (Ex. 1.13) o o o oJ Note: [eT = [eye = Ge 5 and (RTE = [aT Before proceeding to determine the element stiffness matrices in global coordinate system, one needs to know the correspondence between the numbering of nodes and degrees of freedom associated with cach clement in the two coordinate systems. Jn local coordinate system description of any truss clement (e) is always given as (1—2), whereas in global system, it is different foreach element (see Table Ex. 1.1). Thus, knowing the ele- ment description in the two coordinate systems and following Fig. Ex 1.3, Fedt @ FyaQp oe os Foiarbzia O pryinnai en S21 Fig. Ex 13 Numbering of nodal forces aod displacements for typical element (¢), the correspondence between the numbering of nodes and associated nodal forces/displacements in the local and global coordinate system may easily be obtained as given in Table Ex. 1.2. Substituting the values of matrices in Eq. (Ex. 1.10) and performing matrix multiplication, the element stiff- ness matrices in global coordinate system are given as 7 8 1 2 r2 0-2 077 0 0 0 O}B unens| | kN/mm. (Ex. 1.14) |-2 0 2 0 | Lo o o o42140 Finite Flemeat Method for Structural Bagiacers 563 4 2 0-2 O15 o 0 0 0 Is ays = 75 N/mm (Ex. 115) | o 2 0 | 3 0 0 0 ol4 ‘Table Ex, 1.2 Correspondence between numbering of the nodal forces/nodal displacements in local and global coordinate systems, Numbering system in at tir noe @) O 1C5: Locat coordinate system GCS: Glovat comrsinate system 304 1 2 o 0 0 043 o 2.0 -2 |4 kN faye ce 75 —— (Ex. 1.16) ie o 0 0 6 jt ae » o -2 0 242 5 6 1 2 f 0s 08 -05 0575 05 05 —05 —05 |6 1 exun lke = 75 ths -05 -05 05 O5)1 ™™ 05 -05 05 05)2Application of Finite Element Method 141 7 8 3 4 05 -05 -05 0577 05 05 OS —O5)8 gy fey = 75 = (Gx. 1.18) -05 05 Os —05;3 ™™ OS -05 -05 05)4 where the numbers written on the top and on the right-hand side of the matrices denote the degree of freedom associated with the element in global coordinate system (see Table Ex. 1.2). It may be noted that for elements (¢,) and (¢,), the local and global coordinate systems coincide with each other, Hence, clement stiffness matrices for these two elements are the same in, the two coordinate systems and one need not perform the matrix multiplication as given in Eq. (Ex. 1.10). Also element stiffness matrices in global coordinate system can be obtained directly using Eq. (5.47), which is rewritten as Pim =P =im] tm om? wer = 42 —h in p Im L —im —m im om ‘Substituting from Table Ex. 1.1, the values of /, m, A, E, and L for respec- tive elements in the above equation, one obtains the same matrices as given by equations (Ex. 1.14) to (Ex. 1.18). The readers are suggested to compare the results for few elements. Now to obtain the overall stiffness matrix [KX], coefficients of matrices [4] are placed at the appropriate locations of this matrix and finally using the principle of superposition one obtains 1 2 465 6 7 8 p25 os 0 0-05 -05 -20 O71 Os 2.5 0 -20 -05 —05 0 "| 2 3 4 05 -05 -20 o 25 0.5 0 0)5 05 -05 oO 0 O05 05 0 0)6 —20 0-05 05 0 O 25 -05|7 L o 9 O05 0.5 0 0-05 0.5) 8 kN oe (Ex. 1.20) im mt (Ex. 1.19) 0 0 25 -05 —2.0 0-05 O05 -20 -O05 25 oO 0 05 —05 [kK] = 75142 Finite Element Method for Structural Engineers 8.1.5 Step 5: Elimination of Restrained Degrees of Freedom The overall force-displacement equation for the unrestrained pin-jointed ‘truss shown in Fig. Ex. 1.1(b) may be expressed as {F) = [x1 {a} (Ex 1.21) where the vectors and matrix are given by Eqs. (Ex. 1.1) and (Ex. 1.20), respectively. The solution of governing Eq. (Ex. 1.21) requires elimination of the restrained degrees of freedom before solving for the unknown nodal displacements, Noting that nodes (3) and (4) are restrained (hinged), the nodal displacement vector may be partitioned as cm A bs = (Ex. 1.22) By Where {0q} of order (4X1) is a vector of unknown nodal displacements and {4,} of the same order is a vector of known displacements at the re- strained nodes. ‘Thus, bs) Ay {da} = (Ex. 1.23) Ay la a =0 {a} = 2 { (Ex, 1.24) =0Application of Finite Element Method 143 Accordingly, the force-displacement Eq. (Ex. 1.21) can also be partitioned as Fa nS where (F:} of order (4 <1) is a veotor of known nodal forces at the unre- strained nodes and (F;} of order (4x1) is a vector of unknown reactive forces at the restrained nodes. For this example, Eq. (Ex. 1.25) is expressed as (Ex. 1.25) Fd 2505 0 oO f-05 -05 -20 0 | a os 25 0 —20)-05 -05 0 0 | 0 0 25 -05]-20 0 -oO5 O05 R| 6 -20-05 25) 0 0 O85 -05 fs | eee soe se Fe 05 05-20 of] 25 05 O oO |x —05 05 09 o| o5 OF oO 0 5 -20 0 -05 05] O 0 25 —05 i o 0 05 —05! 0 o —05 O05 f a Ay Ss | | da | —}b kN (Ex. 1.26" Ay J ba Upon expanding the above partitioned matrix equation, we get {Fert} = [Kaa] {2} (Ex. 1.27)144 Finite Eloment Method for Structural Enginesrs C4) 25 05 9 074 64) ls os 25 ASS! Om od * $= 95 4 KN (Ex, 1.28) | Fy | 0 25-05 | | 4% LAL 0 =20 —0.5 scl Ld and {Fe} = [Kral (4) (Ex. 1.29) (a } 05 -05 —20 0 A i | -05 -05 0 oO de or 4 =15 Kf KN (Ex 1.30) | * i -20 0 ~o5 As i LAS o 0 05 -05 I Ay 8.1.6 Step 6: Determination of Equivalent Applied Nodal Forces In this example, only one force of 10 kN is acting at node 1 in y-direction. Thus ray f 004 rand et Jmol, (Ex. 1.31) ee 34 cap (Ex. 1. LAS (00 8.1.7 Step 7: Computation of Nodal Displacements, Element Forces and Element Stresses ) Nodal Displacements i Global Coordinate System Fremultiply both sides of Eq. (Ex. 1.27) by the inverse of matrix (Kee). we obtan {On} = [Xan]! {Fea} (Ex.1.32) or (2) 25°05 0 OF foo 41, [05 25 0 —2.0 10.0 = mm (Ex. 1.33) 4s 0 0 25 -05 0.0 Ay Fi —2.0 -05 2.5. L 0.0,Application of Finite Element Method 143 On solving the above equation, we get fo (0.3636) i \ | 4, | | 1gig | + x lO mm (Ex. 1.4) | ead 0.3030 | tay sts J i) Reactive Forces Substituting values of nodal displacements in Eq. (Ex. 1.30), we get (*] 05 —05 -20 007] f-0.2636 y | -0.5 —05 0.0 00 1.8181 = 1S | F | —20 00 —0.5 o | 0.3030 FJ Loo oo os -o5. LS1S1 UA J (Ex. 1.35) On matsix multiplication, we obtain fF ae ] ik Sas 130) = x1. i | 10.0 i Fy, —4.545 ‘The nodal forces and nodal displacements are shown in Fig. Ex. 1.4. One can see as a check that the overall equilibrium conditions are satisfied. (iil) Nodat Displacements in Local Coordinate System (LCS) ‘These nodal displacements can be obtained using Eq. (7.46) which may be rewritten as {aye= ITT ao (ee 1.37) Thus, for element (e,), {A} can be obtained as Ay!) bead 10 0 0} ee 0.0 } Ie jor a] = ee ena - se 1 As Ee 1 y le oo 1 bag 1.8181145 Finite Element Method for Structural Engineers 47200 Oe Ayst5181 ae 200 43=03030 Fig. Ex, 1.4 ‘Nodal foree (in kN) and nodal displacements (in mm 10-1), On matrix multiplication, we obtained ay e fr 00 | Ay’ 0.0 rt = 10mm (Ex. 1.39) Ast | — 0.3636 | Lag) (18181 y Similarly these displacements at the nodes of all other elements can be obtained in local coordinate system as given in Table Ex. 1,3, (iv) Element Forces Using Eq. (7.17), the force-displacement relationship for a typical truss element (¢) may be written as Er 10-10 Laie Fi sal 0 90 as! ep Ee tal yap om LAJ Loo oot LaryApplication of Finite Element Method 147 Tuble Ex. 1.3 Nodal Displacements in LCS faye) | % | a % % . Node: First | 4 3 2 3 4 Ay mm x 107] 0.0 [0.0 1.5151] 0.0 0.0 Aji mm x10) 00 |0.0 | —0.3030 0.0 0.0 Nodez Second A,’ mm x 10-" | —0.3636 | 0.3030 3 1.0285 | — 0.8571 Ag mm x 107) 1.8181] 1.5151 . 1.3285) 1.2856 Oo matrix multiplication, we obiain xe 6 a= YO Ff AE o Leases a (Ex. 1.41) BR BY nace ag , lel a] or 3 Ponta R = FE aay x. 149) where Pe denote the force in the element (e). Table Ex. 1.4. Element Forces and Stresses Ele. No. Imm x 10-4 ried (AB/EM| Ay’ leN/mm|mm x 10-4 0.3636 5454 0.3030 | = 4,545 0.3030 | —4.545 1.0285 | —7.714 0.8571148 Finite Element Method for Structural Epgineers It may be noted that if Fis positive, then foree Pie is compressive and vice-versa. Now using Eq. (Ex. 142), the forces in the elements may be obtained as given in Table Ex. 1.4, () Etement Stresses Rewriting Eq. (7.47) for a typical element (e): {o'} = [ge [BRA (ape (Ex, 1.43) where for a truss element, these are defined as fo} = aff! (see Section 5 Week (see Eq. 5,32) te—[- 0 z o| (see Eq. 5.30) 3) and {A} = [Ay Ay 4," ayo? Substituting these values in Eq. (Ex. 1.43) and Performing matrix multiplication, we obtain Fry s = — Fas ayo (Ex. 1.44) Finally, substituting value of (&' ~ ayy from Eq. (Ex. 1.42), we pet tp Pe eat (Ex. 1.45) The signs for stresses are opposite to that of forces, ic. a negative sign will imply compressive stress and a positive sign will imply tensile stress, The values of element stresses are given in the last column of Table Ex. Ld, This completes the analysis of a pin-jointed structure. Readers may note 1. Matrix [K] is symmetrical and afl its diagonal terms are positive, This provides a check on results 2 Upto step 5, the fnite element analysis is independent of loading conditions. Thus a structure can easily be solved for different Joad- ing conditions, ence the.overall matrix [K] is assembled, 4. The slight difference in the results ase due to rounding-off of the numbers. 82 EXAMPLE 2: ANALYSIS OF BEAM Consider a redundant beam loaded as shown in Fig. Ex. 2.1(a) The beam is assumed to be prismatic with constant flexural rigi-Application of Finite Element Method 149 dity Ef = 5166360 kN.m?. Also shear deformation is neglected, Now in order to determine the transverse displacement and rotation at the node (3) and the reactive forees at the supports, the steps stated in Chapter 7 are applied in a straight forward manner. 592 kN 2286 225m 226m ty Fate ic) Fig. Ex, 2.1 Redundant beam, 38, 1 Step 1; Discretization of structure ‘The beam can be discretized using three elements and four nodes as shown in Fig. Ex. 2.1(b). 8.2.2 Step 2: Generation of Basic Data ‘The numbering of elements and nodes, global coordinate system, the possi- ‘ble displacements and the associated nodal forces for the unrestrained structure are shown in Fig. Ex. 2.1(b). In vector form, these nodal displace- ments and nodal forces can be expressed as150 Finite Element Method for Structural Engineers Ay Fy bh iA= (Ex. 2.1) Ay dy Ag A, denote transverse nodal deflections ‘Ay Ag Ay, denote rotations at nodal points Fy Fo Vy F, denote transverse nodal forces Fy, Fu Fy Fy denote moments at nodal points. ‘The basic data for this example is given below: Table Ex. 2.1 Basic Data Element Number | Description Node ()—(} 8.2.3 Step 3: Determination of Transformation Matrices The x-axis in the global coordinate system is selected in such a way that it coincides with the axis of the beam. Hence, the global and local coordi-Application-of Finite Element Method 151 nate systems coincide with each other and the transformation matrices of order (4x 4) reduce to identity matrices for all the elements. Thus, Ty = [TY (TT = ar (Ex. 2.2) 8.2.4 Step 4: Assembly of Overall Stiffaess Matrix Since the two coordinate systems coincide, we can use directly the clement stiffness matrices in the local system to obtain the stifiness matrix of the assembled structure, ‘The stiffness matrix for a typical beam element (¢), neglecting axial and shear deformations, may be expressed as (see Eq. 5.67) fp 1ler 6Er IEE 6 rrr B SEL ABEL _ SEL 2 PP FE eo = 223 a | EI _6EL AEF _ GET Gx. 23) TE EP TF B él 2EE GET ET Le Tor TI Note [kK = [ef as [THO = [TYo. Substituting in Eq. (Ex. 2.3) the values of EV, and ZL, for respective elements, we obtain P 5189.64 = 59317.59 5189.64 59317.594 Ck 59317.59 904000.00 —59317.59 — 452000.00 | KN [Ke = a | 5189.64 —59317.59 5189.64 = —59317.59 L 59317.59 452000.00 —59317.59 904000.00] (Ex. 2.4) Since Eloy = Eloy = Ely 008 Lp, = Digg = Leye hence [AJ = [J = [Jn Before proceeding to determine the overall stiffness matrix, one needs152 Finite Element Method for Structural Engineers to know the correspondence between the numbering of nodes and. assoei- ated nodal forcesjnedal displacements in local and global coordinate systems. This correspondence in tabular form is given below, Table Ex. 2.2 Correspondence Between Numbering Systems Numbering System in For Ele. e e At First 1 1 Node [ At Second Node j Now to be obtain [X], cocflicients of clement stiffness matrices are placed at the appropriate locations of this matrix and finally using the ‘principle of superposition one obtains Eq. (Ex. 2.5).153 te Element Method ait ‘Application of Fi (zt xa) o=* 1 000F06 uies-| ooogsy | 6sLIE6S 0 0 0 0 [ ind o='0 sues | beens |suie-| pvregis—| 0 | o | o 0 ona pasty noes |seaees-| const | 0 ‘Qoozet: | 0 0 amv] | osctess | eats o | 82 GLCOI |6e"LlE6s—|to'68Is— ] 9 at | 0 | 0 oooese fés"L1eés—| OookoaT 0 ooazsr | ezTe6s omg oF 0 0 OS LIg6s | ‘9681S — 0 STSLEOL | 6SLIEKS—| weas-| iu i a 0 o 0 | o oootse JésLig6s—| ODOrOG | Es LIEES ony | 9 ae o | 0 - 0 0 esreic6s | v9'6RIS— fortes #9 eRIE , =u154 Finite Element Method for Struciural Engineers 8.2.5 Step 5: Elimination of Restrained Degrees of Freedom The averall force-displacement relationship for the unrestrained beam shown in Fig. Ex. 2 1(b) may be expressed as PF} = [K] {a} (Ex. 2.5) where vectors and matrix are given by Eq, (Bx. 21) and (Ex. 2.5), respectively. Noting the support conditions, the nodal displacement vector can be Partitioned into vectors of unknown and known nodal displacements as ay pmo} wpe 4b and tay = {7} (27) As | | 4,=0 la, La,=0: Accordingly, the governing force-displacement Eq. (Ex. 2.6) can be rearranged and partitioned as shown in previous problem (see Eq. Ex. 1.25). This rearrangement of equations is clmbersome as can be seen for this simple example. Hence another approach far obtaining the solution of unknown displacements is presented. The rows and columns pertaining to zero displacements and/or rotations are deleted from the governing matrix Eq. (Ex. 2.6) and the resulting reduced force-displacement equation may be expressed as fF) (" 04000.0 452000.0 o o ‘Oy | Fy | 4520000 1808000.0 —59317.59 452000.0 De | ‘F, | ~ oO —S9IF17.59 = :10379,28 0 | | Os lAJ Lo 45200000 0 ~=— 18080000) Lay ; (Ex. 2.8) ‘This equation‘is similar to one defined by Eq. (Ex. 1.27). The restrained degrees af freedom has been eliminated and Eq. (Ex. 2.8) can be solved for unknown displacements. 8.2.6 Step 6: Determination of Equivalent Applied Nodal Fores ‘There is only one nodal force which is acting on the beam, hence (RY fF oo y Ky 00 Fer) = - Ex. 2.9 mn | ial (ex 28) A | Oo yApplication of Finite Element Method 155 8.2.7 Step 7: Computation of Nodal Displacements and Reactive Forees @ Nodal Displacements Premultiply both sides of Eq. (Ex. 2.7) by the inverse of the matrix [Kea}, we obtain f 904000,.0 = 452000.0 a 0 Pop oy 1 452000.0 — 1808000.0 — 59317.59 452000.0 | 0 | 0 == 59317.59 10379.28 0 | | | Lo 4$2000.0 0 18080000] | 0 4 (Ex.2.10) By solving the above equation, one obtains fas) (14970 10° rad) A | | 2.9940 x 10-* rad w 4 (Ex. 211) | Ay | | ~7.4146 x 10-8 m Lad Oe7485 x 10-* rad Gi) Reactive Forces Substituting the values of the nodal displacements in the governing foree-displacement Eq. (Ex. 2.5). one obtains, after matrix multiplication, the reactive forces as Fy = — 88.798 KN Fy= 340.392 kN (Ex.2.12) F, = 340.406 kN Fy = — 6059.84 kN. ‘Ie may be noted that the reactive forces obtained above correspond to only known displacement and/or rotation conditions. 1) Nodal Displacements For Each Element in Local Coordinate System Using Eq. (7.46), these displecements can be obtained easily as the twa coordinate systems coincide with each other (see Table Ex. 2.3).156 Finite Element Method for Structural Engineers Table Ex, 2.3 Nodal Displacements in LCS {A We) a ey ee Node: First 1 2 3 A mx 10+ 0.0 00 7.4146 Ay’ rad «10-9 1.4970 | —29940 0.7485 Node: Second TAME 0.0 Am x 10-* Ay’ rad x 10-* (iv) Element Forces Using Eq. (7.47), the force-displacement relationship for a typical beam element (¢), shown in Fig, Ex. 2.1 (6), may be expressed as {FY = KIO (ys (Ex. 2.13) where [&'J© is given by Eq. (Ex. 2.3) and the vectors may be expressed as rr ran} 0 eyed hae (Ex. 2.14) \* |" Les Lay Substituting in local coordinate system the values of the element stiffness matrices (using Eq. Ex. 24) and the nodal displacements (using Table Ex, 2.3), one obtains after matrix multiplication the element forces as given in Table Ex. 2.4Application of Finite Element Method 157 Table Ex, 2.4 Element Forces {F'v(e) | AEN — 88.798 251.593 — 340.406 Fi kN 00 2029.92 —3721.52 F,' kN 88.798 251,593 340.406 F/ Nom — 2029.92 3721.52 — 4059.54, This completes the analysis of the beam shown in Fig. Ex. 2.1 (a). It may be pointed out that if the beam-is non-prismatis, its length is divided into a number of finite elements and the cross-sectional properties within cach element may be assumed to be constant for ease in computations. However in the finite element method one can have varying moment of inertia and cross-sectional area. 83 EXAMPLE 3: ANALYSIS OF DEEP BEAM Figure Ex. 3.i(a) shows a deep beam. Simply supported at the ends and subjected to in-plane uniformly distributed load. The exact solution of this problem, treating as a plane stress case, isavailable in the literature [8.1) and provides a good example for comparison of the results using finite element method. In this section, solution of the problem is not presented as it is not feasible using hand calculations, only the various steps in the formulation of the problem arc discussed. Interested readers may use any of the computer programmes available, some of which are listed in Appendix G. 8.3.1 Step 1: Discretization of Structure ‘The decp beam with in-plane loading (Fig. Ex. 3.1(a)) is a planesstress problem and can be idealized using two-dimensional elements with in-plane forces. Fig, Ex. 3.1(b) shows idealization of the beam using rectangular plate elements {in-plane forces). The number of elements will depend upon the accuracy desired in the solution. It may be pointed out that the accuracy will improve with the increase in number of elements but at the same time, computation will also increase.158 Fistite Element Method for Structural Engineers aX fn {ad 8s, id Lm '6:Simply supported tb) ter ee x By Fy OnF7 Fig. Ex. 3.1 Deep beam with in-plate losding. 4.3.2 Step 2; Generation of Basic Data In order to minimize the band width (sce section 7.2.1), a typical numbering system for nodes and elements are shown in Fig. Ex. 3.1(b). For these elements, the possible nodal displacements at each node are two, Hence for the idealization shown in Fig. Ex. 3.1(b), the semi-band width (SBW), the nodal displacement vector and the associated nodal force veetor can be expressed as SBW = 2x(44 1) = 10 (Ex. 31) {4} = [O, A)... (Ex. 3.2)Application of Finite Element Method 159 {FE (Fy Fas cocsee Fagl? (Ex. 3.3) ‘The basic data can easily be generated as all elements are of the same material and dimensions. Thus, one obtains for all elements px bia=F (Ex. 3.4) and the coefficients of elasticity matrix are given by Eq. (6.59). The des- cription of elements are given by nodes taken in clockwise direction (see Table Ex, 3.1). ‘Table Ex. 3.1 Description of Elements Element Description Element Description Number Number 1-2-5—4 13- 14-17-16 2-3-6-5 14=15—18-17 4—-5-8-7 1617-20-19 5—6-9-8 17~18—21—20 7-8-1110 19-20-2322 89-12-11 2021-24-23 10 -11—14—13 es 22-23-2625 MM 12-15-14 es 23—24--27-26 8.33 Step 3: Determination of Transformation Matrices ‘The x and x’ axes for all the elements are parallel to each other, hence the transformation angle is equal to zero and the transformation matrices will reduce to identity matrices. 83.4 Step 4: Assembly of Overall Stiffness Matrix ‘The stiffess niatrix for 2 typical rectangular plate element(e) with in-plane forecs is given by Eq. (6.65), Substituting the values of f and coefficients of elasticity matrix for each element, one obtains the element stiffness matrices, In this example, these matrices ere thesame as efements are of the same dimensions and of the same material.160 Finite Element Method for Structural Engineers The correspondence between the numbering of nodes and nodal forces} nodal displacements in local and global coordinate systems can easily be obtained by using the system defined in Eq. (Ex, 1.2), which is also used in this example, For example, consider element (e,) whose description is given by nodes as 10—1!—14—13 (see Table Ex. 3.1). Thus the desired correspondence can be expressed as: LCS (e) GCS Ke) NODE DOF | NODE DOF Table (Ex. 3.5) 27 3 6 28 7 23 4 13 8 26 Similarly, the correspondence between the numbering in two systems canbe obtained for allthe other elements. Naw following the procedure presented in the previous two examples, the overall stiffness matrix [KTof order (54x 54) may be obtained for the unrestrained idealized structure shown in Fig. Ex. 3.1(b). 8.3.5 Step 5: Elimination of Restrained Degrees of Freedom The governing force-displacement matrix equation for the idealized un- restrained deep beam may be expressed as 1F} = [1 {4} (Ex. 3.6) In order to climinate the restrained degrees of freedom, the simple supports ot the two ends of the beam provide the following conditions: Atleftend : d= dy = d= 0 (Ex. 3.7) Atright end : jy = dq = dy = 0 (Ex. 3.8)Application of Finite Element Method 161 Following the procedure presented in Example 2, ic. deleting the rows and columns corresponding to restrained displacements, one obtains the reduced foree-displacement equation as {Fea} = [Ken] (Qa} (Ex. 3.9) where n = 48. 8.3.6 Step 6: Determination of Equivalent Applied Nodal Forees ‘The beam is subjected to uniformly distributed load as shown in Fig. Ex. 3.1(@). The applied nodal forces shown in Fig. Ex. 3.1(b) can easily be calculated (see Sec. 7.6). Thus, the coefficients of vector (fg) can be expressed as F,=00, F200, F=0.0, Fy 00, F=00, Fo=0.0, Fa=—W, Fu=0.0, Fy =0.0, Fy =0.0, Fy=—W, Fog= 0.0, Fy =0.0, Fn = 0.0, Fu=-W, Fy =00, Fy=00, Fu=00, Fo=—F, Fy =0.0, Fy=0.0, Fu =0.0, Fyy= 0.0, Fre —W, Fo=00, Fy=0.0, Fy=—W, Fy 00, Fy=0.0, Fu=—W, Fu =0.0, Fa = 0.0, Fu =0.0, Eyg=0.0, Fa =0.0, Fy = 0.0. 8.5.7 Step 7: Computation of Nodal Displacements and Element Stresses () Nodal Displacements Knowing {Fer} and [Kz], Eq. (Ex. 39) can be solved for unknown nodal displacements (&,}. There are many methods available for obtaining the solution of banded matrix equation (see Appendix D). (i) Nodal Displacements for Each Element Using Eq. (7.46), these displacements can be obtained. (iii) Element Stresses Knowing the nodal displacements for each element {4°}? the stresses can be obtained using Eq. (7.48). This completes the step-wise analysis proce- dure for a continuum idealized using two-dimensional elements. It may be pointed out that analysis of deep beam by finite element method can also be done using triangular plate elements (in-plane forces).162 Finite Element Method for Structural Engineors PROBLEMS: P-1__ Find the displacements at the node (1) of the truss loaded as shown in Fig. P-1. Assume that (4£) is constant for all the members of the truss x 4 Fig. (P-1) P-2 Accantilever pin jointed structure, shown in Fig. P-2, is hinged to tn Fig, (P—2)Application of Finite Element Method 153 unyielding supports at 4, C and E, ‘The structure carries a vertical load of SO KN at B. Determine the nodal displacements and the axial forces in the members. For all members (AE/L) = 10¢ km, P-3 Assemble the stiffmcss matrix for the truss shown in Fig. P-3, Assume (4é) to be constant for all members. Fig. (P-3) P-4 Calculate the axial forces in the members and the componcats of the displacement at the loaded point of the structure shown in Fig. P-4, Assume d= 6400 mm? and £ = 200 kN/mm® for all the members, AON Fig, (P+) P-5 Find the values of the reactions at the supports of the beams shown, in Fig. P-S. The beams are assumed to be of the same material,Element Method for Structural Englacers 30kN ta) #2 — efe——___5™ __. —| 20KN 30kN Be 25m op. 25m 2m Sm. 24m 25m 25m 1et66500mm £22410" N/mm? Fie, 5) P-6 Analyse the beam shown in Fig. P-6. Node (2) is supported by an elastic support of stiffness (k) N/mm. Prove that when the value of spring stiffness approaches infinity, the beam becomes shown in Fig. P-5(a), Assume £/'to be constant. Fig. (P-6) P-7 Determine support reactions for the continuous beams shown in Fig. P-7.‘Application of Finite Element Method 165 “Ct a 3 4 5)" tl et er tr 4OKN/m tor fen Sm én 1160000 mmi* E2210 kN fmm? | Fig. 7) P-8 Find the displacements at node (1) of the frame shown in Fig, P-8, Also calculate the reactive forces, assuming £/ to be constant. Fig. (P-8) P-9 Neglecting tho shear deformation, assemble the overall stiffness matrix for the frames shown in Fig. P-9. Determine the displace- ments and forces at all the nodes. Assume £/ to be constant.166 Finite Element Method for Structural Engineers so am) 35m ta) . aes [27m bem w im, am Fiz. (2-9) P-10 Ina plane strain problem, the structure is divided into number of triangular clements. A typical element is shown in Fig. P-10. Deter- mine the followin (@) Stiffness matrix of the element, (b) Equivalent applied load vector, Fig, (P10)Application of Finite Element Method 167 Assume thickness = unity, modulus of elasticity = E, and Poisson's ratio = 0.3. P-I1 Determine the equivalent applied load vector for a beam clement subjected to transverse loading varying linearly from w, at x =O tow, atx L, REFERENCE 8.1 Timoshenko, 8.P, and J.N. Goodier, Theory of Elasticity, Third Edi- tion, McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York, 1951,APPENDIX A MATRIX ALGEBRA A.L INTRODUCTION It bas been seen that the finite element method generates a relatively large number of linear set of simultaneous equations. Te ensure systematic and efficient solutions, these equations were written compactly using matrix notations. Here we iatroduce briefly the fundamentals of matrix notation, matrix algebra and matrix calculus necessary for the finite element method, Readers desirous of having more extensive treatment of this topic are refer- red to standard texts [A,1—A.7] listed in reference, A2 MATRIX NOTATIONS AND DEFINITICNS A.2.1 Matrices A matrix is defined as a rectangular array of symbols or numbers arranged in rows and columns and is represented as ay Oy ~w Oy Gx Oy. a= (At) | née oy. Let, ang regs soajsosene | The above matrix has m rows and n columns and is therefore said to be of order (m xn). A typical element ag, is in the ith row and jth column. It is a convention that the first subscript denotes the row number and the second column number. A.2.2 Row and Column Matrices A row matrix is of order (1 x n) and is represented as [A] = [4a Aye 45.00 5---tye] (A-2)Matrix Algebra 169 Acolumn matrix is of order (m 1) and is represented as oy an {4} 4 an (43) ay fy A.2.3 Null Matrix or Zero Matrix When all the clements of a matrix are equal to zero, the matrix is called null or zero and is indicated by the symbol [0]. A24 Square Matrix When the number of rows are equal to the number of columns, then @ matrix reduces to a square array. Such a matrix is called square matrix and is expressed as Si Sone [4] =) a my Sng ny a) ‘The square matrices occupy a special place in finite element method and possess special propertics, Bascd on this, these matrices are classified as follows. A241 Diagonal Matrix A diagonal matrix is a square matrix, It has zero elements everywhere except along the principal diagonal, which is defined as the diagonal run- niog from the upper left to the lower right corner of array. Thus, the elements of a diagonal matrix are ‘ayy, not all are zero for i=} a = for f #4 and can be written as170. Finite Element Method for Structural Engineers ay 0 0.0 i=] oe Quo as 0 0 0 tn ‘The principal diagonal in a square matrix is usually referred to as the diagonal. A242 Scalar Mairix A scalar matrix is a diagonal square matrix in which every element is defined as @ foriay ayy = { for tj For example, it can be expressed as a 0 0 ldJ=|0 « 0 (A) 0 0 @ A243 Unit Matrix Identity Matrix) ‘A unit matrix is a diagonal square matrix, usually denoted as [/] and has unit elements on the principal diagonal and zeros elsewhere, that is, 1 fori=j y= 0 fori xj ‘Thus a unit matrix of order (4 x 4) can be expressed as 1 6 0 Oo o 1 0 o = l° oO 1 °| o 0 0 1 A2AA Banded Matrix ‘A banded matrix is a square matrix and has nonzero elements grouped around the principal diagonal and zero elements elsewhere,Matrix Algebra 171 For example, band matrix can be expressed as. uBWw _ |p a @ 0 0 0 @ OF Law i then dy 0 89 O O | 0 ay ae mm 09 0 0 [4j= 0 % % % 0 0 | (A-8) oO Lo 0 0 0 0 am a ay 0 | 0 0 0 ay. ay ty o 0 0 0 ay ay where UBW and LBW are defined as upper and lower band widths. Only ‘nonzero elements exist in these bands. A245 Triangular Matrix A triangular matrix is a square matrix and all the elements on one side of the principal diagonal are zero. If all the elements below the principal diagonal are zero, the matrix is called upper triangular matrix and usually denoted by [J]. Similarly, a lower triangular matrix (L] is when all the elements above the principal diagonal are zero, For example, these matrices [0] and [L] of order (x n) are expressed as Ten ty ye a a [ty = (9) o 0 Gy Oye a am #40 0 = (10) A246 Symmetric Matrix A symmetric matrix is 4 square matrix whose elements aro symmetrical172 Finite Element Method for Structural Engineers about the principal diagonal, that is, ay = a foralliand j (A-11) A247 Orthogonal Matrix ‘An otthogonal matrix is a square matrix and possesses the following pro- perties (refer section A.3). (a) The inverse and the transpose of an orthogonal matrix are-orthogonal, Also if [7] is an orthogonal matrix, then [7] = [7]. (b) The product of two or more orthogonal matrices is orthogonal. (c) The determinant of an orthogonal matrix is +1. Readers interested in details about this matrix are suggested to refer [A.3, Adj. A.2.5 Partitioned Matrix-Sebmatrices ‘When the array of elements in a matrix is divided into smaller arrays by horizontal and vertical lines then the matrix is referred to as a partitioned matrix and the pactitioned arrays are called submatrices, For example, a matrix of order (4 x 4) may be partitioned into four submatrices as shown, My lay ty ty | ty ta on) fd tA an }{ -{ | am On |e _fo And [ey Me | da a where submatrices [yh [4y, [4au] and [4] are given by aay) ay ay ay [4d = Youbs al =| oe om Oy a a Oe Og, (A-13) [4n} = (anh = [ed [ten aes ul) A3 MATRIX ALGEBRA A31 Matrix Addition Matrices can only be added if they are of the same order. The procedure‘Matrix Algebra 173 of addition of matrices is to add algebraically the corresponding elements in matrices of the same order and the resulting elements form anew matrix ‘of the same order. Thus, if [4] and [B] are two matrices of order (m > 1), the sum of these two matrices are expressed as [Alken + [Blimseny = [Clem ead (A-M) where the clements of the resulting matrix [C] are given by Gu = au + bay for all i and j. (A-15) For exainple 304 5 o 21 340 442 S+1 41 2/4/-9 3 Sf] 44-9) 143 245 le 37 2-4 1, 642 34(-4) 141 Matrix [A] Matrix [3] 3 6 6 =|-5 4°67 (A-16) 8 -1 8. ‘Matrix [C} A3,2 Matrix Subtraction Matrix subtraction follows the same law a for matrix addition, except that corresponding elements of the two matrices are algebraically subtrac- ted, The resulting clements form a new matrix which is the difference of matrices, ie., [Alona — [Blam = [Clomxm {(A-I7) where oy = ary — bis, For all and jf. (A-18) For example 972 48-2 9-4 7-8 2-(-2) lw 0 I-[ 5 il - [ss 0-5 3-3 ] Matrix (4) Matrix [2] 5-1 4 = [ (19) 7 Matrix [CJ A33 Matrix Moltiplication Two matrices [4] and [B] can be multiplied together in order [4] [Z1, if and only if, the number of columns in matrix (4] is equal to the number174 Finite Element Method for Structural Engineers of rows in matrix [5]. This condition is described as conformable, i,¢, the matrices [4] and [B] are said to be conformable for matrix multiplication, ‘Thus, the resulting elements of the product of two matrices form a new matrix [C] whose number of rows are equal to the number of rows of matrix [4] and the number of columns are equal to the number of columns of matrix [2]. Thus [Alin ob [B]tp x 0) = [Cnn (A-20) where elements of matrix [C] are defined as oy = § on by (a2) for f=L2..m and jf = 1,2, 00, me Tt should be noted thet if matrices are not conformable, then matrix multi- Plication is not defined, Also, multiplication of matrix [4] by a scalar c is defined as the multiplication of every element of the miatrix [A] by the scalar ¢; thus, if a [ fag, alte Veg ete on Oey Oey then cfd] = [ a Fe | (A-23) cay Cy Og, ‘Now consider the following example of matrix multiplication. a 3 1 Let lq= [ | (A-24) 4 o 2 Jaxa and 6 3 j=) 2 1 (A-25) 1 5 axe Here m = 2, p = 3 and m = 2, and matrix [C] = [AJ [4] will be of order (2 x 2), The elements of matrix [C] are given by Eq. (A-21). Thus, for f=Lj= len =2x643x%24+1x1=219 $21) =2jen 2x (-3)¢3x141%5=2 feBs— len 4X6 +0x242% 1 = 26 $=2,f= ten = 4x (-3) + 0xX142x5 a2Matrix Algebra 175 6 -3 gilt 3 2k 19 2 75 2 1 (A-26) 4.0) 2% 2% 2 1 5 (4) (B] (c] A3.4 Transpose of Matrix ‘The transpose of a matrix [4] is obtained by interchanging all rows by the corresponding columns and is denoted by [4]". Thus if the order of the matrix [4] is (m Matrix Integration The integral of a function matrix [4] exists only when the integral of each of its element exists. Matrix integration is performed in the same way as the matrix differentiation, ic. each element of matrix [4] is integrated term by term. Hence, the clement in the ith row and jth column of fra assis | uy dite. For example, let the matrix [4] be expressed as x 2x 10 [A]s| 4x9 ont 4x (A-34) Sx* 2x 4then Matrix Algebra 177 x3 x 10. *idre| at oat 28 (35) : # xe dx ‘Multiple integrals are defined in a similar manner. REFERENCES Al, Bodewig, E. Matrix Calculus, North-Holland Publishing Company, Amsterdam, 1959. A2. Aitken, A.C., Determinants ond Matrices, Univ. Math. Texts, Oliver and Boyd, Edinburgh, 1964. A3. , E.H., Introduction to the Algebra of Matrices with Some Applications, Adam Hilger, ‘London, 1969. Ad. Ayres, F., Matrices, Schaum, New York, 1962. AS. Gere, JM. and W. Weaver, Matrix Algebra for Engineers, D. Van ‘Nostrand Co. Inc., Princeton, N.J., 1965. ‘A6. Lee, J.A:N., Numerical Analysis for Computers, Reinhold Publishing Corp., New York, 1966. Ac. Beckett, R., and J. Hust, Numericot Célevlations and Algorithms, ‘McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York, 1967.APPENDIX B REACTIVE FORCES FOR RESTRAINED BEAM ELEMENTS. ‘A restrained beam clement is one whose nodes are restrained against dis- placement i.¢., translation and rotation. The reactive forces, which also include moments, are developed at the restrained nodes when the element is subjected to different load conditions and end-displacements. In this appendix, formulas for reactive forces are presented in tabular form as: Table B-l; Reactive Forces due to Applied Loads Table B-2: Reactive Forces due to Displacements at the nodes, In each case, the beam element is assumed to be prismatic; reactive forces aré denoted by F, and F, and reactive moments by F, and F, The Positive direction of these reactive forces for the cases I to 4 are shown in the figure at the top of Table B.1. It may be pointed out that all the formulas given in the tables can be derived by standard methods in struc- tural analysis (B.{]. Furthermore, for some complicated cases of loadings, reactive forces can also be obtained from the simpler cases by using the principle of superposition. However, for more complicated loading condi- tions as well as for non-prismatic elements, readers are referred to refer- ence {B.2] which gives a more extensive table of reactive forces.Reactive Forces for Restrained Beam Elements 179 Table B-1: Reactive forces duc to applied loads. Case(2) pes unit length — 3 rei a? SS (tah ta) Fe (7-o} ol Case(2 u w ex oP (tan eo ob al 2 Mob Fe BG2 eK Fe MB (2o-big = MO (20-08 aniP ore el180 Finite Element Method for Structural Engineers ‘Table B-2: Reactive forces due to displacements at the node (2). Case (1) Caset2) Case (3) Case(t) ay E= Modulus of elasticity GeMadulus of rigi AsCrose-section area Is Moment ot inertia Jx Torsion constant “aReactive Forces for Restrained Beam Elements 181 REFERENCES B.1. Al-Rifaic, W.N., Theory of Structures, University of Technology Publication, Baghdad, 1984. B.2. Gere, J.M., Moment Distribution, D. Yan Nostrand Company, Inc., Princeton, N.J., 1963. Copyrighted materialAPPENDIX C PROPERTIES OF SECTIONS C1 AREA OF A TRIANGLE The area of a triangle POR (Fig. C.1) may be obtained by subtracting the area of the trapezoid PP\Q,0 from the sum of the areas of the trapezoids PP,R,R and RR,Q,0. From Fig. C.1, areas of the.trapezoids are given by: PPAR = 40, + Ys) (a — 4) Ch RROO = 405+ 35) Oa — 4) (2) PPO,O = 404! 4) Gr 1) (C3) (The area of a trapezoid is equal to the product of one haif the sum of the Parallel bases multiplied by the altitude), " Rxgeyg) yOKn 299) 8 Oye a my rs x = PiRp= Xp 8,5 PPh} RR =n ts RiQi= 455 RR+ OO tH PiQy = Xe — 415 PPL + OOL=V. +2 Fig, C.1 Triangle defined in terms of nodal coordinates. Hence, if A represents the area of the triangle POR, we obtain, from Eq. (C.1), (C2) and (C.3), Bm BOs +390 Os =) + Ue +) Oy — 9) = 1, + DO — C4Properties of Sections 183 ‘Thé above expression after expanding, collecting ‘and rearranging terms, may be expressed as: B= Bs — Ia) — Fi Or — 4) + hs — AY) C5) which is recognized as the expanded form oY the determinant ed Sad| mom Cs) m hoot Equation (C.6) defines the area of a triangle in terms of nodal coordinates. It may be noted that the sign of the arca will depend upon the ordet ia which the points are taken, but its absolute value will be the same. Ience the area of a triangle which is considered positive is givén by the absolute value of the determinant. 2 AREA INTEGRALS Figure C.2 shows a triangular plate element and its coordinate axes, In order to simplify the presentation of arca integrals, the direction of y-axis aken to coincide with the edge (I, 2) of the triangle and the origin is placed at node (1). Thus, the area integrals for the triangular plate ciemient may be expressed as / ®@ ‘o,¥,! oO 2 Ore" @O {o,0) Fig. C2 Triangular plate element, 38, 9) = [f didy = as cn iG, Y= if xdxdy = i xb (ca)184 Finite Elemont Method for Structural Englaeers te y= [J eae =p: (5) Tey = ij ddedy fn 01+ (C.10) 18, y= || Handy — pan Ottrmt oD CIN Het, 8) = | sodedy = 3 xt 0 +290 cy For details of the above area integrals, the reader may refer to [C.2]. C3 SECTION PROPERTIES Using the symbols defined below, Table C.1 gives the section properties of some structural steel sections which are commonly emplayed. J, = Moment of inertia of cross-section about y-axis 1, = Moment of inertia of cross-section about z-axis. A = Area of cross-section, J = Torsion constant, It may be pointed out that formulas presented in Table C.1 are approx- imate and assume the thickness of sections to be small in comparison to ‘overall dimensions, REFERENCES C.1. Milne, William E., and David R. Davis, Jntroductory College Mathe- matics, Revised Edition, Ginn and Company, New York, 1941. C2. Selby, S.M., Standard Mathematical Tables, Twenty-Second Edition, CRC Press, Inc., Cleveland, Ohio—44128, 1974,Table Cal Properties of Sections 185 Properties of section. 2 ues Ihtw+6by) Amn tw +2bty 3 3 Joo} nt #2 bff | Tat (htw+3btf) AR (bty +htw! 2 thw y= (ty +3htw) 3? eae horas Lstyarst | seetet AnilrtAPPENDIX D SOLUTION OF SIMULTANEOUS EQUATION D-l INTRODUCTION It has been seen that the finite clement analysis requires the solution of simultancons equations, Thus, in order to discuss solution procedure, con- sider a set of simultaneous linear equations expressed as ut Hak Fit dite = @- In matrix form, Eq. (D-1) may be cewritlen a8 [4] 29 = (8) (D-2) where [4] is a square matrix of order ( x 1) and is referred as coefficient matrix; {X}is a column vector of order (a x 1) and its elements are the basic unknowns; (8) is also column veetor of order (n x 1) and its elements con- sist of the right hand side of Eq, (D-1). The elements of both matrix [4] and vector (B) are known. ‘The solution of matrix Eq. (D-2) is a stendard procedure on digital computers and most of the machines have standard programmes for carry- ing out this operation. It may be pointed out that the standard methods [D.1] used for the solution of simultaneous equations normally assume that the coefficient matrix is fully populated and take no advantage of the ban- ded nature of these matrices which frequently occur in structural problems. Thus, in this appendix, a method known as Cramer's rule is presented which is useful for theoretical purposes and later a computer programme for banded matrices, based on the Gaussian climination, is given. The readers may use this programme for obtaining the solution of matrix equa- tions obtained for the problems in Chapter 8 D-2 CRAMER'S RULE The system of equations defined by Eq. (D-2) with a (n x 1”) coefficient matrix with nonzero determinant, may be rewritten asSolution of Simultaneous Equation 187 (ay = 8) 3) By Cramer's rule, the solution for x; may be expressed as (D.1}: nal (D4) where | Ar | is the determinant of the coefficient matrix in which column / is replaced by the clements of column vector {8}. D-3 GAUSSIAN ELIMINATION PROGRAMME ‘The Gaussian elimination method is bascd on the principle of forward elimination and backward substitution, Using this principle, the cocflicient matrix is reduced to an upper triangular form by successive elimination of the variables and then, solution is obtained by backward substitutidn. For details, readers are referred to [D.1, D.2] or any other standard text book on numerical calculations. The application of Gaussian climination method to a symmetric banded matrix requires a somewhat more sophisticated technique if full advantage is to be taken of the symmetric and banded nature of thecoefficient matrix. In this section, a FORTRAN computer programme is presented fur the solution of simultaneous equations with banded coefficient matrix, Figure D-1 shows diagrammatically the symmetric banded cquation and its storage arrangement, which is required in che elimination method, is shown in Fig. D-2. The FORTRAN programme presented herein, for the solution of Eq. (D-2) calls for input-data in the following order: Fig. D. 1 Diagrammatic representation of synimetric banded Matrix equation (A} {XX} = {1}. ‘UBW: the half-upper band width stored in NB; nthe total number of equations stored in NO. ‘These two data are provided on one line with FORMAT (213).188 Finite Eloment Method for Structural Engincers WEsuBW Stored Stored ko Ne NB. Fig. D. 2° Storage atraogement ia Gaussian elimination method. [4]: The coefficient matrix in semi-band form is stored in matrix [C]; it is punched by rows with each clement on a mew line. A dummy triangle of zero must be included at the bottom of the band, as shown shaded in Fig. D-2, Thus, the total number of elements in the array [C] is NB x NO with FORMAT (F 10.2). {8): The right-hand side column vector consisting of NO elements, each on a new line, and with NB zeros added at the end. It is stored in matrix [F] FORMAT (F 10.2). Output : The solution vector {X'} is printed in ‘£" format. FORTRAN Program for Band Matrix Solution by Gauss Elimination [D2). DIMENSION F (1, 132), C (1, 2592), A (1, 144) READ (1, 108) NB NO 108 FORMAT (213) NOB=NB+NO NONB=NB+NO DO $0 [=1, NOB READ (1,109) C(1, 1) 109 FORMAT (F 10.2) 50 CONTINUE DO 51 [=1, NONB READ (1, 110) F(L, D)Solution af Simultaneous Equation 189 110 FORMAT (F 10.2) a B 4 76 7S 72 CONTINUE LA=NB-1 LB=NO-LA DO 72 I=1, LB JaNBeI—LA DO 73 K=1, LA AQ, K)=C(1, 4K) CONTINUE DO 74 Ki, LA CU, J4+K)=CU, J+KYCCL, J) CONTINUE FC, 1)=F(1, DCC, J) LC=LA DO 75 L=1, LA MI=J-+LeNB—1 Z=F(L D X=A(LL) FUL IG DSF, L+1)—ZeX DO 76 K=1, LC Z=C(1,J4K4+LA-LC) X=a(.D C1, MI+-K)=C(1, MI+-K)—ZeX CONTINUE LC=LC-1 CONTINUE CONTINUE LB=LB+1300 78 301 302 81 305 304 n 303 Finite Element Method for Structural Engineers LD=LA-1 DO 771=LB, NO J=NB+I-LA IF(1—LD) 300,300, 301 DO 78 K=1, LD AGL Kj=CU, 14K) CONTINUE BO 79 K=1, LA CL, JK) =CUL J4KYCOLD CONTINUE FL, D=F(1, DCU, J) LC=LA-1 TF(—NO) 302, 303, 302 DO 305 Le, LD MI=LsNB+J—1 2=F(i. 1) X

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