UNIT-I - LIMIT STATE METHOD CONCEPT AND DESIGN OF BEAMS

1. Reinforced concrete
Concrete in which steel bars are introduced in casing stage to resist the
stresses developed due to external loads.
 Concrete- good in compression but weak in tension
 Steel- strong in tension but weak in compression

2. Philosophy of limit state design

Structures designed should satisfy the criteria of desirable ultimate strength in
flexures shear, compression, tension and torsion developed under a system of loads.
 Serviceability condition-deflection and cracking
 Stability against buckling.

3. Methods of design
 Working stress method or elastic method or modular ratio method
 Load factor method or ultimate load method
 Limit state method

4. Modular ratio
The ratio of young’s modulus of steel and young’s modulus of concrete.
Modular ratio = Es/Ec

5. Load factor
The ratio of ultimate load and working load.
Load factor = ultimate load/working load

6. Limit state
A structure is said to have reached it limit state when it become unfit for use
during its expected life.

7. Objective of code
To provide a safe structure by ensuring strength and serviceability.
Design procedures, design tables and formula for easy computation.
Protects structural engineer-protects from failures (improper materials, lack
of supervision)
Provides guide lines for structural engineers

8. Some codes related to concrete

IS-456, ACI-380, BS-8110, SP-16-1980SP-24-1983
9. Types of loads
Dead load, live load, wind load, snow load, earthquake load.

10. Ultimate load method

In this method, working loads are increased by suitable factors, known as
load factors, to obtain ultimate loads and the structure is designed to resist these
loads.

11. Assumptions-ultimate load method

A section which is plane before bending remains plane after bending.
Tensile strength of concrete is ignored.

12. Assumptions- Working stress method

A section which is plane before bending remains plane after bending.
Bond between steel and concrete is perfect within the elastic limit of steel.
Tensile strength of concrete can be ignored.

13. Over reinforced section

This is a section in which the quantity of steel provided is more than the
quantity required for a balanced section.

14. Under reinforced section

This is a section in which the quantity of steel provided is less than what is
required for a balanced section.

15. Balanced or critical section

This is section in which the quantity of steel provided is such that, when the most
distant concrete fiber in the compression zone reaches the allowable stress in
compression, the tensile stress in the reinforcement reaches its allowable stress.

16. Lever arm

Distance between the line of action of the resultant compression and the line
of action of the resultant tension is called lever arm.
Lever arm = a = (d-n/3)

17. Moment of resistance

The resisting offered by a beam section to resist the bending moment at the
section is called moment of resistance.

18. Neutral axis

The neutral axis for a beam section is the line of intersection of the neutral
layer with the beam section.

19. Double reinforced beams

Beams with reinforcement in compression and tension zones are called
doubly reinforced beams.
 20. Singly reinforced beams
Beams with reinforcement provided in tension zone is called singly reinforced
beams.

21. Steel beam theory- assumptions

Compression is resisted only in compression steel
Tension is resisted only by tension steel
Stress in compression steel=stress in tension steel.

22. Principles of limit states The limit

state of collapse
The limit state of serviceability involving excessive cracking and deflection at
service or working loads.

23. Steel beam theory

If the amount of compression reinforcement required equals or exceeds the amount of
tension reinforcement obtained by using equation Ast= M/(σst.j.d) and
Asc = (mAst(d-xc)/((1.5m-1).(xc-d)),the beam section may be designed by the steel beam
theory.

UNIT-II – LIMIT STATE DESIGN FOR SLABS

1. One way slab

Reinforced concrete slabs supported on two opposite sides or an all four sides with the
ratio of long to short span exceeding 2 are referred to as one way slabs.
Ly/lx >2

2. Two way slab

Reinforced concrete slabs supported on two opposite sides or an all four sides with the
ratio of long to short span not exceeding 2 are referred to as two way slabs.
Ly/lx < 2

3. Limiting conditions to check for deflection control (L/d)

actual < (L/d) max

4. Limiting conditions to check for shear stress

c<

5. Span/depth ratio in two way slab

Simply supported slabs = 28
Continuous slabs = 32

Conditions to be followed in design of slab

Main bars: The reinforcement constituting the main bars shall be based on the maximum bending
moment. The reinforcement shall not be less than 0.15% of cross sectional area. (0.12 when high
strength deformed bars are used). The pitch of the main bars shall not exceed the following.
2. three times of effective depth of slab
3. 450mm

One way slab

One way slab is a slab which is supported by beams on the two opposite sides to carry the load along
one direction.The ratio of longer span (l) to shorter span (b) is equal or greater than 2, considered as
One way slab because this slab will bend in one direction i.e in the direction along its shorter span

Due to the huge difference in lengths, load is not transferred to the shorter beams. Main reinforcement
is provided in shorter span and distribution reinforcement in longer span.
Example: Generally all the Cantilever slabs are one Way slab. Chajjas and verandahs are an practical
example of one way slab.

Two way slab:

Two way slab is a slab supported by beams on all the four sides and the loads are carried by the
supports along both directions, it is known as two way slab. In two way slab, the ratio of longer span
(l) to shorter span (b) is less than 2.

In two way slabs, load will be carried in both the directions. So, main reinforcement is provided in
both direction for two way slabs.

What are the types of staircases?

They are broadly classified as
Quarter turn stair
Half turn stair
Dog legged stair
Open newer stair with quarter space landing
Geometrical stairs such as circular stair, spiral stair, etc.
Tread
The horizontal portion of a step was the foot rests is referred to, as tread.250 to 300 mm is the
typical dimensions of a tread. Riser is the vertical distance between the adjacent treads or the vertical
projection of the step with value of 150 to 190 mm depending upon the type of building.

Going
Going is the horizontal projection of an inclined flight of steps between the first and last riser.

Flight
A flight is the length of the staircase situated between two landings. The number of steps in a
flight may vary between 3 to 12.
The minimum rise and tread in residential buildings?
In residential buildings, the rise may vary between 150mm to 180mm tread between200mm to
250mm.

The minimum rise and tread in public buildings?

In public buildings, the rise may vary between 120mm to 150mm tread between200mm to
300mm

UNIT-III - LIMIT STATE DESIGN FOR BOND,ANCHORAGE,SHEAR&

TORSION

1. Torsion
In reinforced concrete member torsion occurs in combination with flexure and
shear.
Primary or equilibrium torsion
Secondary or compatibility torsion.

2. Primary torsion
Primary torsion is generally induced by eccentric loading and equilibrium
conditions are sufficient to evaluate the torsion moments acting at critical sections.

3. Primary torsion
This type of torsion is induced by the application of an angle of twist such as
rotation of the member.

3. Bond
When the concrete sets, it adheres to the surface of reinforcement and tightly grips it.
This perfect adhesion between concrete and steel is known as bond.
4. Bond Stress
Bond resists any force that rise to pull out or push the rod. The intensity of the
adhesive force is called bond stress.

5. Anchorage
Whenever some reinforcing bar is to be anchored or two bars have to be given an
overlap, it is essential that they must get sufficient length of embedded length or overlap
length so that no slip takes place.

6. Tensional shear stress

The effect of torsion to induced shear stresses is called tensional shear stress.

7. Bond mechanism Chemical adhesion

Frictional resistance Shearing
resistance or dilatancy.

8. Chemical adhesion
The creep of cement in concrete

9. Frictional resistance
Movement concrete and steel bars in any structure

10. Frictional resistance

The interlocking of steel bars.

11. Flexural bond stress

This develops due to variation of bending moment or shear force at a section.

12. Anchorage bond stress

Stress developed at the extreme end of bars in tension or compression.

13. Reinforcement splicing

Splicing of reinforcement is required when the bars are to be extended beyond they are
available length.

14. Types of splicing Lapping of

bars Lap welding of bars
Butt welding of bars
Mechanical connections

UNIT-IV - LIMIT STATE DESIGN OF COLUMNS

1. Column
Vertical compression member that transfers the load safely from beams to the
footing.

2. Pedestal
This is also vertical compression member in which effective length is denoted by le.le
is less than 3times the least lateral dimension.

3. Strut
It is the vertical member in a truss

4. Axially loaded columns may fail in any one of the 3 modes Pure
compression failure
Combined compression and bending failure
Failure due to elastic instability
 5. Types of columns
Based on type of reinforcement
Tied columns
Spiral column
Composite column

6. Based on type of loading Axially

loaded column
Column with uniaxial eccentric loading
Column with biaxial eccentric loading
7. Based on slenderness ratio
Short column (Lex/D or Ley/b <12)
Long column (Lex/D or Ley/b >12)

8. Short column
Lex/D or Ley/b <12
The ratio of effective length and least lateral dimension is less than 12.

9. Long column
(Lex/D or Ley/b >12)
Lex/D or Ley/b >12
The ratio of effective length and least lateral dimension is greater than 12.

10. Minimum Eccentricity emin =

(L/500+D/300)
L=Unsupported length
D= Lateral dimension

UNIT-V - LIMIT STATE DESIGN OF FOOTING AND DETAILING

1. Footing
Footing is located below the ground level. It effectively supported super structure like
columns by transmitting the applied loads, moments and other forces to the soil without
exceeding safe bearing capacity.

2. Types of footing
Isolated column footing
Flat
Stepped
Sloped Combined
footing Raft footing
Strap footing Pile
footing

4. Strap footing
A strap footing consists of spread footing of two columns connected by a strap beam.
This is the economical construction over combined footing when columns are far off. The strap
beam does not rest over soil and no load is transmitted by it, directly on soil.

4. Raft Foundation
When the area required for spread footings without more than the half the area of
building, due to poor safe bearing capacity of soil or heavy load on the building, foundation is
taken to entire building area and a thick reinforced concrete slab is provided to cover the whole
area connecting all the columns with the beams in both directions.

What is meant by proportioning of footing?

 The pressure on the soil from each square foot of the footings should be the same, where the
soil is uniform, and at no place must the bearing power of the soil be exceeded. To secure the most
satisfactory results, therefore, the footings must be proportioned to properly distribute the weight they
are to carry over sufficient areas of ground, to secure uniform settlement in each case. If these
conditions were always properly considered, there ould be few cracks in the mason work, as such
cracks are caused usually by unequal settlement. A uniform settlement even of an inch or more would
in most buildings pass unnoticed.
2. On which circumstances combined rectangular footings are suitable?
Combined footings are provided when two or more columns are located close to each other or
they are heavily loaded or rest on soil with low afe bearing capacity, resulting in an overlap of areas.
3. Why the dowel bars are provided in footing?
When complete column bars are not erected at the be ining then you can place dowel bars and tie
column rods after footing

4. What is the necessity of providing combined footings?

Combined footings are used when:
1) there are two isolated footings overlapping (when columns are too close to each other, like within
2m)
2) soil bearing capacity is inconsistent and low within an area
3) the footing is extending beyond your property.

5. Define punching shear.

The shear failure of column footing occurs either similar to that of footing for wall due to
punching of column through the slab known as Punching shear. It occurs at a distance of half the
effective depth of footing from the face of column.
6. Enumerate proportioning of footings.
The shear failure of column footing occurs either similar to that of footing for wall due to
formation of
diagonal tension cracks on an approximate 45˚ plane known as one way shear. The shear failure of
column footing occurs either similar to that of footing for wall due to punching of column through the
slab known as two way shear.
7. State the rankine’s equation to determine the minimum depth of foundation?

8. When is the combined footing provided?

Combined footings are provided only when it is absolutely necessary, as
When two columns are close together, causing overlap of adjacent isolated footi gs
Where soil bearing capacity is low, causing overlap of adjacent isolated footings
Proximity of building line or existing building or sewer, adjacent to a building column.
9. What are the advantages of providing a pedestal?
The advantages of providing pedestal are:
(i) For providing pedestal, the cantilevering projection of footing is reduced, thus reducing
bending moment and shear for the footing
(ii) Width for resisting the bending moment is reduced
(iii) Larger perimeter is provided to resist two way shear
10. What are the causes for failure of footing?
The common causes for failure of footing are:
(i) Unequal settlement of sub soil
(ii) Shrinkage of soil below the foundation due to withdrawal of moisture
(iii) Lateral pressure causing over turning of structure
(iv) Lateral movement of soil close to the structure.
11. Why transverse reinforcement is necessary in a column?
Transverse reinforcement is provided to impart effective lateral support against buckling
to every
longitudinal bar. It is either in the form of circular rings or polygonal link(lateral ties) with
internal angles not
exceeding 135˚.
12. What is meant by uniaxially and biaxially eccentrically loaded columns?
Uniaxially eccentrically loaded columns: If the moments act about only one axis, they are called
as
uniaxially eccentrically loaded columns.
Biaxially eccentrically loaded columns: If the moments act about both the axis, they are called as
biaxially
eccentrically loaded columns.
13. List out the specifications for spacing of transverse links.
Spacing of transverse links shall not exceed the least of the following:
(a) The least lateral dimensions of the column
(b) Sixteen times the diameter of mallest longitudinal reinforcing rod in column
(c) Forty-times the diameter of transverse reinforcement
14. What are the specifications for diameter of transverse links?
Specifications for diameter of transverse links are the follow g:
The diameter of the transverse links shall not be less than
 (i) One-fourth diameter of the largest longitudinal bar
(ii) 5 mm
15. List out the IS recommendations regarding longitudinal reinforcements.
The following are the IS recommendations regarding longitudinal
reinforcements:
a) The minimum number of longitudinal bars provided in a column shall be four in rectangular
columns and six in circular column
b) The bars shall be not be less than 12 mm in diameter
c) Spacing of longitudinal bars measured along the periphery of column shall not exceed 300
mm