Asubhanupassana in Buddhist Meditation

Kyosho Hayashima

I. Introduction.

Asubha (Skt. Asubha) means 'impure' or 'impurity'. Especially in

Buddhist meditation, the word asubha has been used for signifying a kind
of meditation in which one should comprehend a corpse as impure and
foul in order to eliminate one's own evil desires. The Theravada Buddhism
says that the tenfold perception of impurity (dasa asubhasanna) (of the
body) is to be obtained in observing ten characteristics of the corpse, and
in order to realize its impurity completely the ten comprehensions of im-
purity (asubhasmriti, asubhanupassana or asubhanupassin) are needed for
the attainment of one's concentration. The asubha as a meditation takes
ten subjects out of the forty meditative subjects (cattalisa kammatthanani)
about which detailed explanations are given in the Visuddhimagga. Among
the various stages which should be gradually attained by Sravakas, the
first stage belongs to the stage of preliminary training, and is divided into
three degrees: (1) the five kinds of mindfulness, i. e., asubhabhavana,
maitri, idampratyayatapratityasamutpada, dhatuprabheda and anapanasmrti,
(2) the respective contemplation on the four smrtiupasthana from both
their particular and common aspects and (3) the comprehensive contem-
plation of the four smrtiupasthana from their common aspects. First, the
stage of the five kinds of mindfulness aims at suppressing desire, anger,
ignorance, attachment and vagueness. This stage is practised for the accom-
plishment of samatha. Next, the four smrtiupasthana (satipatthana) i. e.
body, feelings, mind and mental objects should be comprehended as impure,
sorrowful, impermanent and soulless respectively from the view of their
own aspects, and further the meditation on them en bloc should be de-
veloped by understanding their common characteristic i. e., impermanence,
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suffering, emptiness (sunyata) and non-self. Accordingly, the fact that the
asubha has been given its due position at the preliminary stages which
lead to the Ultimate Path of Arahantship and has been required to be
repeatedly practised, indicates the very character of the practical way
in Buddhism. Defining the asubha-meditation as being a necessary and
fundamental way of meditation for the Buddhist, Buddhaghosa says:
"Meditation subjects are of two kinds, that is, (1) generally useful meditation

subject (sabbatthaka-kammattana) and (2) special meditation subjects (pari-

hariya_kammatthana). So these lovingkindness (metta), mindfulness of death
(maranasati) and perception of foulness (asubhasanna) are called generally
useful, and they are called meditation subjects since they are needed
generally and desirable owing to their great helpfulness and since they
are subjects for the meditation work intended." (Vis. p. 97-98). The Abhi-
dharmakosa (Chinese, Part 22) and Abhidharmamahavibhasa (Chinese, part
74) regard the two meditations of asubha and anapana out of the five kinds
of mindfulness as 'the two gates of amrta (immortality) entering the
Buddhist practice'.
The contemplation of the body (kayanupassana) is the first of the four
kinds of mindfulness and also is alloted the first position out of the thirty.
seven factors of Enlightenment. It aims at the practice of the body full
of impurity and is expected to abandon the perverted notions which had
been caused in not understanding things as they are. Moreover, the following
are also connected with the asubha directly or indirectly; the recollection
of death (marananussati), the mindfulness occupied with the body (kayaga-
tasati), and mindfulness of breathing (anapanasati) which are dealt with
in the ten concentrations (dasa anussatiyo); the repulsiveness in nutriment
(ahare patikkulasanna), the definition of the four elements (catudhatu-
vavatthana) and the charnel-ground-dweller's practice (sosanikanga) and
so on. Among them, the mindfulness occupied with the body by which
the thirty-two components of the body should be comprehended to be
wholly repulsive from hair to urine. and the cemetery meditation (sivathika),
that is a part of the asubha, on which the ten signs of impurity should
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be meditated on through observing a corpse in a graveyard, all give a

concrete and detailed explanation in regard with the asubha. As the Visud-
dhimagga mentions, so the asubha which mainly takes a corpse as its
object of observance would cause more difficulties than any other meditations.
It is because that condition of a corpse changes in the course of a short
period of time according to the ten features such as the swollen state, the
bluish state, etc. And not only a corpse but a grave-yard where the corpse
is laid down would be regarded as dangerous, as they appear to be spots
which strike terror into a meditator's heart. It is but natural to the human
mind that a man becomes attached to the living body, embraces perverted
thoughts, and finally as soon as the body has changed into the dead, he
feels hatred toward it without even touching and looking it.
By means of asubhasanna (the perception of impurity) and asubhanupassi
(the comprehension of impurity), human bodies are recognized to be impure,
and through the subsequent meditations, the abandonment of meditator's
desire of any sort for the body should be realized. Therefore, it is possible
that not only one's own body but that of other's as well and of all living
beings who are composed of the Four Elements should be taken as objects
of the asubha, because the eliminating of all attachments has been taught
by the Buddha as an essential practice. At the same time it must be noticed
that the principal theory that there is nothing in all existence except
impermanence, suffering and non-self is related intimately with the asubha,
whenever we refer to the Buddhist scriptures.
The following are the various modes of perception including the asubha.
(1) The Four Perceptions.
(a) asubha, metta, anapanasati and aniccasann.a (A, IV. p. 353).
(b) buddhanussati, metta, asubha and marananussati (catur-arakkha).
(2) The Five Perceptions.
(a) asubhanupassi, ahare patikkulasanna, sabbaloke anabhiratasanna,
sabbasankharesu aniccanupassi and maranasanna (A. II, p. 150-1,
p. 155-6; III, p. 83, p. 142-3). Adinavasanna replaces Sabbasarh-
kharesu aniccanupassi in A. III, p. 79-80, p. 277).
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(b) aniccasanna, anattasanna, maranasanna, ahare patikkulasanna and

sabbaloke anabhiratasanna (A. III, p. 79-80, p. 277). Asubhasanna
is omitted by introducing the anattasanna.
(3) The Seven Perceptions.
(a) aniccasanna, anattasanna, asubhasanna, adinavasanna, pahanasanna,
viragasanna and nirodhasanna (D. II, p. 79; III, p. 253; A. IV, p. 24,
p. 148).
(b) asubhasanna, maranasanna, ahare patikkulasanna, sabbaloke ana-
bhiratasanna, aniccasanna, anicce dukkhasanna and dukkhe anat-
tasanna (A, IV, p. 46, p. 148).
(4) The Nine Percepticns.
(a) asubhasanna, maranasanna, ahare patikkulasanna, sabbaloke ana-
bhiratasanna, aniccasanna, anicce dukkhasanna, dukkhe anattasanna,
pahanasanna and viragasanna (D. III, p. 289-290; A. IV, p. 387,
p. 465). This equals to (3) (b) by adding the pahanasanna and
viragasanna.
(b) This omits the pahanasanna out of (3) (a) and adds three kinds
of loke sauna. (A. V, p. 107).
(5) The Ten Perceptions.
(a) This is composed of (4) (a) in addition to nirodhasanna. (D. III,
p. 291; S. V, p. 132; A. V, p. 105, p. 309310) (Pancavimsatiprajna-
paramita, Chap. I, Introductory-Chinese).
(b) an Niccasanna,
anattasanna, asubhasanna, pahanadanna,
viragasanna, nirodhasanna, sabbaloke anabhiratasanna, sabbasam-
kharesu aniccasanna and anapanasati (A. V, p. 109).
(c) aniccasanna, anattasanna, ahare patikkulasanna, sabbaloke anabhi-
ratasanna, atthikasanna, puluvakasanna, vinilakasanna, vipubbaka-
sanna, vicchiddasanna and uddhumatakasanna (A. V, p. 310).
Among the above ten, the atthikasanna and its subsequent five
perceptions are derived from the ten perceptions of impurity. In two
places (A. I, p. 36 and V, p. 310), (5) (a) and (5) (c) are mentioned in a line,
though A. I replaces the vipubbakasanna by alokasanna. And the vipub-
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bakasanna in A. V, p. 106.

II. Purpose of the asubha.

1. Physical composition and the mindfulness regarding the body.

The body is composed of the Four Elements and one recognizes
wrongfully it to be his own nature (svabhava)' (Ytian-chiao-ching). How
such an opinion should be excluded was also one of purposes of Buddhism.
For this, the Buddhist meditator is expected to comprehend the body truly
as it is, and the mindfulness occupied with the body (kayagatasati) will
be taken into practice for the sake of acquiring the attention directed to
repulsiveness (patikkulasanna) in regard with the thirty-two parts of the
body. The fact that whole parts of the body seem to be quite loathsome
is necessarily conducive to realize that they must be impure and imper-
manent. Therefore, the reason why the observation of thirty-two parts
and comprehension of their impurities had been repeatedly emphasized in
the section of Buddhist concentration was based upon a purpose that a
meditator should continue his thoroughgoing meditative attitude observed
by two means i. e., the attention directed to repulsiveness and the impurity
concerning respective parts of the body, beyond even the mere external
observation on visible features of a.corpse. Mention is performed by defining
the body; 'One should observe this impure body constructed out of the
Four Elements as being full of many kinds of filth, up from the soles of
the feet, down from the top of the hair and to the end of the skin.' (cf.
M. III. p. 89; S. IV, p. 111 etc.) Pali sources offer the thirty-two parts of
the body, while in Sanskrit sources these are known generically as the
thirty-six things (filthy parts of the body).
2. The tenfold and ninef old perception of impurity.
According to the Theravada source, there are two types of perception
regarding an impure corpse. One is the ninefold perception at a cemetery
(nava-sivathika), such as mentioned in theSatipatthanasutta M. I, p. 58-9.
The other is the tenfold perception (dasa asubha) which was offered by
Buddhaghosa as a more logical classification than the former. (Vis. I, p.
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178-9, p. 193-4). Mahayana sources, without any exception, offer the

ninefold perception of impurity, although they are not always similar with
the tenf old perception as mentioned above.
3. Abandoning of greed.
It is quite common to both Theravada and Mahayana Buddhism that
asubha has been considered as the primary means for accomplishing the
calmness of body and mind through meditative practices which lead to
the abandoning of desires that originate in the human body. It is well
said in repetition that foulness should be developed for the purpose of
abandoning greed. (A. IV, p. 358; Ud. p. 37; Vis. p. 114, etc.). 'If there is
a man who is full of greed, he is then in a position of being taught by
the teaching of the asubha meditation.' (Mahaparinirvana-sutra, part 36).
'Asubharh Rahula bhavanam bhavehi, asubham hi to Rahula bhavanam

bhavayato yo rago so pahiyissati', 'Practise, Rahula, the concentration of

impurity. For, from practising this concentration of impurity, Rahura,
whatever greed there is will be abandoned.' (M. I, p. 424-5). Thereupon,
referring to Buddhaghosa's comment, the word raga means 'the greed
composed of the five strands of sensual pleasure.' (M. A. III, p. 141). Judging
from the objects and content of these five pleasures, namely, form, voice,
smell, taste and touch, the so called sexual desire might be the most
powerful among other desires. Therefore, it is reasonable that 'One who
is full of the sexual desire ought to practise the concentration of impurity
of the body, because from toes to hair the body is filled with impurities.
(Tso-shan-san-mei-ching, vol. I). Raga (greed) is one of three original de.
filements, the others being dosa (hatred) and moha (stupidity); and the
abandonment of these should be required in accordance with the respective
meditations. That is to say, 'For the abandonment of greed, the concen-
tration of impurity (asubha) should be developed. For the abandonment
of hatred, the concentration of sympathy (metta) should be developed. For
the abandonment of stupidity, the concentration of wisdon (panna) should
be developed.' (A. III, p. 446; Ud. 37).
Therefore, it comes to be important for meditators that the aspects
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(signs) of impurity should be comprehended attentively and properly,

because no greed will occur thereafter, or greed that has already arisen
is removed thereby (cf. A. I, p. 200). There are two ways of abandoning
greed which has been discriminated by objects of meditation, namely that
one is for one's own body and the other is for another body. The Ta-
ch'eng-i-chang (part 12) says that the greed for one's own body should be
abandoned by the fivefold perception of impurity and the greed for the
other's body should be abandoned by the ninefold perception of impurity.
The reasons why an other's body is very often taken as an object for
satisfying one's own desires are that it evokes the four kinds of greed
i. e. greeds for figure, colour, residence and touch (Ta-ch'eng-i-chang,part
12). And only by the ninefold perception, could, these four deseases be
removed (ibid. part 13). The Abhidharmakosa(Chap. VI; Chinesepart 22)
also refers to it as four kinds of greed, i. e. the greeds for colour (varna-
rupa), figure (samsthanarupa),touch (sparsa)and honour (kirti). On the other
hand, the classificationof the fivefold perception corresponds to the five
physical changes in the lifetime of a human being, from the very time
of birth to the time of death and after. Man enjoys an existence of
impurity and even after his death he still remains in his own impurity.
In this connection,the fivefoldperception, i. e. (1)the seed (bija)of impurity,
(2) the abode of impurity, (3) the essential impurity of the body, (4) the
external impurity and (5) the ultimate impurity is to be developedin order
to abandon the greed for one's living body. (Mahaprajna-paramita-sastra,
part 19; Abhidharmakosa,Chinese part 22; Ta-ch'eng-i-chang, part 12.)
III. Developing of asubha.

As space does not permit us to insert the details of this chapter, we

shall have only its summary treated here. (cf. Vis. p. 178-196; Nanamoli's
translation 'The Path of Purification', Colombo, 1956.)
1. Corpse as the subject of meditation.
(1) The directions for going to a cemetery.
(2) Directions for characterising the surrounding signs at a cemetery.
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(3) Elevenfold apprehension of the counterpart sign (patibhaga-nimitta)

which should be applied for each one of ten signs of the loathsome
body.
(4) Repeated development for establishing the counterpart sign and the
learning sign (uggaha-nimitta) in a cemetery or a monastery.
(5) Attainment of the absorption (appana-samadhi) in the first jhana.
2. Living body as the meditative subject.
3. Methods of development in the Abhidharmamahavibhasa (Chinese,
part 40).
4. Characteristics of the asubha defined by the Northern Buddhism.

IV. A monk's life with reference to asubha.

It is fairly interesting to know how asubha has been advocated and

put into practice by the members of the Sangha from the time of the
Buddha and his disciples up to the present date. The developing of asubha
taught by the Buddha had a purpose that the arising of desires which
was regarded as a hindrance to the meditation should be suppressed by
the comprehension of impurity of the body. We can find out many exam-
ples of the preaching on asubha in Buddhist scriptures. For instances,
the Buddha preached on 'impermanence' to Khema, the Empress Bimbisara
and Bhikkhuni Abhirupananda etc., who were highly proud of their personal
beauties, by means of an apparition of a beautiful woman who died suddenly
of illness. Or, in order to prevent disciples from being excited by a beautiful
nun who was called Ambapali, the teaching of 'the fourfold mindfulness'
was discoursed to disciples of vigorous youth. The Buddha taught in details
the developing of asubha to Bhikkhu Meghiya who was constantly assailed
by three kinds of evil and unlawful thoughts. Moreover, what the king
Udena of Kosambi asked to Bhikkhu Pindcla-Bharadvaja about a young
monk's life was a very suggestive question that had been constantly en-
tertained by the contemporaries who lived outside the Sangha. In this
connection, it is supposed that asubha was so difficult to practise that
they were apt to indulge in their carnal desires even through the practical
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process of the asubha.

Among the various modes of perception which were systematized in
ordinal numbers, as we have seen in the previous Chap. I, the asubha and
the comprehension of breathing have been important methods of medita-
tion. The former is a meditation on the body. The latter is practised to
control the meditator's mind and-body so that equanimity in meditation
may be acquired. Being based upon these two fundamental purposes, the
comprehension of impermanence was practised in general. Buddhaghosa,
in his commenting on a phrase as to what is 'the repulsive feature (of
the body) which should be brought to mind (manasikara) by ordered
reasoning (yoniso) and be made much of (bahulikaro)', has expounded it
as meaning 'the six conditions'. The six conditions which tend to the
abandonment of desires and lead to the forthcoming attainment of Ara-
hantship, are as follows: (1) perceiving ,of the repulsive feature (asubha-
nimittassa uggaho), (2) practice of asubha (asubhabhavananuyogo), (3)
control over the (six) doors of one's senses (indriyesu guttadvarata), (4)
knowing proper measure in eating (bhojane mattan.nuta), (5) associating
with a virtuous friend (kalyana-mittata), and (b) beneficial talks (for the
asubha-development) (sappayakatha). (S. A. III, p. 165; A. A. I, p. 46).
Here, we notice why the Buddha had to set the third parajika offence
and to consider it in relation to asubha. Once, the Buddha who was staying
at Vesali in the pavilion of the Gabled Hall, preached about asubha
(asubhakatha) in many ways to the monks, praised the impure, praised
the developing of asubha (asubhabhavana), and repeatedly instructed the
state of mental absorption in asubha (asubhasamapatti). After the discourse,
these monks dwelt intent upon the comprehension of worthless thing as
to each one's state (anekakaravokara) and the practising of the asubha
(asubhabhavananuyoga). Since they were troubled by their own bodies,
ashamed of them and loathing them, they deprived themselves of their
liver, deprived one another of life, or were killed by Migalandika, a sham
recluse. After the incident, the Buddha created the parajika offence towards
them. Afrerwards, a certain lay-follower was ill. The group of six monks
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were enamoured of his wife who was beautiful, comely and pleasant. Having
tried to seize her, they went to the layman who was ill in order to praise
the beauty of death, and thereby caused him to die. The Buddha added
the rule to the third parajika offence. (Vin. I, p. 68-71, Suttavibhanga).
Herein, we may recognize that the two tragedies were brought about into
the Safigha and the enactment of the third parajika was originally connected
with the practising of asubha. The monks who exceedingly admired the
practising of asubha committed suicide, and on the contrary the wanton
monks who could not yet realize the impurity of body tried to drive a
person to his death, because of having entertained inverted opinions.
In Ceylon, the Theravada Bhikkhus were generally expected to get
up early in the morning before sunrise. Prior to cleaning their teeth and
reciting a sutta such as the Metta-sutta (Met-Pirit), they reflected on the
four protections (caturarakkha; Sinhalese, siyu arak) i. e., meditation on
the Buddha, metta, asubha and the death (EZ. I, p. 91). This practice has
come down as a tradition among the Sangha up to the present day (W.
Rahula: History of Buddhism in Ceylon, 1956. p. 173). Maha-Tissa Thera
who lived at Cetiya-pabbata (Mihintale) and had mastered the perception of
a skeleton (atthika-sanfla), reached Arahantship as soon as he looked up
a woman and found in her teeth the perception of foulness. Then, the
arahant replied to her husband who was going after her.
Whether it was man or woman
That went by I noticed not;
But only that on this high road
There goes a group of bones.' (Vis. p. 20-21)
Even today, in the Asian Buddhist circle, especially in Ceylon and
Burma, the Satipatthana-sutta (M. I, p. 55-6) is popularized both in its
recitation and practice among those who are not only members of the
clergy but also lay-followers, who are vehemently devoted to this sutta.
Nyanaponika introduces 'the instructions for the methodical practice of
Satipatthana as taught in Burma' into one chapter of his work 'The Heart
of Buddhist Meditation', Colombo, 1956.
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