UNIT-I - LIMIT STATE METHOD CONCEPT AND DESIGN OF BEAMS

1. Materials:
 Concrete- good in compression but weak in tension
 Steel- strong in tension but weak in compression
2. Reinforced
 Concrete:
 Concrete in which steel bars are introduced in casting stage to resist the
stresses developed due to external loads.
3. Types of Load:
 Dead load, live load,
 wind load,
 snow load,
 Earthquake load.
4. Methods of Design:
 Working stress method or elastic method or modular ratio method
 Load factor method or ultimate load method
 Limit state method
5. Philosophy of Limit State Design:
 Structures designed should satisfy the criteria of desirable ultimate strength in
flexure, shear, compression, tension and torsion developed under a system of loads.
 Serviceability condition-deflection and cracking
 Stability against buckling.
6. Modular Ratio: The ratio of young’s modulus of steel and young’s modulus of concrete.
7. Load Factor: The ratio of ultimate load and working load.
8. Limit State: A structure is said to have reached its limit state when it becomes unfit
for use during its expected life.
9. Some codes related to concrete:
 IS-456: Plain and Reinforced Concrete
 BS-8110: Code of practice for design and construction
 ACI- 318 :Building Code Requirements for Structural Concrete
 SP-16-1980:Design Aids For Reinforced Concrete to IS : 456-1978
 SP-24-1983: Explanatory Handbook on Indian Standard Code of Practice for Plain and
Reinforced Concrete(IS : 456-1978)
10. Balanced or Critical Section:
This is section in which the quantity of steel provided is such that, when the
most distant concrete fiber in the compression zone reaches the allowable stress in
compression, the tensile stress in the reinforcement reaches its allowable stress.
11. Under Reinforced Section:
This is a section in which the quantity of steel provided is less than what is
required for a balanced section.
12. Over Reinforced Section:
This is a section in which the quantity of steel provided is more than the quantity
required for a balanced section.
13. Lever Arm:
 Distance between the line of action of the resultant compression and the line of
action of the resultant tension is called lever arm.
14. Moment of Resistance:
The resistance offered by a beam section to resist the bending moment at the
section is called moment of resistance.
15. Double reinforced beams:
Beams with reinforcement in compression and tension zones are called doubly
reinforced beams.
16. Singly reinforced beams:
Beams with reinforcement provided in tension zone is called singly reinforced
beams.

UNIT-II – LIMIT STATE DESIGN FOR SLABS

1. One Way Slab:

 Reinforced concrete slabs supported on two opposite sides or an all four sides
with the ratio of long to short span exceeding 2 are referred to as one way slabs.
 Due to the huge difference in lengths, load is not transferred to the shorter beams.
Main reinforcement is provided in shorter span and distribution reinforcement in
longer span.
2. Two Way Slab:
 Reinforced concrete slabs supported on two opposite sides or an all four
sides with the ratio of long to short span not exceeding 2 are referred to as
two way slabs.
 In two way slabs, load will be carried in both the directions. So, main
reinforcement is provided in both direction for two way slabs.
3. Span/Depth Ratio in Two Way Slab:
For span less than 3.5m,
Simply supported slabs = 28
Continuous slabs = 32
4. Reinforcement of Slabs:
 Minimum reinforcement : not less than 0.15% of total cross sectional area for
mild steel and 0.12% when HYSD bars are used
 Spacing: a) Main steel - not greater than 3d or 300mm whichever is smaller
b) Distribution steel - not greater than 5d or 450mm whichever is
smaller
 Maximum diameter of bars: not greater than (1/8)D
 Cover : not less than 20mm nor less than diameter of the bar whichever is higher
The pitch of the main bars shall not exceed the following:
  three times of effective depth of slab
 450mm
5. Types of Staircases:
 Quarter turn stair
 Half turn stair
 Dog legged stair
 Open newer stair with quarter space landing
 Geometrical stairs such as circular stair, spiral stair, etc.

6. Thread and riser:

The horizontal portion of a step was the foot rests is referred as thread. 250 to 300 mm is
the typical dimensions of a thread. Riser is the vertical distance between the adjacent treads or
the vertical projection of the step with value of 150 to 190 mm depending upon the type of
building.

7. Going:
Going is the horizontal projection of an inclined flight of steps between the first and last
riser.

8. Flight:
A flight is the length of the staircase situated between two landings. The number of steps
in a flight may vary between 3 to 12.

UNIT-III - LIMIT STATE DESIGN FOR BOND,ANCHORAGE,SHEAR& TORSION

1. Torsion:
In reinforced concrete member torsion occurs in combination with flexure and shear.
2. Types:
 Primary torsion:
Primary torsion is generally induced by eccentric loading and equilibrium conditions
are sufficient to evaluate the torsion moments acting at critical sections.
 Secondary or compatibility torsion:
This type of torsion is induced by the application of an angle of twist such as rotation of
the member.
3. Bond:
When the concrete sets, it adheres to the surface of reinforcement and tightly grips
it. This perfect adhesion between concrete and steel is known as bond.
4. Bond Stress:
Bond resists any force that rise to pull out or push the rod. The intensity of the adhesive
force is called bond stress.

5. Types of Bond Stress:

  Flexural bond stress: This develops due to variation of bending moment or shear
force at a section.
 Anchorage bond stress: Stress developed at the extreme end of bars in tension or
compression.
6. Anchorage:
Whenever some reinforcing bar is to be anchored or two bars have to be given an
overlap, it is essential that they must get sufficient length of embedded length or overlap
length so that no slip takes place.

UNIT-IV - LIMIT STATE DESIGN OF COLUMNS

1. Column:
Vertical compression member that transfers the load safely from beams to the footing.
2. Pedestal:
This is also vertical compression member in which effective length is denoted by le.le is
less than 3times the least lateral dimension.
3. Strut: It is the vertical member in a truss
4. Slenderness ratio:
It is defined as ratio between effective length/Least Lateral Dimension. Based on
slenderness ratio columns are classified into:
 Short column (Lex/D or Ley/b <12)
 Long column (Lex/D or Ley/b >12)
5. Modes of failure of column:
 Pure compression failure
 Combined compression and bending failure
 Failure due to elastic instability
6. Types of columns
(a)Based on type of reinforcement

 Tied columns
 Spiral column
 Composite column

(b) Based on type of loading

 loaded column
 Column with uniaxial eccentric loading
 Column with biaxial eccentric loading
(c) Based on slenderness ratio

 Short column
 Long column
7. Reinforcement in columns:
 Maximum reinforcement not greater than 6%
 Minimum reinforcement not less than 0.8%
 Minimum number of bars : 4 in rectangular and 6 in circular
 Diameter of bars not less than 12mm
 Minimum cover: 40mm or diameter of the bar whichever is greater
 Lateral ties not less than (1/4) diameter of largest longitudinal bar nor less than
5mm
 Pitch : the least of
(a) Least lateral dimension of the member
(b) 16 times the smaller diameter of longitudinal reinforcement
(c) 48 times the diameter of transverse reinforcement

For effective arrangement of lateral ties arrangement of lateral ties refer Fig
8,9,10 and 11 of IS 456:2000

UNIT-V - LIMIT STATE DESIGN OF FOOTING AND DETAILING

1. Footing:
Footing is located below the ground level. It effectively supported super structure
by transmitting the applied loads, moments and other forces to the soil without exceeding
safe bearing capacity.
2. Types of Footing:
(a) Shallow footing: Shallow foundations are those founded near to the finished
ground surface; generally where the founding depth (Df) is less than the width of
the footing and less than 3m.
Isolated column footing:
 In cased of framed building with columns located on reasonably firm
soil, it is generally sufficient to provide separate independent footing
for each column.
 It comprises of a thick slab which may be steeped or sloped.
 The footings are generally reinforced with steel mesh located at
bottom of the slab to resist bending moment and shear force developed
due to the soil pressure.

Combined footing:

 When two or more heavily loaded column are located close to each
other resisting on soil with low bearing capacity, the area of isolated
footing overlap on each other. Hence, it is advantageous to provide
single combined footing contributing to the improved integral behavior
of the column with the footing.
  The combined ooting comprise of a connecting beam between the
columns intergrally cast with a slab on either side of the connecting
beam
(b) Deep foundation:
Deep foundations are those founding too deeply below the finished ground
surface for their base bearing capacity to be affected by surface conditions,
this is usually at depths >3 m below finished ground level. They include

Piles :

 They are relatively long, slender members that transmit foundation

loads through soil strata of low bearing capacity to deeper soil or
rock strata having a high bearing capacity.
 They are used when for economic, constructional or soil condition
considerations it is desirable to transmit loads to strata beyond the
practical reach of shallow foundations.
 In addition to supporting structures, piles are also used to anchor
structures against uplift forces and to assist structures in resisting
lateral and overturning forces.

Piers: They are foundations for carrying a heavy structural load which is
constructed insitu in a deep excavation.

Caissons: They are a form of deep foundation which are constructed

above ground level, then sunk to the required level by excavating or
dredging material from within the caisson.

3. Design principles of footing:

 Depth of foundation: the minimum depth of the foundation is calculated based on

Rankine’s theory.
 Thickness of the footing: They are generally designed based on the consideration
of shear and flexure which are critical in the vicinity of the column and footing
junction
 Design of flexure: The reinforcement is designed to resist the factored moment at
critical section. in Two way reinforced rectangular footing, the reinforcement in
the long direction is uniformly spaced across the full width of the footing.
Shear:

Near supports of the RCC members, the shear stresses are developed are accompanied by
diagonal tension. If the nominal shear stress is excessive, steel in the form of vertical stirrups or
bent up bars should be design to resist the large shear forces.

Shear failure mechanism

The major types of shear failure modes encountered in RC beams are identified under the
following groups:

 Shear-tension or Diagonal Tension

 Flexure-shear
 Shear-compression
 Shear-Bond