0 Filmstudiesand Media Literacy 20152018

See
discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/315112434
Media Education and Media Criticism in the

Educational Process in Russia
Article · March 2017

DOI: 10.13187/ejced.2017.1.39
CITATIONS READS
4 150
2 authors:
Alexander Fedorov Anastasia Levitskaya

Anton Chekhov Taganrog Institute, Russia Taganrog Management and Economics Instit…
283 PUBLICATIONS 177 CITATIONS 52 PUBLICATIONS 37 CITATIONS
SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE
Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects:
Media Education Journal Медиаобразование (журнал) View project
Media Literacy Education View project
All content following this page was uploaded by Alexander Fedorov on 16 March 2017.
The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

European Journal of Contemporary Education, 2017, 6(1)
Copyright © 2017 by Academic Publishing

House Researcher s.r.o.
All rights reserved.
Published in the Slovak Republic
European Journal of Contemporary Education
ISSN 2304-9650
E-ISSN 2305-6746
2017, 6(1): 39-47
DOI: 10.13187/ejced.2017.1.39
www.ejournal1.com
WARNING! Article copyright. Copying,

reproduction, distribution, republication (in whole
or in part), or otherwise commercial use of the
violation of the author(s) rights will be pursued on
the basis of Russian and international legislation.
Using the hyperlinks to the article is not considered
a violation of copyright.
Media Education and Media Criticism in the Educational Process in Russia
Alexander Fedorov a , *, Anastasia Levitskaya b
a Rostov State University of Economics, Russian Federation

b Taganrog Institute of Management and Economics, Russian Federation
Abstract
Media criticism and media education have a lot in common. For example, both media
education and media criticism attach great importance to the development of analytical thinking of
the audience. Indeed, one of the most important tasks of media education is precisely to teach the
audience not only to analyze media texts of any types, but also to understand the mechanisms of
media texts' creation and functioning in society. Actually, the same is emphasized by media
criticism, addressing experts, and a wider audience as well. Therefore the synthesis of media
criticism and media education is vital. Hence it is very important to debate on the role and
functions of the media in society and analysis of media texts of different types and genres in
classrooms of schools and universities.
Keywords: media criticism, media literacy, media competence, media education, pupils,
students, media text, Russia.
1. Introduction
Recently the stance of the supporters of "practical media education", viewing it as a set of
skills to use modern media technology exclusively for practical purposes (Razlogov, 2015: 68-75)
finds fewer supporters. Without denying the importance of this aspect of training, modern
"Russian Encyclopedia" defines media education as "a process of a personality's development with
the help of and on the material of mass media aimed to develop a communication culture with the
media, creativity, communication skills, critical thinking, perception, interpretation, analysis and
evaluation of media texts, to teach different forms of self-expression by means of media technology,
media literacy acquisition. ... The positive outcome of media education should be media
competence of a personality – the set of his/her motives, knowledge, skills, abilities (indicators:
motivational, contact, information, perceptual, interpretative, practical (hands-on), creative)
*Corresponding author
E-mail addresses: mediashkola@rambler.ru (A. Fedorov), a.levitskaya@tmei.ru (A. Levitskaya)
39
contributing to the selection, use, critical analysis, evaluation, creation and communicating media
texts of different types, forms and genres, the analysis of complex processes of media functioning in
society" (Fedorov, 2012: 480).
One of the most important components is training skills of the media texts analysis, whereas
media criticism can provide effective help, in our opinion. Media criticism is the area of journalism,
creative and cognitive activity, implementing the critical knowledge and assessment of socially
important, relevant creative, professional and ethical aspects of the production of information in
the media, with a focus on the creative side of media content. It is the communication with the
audience, based on the analysis, interpretation and evaluation of media texts, genre and stylistic
forms, that has an impact on the audience's perception of the media content, on the representation
of the material and the spiritual world (Korochensky, 2003). These issues are associated with the
use of information media (of different types, genres and forms), their analysis, definition of linking
economic, political, social and / or cultural interests.
Media criticism can be divided into academic (relating to the publication of scientific
research related to the comprehension of the media sphere, and designed primarily for
professionals in the field of Media Studies), professional (publications intended for a professional
audience of those employed in media industry) and mass media criticism (designed for a mass
audience) (Korochensky, 2003).
Thus, it is media critics working for mass media, as well as media educators, who seek to
increase the media literacy level of the widest possible audience.
Media competence of an individual is multidimensional and requires a broad perspective
based on the developed knowledge structure. This is not a frozen category. It is supposedly possible
to increase the degree of media competence lifelong, perceiving, interpreting and analyzing the
cognitive, emotional, aesthetic and ethical information. The audience who have a higher level of
media literacy have a higher level of comprehension, management and evaluation of the media
world (Potter, 2011: 12).
However, as professor Art Silverblatt accurately notes (Silverblatt, 2001: 5-6), there are many
obstacles in the way of both media education and media criticism. Some of them is "elitist" –
people can easily notice the influence of the media on the other, but the same people are not willing
to recognize the impact of the media on their own life; the complexity of the media language;
emotional media effects, imposing certain behavior patterns, and public trust to the media. All of
the above hinders the ability to analyze a media text critically.
As for the situation in Russia, unfortunately, we have to admit the fact that "the problem of
preparing the younger generation for life in the era of information explosion, information
technology, increasing role of information as an economic category, is not updated in the context of
school education, a school graduate is not ready to integrate into the global information space"
(Zaznobina, 1998), where manipulative technologies, alas, have a significant place. Inability of a
school graduate to resist manipulative media influence is to a large extent an outcome of the low
level media competence of Russian school teachers.
There is a contradiction between the insufficient level of research in the field of media
education and media criticism synthesis (including in the process of preparing future teachers) and
the relevance of the development of media competence and analytical thinking of students of
pedagogical profile by not only media activity, i.e. creation, use, and communication of media
information, but also its comprehensive analysis, determination of economic, political, social and /
or cultural interests that are associated with it.
In particular, one can clearly trace the problematic contradiction between a journalistic
media education model (Dzyaloshinsky & Pilgun, 2011; Zhilavskaya, 2009, etc.), aimed at the
development of the audience's media activity in the practical creation and distribution of media
texts, and the integrated model of media education (Jurin, 2012, etc.), whereas the main emphasis
is on media literacy supporting compulsory school subjects. In our opinion, it is necessary to go
beyond this utilitarian framework and create a more important for the general public model of the
analytical thinking development, built on the synthesis of media education and media criticism.
In addition, in our view, there is a disagreement between the theoretical and practical
approaches proponents of "protective theory" of media, calling to protect the audience from
harmful media manipulation effects (one way of such protection is for example to only teach the
samples of "high art") and the supporters of cultural and social theories of media, considering the
40
problem of media education in a broad social, cultural and genre and thematic spectrum of media
texts (Buckingham, 2003; Sharikov, 2005; Silverblatt, 2001). We believe that this disagreement
can be successfully resolved with the help of the synthesis of media and media criticism.
The history of media criticism in Russia goes back more than three centuries. It is clear that
in the early years (XVIII century) there was only literary criticism in newspapers and magazines.
However, since the end of the XIX century the spectrum of media criticism has expanded due to
the analysis of photography and cinematography. In the XX century media criticism included such
new types of media as broadcasting, sound recording, television and the Internet. At all stages of its
development, media criticism (corporate, academic, mass) has performed analytical, educational,
information and communication, regulatory, and commercial functions throughout the genre
diversity of media texts.
Together with mass distribution of the Internet the number of critics' community has grown
dramatically due to the "amateur" authors, who do not have to turn in their texts to the editors of
traditional media in order to reach mass audience. Many of these people having no specialized
education, however got jobs in the late 1990s – early 2000s in popular newspapers. Whilst, as
Roman Bakanov's content analysis of publications has proved, most of these people criticize TV
based on their own experiences and emotions, they don't apply analytical, evidence-based methods.
They are aimed to assert themselves, to attract the audience's attention to own texts by negative
assessments. Perhaps that is why the vast majority of their writing carries a negative "critical"
attitude of almost all television programming. In addition, these texts do not attempt to examine
and analyze the identified problems from different angles, to understand the causes and to find out
the possible consequences. To do this, a media critic needs to possess a researcher's stance, the
ability to not only look for, but also to collect, and summarize the information" (Bakanov, 2009).
But this, of course, does not mean that professional media critics (L. Anninsky, R. Bakanov,
Y. Bogomolov, D. Bykov, A. Vartanov, D. Dondurei, V. Kichin, A. Korochensky, I. Petrovskaya,
A. Plakhov, K. Razlogov, etc.) have lost their influence. Each of them has its own target audience,
favored the mes, besides working for press many of them find time to maintain the Internet "live
journals", blogs and other net innovations that enable to get feedback from the audience almost
simultaneously upon the publication of the article.
In our opinion, it is professional media criticism that can have a positive influence on mass
audience's media competence. I. Petrovskaya dwells upon the problem, too: "Do we have to satisfy
the ill taste, or, on the contrary, should we treat it and try to improve the tastes and manners of the
audience? Most of TV people believe that we should indulge its desires, because this is the way the
audience is, and it is can't be changed by television means. But the point is that television can in
fact make people worse than they really are, it can lower the bar to such an extent that people will
not be able to distinguish what is good and what is bad" (Petrovskaya, 2003: 43-44).
2. Materials and methods

The main sources were the journal publications and books. The study used the basic
methods of cognition: systemic and the comparative methods. The use of these methods
allows to reproduce assessment approach to the problems. Comparative method defines
the difference in views on actual situation.
3. Discussion
The relevance of the synthesis of media and media criticism is demonstrated by, adopted in
2008, «European Parliament resolution of 16 December 2008 on media literacy in a digital world»,
which states that media literacy education should be mandatory. The resolution, inter alia,
recommends that compulsory media education modules be incorporated into teacher training for
all school levels, so as to enable the subject to be taught intensively; calls on the relevant national
authorities to familiarise teachers of all subjects and at every type of school with the use of
audiovisual teaching aids and with the problems associated with media education. It also maintains
that media education should be an element of formal education to which all children should have
access and which should form part and parcel of the curriculum at every stage of schooling
(European Parliament resolution, 2008).
In the same line, "Moscow Declaration on Media and Information Literacy", adopted by the
41
intergovernmental UNESCO Program "Information for All" (IFAP, 2012), recognizes that MIL
should be promoted in all national educational, cultural, information, media and other policies;
encourages education systems to initiate structural and pedagogical reforms necessary for
enhancement of MIL and its integration in the curricula including systems of assessment at all
levels of education, inter alia, lifelong and workplace learning and teacher training; encourages an
intercultural dialogue and international cooperation while promoting MIL worldwide (The Moscow
Declaration…, 2012). A similar declaration was adopted and held at the end of May 2014 during the
First European Forum on Media Literacy, held at UNESCO headquarters in Paris (First European
Forum…, 2014).
All of the above is very important and significant in the light of the official registration by
UMO Ministry of Education and Science of the Russian Federation of a university specialization for
pedagogical universities - "Media Education 03.13.30" and its implementation (since September
2002) by our researchers' and practitioners' team (the first graduation of certified teachers who
have mastered this program took place in 2007).
The need for further development of media education is supported at the state level: on
the17th of November, 2008, the Russian government approved the "Concept of long-term socio-
economic development of the Russian Federation until 2020". According to it, federal executive
bodies and executive bodies of state power of subjects of the Russian Federation are prescribed to
follow the provisions of the concept while developing policy documents, plans and performance of
the activities. Executive bodies are guided by these basic directions when developing program
documents, plans and indexes of their performance. Thus, "the increased use of information and
communication technologies for the development of new forms and methods of education,
including distance education and media education" is asserted as one of the priorities of the
concept (Concept…, 2008).
In 2005 Kirill Razlogov published a deliberately polemical article which expressed the idea
that an individual's media literacy is and should be developed spontaneously (Razlogov, 2005: 68-
75). This article set the beginning of the discussion on the pages of the academic journal "Media
Education". However, later K. Razlogov explained that although the question of mass media
education remains open to him, "special media education is certainly required. It is necessary for
educators and teachers ... the work to increase the number of people who are seriously interested in
classical and contemporary art is vital, too" (Razlogov, 2006: 92).
In terms of the discussion issues pointed out by Alexander Korochensky are very useful and
problematic:
1) Is the idea of developing a rational, critical media culture an illusion masking the inability
to realize the proclaimed humanistic concepts of training citizens to conditions of life and work in
the information age within the current socioeconomic and cultural context? Is it possible to widely
spread the rational-critical communication culture in the social environment, where there are
powerful tendencies working to reduce the level of critical media awareness of recipients? Under
the above circumstances, is there really a chance for successful implementation of a local social
planning, that is, the project of media literate audience?
2) In life and activities of both individuals and communities it is the instincts, the
unconscious impulses and emotions that play a very significant role. Effective use of modern media
technologies having various impacts on the area of the collective unconscious, suppressing rational
reactions of people is a clear proof of that. In this regard, the question is: isn't the ideal of rational-
critical communication culture only a phantom, a purely speculative ambition, unattainable due to
the inherent characteristics of a human personality and human community?
3) What if the critical autonomy of an individual dealing with mass media is a myth, masking
the inability in the socio-political context of the real emancipation and self-emancipation of citizens
from media manipulative effects and other adverse effects on the part of the media? (Korochensky,
2005: 41-42).
It seems that A. Korochensky accurately outlined the dangers standing in the way of media
education and criticism development. But, in our view, if all of these questions were answered in
the affirmative, then one would probably have to give up on media education altogether, since too
many obstacles are irresistibly strong and aggressive.
But don't human instincts oppose any education at all? Moreover, do manipulative
tendencies in modern society only concern media culture?
42
Undoubtedly, the absolute media competence of the mankind is as illusory as the total
human equality in all spheres of life, including the field of education and culture. However, if one
has the will, capacity and skills to develop media competence and analytical thinking of not
millions, but only thousands, hundreds or even dozens of people, this is the goal worth working
hard on.
Alexander Korochensky (Korochensky, 2003: 163) proposes to extend the concept of media
education as a long-term socio-educational activity, aimed not only at schoolchildren and students,
but also at an adult audience. Then the ongoing development of the media messages perception
culture and evaluation of media according to democratic and humanitarian ideals and values
should take on its full meaning.
The critical thinking approach in media education most fully developed by Len Masterman
(Masterman, 1985; 1997, etc.), in the last decades has attracted not only supporters but also
opponents. Nevertheless, a survey of experts in the field of media from various countries showed
that the majority (84 %) believes that the most important goal of media education is to develop the
ability of critical thinking / autonomy of an individual, skills to perceive, assess, appreciate, and
analyze the media (8).
Herewith L. Masterman believes that successful media education should be attributed to the
following factors: a clear understanding of the objectives by the teacher; productive discussion of
these goals with the students, based on their comments, priorities and enthusiasm; regular check,
and analysis (and if necessary – the revision) of the objectives (Masterman, 1985: 19).
At the same time, the practical implementation of the development of the citizens' rational-
critical communication culture on the basis of independent rational and critical thinking faces a
number of significant hindrances and difficulties. They cannot be only explained by immature
institutions of media education or incomplete conceptualization of the goals, methods and contents
of the activities in the field (although both of the above actually take place). Large scale media
manipulations of the audience's consciousness and behavior for political and commercial purposes;
increasingly irrational images of media reality; intellectual passivity and emotional infantilism of
the significant portion of the citizens in the face of negative media influences – all of the above is
observed both in Russia and other countries where mass media education is going through a
formation stage, and in the countries where it has already become a mandatory component of the
educational process at various levels (Korochensky, 2005: 37-38).
In fact, today's media are primarily focused on the cost effectiveness (almost) anywise. So it is
quite natural that by and large the media industry is not interested in the audience's developed
analytical thinking in relation to the media functions in society and media texts of various types
and genres. "Lonely islands" - Russian media agencies which are not commercially centered, for
example, TV channel "Culture", will inevitably drown in the flow of the mainstream market.
On the other hand, as it is aptly noted by A. Korochensky, there is another challenge for the
development of media competence: "the postmodern skepticism with regard to reason and
cognitive abilities of a person (correspondingly, to his/her enlightenment and education);
intellectual and moral relativism, giving birth to scornful and ironic attitude to the fundamental
human values, democratic and social justice ideals. Against this background, in certain social
circles, including the community of media professionals, there are signs of a negative attitude to
the idea of widespread rational-critical communication culture – ranging from the denial of its
feasibility under current conditions (see, eg, Razlogov, 2005: 68-75) to open hostility, aggressive
rejection of the spirit of enlightenment and civilization inherent in this intellectual initiative"
(Korochensky, 2005: 39-40). This trend has recently been recognized in the Western hemisphere,
too (see, eg. McMachon, 2003).
4. Results
The important role of mass media in modern Russian society is unfortunately accompanied
with a poor development of media criticism. This particular area of journalism is aimed at
analyzing the current creative, professional, ethical, legal, economic and technological aspects of
information production in the media and thereby increasing the level of media competence and
analytical thinking of wide audiences of all ages. In Russia, there are some talented working critics,
however, not all of them are capable of significant conceptual synthesis.
In principle, it is clear why the development of media criticism and media education has not
43
received formal support in the Soviet times. Authorities were keen to make sure that the mass
audience (both adults and teens) thought as little as possible about the goals and objectives of a
particular (especially of "national importance") media text. The prevalence of "media incompetent"
audience always provided ample scope for manipulation in press, on radio and TV.
Today, the position of media criticism and media education in Russia has drastically
changed. Media criticism is a way to communicate with the audience. Based on the analysis,
interpretation and evaluation of the whole complex of media content, its genre and style has an
impact on the perception of the public, on the picture of the material and spiritual world, formed in
the minds of recipients. Media criticism not only examines and evaluates the work of the authors,
but also a "moving" complex of multiple relationships of print and electronic media with the
audience and the society as a whole. This allows one to define the subject of media criticism as the
multifaceted social operation of the media" (Korochensky, 2003: 32).
Based on this definition Alexander Korochensky clearly distinguishes basic functions of
media criticism (information and communication, cognitive, correctional, social, organizational,
educational, commercial) and formulates the main tasks of media criticism: awareness of how
information is produced; study and change of the public perception of media content and world
outlook; influence upon the attitude of the public to the media, shaping of a certain social culture of
the use and appreciation of the mass media, the development of the inner world of the audience;
promotion of creative and professional culture of media texts' creators; promotion of the social
environment for functioning of mass media, etc. (Korochensky, 2003: 32). The latter, in our
opinion, is of particular importance due to the fact that the Russian audience trusts media less and
less. If the mid 1990s media messages were highly trustworthy for 70 % of Russians (Vartanova,
2001: 23), then by 2012, credibility of the most popular medium, television, decreased to 57 %
(RIA, 2013).
The reason for this loyalty decline may be attributed not only to the abundance of low-quality
television shows, but also, to some extent, to the influence of media criticism, that, owing to the
Internet, is becoming more accessible to people, who become increasingly aware of manipulative
features of media texts.
Building on the analysis of various resources, A. Korochensky distinguishes the most
common manipulative elements of modern media: schematic, simplified nature; the identity of the
logical and illogical; false representations; the absence of clear-cut criteria for distinguishing
between surface and deep relationships; references to tradition, authority, precedent, normative,
the divine will; syncretism of the aesthetic and imaginative, ethical and regulatory and proper
cognitive elements of the myth; reproduction of a highly complex picture of the world through the
mythical binary oppositions ("good-evil", "friend-foe"); claim to absolutely true non-historical
explanation of the reality phenomena and the absolute correctness of practical action, arising out of
this grounds; judgmental nature of media texts; etc. (Korochensky, 2003: 83-84).
So, today media criticism has immense potential to foster the efforts of educational
institutions in the development of audience's media culture. Herewith media criticism and media
education have a lot in common, since one of the most important tasks of media education is to
teach the audience to analyze media texts of various genres and types, and also to comprehend the
mechanisms of their creation and functioning in society.
Thus, among the key aspects of media education, British media educators (Bazalgette, 1995 et
al.) emphasize the agency (referring to a comprehensive study of who produces a text; production
process; what is a media institution; its economics and ideology; intentions and results), the media
language (the ways the media produce meanings; codes and conventions; narrative structures), the
representation (the awareness of how media texts represent actual places, people, events, ideas),
and the audience (on the one hand, key audiences are identified, the ways they're addressed; and
on the other hand, the study how audiences look for, choose, perceive and respond to media texts).
As a matter of fact, the same key aspects of media are subject to media criticism, appealing to both
the professional and the mass audience. This is why a solid connection between media criticism
and media education is so important.
Bearing in mind, that in the English-language literature, the term "media criticism" is used
both to mark the scientific analysis of mass media activities in academic writings, and to present "a
quick scan" of pressing issues of the media concerns (Masterman, 1997; McQuail, 2010 et al.), we
are going to focus on the latter form of media criticism.
44
We concur with Alexander Korochensky that there is a need for a thorough psychological,
cultural and sociological analysis of media texts in entertainment popular culture in order to
identify flawed ideas, cultural and behavioral stereotypes embedded in their social content. In fact,
TV shows like "Dom-2" (House-2, the longest running reality show in Russia), promote and
reinforce in the public minds the ideas about the fundamental hopelessness of the transformation
of supposedly base human nature, about human actions motivated by elementary instincts, about
the moral permissiveness and social legitimacy of the use of immoral methods (slander,
harassment, backroom collusion) to suppress and eliminate people appearing to be an obstacle on
the road to success (Korochensky, 2003: 83-84).
A. Korochensky (Korochensky, 2003: 164) proposes to extend the concept of media education
as a long-term socio-educational activity, aimed not only at schoolchildren and students, but also at
an adult audience. Then we might dwell upon about the continuous development of the culture of a
comprehensive perception of media messages and independent evaluation of mass media with due
regard for the democratic and humanistic ideals and values.
Meanwhile, we believe that media education and media criticism possess great capacities in
terms of supporting the efforts of media educators and teachers, integrating media literacy in the
subject matter, with the development of media competent audience. There is merit in amplifying
the participation of academics, researchers and experts in various fields (educators, sociologists,
psychologists, cultural scientists, journalists, and others), cultural and educational institutions,
public organizations and foundations in order to develop the media literacy / media competence of
citizens, to create new institutional structures able to perform a full range of media education
objectives in cooperation with the media criticism (Korochensky, 2003: 254).
Over recent years quite a lot has been studied, developed, put into practice in this field.
For example, media competence's development process involves the active use of analytical
methods and techniques. Among these methods are the following (Eco, 1976: Fedorov, 2007:
Fedorov et al., 2012; Fedorov, 2014; Fedorov, Levitskaya, 2015; Propp, 1998, etc.): aesthetical
analysis; autobiographical analysis; character analysis; content analysis; cultivation analysis;
cultural mythology analysis; ethical analysis; hermeneutic analysis of cultural context;
iconographic analysis; identification analysis; ideological and philosophical analysis; narrative
analysis; semiological analysis; stereotypes analysis; structural analysis.
All of these methods involve key aspects of media such as media agencies, media categories,
media language, media technologies, media representations, and media audiences (Bazalgette,
1995).
Certainly, the study of these aspects takes place in a complex, multidisciplinary, integrated
manner, immersed in a social and cultural context, suggesting that media education is "the process
of forming a media saturated social communication culture" (Sharikov, 2005: 78-79).
5. Conclusions
Media criticism and media education share a lot of inherent features. Both media education
and media criticism attach great importance to the development of analytical thinking. Indeed, one
of the most important objectives of media education is precisely to teach the audience not only to
analyze media texts of any genres and types, but also to understand their mechanisms to
implement and operate in society. Actually, media criticism investigates the same issues, targeting
professional community and the widest possible audience alike. That is the reason why the
synthesis of media criticism and media education is so important. The debate on the role and
functions of the media in society and analysis of media texts in classrooms has become an
imperative of great contemporary importance.
6. Acknowledgements
This article is written within the framework of a study supported by the grant of the Russian
Science Foundation (RSF). Project № 14-18-00014 "Synthesis of media education and media
criticism in the preparation of future teachers", performed at Taganrog Management and
Economics Institute.
45
References
Bakanov, 2009 – Bakanov, R.P. (2009). Media criticism of the federal periodicals 1990.
Information field of modern Russia: the practices and effects. Kazan: Kazan University Press, 109-116.
Bazalgette, 1995 – Bazalgette, C. (1995). Key aspects of media education. Moscow: Russian
Association for Film Education, 51 p.
Buckingham, 2003 – Buckingham, D. (2003). Media Education: Literacy, Learning and
Contemporary Culture. Cambridge, UK: Polity Press, 219 p.
Concept…, 2008 – Concept of long-term socio-economic development of the Russian
Federation for the period until 2020. Approved by the Government of the Russian Federation
17.11.2008.
Dzyaloshinsky, Pilgun, 2011 – Dzyaloshinsky. I.M., Pilgun, M.A. (2011). A media text:
peculiarities of creation and operation. Moscow: Higher School of Economics Publishing House,
377 p.
Eco, 1976 – Eco, U. (1976). A Theory of Semiotics. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
European Parliament resolution…, 2008 – European Parliament resolution of 16 December
2008 on media literacy in a digital world. Brussels, 2008. http://www.europarl.europa.eu
/sides/getDoc.do?pubRef=-//EP//TEXT+TA+P6-TA-2008-0598+0+DOC+XML+V0//EN
Fedorov, 2003 – Fedorov, A. (2003). Media Education and Media Literacy: Experts’
Opinions. MENTOR. A Media Education Curriculum for Teachers in the Mediterranean. Paris:
UNESCO.
Fedorov, 2007 – Fedorov, A.V. (2007). Development of media competence and critical
thinking of students of pedagogical universities. Moscow, 616 p.
Fedorov, 2012 – Fedorov, A.V. (2012). Media Education. Big Russian Encyclopedia. Vol. 17.
Moscow: Big Russian Encyclopedia, 480.
Fedorov, 2014 – Fedorov, A. (2014). Media Education in Russia: Past and Present. European
Researcher, 67(1-2), 168-175.
Fedorov et al., 2012 – Fedorov, A.V., Levitskaya, A.A., Chelysheva, I.V., Murukina, E.V.
(2012). Research and Education Center "Media Education and Media Competence". Moscow,
614 p.
Fedorov, Levitskaya, 2015 – Fedorov, A., Levitskaya, A. (2015). The framework of Media
Education and Media Criticism in the Contemporary World: The opinion of International
Experts. Comunicar, 23(45): 107-116.
Jurin, 2012 – Jurin, A.A. (2012). Integrated media education in high school. Moscow, 2012.
Korochensky, 2003 – Korochensky, A.P. (2003). Media criticism in the theory and practice
of journalism. Rostov: Rostov State University, 284 p.
Korochensky, 2005 – Korochensky, A.P. (2005). Media Education in Russia: more than the
external difficulties and obstacles. Media Education. 3: 37-42.
Masterman, 1985 – Masterman, L. (1985). Teaching the Media. London: Comedia Publishing
Group, 341 p.
Masterman, 1997 – Masterman, L. (1997). A Rationale for Media Education. In: Kubey, R.
(Ed.) Media Literacy in the Information Age. New Brunswick (U.S.A.) and London (UK):
Transaction Publishers: 15-68.
McMahon, 2003 – McMahon, B. (2003). Relevance and Rigour in Media Education.
Keynote Presentation. Baltimore: National Media Education Conference Alliance for a Media
Literate America.
McQuail, 2010 – McQuail, D. (2010), McQuails's Mass Communication Theory. London:
Sage.
Petrovskaya, 2003 – Petrovskaya, I.E. (2003). Media criticism: "good" and "bad" guys: Why
are TV people trying to expand the boundaries of the acceptable. Journalism and media market. 2:
42-45.
Pocheptsov, 2012 – Pocheptsov, G.G. (2012). Agents of influence and impact of texts. How do
virtual and information spaces create and maintain social system breaks.
http://osvita.mediasapiens.ua/material/8505
Potter, 2011 – Potter, W.J. (2011). Media literacy. Los Angeles: Sage, 463 p.
Propp, 1998 – Propp, V. (1998). Morphology of a fairy tale. The historical roots of fairy tales.
Moscow: Labirint, 512 p.
46
Razlogov, 2005 – Razlogov, K.E. (2005). What is Media Education? Media Education. N 2,
68-75.
Razlogov, 2006 – Razlogov, K.E. (2006). Media education – myths and reality. Media
Education. 3: 90-93.
RIA news, 2013 – RIA news. 2013. 26.03.2013. http://ria.ru/society/20130326
/929117516.html
Sharikov, 2005 – Sharikov, A.V. (2005). So what is media education? Media Education. 2:
75-81.
Silverblatt, 2001 – Silverblatt, A. (2001). Media Literacy. Westport, Connecticut – London:
Prager, 449 p.
The First European Media Literacy Forum. 2014 – The First European Media Literacy
Forum. 2014. http://www.europeanmedialiteracyforum.org/
The Moscow Declaration…, 2012 – The Moscow Declaration on Media and Information
Literacy. Moscow, 2012. http://www.ifapcom.ru/news/1347/?returnto=0&n=1
Vartanova, 2001 – Vartanova, E.L. (2001). Modern media structure. Media in Post-Soviet
Russia. Moscow, 23.
Zaznobina, 1998 – Zaznobina, L.S. (1998). Standard media education integrated with the
various school disciplines. Standards and Monitoring in Education. 3: 26-34.
Zhilavskaya, 2009 – Zhilavskaya, I.V. (2009). Media education of a young audience. Tomsk
University, 322 p.
47
View publication stats

See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/311700081
Soviet film critics about Soviet cinema: from

censorship to Gorbachev's perestroika
CITATION READS
1 158
1 author:
Alexander Fedorov
Anton Chekhov Taganrog Institute, Russia
283 PUBLICATIONS 177 CITATIONS
SEE PROFILE
Instructions for Authors of Media Education Journal View project
International Journal of Media and Information Literacy View project
All content following this page was uploaded by Alexander Fedorov on 28 December 2016.

Медиаобразование. Media Education. 2017. № 1
Media Culture
Soviet film critics about Soviet cinema:

from censorship to Gorbachev's perestroika
Prof. Dr. Alexander Fedorov,

Rostov State University of Economics, Russia
E-mail: 1954alex@mail.ru
Abstract
Moscow publishing house Art began to produce in mid-1960s annual book collection Screen, which was to
reflect the most important cinematic events in the USSR and the world. The first collection of this kind - Screen
1964 - was printed edition of 45,500 copies. The circulation of the next two collections were 30-35 thousand copies.
From 1968 to 1985 the Screens were annually with a circulation of 50 thousand copies. Screen 1987 circulation has
been increased to 75 thousand, but the rest of the collection issues have returned to the circulation of 50 thousand
copies. Each book is illustrated with black-and-white frames of the movies and photos masters of the screen.
Yearbooks Screen became a mirror of the Soviet criticism of the 1960s - 1980s, reflecting all ups and downs,
forced to default figures, ideological passages, thaw and perestroika hope... From the time of the fisrt to last annual
output has been a quarter century. Soviet film criticism changed significantly.
The main materials for this article was articles of Soviet film critics about Soviet cinema in Screen
yearbooks. The methods of theoretical research: classification, comparison, analogy, induction and deduction,
abstraction and concretization, theoretical analysis and synthesis; methods of empirical research: collecting
information related to the research subjects.
Keywords: film critic, film studies, Soviet, USSR, film, movies, cinema, censorship.
* Article was written as part of research with the financial support of the grant of the Russian Scientific Foundation
(RNF). Project № 14-18-00014 «Synthesis of media education and media criticism in the process of preparing future
teachers," performed at the Taganrog Institute of Management and Economics.
Introduction
Moscow publishing house Art began to produce in mid-1960s annual book

collection Screen, which was to reflect the most important cinematic events in the
USSR and the world. The first collection of this kind - Screen 1964 - was printed
edition of 45,500 copies. The circulation of the next two collections were 30-35
thousand copies. From 1968 to 1985 the Screens were annually with a circulation
of 50 thousand copies. Screen 1987 circulation has been increased to 75 thousand,
but the rest of the collection issues have returned to the circulation of 50 thousand
copies. Each book is illustrated with black-and-white frames of the movies and
photos masters of the screen.
However, based on the stated theme, our analysis is limited to only articles
about Soviet feature films (Such collection had 15-20 about). I have not analyzed:
1) interviews; 2) reports from film sets; 3) articles written not by film critics; 4)
articles about the documentary, animation and foreign films (how foreign cinema
was reflected in the mirror of the Soviet critics, please, see: Fedorov, 2016).
So, these Yearbooks published (from 1965 to 1990) over four hundred
articles on the Soviet cinema.
Materials and methods

The main materials for this article was articles of Soviet film critics about
Soviet cinema. The methods of theoretical research: classification, comparison,
analogy, induction and deduction, abstraction and concretization, theoretical
analysis and synthesis; methods of empirical research: collecting information
related to the research subjects. The effectiveness of such methods has been proven
as the Western (R. Taylor, D. Youngblood, A. Lawton et al.), and Russian (N.
Zorkaya, M. Turovskaya) researchers. I used also the method of hermeneutic
analysis of the cultural context of media texts (Eco, 1976; Silverblatt, 2001).
Discussion
Screen 1964 (published in 1965, put a set in April 1965)
The first issue of the yearbook’ collection - Screen 1964 - was distinctly
"thaw", although its materials, of course, influenced the guiding line of the Soviet
Communist Party Central Committee Resolutions: "On measures to improve the
management of the art of cinematography development" (1962), "Immediate Tasks
party's ideological work" (1963) and "On the "Mosfilm" (1964). The latter
document, for example, said that filmmakers should "produce movies that reveal
the Soviet way of thinking and acting, the Soviet way of life; recreate on screen
the story of the struggle of the Communist Party and the Soviet people for the
victory of socialism and communism in our country; produce films, exposing the
bourgeois way of life, to help the party in its struggle for the triumph of
communist ideology" (Resolution..., 1964).
However, Screen 1964 in general looked quite balanced despite all these
Resolutions: the materials of the Soviet cinema combined with a large, saturated
section of foreign films, festivals and stars, and even with the polemical articles.
For example, very noticeable at the time critics E. Surkov and M.
Kuznetsov were the authors of reviews about the film Chairman by Y. Nagibin and
A. Saltykov. Actor Mikhail Ulyanov very imressive played the role of Trubnikov -
the chairman of one of the post-war collective farms. And E. Surkov (1915-1988)
claimed that "those who conceders Trubnikov on the ideal of modern standards of
the collective farm manager, is unlikely to do the right thing. ... In order to
understand Trubnikov, we must not forget that he is a man, not some ideal
personification of some abstractly formulated virtues" (Surkov, 1965, p.36).
M. Kuznetsov (1914-1980) to argue with positive view of E. Surkov: "It is
very difficult to understand how such a talented writer as Y. Nagibin ... have lost
all sense of proportion, and gave himself entirely to the power of the illustrative
flow? And why is the young director Alexey Saltykov, whose work is very rough,
but sometimes shows a clear talent, too, succumbed to this?" (Kuznetsov, 1965, p.
42).
Here I must say that have not been yet untouchable Soviet "cinematic
generals" with untouchable "state significant topics" in the 1960s. Therefore, it was
possible (of course, within the ruling ideology) relatively freely express their
opinions. So E. Surkov, even positively assessed Chairman, noting that "the first
part of the film is especially good, solid and perfected, but the second part,
unfortunately, is not so equivalent. Especially towards the end of the film when the
director and screenwriter, wanting to show the changes that have occurred on the
farm, do it purely illustrative externally. ... I felt in the final episode of the film
even some complacency, as if the authors would have us believe then that all the
problems now resolved" (Surkov, 1965, pp. 38-39).
M. Semenov’s article about the film Space Alloy by the future “cinematic
general of era of stagnation” T. Levchuk (1912-1998) was very caustic and (rightly
so!) absolutely ruthless: "The appearance of the film was preceded by broadcast
advertising. It was emphasized that it is not a simple cinematographic, it is a plan
of how the hymn "glorious working class." But we can see instead the weak song,
even with fake notes. ... No real life, not living people. Instead, we meet with
mannequins” (Semenov, 1965, p. 66-67, 71).
Probably, the title The Regional Secretary of Communist Party would be a
strong anti-critical indulgence for any film, even the lowest professional level in
the 1970s - the first half of the 1980s. But at the beginning of the Brezhnev’s era,
"the party-ideological" title and topic has not been saved opportunistic opus by V.
Chebotarev (1921-2010) from the just verdict of V. Kardin (1921-2008). This
critic accused this film in the absence of the real life’s traces (Kardin, 1965, p. 69-
72).
The yearbook scolded (and again - for good reason) and movies on the so-
called historical-revolutionary theme. For example, K. Scherbakov ironically
remarked that films Mandate and In the Name of Revolution exploit the “moves
and situations, images and techniques of expression, which are now, repeating
many times, become empty, jaded, commonplace. ... I am far from being able to
accuse the authors of Mandate and In the Name of Revolution of plagiarism ... But
the lack of their own vision of art sometimes brings such bitter fruit, which does
not know and direct borrowing" (Shcherbakov, 1965, pp. 86-87).
It is curious that, thanks to the "thaw", the critic J. Warsawsky (1911-2000)
was still able to tell the yearbook the readers even that film I am 20 years has
undergone alterations and, therefore, did not immediately came out on the screen:
"I've seen all the options this film, and the early and final. What is the essence of
reshoots? ... Of course, as always with the alterations do not guard themselves
against losses, more or less offensive. Perhaps the most annoying is too cut scene
performances of poets at the Polytechnic Museum" (Warsawsky, 1965, p.45).
Analyzing this film of M. Khutsiev, film critic used fairly typical for the
1960s protective method: a reference to the faithfulness of goodies "light Leninist
ideals" (Warsawsky, 1965, p.50).
However, realizing that even this ideological link, perhaps, not at all will
make an impression, J. Warsawsky completed his article one more polemical
thesis: "You do not agree with me, dear reader? Let us not rush to conclusions,
let's see it again, make sure what impact it on our young cinema, on the minds of a
new generation of artists and audiences. This film has slow, but powerful steps"
(Warsawsky, 1965, p. 52).
And J. Warsawsky, as time has shown, proved to be completely right: M.
Khutsiev’s talented film, in fact, turned out to be "long-playing", designed for
decades of thinking about the thaw era...
Bright and figuratively review was written by N. Zorkaya (1924-2006) about
the satirical comedy by E. Klimov Welcome, or No Trespassing. N. Zorkaya
reasonably argued that many of the "troubles come from dogmatism and lack of
talent, who are always together and prop each other, although apparently not
similar, although dogmatism important inflated, pretends to be a scientist... The
film Welcome, or No Trespassing is talented, cheerful and mischievous work of
like-minded artists. ... Professional hand, precise installation, master's sense of
material: it's all there in Klimov's film" (Zorkaya, 1965, pp. 52-55).
M. Kvasnetskaya (1925-2008) wrote a good review about Competition:
"This film is not only creative debut of young director B. Mansurov, and the
approval of his peculiar talent - clever and poetic" (Kvasnetskaya, 1965, p. 63).
And I. Levshina (1932-2009) was convinced that Competition is not only deserves
accolades, but this film is so rich and complex, so difficult for the viewer's
perception that the conversation about him should go to some fundamental
questions. I saw in the Competition deeply national cinema" (Levshina, 1965, p.
60-61).
M. Kuznetsov wrote very warm and shrewdly article about the directorial
film debut of V. Shukshin This Guy Lives: "Not all perfect in this film, there is
something to reproach not only actors, but above all the author, even reproach, but
from all admiring heart. However, this uneven film has an amazing, rare integrity,
and in addition, V. Shukshin achieved victory in such a difficult area as the
problem of the hero. ... That's why this debut is not only successful itself, but
promises even more in the future. I think not mistaken to predict that we will
happy to meet V. Shukshin and on the pages of magazines and books, and in the
cinema" (Kuznetsov, 1965, p. 137, 142).
The next section of the book dealt with the creative portraits of filmmakers.
For example, I. Solovyova wrote that "Smoktunovsky’s play in Hamlet

leaves a wonderful feeling: it seems that the role is changing from time to time, as
it can not be changed in the movie, and as happens only in the theater" (Solovieva,
1965, p. 99).
Perhaps the only discordant note in a very successful book, was the boring
article of D. Pisarevsky (1912-1990), the chief editor of Soviet Screen magazine,
who wrote that Vasilyev brothers’ Chapaev "is one of pictures-titans, in which
each new generation of viewers and artists draws spiritual riches and opens its
consonant with time. He became part of the lives of the people, a true companion
generations" (Pisarevsky, 1965, p. 219).
Screen 1965 (published in 1966, put in a set in October 1966)
The well-known film critic M. Bleyman (1904-1973) published in 1970 the

article Archaists or innovators? (Bleyman, 1970), which served as a pretext for
Soviet film bosses defeat of Ukrainian poetic cinema. But Screen 1965 could still
to publish a positive article about the film S. Parajanov (1924-1990) Shadows of
Forgotten Ancestors. This masterpiece was evaluated as "explosion of many
canons, disturbing many hardened tastes and concepts. And so I want to believe
that this is not a coincidence, but a brilliant beginning of a new stage in the life of
Ukrainian cinema. ... Talent director Parajanov finally found their true value,
slipped to a truly artistic expression. It seems that reel of film will not sustain such
a frenzied pressure of the director/operator’ fantasy, but this is artistic revelationin.
... Director of Photography Y. Ilienko deserves the highest praise for the highest
measure accurate, ubiquitous, bottomless ingenuity. Union of director and
cameraman in this film is so indivisible that it is difficult to imagine a more
"ground-in" in modern cinema" (Drach, 1966, p. 29, 32).
A number of books’ articles was devoted to the poetic cinema. Critics
pointed out that in V. Derbenev’s Last Month of Autumn "reigns light lyrical
intonation and it is all full of poetry" (Ignatieva, 1966, p.52), and Girl and the
Echo has a different artistic purpose than preaching: be able to see the world grow
a purity and transparency of the soul, and then everything will open and you will
respond ... The film does not proclaim anything, but this is a miracle of poetry"
(Inovertseva, 1966, p. 35). And the article’s title about poetic parable M.
Kobakhidze The Wedding was, in fact, an exhaustive: Small Masterpiece
(Semenov, 1966, p. 138-139).
This, of course, does not mean that the annual book automatically Screens
the poetic cinema of critics zone. For example, I. Rubanova rather sternly wrote
about the debut work of B. Grigoriev (1935-2012) and Y. Shvyrev (1932-2013)
First Snow and the Clean Ponds by A. Sakharov (1934-1999) (Rubanova 1966, p.
68).
And Z. Paperny (1919-1996) was not thrilled with the movie of A.
Manasarova (1925-1986) Twenty Years Later: “A good picture, a professional job.
Just an example of a purely "cinematic" movie, which says on its "brutal"

language, not only listening to the language of the writer" (Paperny, 1966, p. 117).
The polemic yearbook’s section included the debate about the comedy
genre. B. Medvedev (1920-1969) did not skimp on praise for the comedy of
K.Voinov (1918-1995) Bal'zaminov’s Marriage, admitting that his "dream-
pantomime conquered, drew courage director" (Medvedev, 1966, p. 95).
E. Kholodov (1915-1981) forcefully argued with him, regretting that "fine man
replaced by the movie theme of the little man" (Kholodov, 1966, p. 97).
The satirical comedy 33 displeased Soviet cinema officials. But T.
Khloplyankina not afraid to speak out in defense of thes comedy: "This is a film
that is the first time in many years, does not hesitate to be a satire and does not
apologize for the fact that this is a satire. Negative characters in it much more than
positive… It is very sharp and angry film, but where and when satire have been
good? It is, finally, a film that boldly uses hyperbole, exaggeration, but where and
when the satire of rejected it?" (Khloplyankina, 1966, p. 105).
She also highly appreciated the eccentric comedy of Leonid Gaidai (1923-
1993) Operation ‘Y’: "Comedy seemed to be shook off the fatigue acquired during
the years sitting in a society uninteresting people. … It can revive old and show a
cascade of mind-blowing tricks, but it is oriented perfectly in modern interiors. It is
capable of equipping their goodies uncanny ease and ruthlessly confound negative,
but both of them did not seem to us conditional figures" (Khloplyankina 1966, p.
100).
Another well-known film critic G. Kremlev (1905-1975) was fully agree
with T. Khloplyankina: "In order to put the comedy, and even more so - the comic,
not enough to be a good director, you must have a special calling. But this is not
enough. It was necessary to have the quality of a religious fanatic, martyr. All these
qualities are happily combined in Leonid Gaidai" (Kremlev 1966, pp. 109-110).
V. Orlov devoted his article to comedies Give Me a Complaints Book and
Sleeping Lion, rightly arguing that "the everyday life presents new conflicts and
new clothes evil… But these comedies are still struggling with the cartoons in
gabardine raincoats" (Orlov 1966, p.114).
Articles of I. Lishchinsky and G. Kapralov (1921-2010) were about the film
by G. Kalatozov (1903-1973) and S. Urusevsky (1908-1974) I am Cuba. I.
Lishchinsky noted that "the camera in the hands of Urusevsky free and is
animated. She took from the operator of his impetuosity, his emotion, his impulse.
The viewer taken away immutable point of view of the observer. The camera leads
him along. Every second frame can enter something new and unexpected. The
audience watching the movie in the rhythm of the film. The audience must be
active for the movies of Kalatozov & Urusevsky" (Lishchinsky, 1966, p. 80).
But the opinion of G. Kapralov was much more restrained: "I remember the
previous film of Mikhail Kalatozov and Sergey Urusevsky - Unsent Letter. The
criticism, polemics around the movie ultimately correct answer to the question why
such a remarkable direction with which we met in some episodes of this work, and
a brilliant cinematography, which marked virtually every frame, suddenly triggered

largely in vain: the film there was no real drama. And in the new Kalatozov &
Urusevsky’ work we see the same error... It is very disappointing for me that I am
Cuba with all brilliant fireworks skill did not work in the artistic scale, which of it
was to be expected" (Kapralov, 1966, p. 82, 84).
It seems that these two views are quite representative of the perception of I
am Cuba, not only for film critics but the ordinary audience: today this movie is
also controversial...
It is interesting today to read the discussion of the O. Efremov’s long-
forgotten drama Build Bridge. I. Levshina considered that "theater has come to the
cinema not for that, to show filmmakers how to make movies. The theater went to
the cinema to get a platform to express their beliefs, and brought with them a
culture of its theatrical thinking. With its artistic and civil credo, his method of
thinking, you can agree or disagree, but to ignore them you cannot" (Levshina,
1966). And this is more convincing opinion of B. Kardin: "I do not think that the
authors of the film Build Bridge consciously wanted to refurbish old plot... leaning
on life, they missed something in life" (Kardin 1966, p. 90).
The Screen 1965 published an interview with A. Tarkovsky (1932-1986) on
the set of Andrei Rublev. This film for several years has been put "on the shelf".
But this interview was possible in 1965...
Yaerbook published also the article about A. Konchalovsky's The First
Teacher. N. Lordkipanidze (1925-2014) wrote that it is "difficult due to the
complexity of the organic material. And sometimes deliberately hindered by virtue
of congestion symbolic imagery. ... It has all the luxuries debut, perseverance in
the "statement of self", coming from the fear of being trivial. But the film is serious
in the main. And it is indeed the new artist coming into the art" (Lordkipanidze
1966, p.137).
D. Pisarevsky’s assessment was basically positive about the drama Hello, It's
Me! By F. Dovlatyan (1927-1997): "Can be heard accusations of unreliability of
certain episodes. To some extent they are valid. But this is not important, because
the whole movie is a bold exploration of modern theme. It's real art. Truthful,
intelligent, emotional" (Pisarevsky, 1966, p. 140).
And as usual, the Yearbook presents readers benevolent portraits of
Russian filmmakers: A. Volodin (Warsawsky, 1966, p.124-132), I. Lapikov
(Zelenko, 1966, p. 56-58), V. Receptor (Kolesnikova, 1966, pp. 144-145), and
others.
Screen 1966-1967 (1967, put in a set in April 1967)
XXIII Congress of the Soviet Communist Party, held in March and April
1966, did not have a noticeable effect on the content of Screen 1966-1967: a time
when the yearbook will publish articles officious critics, interspersed with
quotations from the speeches at Communist party congresses, it was yet to come...
But an unprecedented event was in the life of Soviet critics in the late 1966:
forty of them were sent a questionnaire, which were asked to choose: the best
Soviet film, director, cameraman, actress, actor in 1966 [Screen 1966-1967, pp. 12-
15].
Here is the list of these film critics: L. Anninsky, M. Augstkali, V.
Baskakov (1921-1999), T. Bachelis (1918-1999), L. Belova (1921-1986), M.
Bleyman (1904-1973), V. Bozhovich , I. Weissefeld (1909-2003), A. Vartanov, J.
Warsawsky (1911-2000), M. Zak (1929-2011), N. Zorkaya (1924-2006), N.
Ignatieva, A. Karaganov (1915 -2007), B. Kardin (1921-2008), G. Kapralov (1921-
2010), N. Klado (1909-1990), N. Kovarsky (1904-1974), I. Kozenkranius, L.
Kopelev (1912-1997), I. Levshina (1932-2009), N. Lordkipanidze (1925-2014),
M. Maltsene (1924-2014), J. Markulan (1920-1978), A. Macheret (1896-1979), L.
Parfenov (1929-2004), D. Pisarevsky (1912-1990), L. Pogogeva (1913-1989), A.
Romitsyn, S. Rassadin (1935-2012), K. Rudnicky (1920-1988), I. Solovyova , D.
Teshabayev, K. Tsereteli, V. Shalunovsky (1918-1980), V. Shitova (1927-2002), I.
Schneiderman (1919-1991), S. Freilich (1920-2005), Y. Khanyutin (1929 -1978),
R. Yurenev (1912-2002).
For greater clarity, I counted the number of votes for each category and
identified by three films and filmmakers who have received the maximum number
of votes of forty critics in each category.
Table 1. Top films, directors, cameramen, actors and actresses in 1966,

according to critics of the Soviet *
Place in the Best film The number of votes The number of votes
ranking of film critics of film critics (%)
1 Ordinary Fascism 20 50,0
2 Nobody Wanted to Die 7 17,5
3 The First Teacher 4 10,0
Place in the Best director The number of votes The number of votes
1 V. Žalakevičius 9 22,5
2 S. Yutkevich 9 22,5
3 A. Konchalovsky 8 20,0
Place in the Best director of Photography The number of votes The number of votes
1 L. Paatashvili 13 32,5
2 J. Gricius 10 25,0
3 V. Derbenyov, D. Motorny 6 15,0
Place in the Best actors The number of votes The number of votes
1 R. Bykov 14 35,0
2 I. Smoktunovsky 11 27,5
3 D. Banionis 8 20,0
Place in the Best actress The number of votes The number of votes
1 M. Bulgakova 29 72,5
2-3 N. Mordukova, I. Makarova, 2 5,0
L. Savelieva
* some film critics as their favorites specify multiple movies and / or filmmakers.
Alas, this was only one interesting experiment without further

continuation… Apparently, someone "above" thought that the opinions of film
critics and film experts can very clearly be different from the preferences of the
authorities and the "choice of the masses"... And further questioning of Soviet film
critics were forbidden until the era of "perestroika", when in the second half of
1980 the newspaper Week dared to publish a table, where the leading film critics
exhibited "star" for movie current repertoire.
But the polemical Yearbook’s section still existed some years. And in the
Screen 1966-1967 film critics argued about the films Your Son and Brother by V.
Shukshin (1929-1974) and Long and Happy Life by G. Shpalikov (1937-1974).
L. Anninsky with his usual deep insight into film context wrote that
"cinema has revealed in the works of Shukshin deep moral theme running through
all that it does. Shukshin’s cinema has made clear to us the psychological and
stylistic opening pertaining to our general psychological condition" [Anninsky
1967, p. 102].
But this does not convince experienced polemicist N. Klado (1909-1990).
He cautiously admitted: "The world of the village depicted in this film, for me, is
terrible. After all, Vera is the brightest in the village. But she was silent. She can
not tell people. She did not want to hear" [Klado 1967, p.100].
I. Levshina’s article about the film Long and Happy Life was no less
controversial. This article began with a sudden sharp outburst against the very
popular lyrical comedy Walking the Streets of Moscow: "I do not like this film (by
director G. Danelia and screen writer G. Shpalikov. I do not like mainly due
Shpalikov, because of the fact that the playwright, making the demonstration of
his creative manner, and the film builds narcotic pagan sense of thoughtlessness as
the standard of happiness ... I feel closer to Shpalikov "Happy Life", because here
he grows up. He thinks in his manner, not giving a succinct breakdown. I support
the idea that the viewer is invited to think, and as often as possible" [Levshina
1967, p.111].
Well, film critic not only rejects the "cult" thaw masterpiece Walking the
Streets of Moscow, but also openly urged to think - filmmakers and the audience! I
suppose, such film critic passage is almost impossible in the Soviet press in the
1970s - the first half of 1980s...
J. Warsawsky argued I. Levshina, because he (as, indeed, many of the
Soviet viewers) frankly did not like “Antonioni’s style of Long and Happy Life:
"But if it's a comedy, why the screen is so boring? And because the ‘comedy of
errors’ occurred with the author. He did not understand that he wrote. And as a
director, introduced in the film boring gravitas. ... Imaginary poetic form are now
often penalized for shield contacts with the audience" [Warsawsky, 1967, p.110-
111].
M. Bleyman (1904-1973), in fact, completely joined Warsawsky’s opinion:
"Мery capable writer G. Shpalikov directed the film Long and Happy Life. This is
a story about how a person loses his happiness as he was afraid of it. This is a
simple story and simple, even an elementary idea. But he wore a surprisingly
meaningful form, in the form of an abstract, which lost for the living subjects of
our time, live data" [Bleyman 1967, p.168].
I. Lishchinsky actually continued Bleyman’s reasoning, choosing, however,
a different target - a film lyric Two by M. Bogin: "Simulation of modernity is not
the only function of cinema Art Nouveau. ... "Modern" style tasked to facilitate
people's lives, to heal the wounds. ... The drama is absorbed by the comfort of the
Riga cafes, light music and tasteful clothing" [Lishchinsky, 1967, p. 172].
Today Lishchinsky’s opinion seems the archaism of ‘socialist logic’: if a
love story has been shown not in a cozy European Riga, but somewhere in the
Russian provincial town, then, of course this story will be good...
Going from author cinema to cinema genre, the compilers of the Yearbook
once again turned to comedy. Here E. Bauman wrote that "movies with the duty
bureaucrats would not want to give his position on the screen. They immerse the
viewer in the atmosphere of his fictional life, they create their own, special world,
frozen in depressing immutability. And this artificially film comedies have bad
taste, vulgarity and feigned cheerfulness... Yes, stereotypes coming from the film
to film... They do not want to go and liberate places. And yet the breath of life
bursts into the comedy genre, destroying stamps, sweeping circuit. Proof of this is
talented, intelligent and funny comedy Adventures of a Dentist, 33, Beware of the
Car” [Bauman 1967, p.173, 175].
K. Shcherbakov wrote the article about the weaknesses of Soviet film
detectives. In particular, he correctly noted that Game Without a Draw, "has
foreign spies, which look too obviously foreigners and spies. Soviet colonel,
talking with his subordinates as if teaches classes at a school for disabled children.
... And execution of an innocent twist in the film is regarded as a moral failure,
which to treason at hand" [Shcherbakov, 1967, p.177].
At the same time, keeping in mind the relevant guidelines of Soviet Party
Resolutions, K. Shcherbakov not forget to link the arguments with ideological
struggle on the screen: "Of course, the tasks of Soviet detective and detective
bourgeois are fundamentally different. But why do we often put up with the fact
that the bourgeois detective better fulfills its objectives, than our, Soviet"
[Shcherbakov, 1967, p.176].
In this regard, M. Bleyman thinking about stereotypes entertainment genres
highlighted "detectives in which incredibly insightful scouts can easily cope with
the incredibly clumsy spies, and comedy, in which the characters behave so
stupidly that is lost even a minimum standard of compliance to the real characters.
I will not list these movies. The fact that they are stereotypes, do not need to
explain. This can be seen with the naked eye. Stereotype helpful and offers turnkey
solutions, when the artist is not able to analyze the complex phenomenon of life.
Stereotype insinuating, he invades the work unnoticed, when the artist is not fully
aware of his purpose. Stereotype helpful and easily pretend to be art. ... But one
thing is clear: the basis of the stereotype is the laziness of the artist, the inability or
unwillingness to think about the vital phenomena that he describes and analyze"
[Bleyman 1967, pp.169-170]. N. Lordkipanidze (1925-2014): also wrote about
annoying clichés [Lordkipanidze 1967, p.181].
Many of the authors of the yearbook were unhappy and current adaptations
of Russian classics.
S. Rassadin (1935-2012) wrote with all critical rigor about comedy Uncle's
Dream by K.Voinov (1918-1995), because this is the simple vaudeville, but not
Dostoevsky’s world [Rassadin, 1967, p.191].
And then the critic moved to, alas, then forbidden bitter satire Nasty
Anecdote by A. Alov (1923-1983) and V. Naumov: "The authors do not play with
the audience in the giveaway, their unexpected, inexhaustible, very talented means
of expression designed for learning. And the authors do not always take into
account the possibility of our perception. Even experienced. And we can not drink
the pure essence, and it would be desirable solution. Overloaded ... Film and
symbols are algebra art. This excessive algebraization pointedly, appealing to
reason rather than to the heart, leading to harsh rationalistic" [Rassadin, 1967,
p.192].
Analyzing The Tale of Tsar Saltan M. Dolinsky and S. Chertok noted with
regret that, "how far A. Ptushko’s film of tales by A. Pushkin. Pushkin’s
incompatible ease, swiftness of his verse, the perfect simplicity of shape, finally,
the logic of creative thinking are absolutely not suitable for heavy-handedness of
film design" [Dolinsky, Chertok, 1967, p. 208].
A. Dubrovin was very critical of the film adaptation of A Hero of Our Time
by S. Rostotsky (1922-2001): "This film there are shots under the naturalism and
‘modern’… As a result, the film disappeared Lermontov’s intelligence,
Lermontov’s pain, Lermontov’s depth" [Dubrovin, 1967, p.203].
V. Ivanova (1937-2008) was dissatisfied with the screen adaptations of A.
Tolstoy’s Viper by V. Ivchenko (1912-1972) [Ivanova, 1967, p. 200]. Equally
negative she said about Hyperboloid of Engineer Garin by A. Ginzburg (1907-
1972): "We saw an amazing meticulousness in his dull spectacle. ... Something
from A. Tolstoy's scathing sarcasm shone only in the final for a moment. Peeped
out and ... And in the hall light went on"[Ivanova, 1967, pp.199-200].
Unfortunately, V. Ivanova apparently did not notice the exquisite visual
solution of black and white of this film adaptation of Hyperboloid of Engineer
Garin (1965), made in the spirit of film noir: the play with light and shade line in
night scenes and contrasting extremes of black and white in the daytime scenes and
the use of wide-angle lens, unusual camera angles, etc. I believe that the director
A. Ginzburg, a former cameraman, deliberately put such a task before the talented
cameraman A. Rybin (1935-2016). The visual style of the film was also a
dynamic-nervous, the music is sometimes ironic. I think that the jury of the
International Festival of Fantasy Films in Trieste (1966) was primarily evaluated
these audiovisual solutions and originality and awarded the film A. Ginzburg main
prize...
G. Kapralov presented maybe the most positive article about current
adaptations of this time. Assessing the Daily Stars by I. Talankin, is based on the
diaries of O. Bergholz, G. Kapralov wrote: "I predict that the ratio of this film will
be contradictory. It has reticence and infringement of proportions. Comparison
with ‘open diary’ with the richness of his thought and association gives one more
reason for criticism. But I think the director, who is also the author of the script,
had a right to their reading of the book, its subject, and what he said, it is said with
piercing force" [Kapralov, 1967, p.20].
Of course, analyzing the current repertoire, authors of Screen 1966-1967
could not get past the films lead the aforementioned film critics’ rating. Wings,
The First Teacher, Nobody Wanted to Die received a positive evaluations
[Warsawsky, 1967, p.24; Zinoviev, Markov, 1967, pp. 74-78; Pisarevsky, 1967,
pp. 66-68].
For example, J. Warsawsky, reflecting on the drama Wings, wrote: "Larisa
Shepitko came to an early mastery. Each frame of the film in its subordinate
thoughts, develops the idea. It reminds us that the art director is primarily a
thought..." [Warsawsky, 1967, p. 24].
Screen 1967-1968 (1968, put in a set in March 1968)
The Resolution of the Soviet Communist Party Central Committee "On

measures for further development of the social sciences and enhance their role in
the building of communism" [Resolution..., 1967] full of standard phrases about
the need to "increase" and "strengthen"... But pathetic celebration of the 50th
anniversary of the 1917 revolution was the most important political event in the
USSR preceding the release of Screen 1967-1968.
Yearbook Screen 1967-1968 was put in a set in March 1968, i.e. a few
months before the August invasion of Soviet troops in Czechoslovakia. But the
"Prague Spring" is already in full flourish democratic hopes... And these hopes, I
think, were the key to change the structure of the yearbook. Rigid administrative
arm discarded any film critics’ ratings, but gave way for ideologized materials.
For example, D. Pisarevsky stacked enthusiastic ode to the restored version
of the film October (1927): "No, this film is not old, not lost the explosive power
of this revolutionary art fiery epic! ... October sings the glory of victorious
working class people and Leninist party" [Pisarevsky, 1968, pp.19-20]. And then
D. Pisarevsky snobbish glorified "panorama of national heroism" in the "historical
and revolutionary" film Iron Stream by E. Dzigan (1998-1981) [Pisarevsky, 1968,
p. 23].
Jubilee Yearbook, of course, could not pass films about Lenin. V. Baskakov
highlighted the "talent embodied the image of the genius of the revolution"
[Baskakov, 1968, p.72] in the film Lenin in Poland by S. Yutkevich (1904-1985).
But in general, the compilers of the Yearbook still managed to keep film
studies level and published, for example, of two wonderful articles of L. Anninsky.
In his review of the film G. Poloka (1930-2014) The Republic of SHKID L.
Anninsky accurately wrote that "the theme of the film is Chekhov's character, a
man of the XIX century, an intellectual and humanist, caught in a situation of
Sodom and Gomorrah. ... Old-fashioned competition, defenseless Culture with a
young and ingenuous naiveté takes ruthless nature of mutual mystification"
[Anninsky, 1968, p.55].
L. Anninsky wrote a significant article about M. Khutsiev’s masterpiece
July Rain. The critic asked a very sharp at the time the question: "M. Khutsiev
listen to the rhythm of the modern soul at the decisive moment of choice. The artist
talks about spiritual culture, trust, humanity. … In essence, Khutsiev continues
the meditation, which was first performed in the movie I am 20 years old. But
now with a little more alert. Why?" [Anninsky, 1968, p.34].
L. Anninsky, of course, could not to answer this question directly,
indicating director’s feeling of ‘thaw’s collapse, for censorship reasons. Therefore,
instead of a direct answer last sentence of Anninsky’s review was truly a model of
allegory [Anninsky, 1968, p. 34]...
S. Freilich (1920-2005) published a positive review about Your
Contemporary by Y. Raisman (1903-1994): "This film it is a real battle, opponents
do not play in the giveaway, there are broken destinies of people" [Freilich, 1968,
p. 14].
Yearbook continued support of poetic cinema. I. Lishchinsky wrote about
Umbrella by M. Kobakhidze that "the Georgian cinema is rich in young talent. In
this ensemble M. Kobakhidze has original voice and its own melody: mocking,
ironic, a little sad, but it is clearly distinguishable, and it is necessary to listen"
[Lishchinsky, 1968, p. 63]. N. Lordkipanidze generally supported the poetic debut
of E. Ishmuhamedov - Tenderness: "The picture is made with obvious, undisguised
focus on people susceptible - and mentally, and artistically. If this susceptibility is
not, you probably will be bored" [Lordkipanidze, 1968, p.61].
M. Bleyman’s article about an eccentric in a movie (Beware of the Car,

Operation ‘Y’," Prisoner of the Caucasus, 33) [Bleyman 1967, p. 80-82] looks
boring and banal today. But the article by Revich (1929-1997) on the fantasy genre
[Revich, 1967, pp. 82-86], in my opinion, has not lost a polemical fervor.
Box office champion and audience favorite, Amphibian Man by G. Kazansky
(1910-1983) and V. Chebotarev (1921-2010) was the first critic’s object for attack:
"What about a A. Belyaev’s novel? This is about tragedy of disillusionment in the
society of businessmen and shopkeepers. What are the ideas of the film? Political
kept to a depressing straightness, and the art became a melodramatic love triangle
and tasteless Ichthyander-Tarzan walks on the roofs" [Revich, 1968, p.83].
Here it is the typical anti-genre approach of ideologically socialist
orientated critics, when Soviet criticism demanded a class-political conclusions
from exotic folk and fairy tales, mixed with the bright melodramatic stories. As D.
Gorelov correctly noted that Amphibian Man became "the first post-Stalin era
super-blockbuster. ... A competent producer could see that ocean of gold ... But
Chebotarev & Kazansky were in the wild, ugly, ruthless world of freedom, equality
and fraternity, where financial profit meant nothing... Critics scolded them for their
lightness and attraction... Soviet Screen Journal for the first time blatantly falsified
the results of the annual reader's opinions, giving primacy gray and long since dead
drama ..." [Gorelov, 2001].
V. Revich addressed all the same working class and political reproach to
Hyperboloid of Engineer Garin by A. Ginzburg: "the novels’ most powerful
scientific, and social aspect is the mechanics of bourgeois relations, speculation,
capitalist economy and morality. But the social side completely dropped out of the
detective movie" [Revich, 1968, p.83].
V. Revich buckled the theme of the ideological confrontation with the West
and in the article about the film Mysterious Wall because "the faith in the
possibility of contact between all sentient beings is opposed to the concept of
fashion in the West disunity people and spiritual isolation of man" [Revich, 1968,
p. 84].
Film critic A. Svobodin (1922-1999) positive appreciated the adaptation of
Leo Tolstoy's novel Anna Karenina directed by A. Zarkhi (1908-1997) [Svobodin,
1968, p.40].
The remaining number of pages of the yearbook, as always, took portraits of
filmmakers: N. Mikhalkov [Zinoviev, Markov, 1968, p. 64-66] O. Iosseliani
[Dolinsky, Chertok, 1968, p.41-45], S. Ursky, A. Batalov, P. Aleynikov, D.
Banionis, T. Doronina, R. Bykov [Levshina 1968, p. 76-79].
Screen 1968-1969 (1969, put in a set in February 1969)
A secret resolution of the Soviet Communist Party Central Committee "On

increasing the responsibility of the heads of the press, radio and television, film,
culture and art institutions for the ideological and political level of the published
materials and repertoire" [Resolution ..., 1969] was adopted in response to the
liberal events of the "Prague Spring": "Print workers, writers and artists must have
more acute class and party positions to oppose all manifestations of bourgeois
ideology, they must actively and efficiently promote communist ideals, the
advantages of socialism, the Soviet way of life, deeply analyze and expose the
different kind of petty-bourgeois and revisionist currents. Meanwhile, some
authors, and directors depart from the class criteria in assessing and highlighting
the complex social and political problems, facts and events, and sometimes become
carriers of the views that are alien to the ideology of socialist society. Attempts
have been made unilaterally, subjectively evaluate the important periods of the
history of the party and the state...
Some managers of publishing houses, press agencies, radio, television,
institutions of culture and art do not take appropriate measures to prevent the
publication of a false ideological works, do not work well with the authors, show
flexibility and political unscrupulousness in matters of publication ideologically
perverse material. ... The soviet Communist Party Central Committee considers it
necessary to stress the special responsibility of the heads of organizations and
departments and editorial teams for the ideological orientation" [Resolution…,
1969].
Yearbook Screen 1968-1969 was put into set in February 1969, a month
after this decision, and six months after the Soviet invasion in Czechoslovakia.
Therefore, the books’ compilers just had to take into account the current political
situation. However, they still managed broad panorama the most striking
phenomena of the national film industry.
The tighter censorship on the pages of the yearbook, of course, remained.
For example, in the section Close-up [Screen 1968-1969, pp. 91-93] were initially
placed reflections A. Konchalovsky about his film Asya’s Happiness. But then,
apparently due to pressure from "above" and shelf destiny of this movie, this text
have been replaced by an article about actress A. Demidova. The film Asya’s
Happiness initially [Screen 1968-1969, p. 110-115] was in the discussion chapter
Controversy, but later this material was sealed the black stars in the table of
contents [Screen 1968-1969, p. 317] and replaced by the discussion about the film
Running on Waves by P. Lyubimov (1938-2010).
It is clear there was no way to avoid ideological pathos in the yearbook. The
book once again reminded to readers that Mother by V. Pudovkin “brought to the
cinema powerful influence of socialist realism, merged the power of images
Gorky's prose with the realistic performance of the actors, the highest
achievements of film culture" [Pisarevsky 1969, p.19], and The Sixth of July is a
major new step in the development of the Leninist theme. ... This victory is all the
more important that the last time there were many films and performances, where
most topics in the result only untalented performance compromise. The Sixth of
July is not just a historical picture. It is living our present time. And today's
struggle for communism requires reflection attacks rr-revolutionary demagogues,

for the sake of playing phrases left the fate of nations" [Freilich, 1969, p.63].
On the other hand, only a few months left before the super-officious
journals Communist and Ogoniok published sharply accusatory articles about The
Sixth of July by M. Shatrov (1932 - 2010), and J. Karasik (1923-2015)
The Sixth of July was clearly on the side of "socialism with a human face."
And the conservative Ogoniok wrote: "We are convinced that the film The Sixth of
July does not serve the education of viewers. … Historical truth is not on the side
of film's authors. … This film violated historical truth: the main focus is not on
Lenin’s activity, but on the Left Socialist-Revolutionary rebellion, and their leader
M. Spiridonova. We believe that the film The Sixth of July does not deserve Lenin
Prize" [Savinchenko, Shirokov, 1970, p.25]
But the Screen 1968-1969 supported not only The Sixth of July, but also a
much more daring movie No Path Through Fire by G. Panfilov unvarnished spoke
about civil war ruthlessly divided the nation into "red" and "white". This film "is a
strong, very strong, and most importantly - this film is very impressive"
[Rakhmanov, 1969, p.64].
T. Khloplyankina wrote on other notable film about civil background –
There Were Two Comrades (writers Y. Dunsky and V. Fried, director E. Karelin)
also very warmly. However the author did not say anything about a bitter essence
of this wonderful film, practically openly speaking against the fratricidal civil
war…
The analysis of films on "historical and revolutionary themes" (Mysterious
Monk, Emergency Order, The First Courier, Nikolay Bauman, The Seventh
Companion, There Were Two Comrades, The Sixth of July) in the article by A.
Vartanov [Vartanov, 1969, pp. 134-138] was given in traditional for this time style.
Screen 1968-1969 was able to afford to support again the Ukrainian poetic
cinema, this time - Evening on the eve Midsummer by Y. Ilienko (1936-2010):
"This is the scope of the director's fancy - fancy, inventive in each frame. … large,
generous, sophisticated. ... The strong temperament of the master, even involuntary
and unavoidable mistakes he has in many cases can be converted into victory,
turned into discoveries" [Drach, 1969, p.88].
Yearbook’s polemic section this time was devoted to films Women Power
by Y. Nagibin (1920-1994) and A. Saltykov (1934-1993), The Golden Calf by M.
Schweitzer (1920-2000), and (instead of Asya’s Happiness) Running on Waves by
P. Lyubimov.
After seeing Women Power, K. Shcherbakov come to the harsh conclusion:
"Given an order to tell about the hard fate of the female, to portray life as it is,
without fear of its cruel side, the authors, it seems to me, not imagined what
outcome they want to extract. And artistically unselected, unsought
conglomeration of naturalistic, difficult-to-eye episodes begins to avenge himself,
turns the moral unscrupulousness and deafness, leads to a distortion of what we are
accustomed to understand by the words "popular character" [Shcherbakov, 1969, p.

99].
N. Ilyina argued with K. Shcherbakov, insisting that the artistic quality of
this film is quite high: "Naturalism? Some people say this about the film. … But if
you hold the primordial meaning of the word, referring to "naturalism" rough and
mechanical copying from nature, the work that is touching and shocking, can not
be called naturalistic. ... The film Women Power has advantages and
disadvantages. But one thing it is not - the indifference and lethargy" [Ilyina, 1969,
pp. 103-104].
B. Galanov (1914-2000), of course, could not yet assume that the sad
comedy of M. Schweitzer The Golden Calf deservedly become a kind of Russian
"cult film" of our day, and, I think, did not understand the depth of this brilliant
movie. Therefore B. Galanov complained that (unlike the eponymous book of I. Ilf
and E. Petrov) "the laughter, if not completely disappeared, but turned slightly to
drama on the screen. And Ostap Bender himself as the face of a dramatic, gained
some importance. ... Whether or not whether to submit the rogue as a "great
strategist" intellectual, a man with the eternal sad eyes?" [Galanov 1969, p. 105].
In this context, M. Dolinsky & S. Chertok gave clear and reasoned response
to B. Galanov: The Golden Calf presented "Bender outstanding, talented person
who is at odds with the times and have chosen this path, can be as just because of
this disorder. ... Crashing superior man. Is this funny? And M. Schweitzer rights,
which, by sacrificing some fun stakes, giving up many winning situations, created
the film, not only equipped with wit, but also imbued with sadness" [Dolinsky,
Chertok, 1969, p.109].
Literary critic V. Turbin (1927-1993) was unhappy with the adaptation of
A. Green’s novel Running on Waves. He insisted that "Green’s novel is easy, laid-
back, and the film is heavy, full of massive suggestiveness" [Turbin, 1969, pp.110-
111]. However Y. Khanyutin (1929-1978) was on the side of the authors of this
film: "Much of the script and the film was not so, as in Green’s novel, but, I think,
more interesting ... In short, a tragedy has already unfulfilled in the film has turned
out sharper than the happiness of searches that can still happen" [Khanyutin, 1969,
pp. 113-115].
M. Bleyman’s article also was dedicated to film adaptations. The film critic
thought that the "creative challenge for adaptation is to find stylistic originality
means to realize other art on the screen" [Bleyman, 1969, p. 147].
And A. Macheret (1996-1979), basically agreeing with M. Bleyman, came
to the conclusion that I. Pyrev managed to adequately approach to the novel The
Brothers Karamazov: "Pyrev’s personal creative features properties of artistic
talent found in the film adaptation of the great Dostoyevsky's most fertile, mate
them to the basis for its higher manifestations" [Macheret, 1969, p. 150].
I. Levshina wrote consistently negative review on the adaptation of the play
by E. Radzinsky 104 pages about love. She very convincingly argued that "artistic
and moral potential of the film Once Again About Love and remained at the level
of everyday history. The huge box-office success does not prevent this film
become for us an example of failure in art. ... The reasons for the failure of the
film are the complete absence of at least some independent thought, at least some
of the image, at least some of the director's attempts, cinematic reading of the play"
[Levshina, 1969, pp.148-149].
Specialist in the analysis of science fiction and adventure, V. Revich this
time published an article about the spy cinema: "The main complaint, which is
usually presented "detective" movies, is that the frantic pace of the action, the rapid
twists, in which captures the spirit of the audience, press down psychology,
characters, images. And if the hero can do to show individuality in such
conditions? I must admit that, perhaps, no other kind of film genre not put his
character in such a rigid framework. Most of the time he is in exceptional
psychological situation - on a knife edge. Of course, the story sharpness about the
man who all the time is under threat of death is very essential aspect of the film,
but the sharpness is worth nothing if we can not see the interesting character. ...
The human image creation on such a narrow space surround is always difficult
artistic task, and the list of failures is much higher than the premium sheet"
[Revich, 1969, p. 140].
V. Revich wrote in this context about extremely popular at that time
adventure war film Shield and Sword: "The authors often put their characters in a
situation clearly implausible. Hard to believe that Soviet aircraft could have easily
landed and take off in wartime Germany, and underground groups, in broad
daylight, could have grab the train and prison" [Revich, 1969, p.141].
As always, a large number of pages of the yearbook dedicated to the topic
of contemporary cinema. And here it is possible to note a positive review N.
Lordkipanidze devoted to the analysis of one of the most acute social Soviet films -
Three Days of Victor Chernyshev (writer E. Grigoriev, director M. Osepyan). Of
course, this article is not touch to the serious social generalizations relating to
talented critical interpretation of the image “representative of the working class”.
N. Lordkipanidze dared only to write that "passivity is the main thing that will not
accept the authors in his character; passive attitude towards certain phenomena of
reality" [Lordkipanidze, 1969, p.85], but she did not go farther inland (most likely,
for censorship reasons)...
J. Warsawsky wrote his review of the school drama We'll Live Till Monday
(screenwriter G. Polonsky, director S. Rostotsky) in a similar spirit. The film
earned a warm assessment, but without any attention to all the possible sharp edges
of Soviet school problems...
L. Anninsky, I think, revealed the creative concept of Triangle by G. Malyan
(1925-1988) more deeply and convincingly, stressing that "the essence of the film
is not in the traditional life, but in the sense of the uniqueness of the life, its
irreplaceable uniqueness" [Anninsky, 1969, p.81].
This Yearbook was released in the year a centenary "leader of world

proletariat" V.I. Lenin, therefore, the first forty pages of text were filled with a
collection of most tedious officious materials dedicated to this date.
But after that Yearbook returned to the usual format: deservedly praised
poetic melodrama Lovers by I. Ishmuhamedov [Kazakova, 1970, p.44] and sad
comedy Do not worry! by G. Danelia [Lipkov, 1970, p. 46-49]. In particular, A.
Lipkov (1936-2007) claimed with good reason that "it is the same Danelia, who
knows how to treat his characters with a smile, to forgive their weaknesses, admire
their merits, in short, who knows how to love their heroes and infect his love of the
audience. Properties of the artist's talent has always embodied that it creates. In the
film Do not worry! We can see the main feature of the authors: generosity"
[Lipkov, 1970, p.46].
Critics praised the film adaptation of novels of Chingiz Aitmatov (1928-
2008). A. Zorky (1935-2006), analyzing the film Running Pacer by S. Urusevsky,
answered for this question: "How still relate to each other and the film and story of
Chingiz Aitmatov? So, as the lyric poem may be related to the social novel. A
lyrical poem written by the hand of a talented like-minded" [Zorky, 1970, p. 55].
A. Troshin (1942-2008) was very positive to the movie Jamila by M.
Poplavskaya (1924-2012): "Sincerity tone is one of the qualities of Aitmatov's
prose, which the film adaptation found in of cinematic equivalent" [Troshin, 1970,
p. 58].
D. Pisarevsky wrote good review about the best L. Gaidai (1923-1993)
comedy Diamond Hand: “genre fusion experiment was a success. Color and
widescreen movie is action and entertaining, funny and ironic. ... The film is fun,
mischievously, in a rapid pace with literally staggering cascades of plot surprises"
[Pisarevsky, 1970, p.58].
But Yearbook struck suddenly (as we recall, earlier Screen positively
evaluated of poetic genre) on the poetic parable Eastern Corridor by V.
Vinogradov (1933-2011). The article of T. Ivanova was not written specifically for
the Yearbook, but reprinted from the December issue of the magazine Soviet
Screen [Ivanova, 1969]. Therefore, T. Ivanova, in my opinion, was the first Soviet
film critic who wrote the harsh criticism about poetic parable cinema. However, I
do not think that T. Ivanova wrote an article under the direct influence of some
censorship "decisions" and "valuable suggestions". But cinema authority skillfully
used this article (as M. Bleyman’s article) for their own censorship’s purposes.
T. Ivanova claimed that the "difficulty", "incomprehensible" film language,
widely used, is the quality seemed to be self-valuable, "necessary" a sign of good
cinematic tone. And Eastern Corridor it seems almost standard in this regard. ...
From the very beginning of this film V. Vinogradov introduces the viewer to a
special circle in a special atmosphere. The authors make every effort not only
exacerbate, but also complicate the subject, action, conflict… Eastern Corridor is
one of those movies, after watching that there is a need to look into the abstract: to
understand the sequence of events, just to find out what's what. As if some simple
picture is cut into many pieces, large and small, carefully mixed, shaken and put a
new curlicue puzzle. This is the general compositional structure and is the same
solution, even a purely visual, every single episode. … The puzzle in the puzzle,
… the cruel mixture of naturalism and graphic sophistication prevails on the
screen. … This if abundance of cruel effects and extravagant entourage. This if
sophisticated operator skill. All taken together this is aestheticization naturalism.
But there is and the ethical aspect. It seems that people are acting in this film live
in a unique country and terrible world, swept away by their feelings, strung up,
crushed, they themselves hysterically and tragically exalted. And there comes a
time when pumped emotional temperature of the film begins to give birth to a
protest" [Ivanova, 1970, p. 93-94].
I think this piece of article strongly suggests that T. Ivanova did not
understand the essence of vivid imagery this outstanding film-parable. In my
opinion, cinemateque quotes (early motifs from films of A. Wajda and M. Jancso,
andthe Czech "new wave") organically entered in the film of V. Vinogradov. Plus
philosophical, religious and visual originality of this movie (more about Eastern
Corridor you can read in the articles: Gershezon, 2011, pp. 136-144; Fedorov,
2011, pp. 110-116)...
By the way, the negative reaction of the Soviet critics of Vinogradov’s film
and many famous movies of the Czech "New Wave" of the 1960s on the war topic
was very similar. For example, S. Komarov wrote about Diamonds of the Night
(1964) by Czech director J. Nemec: "Surreal world of Kafka is embodied with a
more impressive force. Operators J. Kucera and M. Ondrzhichek invested in this
work an important contribution. … This film won wide acclaim from critics of the
capitalist countries, and a number of awards at international festivals, but there
crush sober voice, expressing his surprise at the creation of the film in one of the
socialist countries" [Komarov, 1974, p. 62].
Against this background, it is surprising that the Eastern Corridor still came
out (albeit briefly) in the Soviet cinemas...
But back to T. Ivanova’s article. Having finished with the Eastern Corridor,
she moved to the poetic parables of Y. Ilienko (Evening on the eve of Ivan Kupala)
and T. Abuladze (Prayer): "The need to be understood, inherent in every person,
especially for an artist. … It is difficult to make "difficult" films. And Prayer and
Evening on the eve of Ivan Kupala preserve traces of the difficult art of searching
and overcoming. But one thing seems to have been abandoned by the authors
neglected: searches for clarity” [Ivanova, 1970, p.95].
Perhaps T. Ivanova’s article was one of the most polemical sharp in the
Screen yearbooks’ history. Other materials of Screen 1969-1970 were much more
ordinary...
In 1970, the USSR was celebrated not only the 100th anniversary of V.I.
Lenin, but also the 25th anniversary of victory over Nazi Germany. Hence it is
clear that this yearbook published many articles on the military film topic. For
example, V. Fomin did not stint on the praise for the remarkable film It was the
month of May by M. Khutsiev: "This film, organically combining in-depth with
the scale of the image is psychological, modest grounded narrative style with an
open and emotional pathos" [Fomin, 1971, p.27].
Several articles were devoted to the films about the Civil War. Here Y.
Warsawsky initially quite reasonably wrote that "the civil war is main topic a lot of
movies. But these films often written and directed as adventurous. Reds…
Whites… What decides the victory in such films? Who will outwit. Who shoots
better, faster rides on horseback. ... and then the dramatic events of the civil war
turned only amusing adventure" [Warsawsky, 1971, p.92].
But then the critic, alas, went on to openly communist propaganda: "Lenin
wrote on the festive energy revolution! ... There are new generations of viewers,
they should see a revolution on the screen and emotionally survive, like
commissars: wise, pure, honest" [Warsawsky, 1971, p. 92].
A. Karaganov (1915-2007), a very influential at that time film critic, wrote
the article devoted to one of the most remarkable films about the civil war - Run by
A. Alov and V. Naumov. He stressed that "movie camera "sees" Russian
landscapes through the eyes not only of those who are fighting for a new life, but
also those who are in love with the old life, fighting for it" [Karaganov, 1971, p.
60].
But then (like J. Warsawsky) A. Karaganov followed by communist
ideologically passage: "In many of the current foreign films corruption of human
characters are portrayed as a process and as a state that expresses the total human
defeat, his eternal depravity, a fatal inability to live like human beings. But
dehumanization of man stands concretely and historically and socially in Run. The
characters are exposed deformation caused by violation of organic links with their
homeland, butchery against the people, the service for historically unrighteous
case" [Karaganov, 1971, p.62].
The yearbook positively evaluated and other famous film on the topic of
civil war - The adjutant of his Excellency. V. Revich wrote about the innovative
approach of the authors to the image of the White Guard General: "Kovalevsky is
far from the popular image of "Whites". He is smart, intelligent, gentle and kind,
even to the extent possible for the military" [Revich, 1971, p.104].
... Red spy Koltsov, intelligent and clever, at the White Guard General
Kovalevsky. The psychological duel between Koltsov and General Kovalevsky
also the smartest and intelligent... This situation was unusual story for the
audience, educated Chapayev, where Whites (or their sympathizers) was the cruel
enemies... Of course, The adjutant of his Excellency (directed by E. Tashkov)

primarily attracted detective intrigue. But having a partner-opponent such as
General Kovalevsky, Koltsov, undoubtedly gaining extra points at a mass
audience. General was imposing, impressive, clever, ironic. I would say more,
Kovalevsky even then, at the end of 1960, aroused sympathy and empathy.
A. Lipkov also gave the positive opinion for another film about civil war -
The White Sun of the Desert by V. Motyl: "The history of real events - revolution,
civil war in Central Asia - represent only the background of the events, they left
behind the scenes, but the narrative and fiction triumphs of this film is good ironic
comedy” [Lipkov, 1971, p. 94].
As usual, the yearbook analyzed the most notable movies. For example, the
film Crime and Punishment by L. Kulidzhanov (1923-2002): "The director read F.
Dostoevsky’s novel seriously, quietly, carefully. ... Read without any attempts to
modernize the problems... This is a talented, serious and deep film. ... Maybe the
director and the actors let something controversial, but highly interesting"
[Pogozheva 1971, p.78, 83].
A. Lipkov was stressed the originality of King Lear by G. Kozintsev: "This
film is not trying to improve Shakespeare, retouch the world of his tragedy. The
director is faithful and does not fit into any canonical frameworks" [Lipkov, 1971,
p. 64].
The biographical drama Tchaikovsky received a more critical assessment,
although the film critic noted at the same time that "I. Talankin in the best scenes
of the film showed the taste and skill of the director" [Ryzhov, 1971, p. 90].
The Beginning by G. Panfilov earned the highest praise (and absolutely
deserved) between the films on contemporary topics: "Reading the press on The
Beginning, you see that 99 percent of it consists of admirable actor’s work I.
Chourikova. You may think that The Beginning it is just Churikova. But with all
our surprise the brilliant performance of this extraordinary actress, The Beginning
is primarily G. Panfilov" [Sobolev, 1971, p.72]. Y. Khanutin and A. Troshin also
wote about the mastery and talent of G. Panfilov and I. Churikova [Khanyutin,
1971, pp. 116-122; Troshin, 1971, pp. 75-77].
Another very acute at the time of 1960s was the crime drama Accused of
Murder by B. Volchek (1905-1974). And Yearbook published very important
conclusion: "This film is strongly convinces us that man, trampling the rights of
others, to humiliate him, not reveres his dignity, condemns himself to an animal
existence, deprives himself of the right to be called a man" [Ostrovsky, 1971,
p.87].
The detailed article of A. Vartanov was devoted to television language
[Vartanov, 1971, pp. 128-134].
The most influential actions of these times were The XXIV Soviet
Communist Party Congress (1971) and the year of the 50th anniversary of the
USSR. And new censorship requirements in relation to the Soviet film and
literature press were in the new Resolution of the Soviet Communist Party Central
Committee On Literary Criticism (January 21, 1972), which was in unison with
Resolution of the Soviet Communist Party Central Committee "On increasing the
responsibility of the heads of the press, radio and television, film, culture and art
institutions for the ideological and political level of the published materials and
repertoire" [Resolution..., 1969].
This is the significal part of this new Resolution: "The state of the criticism
has not yet fully meet the requirements, which are determined by the increasing
role of artistic culture in communist construction. ... Soviet critics sometimes
published materials, which gives the wrong picture of the history of Soviet and
pre-revolutionary art... Criticism is still not active and consistent in approving
revolutionary, humanistic ideals of the art of socialist realism, in exposing the
reactionary nature of the bourgeois "mass culture" and decadent currents in dealing
with various kinds of non-Marxist views on literature and art, revisionist aesthetic
concepts. ... The duty of criticism is deeply analyze the phenomenon, trends and
patterns of contemporary artistic process, and to help strengthen the Leninist
principles of party and nation, to fight for a high ideological and aesthetic level in
Soviet art, consistently oppose bourgeois ideology. Literary and art criticism is
intended to contribute to the expansion of the ideological outlook of the artist and
the improvement of his skills. Building on the tradition of Marxist-Leninist
aesthetics, Soviet literary and art criticism must combine precision ideological
evaluations, depth social analysis aesthetically exacting, careful attitude to the
talent to be fruitful creative research"[Resolution ..., 1972].
Of course, the Yearbook could not ignore these guiding instructions.
However, the Screen 1971-1972 was set in March 1972, that is only a few months
after the publication On Literary Criticism and, therefore, essentially composed in
1971. Hence it is clear that a polemical column survived (although the last time in
the pre-perestroika era), and in the ratio of pages’ number allocated for materials
about the Soviet and foreign films, the latter percentage was "seditious" (but also
the last time) is overvalued (47% articles about foreign films vs. 44% articles about
soviet films).
However, crowded of propaganda and ideological clichés A. Karaganov’s
article under the eloquent title Responsibility of criticism was real respond to
Communist Party Resolution: "The good film critic review, actively and skillfully
conducting the Party's line, it may be an effective means not only aesthetic, but
also the political education of the working people, a powerful weapon of
ideological struggle; Party purposeful, smart, aesthetically soulful conversation
about the film helps a person to know better, deeper understanding of art, life,
politics, helps the formation of communist convictions, the education culture of
feelings and thoughts. ... Criticism is designed to consistently assert the Leninist
principles of party and nation, determining the direction of cinematography
socialist realism. … It is impossible not to see that our film critic has not yet risen
to the level of the tasks dictated by modernity. The press still often publish articles
about movies that lack of party principles, the class approach to the realities of art
and life, combat offensive spirit in the fight against a hostile ideology and its
influence. ... Our film critic insufficiently active in the fight against the ideological
and artistic marriage" [Karaganov, 1972, pp. 92-93].
Overall, however, the inertia of the publishing industry has affected the
Screen 1971-1972 positive content. Moreover, V. Fomin’s courageous article The
sublime and the earthly, in fact, opposed the official criticism hounding a poetic
parable and cinema. V. Fomin wrote: "Movies of Parajanov, Abuladze, Ilienko,
Mansurov in its stylistic decision defiantly opposed the the usual rate, polemically
rejected the authenticity of aesthetics. The expressive figurative form openly stands
out sharply at in these films with lush and sophisticated system of imagery, lyrical
and romantic actions" [Fomin, 1972, p.98].
Contrary to the Resolution's wishes "to support movies about the working
class", V. Revich, criticized the "working class" movies Night Shift, Anthracite,
Cool Horizon, remarking that "the filmmakers would be very easy live if the
seriousness of the plan could at least to some extent compensate for the weakness
of films" [Revich, 1972, pp. 85-86].
Film critics argued in the polemical section about the comedy 12 Chairs by
L. Gaidai and melodrama About Love by M. Bogin.
V. Shitova severely (and, I think, too harshly) summarized that "colorful
film directed by Leonid Gaidai is none other than the dummy's novel. That is to
say, a body without a soul. … And as a result of film 12 Chairs as a spectacle
sluggish, and sometimes simply boring" [Shitova, 1972, pp. 70-71]. But G.
Kozhukhova insisted that "Gaidai is the master of eccentric and entertaining
comedy" [Kozhukhova, 1972, p.73].
Speaking about the film About Love, T. Khloplyankina generally very
warmly reacted to this exquisitely lyrical works with latent intonation of "moral
anxiety": "May be this line expressed not as loud as it should be: the author does
not burst, no anger, no pain, but only a certain melancholy. That is why the film
has several monophonic melody, reminiscent of the sad motif consisting of a repeat
of the same musical phrase. But it is not false. … And, really, we need to listen to
this music..." [Khloplyankina, 1972, p.77].
But A. Zorky, in my opinion, was not able to penetrate into the fine M.
Bogin’s poetic watercolors: "Man in the elegant environment… It is still a symbol,
not transported in life" [Zorky, 1972, p.79].
An article E. Gromov (1931-2005) was devoted to personal aspect in
modern topic on the screen: The Beginning and Near the Lake "is touched a very
important topic, which is in the air. This is the theme of emotional wealth of
personality, intellectualism and rationalism in an age of rapid scientific and
technological progress" [Gromov, 1972, p.88]. But in the Young By N.
Moskalenko (1926-1974) is example of a "characters’ depersonalization. None of
them, not only is not a person, but not even it tends to become" [Gromov, 1972, p.
91].
Unfortunately, E. Gromov unable to appreciate the artistic level of Urban
Romance by P. Todorovsky (1925-2013): "The director P. Todorovsky and
screenwriter F. Mironer groped acute actual conflict situation. But, alas, the ore did
not turn into metal. Drama turned into a melodrama" [Gromov, 1972, p.89].
The section devoted to adaptations presents Carousel by M. Schweitzer,
Uncle Vanya by A. Konchalovsky and The Seagull by Y. Karasik.
A. Lipkov wrote that sad comedy Carousel built "easily and gracefully,
exactly freely addressing ironic stylisation, parody, cartoon extravaganza,
grotesque. But this rainbow heap husked comedy arsenal at the viewer from the
first frame appears and starts louder sound painfully poignant note" [Lipkov, 1972,
p. 37]. And then he the bright and vividly spoke about the film adaptation of the
play Uncle Vanya: "Konchalovsky reads Chekhov not only as a thin and quivering
lyricism, not as sad contemplative human ills, and certainly not as a chronicler.
Chekhov for his tragic artist, furious, desperate diseases tormented century. Heroes
of Uncle Vanya inflamed unquenchable thirst for love, complicity, big present
case" [Lipkov, 1972, p. 44]. The Seagull by Yuri Karasik was fairly valued much
lower [Borodin, 1972, p. 45-46].
Chief editor of Soviet Screen D. Pisarevsky shared with readers arguments
(and now not lost its relevance) about the results of the traditional competition in
which the readers of the magazine evaluated the films of the year: "Movement of
films and spectators to each other is a complex and dialectic process. And may
increase the aesthetic tastes of the audience, pulling backward to the advanced
level (and those, in turn, to a new, higher level), contributes to the real study of the
audience and the entire system of educational work with the mass audience. It will
be a school, and film club, and the mass cinema. But first and foremost, of course,
by the works of film art" [Pisarevsky, 1972, p.103].
The authors of the yearbook also wrote positive articles about the films
Attention, Turtle! [Levshina, 1972, pp. 36-38], The End of Ataman [Sulkin, 1972,
pp. 28-32], We and Our Mountains [Vartanov, 1972, pp. 47-49].
This Yearbook was the last compiler’s work of S. Chertok. Then the cinema
bosses apparently decided that his editorial policy to take a significant conflict with
the Resolution of Soviet Communist Party Central Committee On Literary
Criticism (1972) and no longer corresponds to the current trend. Starting with the
Screen 1973-1974, the foreign section of the yearbooks was the decline in volumes
and articles on Western movie stars gradually gave way to the "stars" of the "third
world"…
Medvedev’s article Fifty-firstYear was full of the ideological fervor in the
spirit of Resolution: "When I remember the films 1973, I think that this year
started in the joyful and exciting days of our holiday: the golden jubilee of the
Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. New battle Kremlin chimes alerted the world
about the beginning of a new history of half a century of unprecedented
community of people, whose name - the Soviet people" [Medvedev, 1975, p.86].
Further there was a great quote from the report of L.I. Brezhnev On the 50th
Anniversary of the USSR. No one critic had not allowed himself to this kind of
quotes in the Screen Yearbooks...
But on the whole yearbook still trying to keep film studies brand.
For example, analyzing a film A Bad Good Man by I. Kheifits (1905-1995), A.
Lipkov wrote: "Chekhov saw the task of art is "to squeeze out of the slavery of
man - drop by drop." Kheifits’ film inspires the same hatred of slavery - to rid the
person of abstract ideas dogma, violence, physical and moral terror philistine
environment. Man, with all its weaknesses and imperfections, fortunately, it is still
not an ant, no termite, no beetle. He is a human. Bad or good, or even that more
difficult - the 'bad good', but man" [Lipkov, 1975, p. 26].
I. Levshina heartily praised adaptation of Mark Twain's novel Adventures of
Huckleberry Finn, set by G. Danelia titled Hopelessly Lost: "unexpectedly slow,
achingly sad – this film seems deliberately circumvents many of the adventures"
[Levshin, 1975, p.32].
V. Demin (1937-1993) favorably reacted to freestyle adaptation of the play
by Mikhail Bulgakov: the comedy Ivan Vasilievich changes his occupation by L.
Gaidai: "Today, our comedy can not boast a lot of luck... This alarming joke of L.
Gaidai is unconditional and remarkable success" [Demin, 1975, p.81].
The Yearbook also singled out the most important films on contemporary
topics: Happy Go Lucky by V.Shukshin and Monologue by I. Averbach.
V. Fomin wrote: "Shukshin still faithful to his character, he actively
empathizes... Shukshin enamored looks at his Ivan Rastorguev, admires them and
then quite ruthlessly punishes him for his obvious failures and weaknesses inherent
in the nature" [Fomin, 1975, p.30].
But R. Yurenev was more strict in relation to the film Monologue because
of Western influences: "The love of the people, attention to him, attention to the
most seemingly ordinary and insignificant everyday problems - the priceless
quality of the script E. Gabrilovich, well understood and generally successful
implementation by I. Averbach. ... In the scene of the meeting of the old
academician with ageless love of his youth I seen the influence of I. Bergman; in
boys trumpeter – F. Fellini…" [Yurenev, 1975, p. 21].
After paying tribute to the actor's talent of M. Ulyanov (1927-2007), L.
Pogozheva (1913-1989) wrote fairly restrained about his director's work The Last
Day, noting that "the plot of this film is not new and is not original, but it is
interesting to watch. I think this is mainly due to the presence on the screen M.
Ulyanov. His game is very well thought-out, very precise and absolutely reliable"
[Pogozheva, 1975, p. 23].
A similar verdict was about the film Hot Snow by G. Egiazarov (1916-
1988) [Bocharov, 1975, p. 15]. In my opinion, extremely complementary reviews
have been published on the films Deep [Sulkin, 1975, pp. 35-38], Herkus Mantas
[Borodin, 1975, pp. 41-43], Melodies of Veriysky Quarter [Lordkipanidze, 1975,
pp. 44-47], And then I said: no... [Gerber, 1975, pp. 39-40].
The Yearbook has not forgotten about the action movies. V. Revich rightly
criticized feature weakness of detectives Shah Queen of Diamonds and The Black
Prince [Revich, 1975, pp. 92-94.].
R. Sobolev (1926-1991) wrote a positive, but too traditional and boring
review of the detective TV-series Seventeen Moments of Spring [Sobolev, 1975,
pp. 52-54] by T. Lioznova (1924-2011).
Maybe the editor S. Chertok could venture out to reprint a brilliant review
Lessons ‘Moments’ by V. Demin, published earlier in Soviet Screen [Demin, 1973,
p9. 4-5]. But, firstly, D. Pisarevsky, the editor in chief of Soviet Screen, lost his job
in 1975 because of "ill-advised" the publication of this brave article. And secondly,
as the saying goes, better safe than sorry...
Although readers it would be useful to reflect on the following V. Demin’s
phrase: "The swastika, rituals fires and torchbearers, skulls as emblems - fascism
was not averse to flirt eerie black symbols… The film does not indulge these
claims. … What is there? There people crippled fascist order, accustomed to trust
"the system" more than himself. But all the same people, not monsters. This is
intriguing, and this is also should not be underestimated" [Demin, 1973].
T. Hloplyankina drew the attention of readers, that "films flirting with
melodrama and at the same time carefully concealing this flirtation pretentious
dialogue, speculation on the topic of modern film language, appear on the screen
quite often. And it's a pity, because this genre, of course, the audience favorite, and
always urging him feeling good, worthy of better treatment" [Hloplyankina, 1975,
p. 96].
And D. Pisarevsky, yet not dismissed from his position, referring to the
results of the survey of Soviet Screen readers, reasonably stated that "mass surveys
the audience once again confirmed that box office and their true value and
evaluation audience are very different things. Films that have received the highest
evaluation of the audience, not all cases can be found in the box office top list, and
the comedy and adventure movies that have gathered of millions audiences, often
missing in the list of the best films of the year" [Pisarevsky, 1975, p. 99].
Screen 1974-1975 (1976, put in a set in November 1975)
Yearbook changed the editor. The new editors E. Bauman and G.

Dolmatovskaya were assigned instead fired S. Chertok (by the way, in one year
with D. Pisarevsky). And Screen 1974-1975 not only reduced the presence of
foreign materials to an all-time low (19% of the total volume of materials
collection), but also got rid of such talented, but "too free-thinking" authors like L.
Anninsky, V. Demin, Y. Khanyutin, N. Zorkaya and I. Levshina...
In 1975, USSR celebrated the 30th anniversary of the victory over Nazi
Germany, so the bulk of the material on the Soviet cinema was devoted to films
about the war. Firstly Liberation by Y. Ozerov (1921-2001) and They Fought for
Their Motherland by S. Bondarchuk (1920-1994).
V. Baskakov wrote: "Deep, bold, talented director Sergei Bondarchuk,
wonderful actors, the whole shooting team embodied on the screen the ideas and
images of Mikhail Sholokhov's novel They Fought for Their Motherland"
[Baskakov, 1976, p. 24]. And A. Karaganov wrote that "S. Bondarchuk created a
movie, endearing courageous truthfulness" [Karaganov, 1976, p.12]. But even he
could not afford to respond as super positive about the rather loose and strained
pathos of Liberation: "This film is not free of errors. ... But on the whole ... this is
a remarkable work, endearing honesty and recreation events scale, purposefulness
directorial solutions, carrier and the actor's art" [Karaganov, 1976, p. 11].
It seems that the updated Yearbook tried to show their loyalty to the
precepts of the Resolution of the Soviet Communist Party Central Committee of
the On Literary Criticism: Screen 1974-1975 wrote positively even such mediocre
movie on the military theme as Ballad of Kovpak [Kudin, 1976, pp. 38-42], Flame
[Shatsillo, 1976, pp. 42-46] and High Rank [Kazarinov, 1976, pp. 46-48].
Although all three reviews noted for the sake of decency "minor deficiencies", they
always stressed that these films "have become a notable event"...
But T. Ivaniva’s article about L. Bykov’s wonderful film Only old men go to
fight interesting to read. And it is difficult not to agree with the fact that "the
director seems to not want to work it is required to look original, relishing the
unexpected turns in the threads or exclusively modern film language. Apparently,
he is not afraid to appear neither too traditional nor too sentimental" [Ivanova,
1976, p.49].
The Yearbook was again under the influence of On Literary Criticism
reviewing working class drama The Hottest Month [Egorov, 1976, p.87]. But V.
Mikhalkovich had a more sober view of the films on the working class topic
[Mikhalkovich, 1976, p. 116-120].
The main part of the modern section of the Yearbook was given to the
analysis of Red Kalina by V.Shukshin, Romance for Lovers by A. Konchalovsky,
and Daughters and Mothers by S. Gerasimov and other notable works of the
screen.
G. Kapralov’s article was correct: "In the interpretation of the history of
Red Kalina could become commonplace and criminal chronicle and cheap
melodrama. But V. Shukshin raises it to the height of moral and philosophical
thoughts about life, its true and false values" [Kapralov, 1976, p.76].
L. Belova was no less convincing in his argument: "The heroic soul, ready to
exploit in the name of goodness and justice, Olga Vasilyeva from the movie
Daughters and Mothers in the same time is not a standard of positivity. ... The true
value of her nature is dialectical, because its manifestations Olga also draws as
little scary ... This film give us the chance to think" [Belova, 1976, p. 92].
E. Gromov wrote that the film Romance for Lovers "a truly talented and
significant. This is a deeply poetic meditation on love and duty, the meaning of
life" [Gromov, 1976, p. 82].
E. Bauman equally appreciated ironic parable Jackass By E. Shengelaja:
"This film has many unusual, striking the imagination and eccentricity paradoxical
situations, characters, dialogue, unexpected plot and thinking of the author. This is
a comedy in which intertwine the seriousness of the parable and slapstick mischief,
which is juicy, a visible, tangible and yet inconceivable fantastic reality coexists
with the reliability of a fantastic dream" [Bauman, 1976, p. 126].
Introducing readers to his reflections on the cinema, M. Zak (1929-2011)
rightly pointed out that the film Until the last minute is "undisclosed political
biography of the hero, because word-gun reduced to the level quotational
journalism" [Zak, 1976, p. 115].
Screen 1975-1976 (1977, put in a set in August 1976)
This is another issue, edited by E. Bauman and G. Dolmatovskaya.

XXV Congress of the Soviet Communist Party was held in February-March
1976. This Congress was one of the peaks in the "small cult of personality" of L.I.
Brezhnev. This explains why the "report-inspiring" article by A. Kamshalov
decorated the references to the report of the general secretary [Kamshalov, 1977, p.
28]. A. Kamshalov, in particular, didactically wrote: "A new stage of communist
construction places high demands on literature and art, including the cinema. …
Our party orients writers, artists, composers, filmmakers, television and the theater
workers of the fact that the rich possibilities of art, exciting persuasiveness of
artistic images used for the enrichment of moral people, to improve their spiritual
potential. ... The devotion to communist ideals – that is the main thing that I would
like to see in the way of the worker or collective farmer, a scientist or a warrior,
leader or an ordinary party building a new life" [Kamshalov, 1977, pp. 23, 26].
I think after such a "seed" the quotation from Brezhnev logically looked
and in an article on the movies’ working class subject [Korobkov, 1977, p. 48].
The communist pathos of G. Kapralov’s article about working class film
Prize was in the same key: "Screen offers us a certain model, an example of how
can and should be addressed sometimes some of the issues in a socialist society,
where we have the party criticism and self-criticism. But this "model" is designed
not speculative, not built artificially, but life itself is born... The story of Vasily
Potapov and his team is not the last place in the chain of large and small events of
everyday life that add up to the overall flow of our irresistible movement towards
communism" [Kapralov, 1977, pp. 68-69].
The cinema and Communist party functionary D. Shatsillo spared no
compliments regarding romanticized film biography of one of Communist leaders
– G. Ordzhonikidze (I accept) [Shatsillo, 1977, pp. 87-91].
E. Bauman wrote equally rosy about another deservedly forgotten now film
Time of her sons: "This is the story of the triumph of life, the happiness of peaceful
labor, the great love of his native land. … the main idea sounds distinctly and
clearly: this is the idea of man's responsibility to his country, ahead of its time"
[Bauman, 1977, p.80].
And usually more thoughtful E. Gromov, alas, could not resist the praise of a
mediocre film Earthly Love, which was shown "a man of modern times, the era of
socialist, a communist, was acutely aware of the enormous challenges that were
then in front of the party and the country" [Gromov, 1977, pp. 86-87].
But N. Sumenov (1938-2014) did not dare to sing a solemn hymn to
working class drama From dawn to dusk by G. Egiazarov. Film critic rebuked this
movie in edification, smoothing out conflicts and problems [Sumenov, 1977, p.75].
The rest of the annual reviews were written in a more analytical manner.
For example, V. Vilchek (1937-2006) gave an interesting analysis of the
letters of moviegoers (especially on the comedy Afonya by G. Danelia), which
were not only clearly marked with different levels of perception, audience analysis
of the film, but also stressed that the "naturalistic perception is a perception,
dictated by lazy, consumer life experience; People just covered (truly deceiving
himself) didactic reasons, they just want do not destroy their peace of minds"
[Vilchek, 1977, p.62].
As a result, V. Vilchek reasonably come to the conclusion that "We need
the concept of "integral film". That is, a film for everyone, able to satisfy the most
different, even polar groups of the audience. It is anticipated that this film should
have a multi-layer structure, so that each group of viewers might find it that
searches and understands the art of one: interesting plot, the second: a fine plastic
or of their idols, and others: deep philosophy, etc." [Vilchek, 1977, p. 63].
Yearbook praisedbook the film Hundred days after childhood by S.
Soloviev. T. Ivanova wrote that “the very sophistication plot of this film, the game
with motifs of classical works, lurked danger: to consider the region bookish
reminiscences in the frame of quite closed experiment. The filmmakers were able
to overcome this danger" [Ivanova, 1977, p. 95].
A historical and romantic melodrama The Captivating Star of Happiness by
V. Motyl received a positive assessment from Y. Turin (1938-2016) [Turin, 1977,
pp. 96-102]. Film critic L. Rybak (1923-1988) supported screen experiment of M.
Schweitzer, who, the first time in the director's biography, turned to the genre
fiction parable in the film Escape of Mr. McKinley: "This unusual movie built on
extreme aesthetic principles; its action steeped in reality, this story is woven of
fantastic events. … We see something unbelievable, inconceivable from the
standpoint of ordinary logic in realistic circumstances, but it is quite convincing as

an artistic metaphor, true to his moral (or immoral) nature" [Rybak, 1977, p. 105].
Screen 1976-1977 (1978, put in a set in January 1978)
This Yearbook changed one of the editors. New editors (until the last issue)
became Y. Turin and G. Dolmatovskaya.
Of course, the diamond jubilee of the Soviet regime (1977) and the
Resolution of the Soviet Communist Party Central Committee On working with
creative youth (October, 1976) played a important role in Soviet film criticism
process. V. Baskakov [1978, pp. 29-35] and M. Alexeev [Alexeev, 1978, p. 50]
wrote about clearly and directly. N. Sumenov wrote: “Liberation by Y. Ozerov
clearly reflected as a strike force of world imperialism were broken, met on his
way a monolithic multi-ethnic state of workers and peasants who defended the war
the freedom and independence of their country, Lenin's motherland, the
motherland of the Great October. … Soldiers of Freedom shows not only the
successes but also the dramatic pages of the people's liberation struggle. … And
very good episode of this film, where L.I. Brezhnev (actor E. Matveev) speaks
about communism with simple Czech workers. This episode is capacious and
extremely important for the expression of the author's concept of dialogue as it
sums up the film as a work of political cinema" [Sumenov, 1978, pp. 78-80].
It seems that everything has already been said in this "critical" passage...
But, no: N. Sumenov with skillful pen of communist functionary added cold war
sentence: "Bourgeois propagandists used up a lot of pages, arguing that the
national liberation struggle, the people's democratic and socialist system in Europe
was planted against the will of the peoples of these countries. Accessing historical
facts refutes the malicious lies. In carrying out their internationalist duty, the
Soviet Army liberated from fascism, not only his country, but also the people of
other European countries that have chosen the democratic path of development.
Our ideological opponents, ideological means fighting against the socialist
community of nations now rely on inciting nationalist sentiment. They are trying to
drive a wedge between the peoples, to oppose one another nation, to split the unity
of our country. That is why today is so important political picture, excitedly and
earnestly preaching the ideals of proletarian internationalism. It is no exaggeration
to say that internationalism becomes the main theme of the film Soldiers of
Freedom, its most important task" [Sumenov, 1978, p.83].
The articles about Leninist films Trust [Zaitsev, 1978, pp. 84-86] and
October [Pustynsky, 1978, pp. 132-133] were additional plus to Soviet
anniversary.
The alternative approach to the official analysis of war films was presented
in M. Zak’s article. He, not fearing the religious foundation, gave the high praise
for L. Shepitko’s masterpiece Ascension: "The director is harsh and intransigence
in the image of suffering, intransigence in relation to the viewer's perception,
which has its own thresholds. She leaves nothing behind the scenes, and the
spectators run with the hero all painful path… Mythological paint gradually slides
over the screen. … the evangelical composition openly establish themselves in the
frame" [Zak, 1978, p. 68].
But M. Zak somehow confused realistic textures in the film Twenty Days
Without War, typical of the director's style of A. German: "The efforts of the
director sometimes seem excessive, particularly in the field of decorative arts"
[Zak, 1978, p. 66].
The films on contemporary topics was also in focus of the Yearbook:
Mimino, Own Opinion, The White Ship, Only You, Hoax and Word of Protection.
A. Zorky wrote about one of the best G. Danelia’s film:
"Mimino has everything which you can want in good movie: humor, honesty,
simplicity, seriousness, the great script, mature craftsmanship, beautiful duet of
actors" [Zorky, 1978, p. 209].
N. Savitsky quite convincingly argued that the Own Opinion "main
character is too self-confident, the winner from the start. He appeared not to study,
but teach. He almost does not make mistakes, and I can’t trust him. ... This film has
absolutely predominant declarative tone, journalistic style, emotionally depleted"
[Savitsky, 1978, p. 96].
K. Rudnicky (1920-1988) was dissatisfied with the imbalance of a characters
in a film of screenwriter A. Mindadze and director V. Abdrashitov Word for
Protection because "the fate of main heroine Kostina, like a powerful magnet
attracts all interest and takes in all the excitement of the audience. Conceived (and
contrived!) parallel movement of the two female roles in the living reality of the
film is replaced by a powerful movement of a single Kostina’s drama" [Rudnicky,
1978, p.124].
Speaking about the melodrama Only You by I. Kheifits (1905-1995) M.
Kuznetsov (1914-1980) was, in my opinion, overly didactic, emphasizing "how
important it is for our contemporaries have the own culture of senses… And this
controversial, somewhat uneven, but very interesting film devoted to this area of
moral life" [Kuznetsov, 1978, p.104].
Reviewing musical melodrama about the school and school children Hoax,
T. Kukarkina began with praise: "V. Menchov has chosen for his first directorial
work of dynamic form of the narrative, catchy, bright, spectacular. Pop-music,
beautiful person, elegant interiors, the plot tension overshadowed psychological
thoroughness. The director focused on the incessant emotional impact. It is
promoted and given rhythm and unique scene transitions, and the absence of
general plans and panoramas. All large, brightly. And the film looks in one breath,
he excites and makes empathize heroes" [Kukarkina, 1978, p.119]. But then T.
Kukarkina made the negative conclusion, in my opinion, unreasonably harsh: "The
stated problem, moral collision blurred, scattered in different semantic series,
replacing the regulatory rules of ethics. ... The idea of the playwright essential to
solve problems is obvious, but simplified to elementary commandments"

[Kukarkin, 1978, p.121].
The main article in the portrait gallery of the yearbook (articles about the
work of actors Y. Solntseva, R. Adomaitis, I. Churikova, G. Burkov, E. Simonova)
was the text of R. Yurenev. Remembering the Kuban Cossacks by I. Pyrev, film
critic wrote that "of course, all the circumstances of this picture is not shown of
collective life. There was no criticisms, no objective assessment of the life
difficulties. But it was fun and joyful chanting of the collective-farm labor, a new
morality, friendship and ardent love in the conventions of the genre of musical
comedy and operetta" [Yurenev, 1978, p. 139]. But "modern dramatic Pyrev’s
movies Our Mutual Friend, Light of Distant Star were weak, and quickly got off
the screen"[Yurenev, 1978, p.139].
R. Yurenev thought the main Pyrev’s artistic achievement The Brothers
Karamazov where director "boldly sacrificed many lines, many novel ideas,
focusing on the problem of realization of its main characters. And here and he
showed courage, and taste, and a very deep and subtle understanding of the
individual characteristics quite similar to each other actors" [Yurenev, 1978, p.
142].
Screen 1977-1978 continued the theme of the 60th anniversary of the

Socialist revolutionary. A. Novogrudsky (1911-1996) wrote an article under the
eloquent title Under the Sign of the October Revolution: "Why is the bourgeois
film researchers praise the first Soviet revolutionary cinema masterpieces (even
emasculating their ideological content and focusing on the purely aesthetic
categories)? The answer is quite simple: to build the anti-scientific scheme of
"attenuation" of Soviet cinema, to belittle the significance of such great works as
Chapaev, a trilogy about Maxim and other outstanding films, declared "non-
existent" creative achievements of Soviet filmmakers after 1920s. The Western
cinema books repeated this false scheme with the dogmatic obstinacy
pseudoscientific treatises ... Another false is the accusation of socialist realism in
the canons of censorship"[Novogrudsky, 1979, p. 28].
It is clear that the Novogrudsky’s arguments look mildly, unconvincing,
because the Western festival movement and Western film studies, actually
rejecting the ideology of "socialist realism" (like the 1930s and subsequent years),
always supported talented Soviet movies of post-Stalin era (including many films
of M. Kalatozov, A. Konchalovsky, S. Parajanov, A. Tarkovsky, G. Chuhraj, M.
Khutsiev and other masters).
A. Medvedev presented his article The feat of the people, the fate of the
People, which he wrote about very mediocre "socialist realism" films Carpathian
Mountains ... by T. Levchuk and Destiny by E. Matveyev: "Much of these works is
debatable. However, I would like to emphasize the important thing in the film
chronicle of the national artistic feat of new lines are written, enriching our
memory, spreading its horizon" [Medvedev, 1979, p. 46].
N. Savitsky published anoter positive-boring article about the drama on the
workin class topic - Feedback by V. Tregubovich [Savitsky, 1979, pp. 87-92].
Reflecting on the movie Call me in the distance light by S. Lubshin and G.
Lavrov, E. Bauman wrote that "the film carefully and clearly conveyed Shukshin’s
intonations, Shukshin’s thoughts. And a huge credit for this belongs to the
ensemble cast"[Bauman, 1979, p. 102].
But Y. Turin very severely appreciated the talented drama Wounded Game
(The Orphans) by N. Gubenko: "The main character fell apart in every sense of the
word into two parts: his childhood was promised a great personality, but the
maturity has been deprived of concreteness, the flesh. Here the main failure of the
movie. Bartenev was forty years in the present tense only eyewitness and
participant in the events does not unlike Bartenev-child wounded" [Turin, 1979, p.
97].
Surprisingly, but the Screen 1977-1978 dared (and I think rightly) criticize
S. Rostotsky, logged by this time the cohort of "untouchables directors". His
adaptation of the novel White Bim Black Ear had a huge success with audiences,
but the Yearbook published the following opinion: "The filmmakers removed the
the air, breath of prose. Hard film in some of its parts has become cruel, almost
tortured nerves of the audience" [Marchenko, 1979, p. 101].
Portrait Gallery of Screen 1977-1978 was extensive [Zakrzhevskaya 1979,
pp. 114-120; Lagina, 1979, pp. 121-126; Yurenev, 1979, pp. 145-147; Krivitsky,
pp. 147-153; Tarasenko, 1979, pp. 136-141; Khanyutin, 1979, pp. 131-136;
Vladimirova, 1979, pp. 154-157].
Summarizing the results of a creative way of film director I. Talankin (1927-
2010), E. Vladimirova rightly noted that "diversity is the main quality of his work,
his films is open for the emotionality, for the viewer's heart" [Vladimirova, 1979,
p. 157].
Y. Khanyutin (1929-1978) wrote one of his brilliant articles: "N. Mikhalkov
made his debut in directing as a secular dandy on Opening Day, with noisy, fun,
dazzling cascade of film techniques. His first film At Home Among Strangers… has
fairy-tale characters, act according to the laws of natural justice and faith in their
triumph. And the director also believes with them. Negative character desperately
asks: "My God, my God, why are you helping this cretin, not me?". "Because
you're a greedy", - meets the positive hero of this film. As in fairy tales: brave and
noble hero wins and punished negative character" [Khanyutin, 1979, pp. 131-132].
Turning to the analysis of the second work of N. Mikhalkov, Y. Khanyutin
gave an exhaustive answer to the question of why the Slave of Love had no total
box-office success: "The director chose exactly the genre corresponding to the
subject: melodrama. But, it seems, he made a fatal mistake in relation to the
selected genre. He puts the film with a certain ironic distance towards the
character. And the romance can not tolerate distance, she can not live without the
immediacy and simplicity. And the lack of sensitivity are not compensated by the
exquisite interiors, an elegant stylized fashion and costumes and even a soft smile
of the author in relation to the figures of the cinema. Perhaps the lack of
spontaneity prevented the Slave of Love to win the success with the audience"
[Khanyutin, 1979, p. 132].
Mikhalkov's Unfinished Piece for Mechanical Piano (on motives of the
early play of Anton Chekhov, known as Platonov) received the highest evaluation
from Y. Khanyutin: "He started (in At Home Among Strangers… and Slave of
Love) in easy and artistic author's style with elegant and slightly retro. But now
cutesy shell of the century is replaced by the director of a thoughtful and unhurried,
develops relationships of characters, exposes the complexity of their relationships,
the depth of subtext. ... Mikhalkov away from traditional interpretations of
Chekhov, from the elegiac, muted emotions, halftones. This film presents Chekhov
sarcastic, bitter, merciless, built on the dramatic tension, catastrophic drops,
breakdowns from tragedy to farce. ... The film unfolds slowly, there is a feeling
that his exposition, where it turns out "who's who" tightened. There are the shock
episodes, designed for immediate impact, that were in the first Mikhalkov’s film.
But gradually you enter into the world of movie, and this film powerfully addictive
you. This is one of those works of art that have a strong impact in the end and
leave a long period of "aftertaste", the desire to think about the film and its
characters. Probably, this is the quality of this serious work. No, not dapper
professional, not a brilliant actor gets out of the frame of the film. This is the
artist’s deep penetration into the essence of phenomena, the invitation the viewer to
thinking" [Khanyutin, 1979, p.132, 136].
Screen 1978-1979 (1981, put in a set in July 1980)
Yearbook Screen 1978-1979 was put into set in July 1980, after the Soviet
invasion of Afghanistan, in response to which the United States has announced a
boycott of the Moscow Olympics, and an embargo on the Soviet Union in modern
technologies and grain. And Soviet communist Party Central Committee
Resolution "On further improve the ideological and political education work"
(April 1979) adopted a year earlier: "The Communist Party organizations, agencies
of culture, ideological institutions, creative unions have the task of improving
ideological and political Marxist-Leninist education of the artistic intelligentsia"
[Resolution ..., 1979].
In short, a "discharge" policy was ended and new peak of the cold war
started. And only one month left before resuming jamming broadcasts Voice of
America and other Western radio stations in the USSR (20-21 August 1980)...
Article of V. Drobashenko (1921-2012) [Drobashenko, 1981, pp. 11-17] and
Y. Cherepanov [Cherepanov, 1981, pp. 72-75], N. Zaitsev [Zaitsev, 1981, p. 77,
80], N. Sumenov [Sumenov, 1981, pp. 80-83] were the responses to the
Communist Party Resolution.
In particular, Y. Cherepanov, without the slightest shadow of a doubt, wrote

that all in the film The taste of bread "taken from life, everything is authentic, all
carefully calibrated almost scientific precision, especially for the reader who is
familiar with L.I. Brezhnev's book Virgin Lands” [Cherepanov, 1981, p.72].
The most interesting part of this Yearbook was devoted to a school topic in
the movie. Here E. Gromov correctly noted that "we can see the school life mostly
on the side of the adult position. … Oh, what are they bold and uninhibited! The
creators of the films about school are often lose critical, realistic view relevant to
the younger generation. … It is, however, a long-standing problem of our children
and youth film: no one had achieved the severity level of youth estimates that
existed in the film Three Days of Victor Chernyshov" [Gromov, 1981, pp. 33, 36].
However, further critic convincingly argued that the situation in the
children's and youth film at the turn of the 1980s, "in many ways better, more vital
than existed a few years ago, when the main charge of emotion and admiration
spent on teachers... And otherwise, a negative image of the teacher often met with
hostility. Now, the teachers began to show a wide variety: from very good, almost
perfect, to the purely negative. Sometimes a critical attitude to the teacher even
prevails over the claim that is also not terrible. No need to worry too much about a
strictly balance, if the cinema school has vivid teachers personalities in the films
Diary of School’s Director, Aliens Letters, Betrayed ... We are proud of its
achievements in the field of youth and children's movies. But also see their
weaknesses and unsolved problems" [Gromov, 1981, p.35].
E. Gromov rather sharply criticized the talented film The key is not
transferable By D. Asanova (1942-1985), insisting that "one way or another, but
the teacher Marina Maximovna consciously unconsciously creates a closed
microcosm for only a gifted, bright, intelligent students. But what about those who
are not talented? ... Talented Marina Maximovna, focusing only on the talented
guys, perforce brings them pride, of which she is not deprived. From it only a step
to the arrogant neglect of a rough, everyday work, and ordinary people" [Gromov,
1981, pp. 34-35]. And there are the final E. Gromov’s conclusions: "The film
touches on the difficult teenage problems are not easily solved, they hurt"
[Gromov, 1981, pp.37-38].
The remaining sturdy and extensive positive reviews in the yearbook were
devoted to films Strange Woman [ Gromov, 1981, p. 92], Declaration of Love [Zac
1981, pp. 92-95], Nahapet [Medvedev, 1981, pp. 95-97], Biryuk [Nedelin, 1981,
pp. 97-99], Centaurs [Shilova, 1981, pp. 83-87], Price's death ask the dead
[Belova, 1981, pp. 87-89], Man, that was lucky [Kuznetsov, 1981, pp. 99-102],
Father Sergius [Bauman, 1981, pp. 149-151], Rise [Kapralov, 1981, pp. 188-190].
Screen 1979-1980 put in to the set in November 1981, i.e. after the last
Brezhnev’s XXVI Congress of the Soviet Communist Party, which was once again
told that "the manifestation of lack of ideology, ideological promiscuity, a

departure from the clear class assessment of individual historical events and figures
can damage creativity even gifted people. Our critics, literary journals, creative
unions and especially their Communist Party organizations should be able to
correct those who puts in one direction or another. And, of course, the active
principle to act in cases where there are works that damages our Soviet reality.
Here we must be uncompromising. The Communist Party has not been and can not
be indifferent to the ideological orientation of our art" [Proceedings of XXVI
Congress of the soviet communist Party, 1981, pp. 61-63].
However, only one of all Soviet film critics dared to speak in the pages of
the yearbook with a genuine Communist ideological position. It was tireless V.
Baskakov with the article about film Karl Marx. Young Years by L. Kulidzhanov:
"This film enriches our understanding about the life of the founder of scientific
communism, it gives ample food for serious thought about the most important,
most essential in the fate of mankind. ... Marx is the great thinker, scientist, leader
of the world proletariat, he first pointed out the right path of revolutionary
transformation of the world" [Baskakov, 1982, pp. 84, 88].
The rest of the film critics did not support this Communistic pathos,
preferring to remain in traditional reviews.
Arguing about the image of the screen character, E. Gromov came to the
right conclusion that "the history of art clearly shows that the vital credibility and
the strength of the aesthetic impact of the image of the hero, in essence, almost
independent of the presence or absence and his character shortcomings and
weaknesses"[Gromov, 1982, p. 57].
E. Stishova dedicated her article to Soviet film debuts: "Historical events
connected with the revolution, civil war, and even the World are increasingly
becoming for the present generation of filmmakers the only reason for the creation
of the adventure movies, where history easily sacrificed riot of imagination of the
author and spectator demand for exciting dynamic spectacle" [Stishova, 1982, p.
78].
R. Yurenev was also strict, by only in relation to Five Evenings by N.
Mikhalkov: "I dare to accuse the director of the film in theatrical compositions. …
It is necessary to destroy gravitating to the dramatic unities theatrical composition,
build a free cinematic composition with multiple places of action" [Yurenev, 1982,
p. 102].
A. Medvedev published one of his best reviews about the sad comedy
Autumn Marathon by G. Danelia: "This is a pleasing example of the harmony of
all its beginnings: drama, director, actor, visual, musical. It's all happily found each
other and each is fully expressed himself" [Medvedev, 1982, p. 89].
L. Melville generally supported the poetic parable Babylon-XX by I.
Mykolaychuk (1941-1987): “Fine fragmentary structure of the film at first glance
may surprise… But we can see more and more that its creators based on eternity of
life and folk culture. ... Babylon-XX’s stylistic is aesthetic principle of popular
culture, its moral and artistic syncretism. Beautiful is always good, and the good is
the way to beautiful. ... We know the age-old tradition of native culture, always
beautiful and good. The film keeps these traditions" [Melville, 1982, pp.112, 114].
Socio sharp detective Interrogation [Freilich, 1982, pp. 92-95], dramas
Early Cranes [Zak, 1982, pp. 103-106] and Several interviews on personal matters
[Sumenov, 1982, pp. 106-109] also received the support from the authors of the
Yearbook.
Y, Turin’s article about great Russian actor A. Solonitsyn (1934-1982) was
the best among the actors' portraits. Here, perhaps, for the first time, the Yearbook
so vividly and clearly published the analysis of the works of this outstanding actor,
the main actor of A. Tarkovsky (1932-1986). Y. Turin wrote that Stalker "was for
Solonitsyn and Tarkovsky a fantastic environment material, the nature of the
mysterious, unknown world. … in general, purely earthly problems as a matter of
priority: to heal the soul, a disturbed conscience, fix the personal balance. ... The
film brings to the indissoluble triangle regulations humanism, technocracy and
faith..." [Turin, 1982, pp.139-141]. And here Y. Turin rightly argued that the high-
rise Tarkovsky’s film compositions "resemble the crystal structure: proportionality
and indispensability of each item, mathematically calculated harmony of all the
parts" [Turin, 1982, p.138].
Screen 1980-1981 (1983, put in set in December 1982)
July 30, 1982 was the time of the Soviet Communist Party Central
Committee Resolution On the creative connections literary journals with the
practice of communist construction, where Communist Party once again called for
the tightening of ideological censorship and nuts.
Screen 1980-1981 has been put in set in December 1982, already under the
reign of Y. Andropov (1914-1984), so Yearbook’s content was probably one of the
most boring and unsuccessful.
I. Rachuk (1922-1985) was crowded of false pathos about politically
conjunctural film From Bug to the Vistula by T. Levchuk T. (1912-1998): "This is
struggle for communism"[Rachuk, 1983, p.76]. F. Kuznetsov similarly positive
and pathetic wrote about as weak working class drama Horses in midstream is not
by G. Egiazarov [Kuznetsov, 1983, p.68].
E. Gromov also was noted in the margin of the ideological front with
respect to the communist orientated film Your son, the land: "What is the main
result of the film, its principal novelty? A vital and artistically valid ideal hero, the
perfect Communist party worker appeared on the screen" [Gromov, 1983, p.75].
V. Baskakov wrote another pathetic lines: "S. Gerasimov, one of the
founders of the creative method of our cinema, highlights the kinship of this art
with the most humane system of social relations: the system of socialism-
communism. This is an essential feature in the work of this artist" [Baskakov,
1983, p. 120].
Against this background, A. Romanenko’s article looked much more

attractive. First, she rightly wrote about how hard to find "a movie in our cinema,
where talent truthfully described the all-consuming love, poetic and happiness, the
dreams of young and mature people" [Romanenko, 1983, p.32]. And then, she
sadly noted that "screen tale is transformed, changes the appearance, language, and
most importantly - the address. It is increasingly becoming a holiday, which is
fairy tale, but not for children" [Romanenko, 1983, p.34].
Y. Turin was a little more positive, but in relation to the historic theme:
"We can see the existence of cinema, associated with the history of the peoples of
our country. Although the force of inertia is still very high" [Turin, 1983, p.43].
R. Yurenev wrote the article about one of the Soviet box office leaders -
melodrama Guys ..! This article was actively supported the line of the Soviet State
Committee for Cinematography for increasing screen entertainment: "Guys ..!
clear expressed the idea alive and strong characters people and calm, reliable life.
Melodrama wins his love of the audience" [Yurenev, 1983, p.84].
Shortly after the solemn celebration of the 60th anniversary of the Soviet
Communist Party Central Committee published the Resolution Topical issues of
ideological and mass political work of the Communist party (June, 1983). It is
clear that the faithful soldiers of the ideological front, like, for example, V.
Baskakov, respond to this demands: "There are vain efforts of the western film
critics who are trying to impose their orientations to the Soviet cinema, their ideas
how to rewrite the history of our new movies. We can do the cinema without the
help of such advisers and well-wishers..." [Baskakov, 1984, p. 7].
Y. Cherepanov was also advocate of the Communist party topic: thinking
about a weak film Hope and Support, he wrote: "This film reflects the topical
problems of modern life, the important issues State Food Program" [Cherepanov,
1984, p.60].
E. Gromov praised very highly the film Lenin in Paris: "This work of our
oldest masters S. Yutkevich and E. Gabrilovich passionately and convincingly
reveals the deep modernity Lenin and Leninism. Lenin in Paris fundamentally
enriches our Leninist cinema" [Gromov, 1984, p. 58].
As usual some Yerabook’s articles dedicated to the military topic. Y. Turin
wrote that the film Fact "extremely reliably demonstrated the bitter, harsh truth of
the war without discounts for a range of events, with no allowances for the time it
takes away even a hint of pacifism, forgiveness" [Turin, 1984, p.64]. And E.
Bauman noted that "Starfall by I. Talankin is a very human and very sad movie.
This film is permeated with bitterness about youth, war, love" [Bauman, 1984, p.
67].
A. Romanenko’s article was about The Night is Short, the film with post-war
childhood topic, where "the theme of domestic growth boy inscribed in the frame a
true story, in harmony with the theme of the post-war renewal of life. ... This film
acquires an epic breath in the final" [Romanenko, 1984, p.74].
E. Stishova presented the highly controversial thesis, arguing that "detectives
and blockbuster, horror and disaster films have lost their absolute power over the
spectators' hearts, but a modest life stories of ordinary, unremarkable women
have, as it turned out, a huge attraction" [Stishova, 1984, p.32].
And, as if confirming this thesis, G. Dolmatovskaya explains the reasons for
the success of melodrama Beloved Woman of Mechanic Gavrilov: "This film was
conceived and written specifically for Ludmila Gurchenko. And she was
generously rewarded for widely show her multi-colored iridescence talent, keeping
a sense of proportion and tact" [Dolmatovskaya, 1984, p.76].
M. Vlasov (1932-2004) dedicated his article to the positive image of film
critic R. Yurenev [Vlasov, 1984, p.103].
Screen 1982-1983 was put in the set already during the brief reign of K.
Chernenko (1911-1985), in August 1984. The Cold War was still in full swing.
And the Soviet Communist Party Central Committee published new Resolution
(April 1984) On measures to further improve the ideological and artistic quality of
films and strengthen the material and technical basis of cinematography.
Surprisingly, but the previously fairly sensitive to the Communist Party
guidance, Yearbook limited the reaction only N. Sumenov’s article Loyalty to the
truth of history [Sumenov, 1985, p.80].
Most of the materials of the Soviet part of the yearbook were devoted to
films on contemporary topics.
Tone M. Zak’s reviews the film Private Life was restrained and neutral. Film
critic point out that this movie "closer to the monodrama, much depends on the
central role of the artist. Ulyanov translates the problem into the character …
when the fate of the human break" [Zak, 1985, p.77].
The tragic film Farewell by E. Klimov got appreciation of Y. Turin: "This
film not turned into a way of idealization of patriarchal heroes, but ... enriched our
common memory, our conscience..."[Turin, 1985, p.89].
Y. Turin (under the pseudonym Samarin) gave same high mark to
wonderful film Boys by D. Asanova: "Asanova is maximalist by nature. … She
loves and knows how to think, to analyze and even risky. She believes in moral
and hence aesthetic value in the spiritual screen power" [Samarin, 1985, p.93].
I. Shilova wrote the deep review about Heiress Straight by S. Solovyov:
"The man in the face of life, people in the face of great culture, a man to himself -
there are Solovyov’s films topics (One hundred days after childhood, Lifeguard).
Soloviev is most ironic in the new work. Time makes its own amendments to the
simple and clear relations, the artist not only feels them, but also offers the moral
changes in his trilogy cardiogram" [Shilova, 1985, p.35].
E. Gromov and M. Kuznetsova devoted their review of the most notable

comedies of those years: Train Station for Two by E. Ryazanov and Native by N.
Mikhalkov.
E. Gromov wrote that Train Station for Two "looks tense, with great
excitement. This is the comedy. Do not lyrical although it has a lyricism; not
satirical, but it has a sarcasm and anger; not tragicomedy, although it has sorrow
and grief. ... This is dramatic and conflict work, by causing laughter and fun high
catharsis: cleansing, enlightenment, faith in life and hope for good luck" [Gromov,
1985, p.85].
M. Kuznetsova went to the Native with a retrospective point of view:
“Previous Mikhalkov’s films were the fireworks talents with the coldness of the
mind. … In the Native director refused many means of cinematic expression: strict
realism, no frills, sophisticated visual metaphors" [Kuznetsova, 1985, p.92].
Screen 1983-1984 (1986, put in a set in September 1985)
Screen 1983-1984 was put into the set in September 1985, already in power
times of M. Gorbachev, in the year of the 40th anniversary of victory over Nazism.
Perestroika was still in its infancy, and so Yearbook could still afford even then
very dubious assertion that Victory by E. Matveev and Duma about Kovpak by T.
Levchuk gave the examples of how "deeper and more objective understanding of
the history of the war in the cinematographic art" [Turin, 1986, p.56].
But in general, the content of Screen 1983-1984 was significantly different
for the better on a number of previous yearbooks.
And today I, of course, agree with the fact that "The film Wartime Romance
by P. Todorovsky has the plaintive lyricism of memories when the wounds still
bleeding in the hearts of people recently graduated from war" [Bauman, 1986,
p.140] .
L. Anninsky appeared after a long absence from the pages of the Yearbook,
in this case – with the analytical article of the film Leo Tolstoy by S. Gerasimov
[Anninsky, 1986, pp. 82-87].
E. Gromov is not tempted by ideological rhetoric this time. He wrote that the
film Time of Desires has "peculiar comic and satirical tone, which is particularly
felt in the first half. This does not prevent, but rather helps to highlight the
strikingly posed in the picture sharp social and psychological problems. ... As any
Y. Raizman’s film, his new movie is professionally perfect and talent, and most
importantly - without the didactics"[Gromov, 1986, p. 90].
M. Zak compared the films Without Witnesses by N. Mikhalkov and
Epilogue by M. Khutsiev: "There are movies-dialogues on the conflict basis. The
conflict between humanistic positions and moral anomaly" [Zak, 1986, p. 37].
Drama Life, Tears and Love also received the high mark from the Yearbook:
"This film has sophistication and beauty (landscape, music, expressions of human
faces), stylistically underlined. It is generally characteristic of the artistic

handwriting of the director N. Gubenko" [Afanasyev, 1986, pp. 92-93].
A. Gerber wrote an excellent review about the parable The Parade of
Planets: "Cinema world of V. Abdrashitov and A. Mindadze does require active
participation from the audience. Live your life without thinking and without
straining too, of course, possible. But if we remember that we live the last time,
and other such case is no longer imagine involuntarily want to present to him the
requirements higher than the simplest organism... We still belong to the world, and
all the disasters in us. The Parade of Planets, in my opinion, just about it" [Gerber,
1986, p.97].
Young at that time film critic A. Erokhin (1954-2000) published perhaps his
most traditional style review (on the crime drama Joint Offenders): "Do we always
happen are attentive and sympathetic to the family and others? It always give the
right to vote their conscience? Whether always you live as it should, as a decent
man? That's what the film says" [Erokhin, 1986, p.103].
R. Yurenev was extremely strict and harsh against Y. Yevtushenko’s poetic
autobiography Kindergarten: "The main failure of the movie is cluttered,
pretentious script. Its episodes are loosely coupled, multi-style, often imitative,
secondary" [Yurenev, 1986, p.100].
Screen 1987 (1987, put in a set in September 1986)
At first glance, it seems strange that Screen 1987 was published right after
Screen 1983-1984. However, in reality everything is explained quite simply: the
compilers of the Yearbook felt that the gap between the year indicated on the cover
of the book and real year sales become too large. For example, Screen 1983-1984
came to buyers only in 1986. Thus, it was decided to "jump" a few years: Screen
1987 arrived in bookstores in 1987.
Yes, Screen 1987 reached readers in rough perestroika in 1987, but this
Yearbook was put into a set in a relatively quiet 1986, and its content is still
reminiscent of Screen 1983-1984.
Of course, the impact of the perestroika are already felt in the pages of
Screen 1987. Obvious signs of this: no servile reactions critics on solutions of
XXVII Soviet Communist Party Congress and the Resolution of the Soviet
Communist Party Central Committee On the shortcomings in the practice of the
acquisition or rental of foreign films.
Yes, Screen 1987 released the propagandist article of V. Baskakov about
week film Battle for Moscow, arguing that "This movie is actively involved in the
ideological struggle, fighting fakes and insinuations about the second world war,
which threw a lot of screens western film market" [Baskakov, 1987, p. 90].
However, others trends dominated in this times. For example, E. Gromov
published a positive review of the war drama Come and See by E. Klimov (he was
elected the head of the Union of Cinematographers in May 1986): "If you plunge
into the atmosphere of the idea of the film, the more clearly realize the highest
truth of the artist, who has decided to show the suffering of the people, the height
of their spirit and lowlands fall as they were in their stark reality" [Gromov, 1987,
p. 92].
E. Stishova gave the highest praise recently "bookshelf"’s masterpiece My
Friend Ivan Lapshin by A. German, noting that "the density of this cinema world,
such as in the third and fourth viewing, discover new details. The author controls
every piece of cinematic, nothing is "just so". Each plan, each angle, every detail
are associated with the concept, with the plan as closely as possible the past. There
is nothing accidental, nothing official, drawn into the frame as a backup story"
[Stishova, 1987, p.109]. L. Mamatova supported satirical film The Blue Mountains
by E. Shengelaja [Mamatova, 1987, p. 106].
A. Plakhov wrote meaningful and thoughtful article on the relationship
between film and literary classics. Reflecting on the S. Soloviev’s films, A.
Plakhov noted some "curious clash of the "two cultures" of moral and everyday
behavior made in his teen trilogy. Drama emerging young soul is checked each
time in the spirit of the classics, whether Lermontov, Tolstoy or Pushkin. And,
there are (sometimes even contrary to the intentions of the author) reveal the
cultural incompatibility of classic designs and the world hits, jeans, chewing gum"
[Plakhov, 1987, p. 39].
Going further to the analysis of the film A Few Days in the I.I. Oblomov’s
Life A. Plakhov concluded that "this is the most complicated case of experiments
with classics… The artistic consciousness of the director N. Mikhalkov with equal
ease to adapt classical harmony, stylistic elegance of the forms and momentary,
sometimes the surface tension builds. Doing Oblomov, he famously included the
characters of the novel in the epicenter of the current talk about "business
people"… This film is too relevant, in order to preserve the continuity of the thread
with a Goncharov’s masterpiece, but the movie turned out to be one of the possible
interpretations and found novel characteristic of classical perfection" [Plakhov,
1987, p. 43].
In this context, A. Plakhov was convinced that Vassa by G. Panfilov
"especially weighty in recent years confirms the intrinsic value of a specific type of
film adaptation based on the inner, but not on a formal relationship with the
classical primary source" [Plakhov, 1987, p. 43 ].
D. Urnov wrote about the screen versions of Russian classic play much
more severely: criticizing Cruel Romance by E. Ryazanov: "Classic text does not
allow for such treatment themselves. Text dies but does not surrender, and the
"winner" received anything. And at the same time and the audience also left with
nothing" [Urnov, 1987, p. 32].
A. Romanenko, in my view, correctly noted that film We Were Young by M.
Belikov (1940-2012) "is a continuation of his film The Night is Short. But the style
is fundamentally different. If there would be difficult to draw the line between
lyrical feelings of the characters and the author's confession, the author here is not
so fused with their characters, not so frank, not in the least gives himself"
[Romanenko, 1987, p.114].
S. Shumakov exactly defined the genre of comedy Love and Pigeons by V.
Menshov: a tantalizing folk fantasy: “The authors passionately want to please their
audience. ... The simplicity of Love and Pigeons is deceptive. Before us, of course,
a splint, but it is quite modern" [Shumakov, 1987, p. 115].
Screen 1988 was already really the product of perestroika. The first time the
authors of this Yearbook wrote their articles without regard to censorship and even
on the 70th anniversary of Soviet power.
L. Mamatova (1935-1996) gave the sharp critical intonation: "The
landscape of cinema changed in the late 1970s and early 1980s... For example,
about 360 movies on a contemporary topic was filmed in 1981-1985. And how
many of them are phenomena of true art? There may be disputes: 5, 15 or 20. …
The others films escaped from the conflicts, in other words - from the problems of
reality itself…" [Mamatova, 1988, p.20].
N. Zorkaya (1924-2006) presents the remarkable article dedicated to the
main film person of cinema-perestroyka - T. Abuldaze (1924-1994). She
considered his anti-totalitarian parable Repentance in the frame of philosophical
and poetic trilogy: "Film says convincingly historical and artistic truth - "evil,
which came to power is a dead end." And "social evil is so destructive, that is able
to destroy itself". This is the main idea of the film director. His creation, Screen
terrible and absurd time, illuminated by faith and love, it inspires, gives a clue of
hope" [Zorkaya, 1988, p.118].
K. Scherbakov wriote about another previously banned the film - Tests on
the Roads by A. German: "Bitter that the film lay on the shelf for many years.
Well, it turned out that the breath so long" [Shcherbakov, 1988, p. 90].
E. Gromov published a positive review of "shelving" drama Theme by G.
Panfilov: "This film is unusual for our cinema... The main questions of art are
questions not only aesthetic, but also ethical, ideological, universally valid...
Theme is bold, bright, deeply patriotic film. … Burned ice and fire of truth.
Probably, and now the film there will be opponents. But I am convinced, the
supporters will be immeasurably more” [Gromov, 1988, pp. 95-98].
G. Kapralov praised fantastic antiwar film Dead Man's Letters [Kapralov,
1988, p. 85]. A. Troshin praised the exquisite film Keep me, my talisman by R.
Balayan [Troshin, 1988, p.108]. A. Romanenko highly commended the film
Games for children of school age: "This film not only about the "difficult
children", but also about the difficult fate of teenagers because they need love,
affection and trust" [Romanenko, 1988, p.103].
S. Shumakov unexpectedly gave a sharply critical assessment of Wild
Pigeon by S. Solovyov [Shumakov, 1988, p.101].
It is interesting to note that Screen 1988 has two articles devoted to the
problems of film studies and film criticism.
S. Drobashenko began his article with the criticism of the situation in the
Soviet film studies: "Film Studies has come to us in the mid-eighties as a narrative
branch of knowledge. In fact there is a logic and historical reasons. Cinema science
for a long time has been busy formulating their own methodology, collecting facts.
Problem analysis (as more mature) stage is yet to come... After the war, it was, as
before, with rare exceptions, inert, passive descriptive. ... And ultimately, film
criticism lost a place in the public consciousness... The crisis began... because
Soviet film studies is not trying (and never seriously tried) to identify patterns of
vibrations level feature films in various stages of cinema, discover the causes of
periodically increasing the flow of gray cinema"[Drobashenko, 1988, pp. 143-
144].
Next S. Drobashenko went on to criticize the publishing activities in the
field of cinema: "In 1985 it was about 60 books on cinematography; for 1986 -
about the same. Fundamental research on the fundamental problems of history and
theory of cinema has not been published at all in recent times. ... Film studies
books, designed for professionals, as it turns out, is not profitable to publish: one
continuous losses..." [Drobashenko, 1988, p. 146]. It seems that a lot of this has
been true. But when S. Drobashenko passed to the examples, it is clear that his
criticism was form yesterday's propaganda: "Truly scientific, uncompromising
civic history of the Soviet cinema has not yet been written. ... Out of sight out of
researchers and something more important: … on-screen interpretation of
socialism as the leading, uniting the forces of society. And that's not film studies,
but a serious ideological blunder" [Drobashenko, 1988, p. 145].
M. Zak expressed his opinion about the movie and film studies process,
based on the more advanced position: "We must equally refers directly to the
creative process and to estimates of ready-made films"[Zak, 1988, p.31].
Screen 1989 was put into a set in the autumn of 1988, when perestroika
continued to gain momentum. And Yearbook published the analytical text about
A. Tarkovsky (1932-1986): "His film The Mirror could be called even shorter
word - Home… Home, family, holy trinity: mother, father, child are an echo of the
Andrei Rublev, Tarkovsky’s movie about the destruction, devastation of his native
land, the destruction of the house and its reunification in the frescoes. Man, losing
the house, leaving the house, cut off or break away from home, becomes a blade of
grass in the wind, it blows in the world's oceans, and the oceans too sensitive to
apostasy, to break away from the parental home, to the emptiness of the parental
nest. Recall the final of Solaris: the prodigal son on his knees before his father,
the citation of Rembrandt in the midst of the rebellious ethereal matter, which,
however, return it to pacify his son to his father, his remorse, his request for
forgiveness" [Zolotussky, 1989, p.78].
E. Stishova’s article was the key article in Screen 1989. She wrote: "The
audience began to ignore the social problem films: this fact which needed and
needs to be explained. Film critics, sociologists and cultural studies researchers
offer different concepts. Some complain of stiffness, the rationality of the director's
thinking, the deficit mentality. Others draw attention to global processes, and
seized us sinners. Yes, the polarization of the tastes and preferences, yes, the
prevalence of younger audiences and the related need for entertainment genres: all
these is true. But is the ability to light up a general social interest, general social
emotions lost forever? And the final burst of romanticism is gone, along with the
1960s? It turned out there, is not lost. Will see very soon" [Stishova, 1989, pp. 31-
32].
E. Stishova tried to summarize the cinema tendencies: "Criticism has not
answered the question, to whom and why it was necessary to uproot from the
cinema all that is connected with the drama of human life in general. Born slang
word "blackness". A new look at the last war is the blackness. The crisis of the
Russian Empire, gave birth to a revolutionary situation in Russia is blackness. The
difficulties of post-war life is blackness. Objective contradictions of modern social
development is blackness. Non conformist talent is blackness ... Cinematography
rescued two factors. Factor of the objective cinema development, which it is
impossible to curb... The second factor is the persistent artists, true to himself...
They are exist, luckily for us... We have to understand the differences and
paradoxes of cinematic development of 1970s-1980s. On the one hand, an
unprecedented drop the zero level. And world-class achievements on the other.
And all this in parallel, in a historical situation" [Stishova, 1989, pp. 33-34].
Thinking about the future of the national cinema, E. Stishova was convinced
that "cinema needed the injection of culture... But this is the problem more
difficult. ... What the viewer is necessary? It is the question of questions. Here it is
necessary to determine in the main, strategic point: whether to go for
cinematography audience, or try to lead him away. The second way is much more
difficult: in contrast to the first, a proven practice of the last decade, there is no
recipe. In addition, this way is long: it is designed for a certain level of culture of
perception" [Stishova, 1989, pp. 34-35].
V. Tolstykh supported the thoughts of E. Stishova: "The relationships
between film and spectator are dialectical. This means that the viewer, being the
customer cinema, at the same time is the object of art education. … The viewer do
not always selective and demanding in their tastes and expectations. … The
problem is probably exists in the nature of the relationships that are emerging and
established between the spectator and the cinema. In fact, usually a "magnetic
field", social and aesthetic, there is between the screen and the viewer" [Tolstykh,
1989, p.142].
Against the background of the current total domination of the entertainment

cinema further arguments of V. Tolstykh read already tinged with nostalgia for the
lost: "Personally, I'm not against entertainment. But when they become the main or
primary spiritual food of millions, the state agree that there is more than strange
and disturbing. … However, another point of view expressed, according to which
each of us is only "employee plus consumer" who is entitled to fun and relax after
a hard day. But this view of man has nothing in common with socialism, but very
satisfied with the bureaucrats. … The idea is unenviable: you did a good job, and I
will give you the opportunity to relax. And then cinema turns to filmmaking
satisfaction of the working masses’ current needs, and the main function of the
film is declared "restoration" of physical and nervous powers of man (more
precisely, the employee). … As soon as the market will begin to penetrate into the
sphere of culture, worsen the problem of humanization of our art and its
relationship to human beings and human needs" [Tolstykh, 1989, p.143].
The bulk of the Yearbook dedicated to national cinema, was re-assigned to
the movies on a contemporary topic. And polemical section again appeared on the
pages of the book: A. Gerber, M. Kuznetsova and S. Shumakov arguing about the
film Plumbum, or The Dangerous Game.
A. Gerber believes that "this film about the destructive power of the social
activity that it carries, is not supported by moral ideals, devoid of moral
guidelines" [Gerber, 1989, p.124].
But M. Kuznetsova was strongly disagrees with this view: "I am afraid that
the younger generation can perceive Plumbum as an example for others to follow"
[Kuznetsova, 1989, p.130].
S. Shumakov was even harsher in his assessment: "Cold outside perspective
in which no sympathy… And as a result the authors are also prisoners of their own
design. The main character sensitively shamelessly manipulates people. It's
immoral. But, proving to us that, the filmmakers have not noticed, as the hero
began to manipulate, have lost their moral guidelines" [Shumakov, 1989, p.131-
134].
A. Romanenko created generalization of interpretations of youth topis in the
cinema: "We need to recognize that the inner life of a young man remained closed
for decades, not because so complex and non-contact our children, but because art
dreaded look into their features, describe their habits, listen to sincere confession.
Because it would require new methods and analysis, and civil courage, and
readiness even to the fact that the film can be forbidden. The obstacles were too
strong for such films and books... Now the art has begun to catch up, but it does
sometimes frantically and quickly penetrates only the top layer of life. Because the
life requires new forms of art and communication, and new analysis tools,
equipment and philosophical and sociological thinking, and the gift of a publicist.
... Even a decade ago it has been widely distributed three points of view on the
current generation of young people. Some have argued that young people have a
great, heroic, almost completely burning enthusiasm. Others have focused on the
negative phenomena in the youth environment, even exaggerated their scale.

Others sneered: two thousand years ago, the world lamented the fall of morals of
young, and this is age-old story. But none was able to grasp the true essence of the
concerns of young people themselves, to feel the guilt and responsibility of the
older generation, to understand the role of the social atmosphere that prevailed in
the seventies and has influenced the spiritual warehouse for young attitude. Today
young people has become a key issue both in life and in art. We found a deep
connection between the issues of education and the need for further
democratization of society in general"[Romanenko, 1989, pp. 43-46].
The article by V. Shmyrov was a kind of illustration of this. Film critic
wrote about Courier by K. Shakhnazarov: "This film is natural doubly: is it
possible to talk about young people, without counting on the complicity of the
audience? In any case, the film does not reduce the level of conversation about real
spiritual values, which, in my opinion, to form his central problem" [Shmyrov,
1989, p.122].
The Yearbook published positive articles about films Lefty by S. Ovcharov
[Turin, 1989, p.102], Sign of Misfortune by M. Ptashuk (1943-2002) [Yurenev,
1989, p. 96] and the creative portrait of film director K. Muratova [Zorky, 1989, p.
157].
Screen 1990 (1990, put in a set in November 1989)
Screen 1990, alas, put the final point in the history of the Yearbook...
Freed from censorship conventions A. Erokhin wrote the brief review of the
history of the Soviet cinema. He noted that the concept of "mass culture" is
universal, not exclusively Western, as it was considered in the Soviet official film
studies. A "mass man" is practically almost the only type of hero of Soviet films,
especially in the 1930s-1940s-1950s. Bouncy hard worker, who enthusiastically
welcomes any communist ordinary appeal: to raise the virgin soil or to shoot the
enemies, to build a Railway or blame the intelligentsia. This character, which is
produced by the official Soviet culture for decades is the ideal of "mass man." In
approaching this ideal in reality, Soviet cinema achieved very great success. "Mass
Man" always willingly going into easily manageable crowd. ... The history of the
Soviet cinema must be rewritten" [Erokhin, 1990, pp. 8-10].
V. Shmyrov also wrote the article about the history of the Soviet cinema. He
insisted that it is necessary to revise the official textbooks on the history of the
Soviet cinema, who praised conjunctural movies (like Communist, Red Bells,
Trust or Lenin in Paris) in favor of the communist regime [Shmyrov, 1990, pp.15-
18].
Addressing by the recent history of the Soviet cinema, L. Elnikova wrote
that even in the most difficult years of stagnation Lenfilm produced such sharp
social films as Old Wall, Prohindiada, Guys, My Friend Ivan Lapshin, Twenty
Days Without War, Dead Man's Letters [Elnikova, 1990, p.28].
Screen 1990 discussion section was set aside for social drama Little Vera by
V. Pichul (1961-2015), one the main sensation 1980s.
V. Bozhovich was one of the many supporters of V. Pichul’s debut film:
“Little Vera it seems to me the work of the most mature and promising. It is
absolutely no stylistic frills, but achieved rare unity between the subject, manner of
narration, visual solutions ... performance of the actors, reaching full compliance
between the situation, gesture, intonation and a replica. Those who do not like the
film (and there are sure to be many), it will throw a reproach to naturalism. I do not
agree with such a reproach. ... The authors of Little Vera do not tend to write off
the human meanness on the household environment. Here the characters are not
opposed to the circumstances, do not suffer under their yoke, but there are with
them in some sluggish agreement. Too candid image of sexual entertainment of
young people angered many. And the other is not outraged? The whole picture of
life, the truth of which can hardly be any doubt, do not make trouble? ... You want
to see life as it is? Go and see Little Vera. If you want something "beautiful",
helped to keep spiritual comfort: no problems, there are a variety of other films, a
complete set of comforting and entertaining surrogates. But I prefer Little Vera
and I hope that it will open in our cinema a new direction: the direction of the
harsh and bitter realism. I think that is exactly what we need now in terms of public
awareness"[Bozovic, 1990, p.128].
Y. Bogomolov was a more restrained, but also positive: "It turned out that
not a cleft between the generations (as one might think, looking at the film
Courier), but the gulf. … Usually the conflict between "fathers" and "children"
embodies of the romantic style. Here, both generations are mired in stagnation and
semi-conscious in a completely mutual exasperation. ... However, the authors'
courage has its limits. It is evident that at some point they could not hold on, not to
smooth the acuteness of collisions. This is reflected in the fact that the "children"
slightly romanticized, i.e. appear more conscious living" [Bogomolov, 1990, p.
129].
But S. Shumakov watched Little Vera from a different perspective: "Alas,
here it is necessary to recognize that the "children" … appear more relaxed and
smarter because the adults look more stupid, primitive, and sometimes caricature"
[Shumakov, 1990, p.131].
Continuing the analysis of the films of the youth topic, M. Kuznetsova
emphasized that Assa by S. Soloviev "was a success, and not just among young
people. The director gave away all the sisters on earrings, each viewer will find in
the picture that corresponds to his preferences and to satisfy the demands of
cinematic spectacle. ... Collage, magic charms, prudently adjusted" [Kuznetsova,
1990, pp. 132-134].
V. Ivanova wrote about Temptation by V. Sorokin. She urged the readers
that this film "inherits the best traditions of our school movie: respect for the
youngest, the conversation is not on different levels, but on an equal footing,
because even the smallest creature scurrying you somewhere underfoot is
personality in the highest sense of this word. That is it, it can be and is already bad,
and already good, but they come to life in society, they have the amount of claims,
but there is also the sum of pledges. ... Yes, some say, it is necessary as soon as
possible to introduce children to the injection of adult life. I do not know. But let's
still be introduced gradually, with anesthesia. And in any case, with love, as in the
Temptation [Ivanova, 1990, p.152].
Extensive articles of L. Anninsky and S. Freilich focused on the difficult
fate of the masterpieces of "thaw" cinematography: The Story of Asya Klyachina
(Asya Happiness) by A. Konchalovsky and I Am Twenty by M. Khutsiev.
L. Anninsky wrote: "Konchalovsky’s films are not connected in a chain,
and it is aware of. He is not like those directors that, like Tarkovsky, Shukshin and
Khutsiev beating at one point whole life, deep into a topic... He's different, he does
not have one world, there is no single solution to it, and in every case the set "the
only solutions." He should look for a new solution for each film, it is necessary to
invent it again, it is necessary to reinvent the wheel. The main thing is not to be
repeated. He was not repeated. Never. Strictly highlighted asceticism of First
Teacher, crumble, elegiac Uncle Vanya, the playful splendor of nostalgic The
Noble Nest and crystallized epic Siberiade with several generations stretched under
the "night star"... The appearance of The Story of Asya Klyachina in this way is one
of the mysteries of art. It really is a miracle: a great film, created as if at the next
formal reception. Then double-double miracle and mystery. Firstly, this movie is
made completely "formless", "out of style", but this film, I am convinced, is
worthy to enter into the history of world cinema as a masterpiece, in which form
and content are one another. And, secondly, it is here, at the junction of receptions
a revelation born, making The Story of Asya Klyachina is not only the best work of
Konchalovsky, but one of the key points in the self-knowledge of a whole
generation, the whole era" [Anninsky, 1990, p.188].
S. Freilich argued that "the process of spiritual revival of the film I Am
Twenty by M. Khutsiev occupies a special place. The film was the fact that not
only art, but also the fact of social struggle. ... Three friends, young characters of
the film, freedom-loving, independent, ironic, straightforward, vulnerable, with a
great sense of dignity, they can not be lackeys, and they were potential opponents
in the eyes of the pillars of the bureaucratic regime" [Freilich, 1990, p.193].
A section of creative portraits of filmmakers was very strong in the Screen
1990. A. Zorky (1935-2006), in particular, wrote about the works of film director
A. Smirnov [Zorky, 1990, p.164], I. Shilova (1937-2011) admired the talent of the
great actor O. Borisov (1929-1994) [Shilova, 1990, p. 177], and L. Zakrzewskaya
appreciated actor V. Gostyukhin [Zakrzhevskaya, 1990, p. 182].
Results
It is interesting to note that Yearbook significantly changed the ratio of

materials about the Soviet and foreign films under the pressure of the political
situation (Table 2).
Table 2. Ratio of materials about the Soviet and foreign cinema in the
‘Screen’ Yearbooks
Yearbooks titles The volume of The volume of The volume of

materials on the materials about information materials
Soviet cinema (%) foreign cinema (%) (filmography, awards,
etc.) (%)
Screen 1964 68 27 5
Screen 1965 63 28 9
Screen 1966-1967 59 29 12
Screen 1967-1968 54 43 3
Screen 1968-1969 62 35 3
Screen 1969-1970 46 45 9
Screen 1970-1971 63 35 2
Screen 1971-1972 44 47 9
Screen 1973-1974 51 44 5
Screen 1974-1975 75 19 6
Screen 1975-1976 62 33 5
Screen 1976-1977 64 29 7
Screen 1977-1978 60 32 8
Screen 1978-1979 57 36 7
Screen 1979-1980 65 29 6
Screen 1980-1981 60 40 0
Screen 1981-1982 67 33 0
Screen 1982-1983 69 31 0
Screen 1983-1984 72 28 0
Screen 1987 59 33 8
Screen 1988 60 31 9
Screen 1989 62 32 6
Screen 1990 66 26 8
As can be seen from Table 2, the amount of material on the Soviet cinema in
the first five years an average of twice the number of pages on the amount of
articles about foreign cinema. However, the Resolutions of the Soviet Communist
Pary Central Committee "On increasing the responsibility of the heads of the press,
radio and television, film, culture and art institutions for the ideological and
political level of the published materials and repertoire" (07.01.1969), "On Literary
Criticism" (21.01.1972) and "On measures for further development of Soviet
cinema" (02.08.1972) played a leading role. In the Screen 1969-1970 and Screen
1971-1972 amount of material on the Soviet and foreign cinema almost on par,
and, starting with the Screen 1973-1974, the volume of articles on Soviet cinema
has always greatly exceeded the amount of foreign materials, reaching the highest
threshold in the Screen 1974-1975 (75% vs. 19%) and Screen 1983-1984 (72% vs.
28%).
The equality between the materials about the film industry of the socialist
and Western countries in the Screens in the light of communist Party Resolutions
this could be equated with the "propaganda of the bourgeois cinema", and the
compilers of yearbooks were apparently sensitive for it. Yearbook listened to the
directives of the Resolutions, where it was clearly stated the necessity to promote
the socialist movies with communist ideology and criticism from all western
movies [Resolution..., 1972].
So there is nothing surprising in the fact that, starting with the Screen 1973-
1974, and up to the time of perestroika: the articles on the cinema of the socialist
and developing countries, loyal to the Soviet Union was dominated in the materials
about foreign cinema.
Why informational materials (filmography, information about prizes at
festivals, etc.) disappeared on the threshold of the 1980s, and only appeared in the
Screen 1987? Here it is hard to assume any direct influence of censorship and
Resolutions: lists of the films in the Soviet box office were not secret (at the same
times, they always appear in the December issue of the Soviet Screen). Perhaps the
Screen wanted to save on annual volume of books?
The content of yearbooks were the materials that are already published
previously (in the Soviet Screen, Cinema Art, Soviet Culture, Film Festival
Satellite and others.), some texts written specifically for a particular collection.
Thus, the drafters thought, "screens" were supposed to provide readers not only the
annual panorama of cinema, but also the best, most relevant articles of the Soviet
film critics and film experts. 24 issues of Screen thematic collections were
published from 1965 to 1990. The volume of each of the Yearbook was from 175
to 388 pages. Each Yearbook published dozens of articles, artistic portraits and
interviews relating to both the Soviet and foreign cinema.
Standard Yearbooks’ structure was as follows:
- Section "Close-up" (on the achievements of the Soviet cinema of the
current period);
- "Controversy", "Discussion" (review of Soviet films, caused controversy,
controversial opinions);
- "Reflections and reviews" (theoretical articles that analyze trends, genres
and types of films);
- "Portraits" (creative portraits of Soviet filmmakers);
- "Creative Stand" (articles of Soviet masters of the screen - directors,
actors);
- "Before the film, after the film," "Club of interesting meetings" (interview
with the masters of Soviet cinema);
- "Anniversaries," "People, events, films," "Pages from the history of

cinema" (article to anniversaries screen masters and distinguished films, articles on
the history of cinema);
- "Dating", "Screens of the world", "Meeting", "In the picture, and behind
the scenes" (interview with foreign filmmakers and the articles about the foreign
movie, including topics about the films and guests of Moscow and other
international festivals).
- A reference section (filmographies, film awards, prizes).
From time to time Yearbook had different thematic headings (such as "Man
and War", "Debuts", "Shield and Music", "Classic" and others.).
The compilers of the first yearbooks were critics M. Dolinsky and S.
Chertok (1931-2006). S. Chertok was the only collector from 1970 to 1975. E.
Bauman and G. Dolmatovskaya were the collectors of Screen 1974-1975 and
Screen 1975-1976. Y. Turin (1938-2016) and G. Dolmatovskaya were the Screen
Yearbooks’ collectors since 1978 and up to the last issue.
The authors of Yearbooks, in most cases were well-known Soviet film
critics, many of which occupy leading positions in specialized editions of
magazines and newspapers, in the film institutes (Table 3).
Table 3. The main authors of the ‘Screen’ Yearbooks (1965-1990)
№ The names of film experts, film critics, The number of articles published by
the most frequently published article these film experts, film critics on the
on the subject of the Soviet feature subject of the Soviet feature films in
films in the Screen Yearbook the Screen Yearbook
1 Y. Turin * 17
2-3 M. Dolinsky & S. Chertok ** 15
4 E. Gromov 14
5 L. Zakrzhevskaya 12
6 E. Bauman 11
7 R. Yurenev 11
8 D. Pisarevsky 10
9 M. Zak 10
10 V. Baskakov 8
11 I. Levshina 8
12 T. Khloplyankina 8
13 I. Shilova 8
14 A. Zorky 8
15 L. Anninsky 7
16 V. Ivanova *** 7
17 G. Kapralov 6
18 M. Kuznetsova 6
19 A. Medvedev 6
20 N. Sumenov 6
21 J. Warsawsky 6
* Some Y. Turin’s articles were published under the pen name as Samarin.
* Some articles of M. Dolinsky & S. Chertok also printed under the pen names as M. Zinoviev
and S. Markov. Some their materials are available in the Screen collections without reference to
the authorship.
*** Some V. Ivanova’s articles also printed under the pen name as V. Esina.
1. Dr. Y. Turin (1938-2016), film critic, editor, novelist and screenwriter.

He graduated from the Institute of Cinematography (1962). He worked as an editor
at the publishing house Soviet Russia (1962-1974). Since 1974, he has become a
leading researcher at the Research Institute of Film Arts. He was the winner of the
Award of Union of Cinematographers (1981). Author of several books on the
subject of cinema.
2-3. M. Dolinsky (born in 1930) is journalist, film critic and editor. S.
Chertok (1931-2006) was journalist, film critic, editor. He was the head of
information section in Soviet Screen from 1964 to 1975, the researcher in Research
Institute of Theory and History of Cinema from 1976 to 1979. Author of several
books on the subject of cinema. Since 1979, he lived in Israel, where he
successfully continued his journalistic activities.
4. Prof. Dr. E. Gromov (1931-2005), film critic, screenwriter, film educator.
He graduated from the Moscow State University (1954). He was a member of the
Communist Party. He was the researcher at the Institute of Philosophy of the
Academy of Sciences, State Institute of Art Academy of Sciences, Research
Institute of Theory and History of Cinema. He wrote the scripts for several popular
scientific and documentary films. He was also professor in the Institute of
Cinematography (1967-1969, 1987-2005). Author of several books on the subject
of cinema.
5. Dr. L. Zakrzhevskaya (born in 1940), film critic and screenwriter. She
graduated from the the Institute of Cinematography. Author of many articles on the
subject of cinema.
6. E. Bauman (born in 1932), film critic, editor. She graduated from
Institute of Theater Art (1955). She was the head of Department of Soviet cinema
in the magazine Soviet Screen for many years.
7. Prof. Dr. R. Yurenev (1912-2002), film critic, screenwriter, film
educator. He graduated from the Institute of Cinematography (1936). He was the
winner of the Award of Union of Cinematographers. He taught the Institute of
Cinematography (1939-2002). He also worked in the magazine Cinema Art (1946-
1948), in the Institute of Art History of the Academy of Sciences (1948-1974),
Research Institute of Theory and History of Cinema (1974-2002). He was the
author of many works on the history, genre and ideological problems of
cinematography. He wrote the scripts of the several documentaries. He was one of
the most influential representatives of the official Soviet film critics, receiving
accreditation to the major international film festivals.
8. Dr. D. Pisarevsky (1912-1990), film critic, screenwriter and editor. He

graduated from the Academy of Communist education (1934). He was a member
of the Communist Party. He was Chief Editor of Soviet Screen (1961-1975), the
author of several books and many articles on the topic of cinema. He was one of
the most influential representatives of the official Soviet film critics in 1960s –
1970s.
9. Dr. M. Zak (1929-2011), film critic, film researcher. He graduated from
the Institute of Cinematography (1952). He was a member of the Communist
Party. Since 1974 he worked at the Research Institute of Theory and History of
Cinema, has gone from a research assistant to the Deputy Director. He was the
winner of the prize Nika for achievements in the field of film studies (2004), the
author of many books and articles on the theory and history of cinema.
10. Prof. Dr. V. Baskakov (1921-1999), film critic. He was a member of the
Communist Party. He held the post of first deputy chairman of the State
Committee for Cinematography of the USSR (1963-1973), and director of the
Research Institute for History and Theory of Cinema / Motion Picture Arts
Research Institute (1973-1987). Author of many books and articles, mainly
devoted to foreign films and ideological struggle on the screen. He was one of the
most influential representatives of the official Soviet film critics, receiving
11. Dr. I. Levshina (1932-2009), film critic, film educator. She graduated
from the Moscow State University (1954). Author of books dedicated to the works
of leading Russian actors, and problems of film education in schools.
12. T. Khloplyankina (1937-1993), film critic, screenwriter and editor. She
graduated from the Institute of Cinematography (1959). She worked in the Culture
newspaper, Literary Gazette. She was also the deputy editor in Soviet Screen
(1990-1992). She was the author of many articles about cinema.
13. Dr. I. Shilova (1937-2011), film critic, film educator. She graduated
from the Institute of Cinematography (1962). She worked in Research Institute for
History and Theory of Cinema and Institute of Cinematography. She was the
author of many books and articles about cinema.
14. A. Zorky (1935-2006), film critic and journalist. He graduated from the
Institute of Cinematography. For several decades he worked in the Literary
Gazette, Soviet Screen, and Cinema Art. He was the author of many articles about
cinema.
15. L. Anninsky (born in 1934), film critic, literary critic, editor. He
graduated from the Philological Faculty of Moscow State University (1956).
Laureate the prizes of Cinematographers' Union (1980), Literary Russia (1984,
1999), October (1983), Literary Review (1988, 1989), Zvezda (1995), Archer
(1996; 1998), television TEFI (1996). He worked in the magazine Soviet Union
(1956-1957), in the Literary Gazette (1957-1960), in the journal Znamya (1960-
1967), at the Institute of Concrete Sociological Research (1968-1972), in magazine
Friendship of peoples (1972-1991), Literary Review (1990-1992), Homeland

(1992) He is the author of many books and articles on cinema.
16. V. Ivanova (1937-2008), film critic, journalist and editor. He worked in
Moskovsky Komsomolets and Soviet Culture. She was a member of Communist
Party. She was the author of many articles on cinema.
17. Dr. G. Kapralov (1921-2010), film critic, journalist, writer. He was a
member of Communist Party. He held the prestigious post of deputy head of
Department of Literature and Art in the main Soviet newspaper Pravda. As the
correspondent of Pravda he visited regularly at major international film festivals.
He headed the Moscow section of the critics of the Union of Cinematographers of
the USSR (1962-1986). He held also the post of vice-president International
Federation of Film Critics (FIPRESCI) (1967-1986). He was the anchorman of a
popular Soviet TV program Cinema Panorama (1976-1979). He was the author of
several books and many articles on the topic of cinema.
He was one of the most influential representatives of the official Soviet film
critics in 1960s – 1980s.
18. M. Kuznetsova, a film critic, journalist, author of several articles on the
cinema.
19. Dr. A. Medvedev (born in 1938), film critic, editor, film educator. He
graduated from the Institute of Cinematography (1960). Honored Artist of Russia,
twice winner of the Nika Award. He was a member of Communist Party. He
worked in the Bureau of Propaganda of Soviet cinema as a guidance counselor,
head of lecture department, and since 1964 - the director. He was editor of Soviet
Film (1966-1972). Since 1972 he worked as the deputy editor, and (from 1982 to
1984) as editor in chief of the magazine Cinema Art. He was the first deputy
(1987-1989) and chairman (1989-1991) of the State Committee for
Cinematography of the USSR. The top of the career was position of the chairman
of the State Committee for Cinematography of the Russian Federation (1992-
1999). Since 1999 he is President of the International Fund for Film and Television
Development for Children and Youth (Rolan Bykov Foundation). He is the author
of several books and many articles about cinema.
20. Dr. N. Sumenov (1938-2014), film critic, editor, film educator. He
graduated from the Institute of Cinematography. He was a member of Communist
Party, the chief editor of experimental creative association in Mosfilm. He was also
editor maneger in Cinema Art and advisor of the Minister of Culture of the Russian
Federation and member of the State Council, and professor in taught in Institute of
Cinematography. He was the author of many works on the subject of cinema.
21. J. Warsawsky (1911-2000), film critic, screenwriter and editor. He
graduated from Institute of Theater Art (1935). He was a member of Communist
Party. He worked as a deputy editor of Cinema Art. He was the author of many
books and articles on cinema topic.
Conclusios
So, Screen Yearbooks more than a quarter century became a sort of mirror
of the Soviet criticism of the 1960s - 1980s, reflecting its ups and downs, forced to
default figures, ideological passages, thaw and perestroika hopes...
Russian film criticism changed significantly now, but compared to thaw and
perestroika times not always in the best possible way. For example, glamorous and
glossy, often superficial film critics dominate in the press and Internet…
Many of the authors of the Screen Yearbooks for a long time are no longer
alive... Some of the critics have gone into other professions... But life goes on, and
the Russian film criticism, in my opinion, still be able to delight true fans of the
film art deep level of analysis...
References
Afanasyev, A. (1986). Is still much room... Screen 1983-1984. Moscow: Art, pp. 91-93.
Alexeev, M. (1976). Alexander Dovzhenko. Screen 1974-1975. Moscow: Art, pp. 138-140.
Alexeev, M. (1978). Army of the people and the movie screen. Screen 1976-1977. Moscow: Art,
pp. 44-54.
Alexeev, M. (1983). Miraculous power (Sholokhov and movie) // Screen 1980-1981. Moscow:
Art, pp. 22-27.
Alexeeva, N. (1985). Is not so little - to be a mother... (Lyudmila Zaitseva). Screen 1982-1983.
Moscow: Art, pp.118-124.
Andreev, B. (1987). The road to the title role (Marina Levtova). Screen 1987. Moscow: Art, pp.
135-140.
Anninsky, L. (1965). Exactly what people need. Screen 1964. Moscow: Art, pp. 121-125.
Anninsky, L. (1967). It's not the point, daddy! Screen 1966-1967. Moscow: Art, pp. 98-104.
Anninsky, L. (1968). Eulogy for Vikniksor, connoisseur of Latin. Screen 1967-1968. Moscow:
Art, pp. 53-55.
Anninsky, L. (1968). Thoughts after the film. Screen 1967-1968. Moscow: Art, pp. 27-34.
Anninsky, L. (1969). A Unconventional triangle. Screen 1968-1969. Moscow: Art, pp. 80-81.
Anninsky, L. (1986). Yasnaya Polyana. Astapovo. Eternity. Screen 1983-1984. Moscow: Art,
pp. 82-87.
Anninsky, L. (1990). Asya’s misfortune. Screen 1990. Moscow: Art, pp. 188-192.
Babochkina, N. (1983). In the beginning was the word. Screen 1980-1981. Moscow: Art, pp. 77-
80.
Baskakov, V. (1968). Good work. Screen 1967-1968. Moscow: Art, 1968, pp. 72-75.
Baskakov, V. (1976). They Fought for Their Country. Screen 1974-1975. Moscow: Art, pp. 24-
28.
Baskakov, V. (1982). Life Devoted to humanity. Screen 1979-1980. Moscow: Art, pp. 84-88.
Baskakov, V. (1983). Viability of creativity (the Word of S. Gerasimov). Screen 1980-1981.
Moscow: Art, pp. 118-120.
Baskakov, V. (1984). Multinational Soviet cinema in motion the development. Screen 1981-
1982. Moscow: Art, pp. 5-12.
Baskakov, V. (1987). Continuity of generations (Notes on young filmmakers). Screen 1976-
1977. Moscow: Art, pp. 29-35.
Baskakov, V. (1987). Pages of History. Screen 1987. Moscow: Art, pp. 86-90.
Baskakov, V. (1990). Yevgeny Zamyatin and cinema screen. Screen 1990. Moscow: Art, pp.
287-290.
Bauman, E. (1967). Bureaucrat, an innovator and a pair of lovers in addition. Screen 1966-1967.
Bauman, E. (1976). Flight Formula. Screen 1974-1975. Moscow: Art, pp. 124-129.
Bauman, E. (1977). Sons of his time. Screen 1975-1976. Moscow: Art, pp. 76-80.
Bauman, E. (1978). Freestyle wind romance. Screen 1976-1977. Moscow: Art, pp. 104-107.
Bauman, E. (1979). What is the happiness of the human. Screen 1977-1978. Moscow: Art, pp.
101-103.
Bauman, E. (1981). Fidelity great writer. Screen 1978-1979. Moscow: Art, pp. 149-151.
Bauman, E. (1986). Time and people (Kiev-84). Screen 1983-1984. Moscow: Art, pp. 139-144.
Bauman, E. (1984). Know where light. Screen 1981-1982. Moscow: Art, pp. 65-67.
Bauman, E. (1987). Link of Times (Minsk-85). Screen 1987. Moscow: Art, pp. 146-151.
Bauman, E. (1988). Tight Knot. Screen 1988. Moscow: Art, pp. 104-106.
Bauman, E. (1990). Passion Office. Screen 1990. Moscow: Art, pp. 138-143.
Beilin, A. (1970). Actor-69. Screen 1969-1970. Moscow: Art, pp. 76-81.
Belova, L. (1976). Mothers and Daughters. Unexpected Hero. Screen 1974-1975. Moscow: Art,
pp. 89-92.
Belova, L. (1981). At all times. Screen 1978-1979. Moscow: Art, pp. 87-89.
Bleyman, M. (1966). Start. Screen 1965. Moscow: Art, pp. 143-144.
Bleyman, M. (1967). Reflections on stamps. Screen 1966-1967. Moscow: Art, pp. 166-170.
Bleyman, M. (1968). Rules. Screen 1967-1968. Moscow: Art, pp. 80-82.
Bleyman, M. (1969). Adaptation. Again ?! Screen 1968-1969. Moscow: Art, pp. 145-147.
Bleyman, M. (1970). Archaists or innovators? Cinema Art, N 7.
Bocharov, A. (1975). Intransigence and impulse. Screen 1973-1974. Moscow: Art, pp. 15-18.
Bogomolov, Y. (1990). ‘Little Vera’. Screen 1990. Moscow: Art, pp. 129-130.
Borodin, A. (1972). The Seagull by Alla Demidova. Screen 1971-1972. Moscow: Art, pp. 45-46.
Borodin, A. (1975). Genocide, the thirteenth century. Screen 1973-1974. Moscow: Art, pp. 41-
43.
Bozhovich, V. (1990). ‘Little Vera’ Screen 1990. Moscow: Art, p.128.
Cherepanov, Y. (1981). The man lives. Screen 1978-1979. Moscow: Art, pp. 72-75.
Cherepanov, Y. (1984). On the rod of life. Screen 1981-1982. Moscow: Art, pp. 58-61.
Chernyaev, P. (1985). Freaks and their faithful wives. Screen 1982-1983. Moscow: Art, pp. 40-
42.
Chertok, S. (1971). Minsk: results and suggestions. Screen 1970-1971. Moscow: Art, pp. 123-
128.
Chertok, S. (1972). Nicholas Olyalin. Screen 1971-1972. Moscow: Art, pp. 60-62.
Chertok, S. (1975). Bolot Shamshiev and his films. Screen 1973-1974. Moscow: Art, pp. 80-82.
Demin, V. (1973). Lessons instantaneously. Soviet Screen. 1973, № 24, pp. 4-5.
Demin, V. (1975). The laughter genre. Screen 1973-1974. Moscow: Art, pp. 48-51.
Demin, V. (1988). Work hard, tormented and do not worry! Screen 1988. Moscow: Art, pp. 119-
124.
Dolinsky, M., Chertok, S. (1965). Babkauskas, which we do not know. Screen 1964. Moscow:
Art, pp. 114-121.
Dolinsky, M., Chertok, S. (1967). Two films based on Pushkin. Screen 1966-1967. Moscow:
Art, pp. 207-213.
Dolinsky, M., Chertok, S. (1968). Metamorphoses. Screen 1967-1968. Moscow: Art, pp. 41-45.
Dolinsky, M., Chertok. S. (1969). Laughter and sadness. Screen 1968-1969. Moscow: Art, pp.
107-109.
Dolmatovskaya, G. (1984). Twenty-four hours in the life of a woman. Screen 1981-1982.

Drach, I. (1966). Opening. Screen 1965. Moscow: Art, pp. 29-32.
Drach, I. (1969). When an artist is generous. Screen 1968-1969. Moscow: Art, pp. 88-90.
Drobashenko, S. (1981). Impressive panorama. Screen 1978-1979. Moscow: Art, pp. 11-17.
Drobashenko, S. (1988). Notes on the contemporary film studies. Screen 1988. Moscow: Art, pp.
143-148.
Dubrovina, I. (1967). And that Pechorin? Screen 1966-1967. Moscow: Art, pp. 202-203.
Egorov, A. (1976). The Hottest Month. About difficult simpletons. Screen 1974-1975. Moscow:
Art, pp. 83-87.
Elnikova, L. (1990). Creed. Screen 1990. Moscow: Art, pp. 28-37.
Ermash, N. (1976). Marina Neelova. Screen 1974-1975. Moscow: Art, pp. 159-161.
Erokhin, A. (1986). What is complicity?. Screen 1983-1984. Moscow: Art, pp. 102-103.
Erokhin, A. (1988). Non cinema war. Screen 1988. Moscow: Art, pp. 93-95.
Esina, V. (1986). Westernization of the history... Screen 1983-1984. Moscow: Art, pp. 38-42.
Fedorov, A. (2011). Structural analysis of a media text: stereotypes of the Soviet cinematic
image of the war and the film of V. Vinogradov "Eastern Corridor" (1966). Questions of
Cultural Studies, № 6, pp. 110-116.
Fedorov, A. (2016). Western cinema in the mirror of the Soviet critics (for example, thematic
collections of "Myths and Reality": 1966-1989). Media Education, N 3.
Fomin, V. (1971). Afterword to victory. Screen 1970-1971. Moscow: Art, pp. 27-31.
Fomin, V. (1972). High and earth. Screen 1971-1972. Moscow: Art, pp. 96-99.
Fomin, V. (1975). Home and Away. Screen 1973-1974. Moscow: Art, pp. 28-31.
Fomin, V. (1977). Pink veil of melodrama. Screen 1975-1976. Moscow: Art, pp. 81-84.
Fomin, V. (1989). Undefeated. Screen 1989. Moscow: Art, pp. 97-101.
Freilich, S. (1968). Hero of Our Time. Screen 1967-1968. Moscow: Art, pp. 14-18.
Freilich, S. (1969). One day of revolution. Screen 1968-1969. Moscow: Art, pp. 60-63.
Freilich, S. (1982). Thinking about the film. Screen 1979-1980. Moscow: Art, pp. 92-95.
Freilich, S. (1986). Talent it is work. Screen 1983-1984. Moscow: Art, pp. 134-138.
Freilich, S. (1990). Anticipation of change. Screen 1990. Moscow: Art, pp. 192-194.
Galanov, B. (1969). Missing laughter. Screen 1968-1969. Moscow: Art, pp. 104-106.
Gerber, A. (1975). Boy after the war. Screen 1973-1974. Moscow: Art, pp. 39-40.
Gerber, A. (1986). Once in a thousand years. Screen 1983-1984. Moscow: Art, pp. 97-99.
Gerber, A. (1987). Inna Churikova. Screen 1976-1977. Moscow: Art, pp. 160-164.
Gerber, A. (1989). The boy, who are you? Screen 1989. Moscow: Art, pp. 124-129.
Gershenson, O. (2011). Unknown Vinogradov. Cinema Art. № 7, pp. 136-144.
Gorelov, D. (2001). The first row, 1961: Amphibian Man.
http://www.ozon.ru/context/detail/id/200781/
Goryunova, N. (1985). Life Lessons. Screen 1982-1983. Moscow: Art, pp. 96-98.
Gromov, E. (1969). Paphos of profession. Screen 1968-1969. Moscow: Art, pp. 94-95.
Gromov, E. (1972). Opening personality. Screen 1971-1972. Moscow: Art, pp. 86-91.
Gromov, E. (1976). Romance for Lovers. And you will call trumpeter. Screen 1974-1975.
Gromov, E. (1977). Masters of their own fate. Screen 1975-1976. Moscow: Art, pp. 85-87.
Gromov, E. (1978). Our contemporary Ferdowsi. Screen 1976-1977. Moscow: Art, pp. 108-111.
Gromov, E. (1981). Plain woman, or feelings of fullness. Screen 1978-1979. Moscow: Art, pp.
89-92.
Gromov, E. (1981). School film valtz. Screen 1978-1979. Moscow: Art, pp. 31-38.
Gromov, E. (1982). Dream of meeting. Screen 1979-1980. Moscow: Art, pp. 54-57.
Gromov, E. (1983). Vine Vaio Valley. Screen 1980-1981. Moscow: Art, pp. 72-75.
Gromov, E. (1984). Thought Wings. Screen 1981-1982. Moscow: Art, pp.54-58.

Gromov, E. (1985). Station hopes. Screen 1982-1983. Moscow: Art, pp. 81-85.
Gromov, E. (1986). Burden wishes. Screen 1983-1984. Moscow: Art, pp. 88-90.
Gromov, E. (1987). Khatyn Nabat. Screen 1987. Moscow: Art, pp. 91-95.
Gromov, E. (1988). Ice and Fire truths. Screen 1988. Moscow: Art, pp. 95-98.
Ignatieva, N. (1966). Humor, poetry, wisdom. Screen 1965. Moscow: Art, pp. 52-55.
Ignatieva, N. (1967). Conversation Continued. Screen 1966-1967. Moscow: Art, pp. 28-30.
Ignatieva, N. (1983). Next the soul. Screen 1980-1981. Moscow: Art, pp. 81-82.
Ilyina, N. (1969). I believe ... Screen 1968-1969. Moscow: Art, pp. 101-104.
Inovertseva, A. (1966). The last day of vacation. Screen 1965. Moscow: Art, pp. 34-37.
Ivanova T. (1965). Cameo. Screen 1964. Moscow: Art, pp. 125-130.
Ivanova, T. (1969). "It is hard" - "harder" - "quite difficult ... Soviet Screen. 1969, № 24.
Ivanova, T. (1970). "It is hard" - "harder" - "quite difficult"... Screen 1969-1970. Moscow: Art,
pp. 90-95.
Ivanova, T. (1976). Boris Andreev. Screen 1974-1975. Moscow: Art, pp. 148-153.
Ivanova, T. (1976). On Friendship front. Screen 1974-1975. Moscow: Art, pp. 48-51.
Ivanova, T. (1977). Enchanted Hundred Days. Screen 1975-1976. Moscow: Art, pp. 92-96.
Ivanova, V. (1967). Alexey Tolstoy and movie. Screen 1966-1967. Moscow: Art, pp. 199-201.
Ivanova, V. (1967). Lubov Rumyantseva. Screen 1966-1967. Moscow: Art, pp. 79-80.
Ivanova, V. (1968). Mother's Heart. Screen 1967-1968. Moscow: Art, pp. 21-23.
Ivanova, V. (1977). Yevgeny Leonov. Screen 1975-1976. Moscow: Art, pp. 149-153.
Ivanova, V. (1978). Evgenia Simonova. Screen 1976-1977. Moscow: Art, pp. 128-129.
Ivanova, V. (1990). Madonna of the gate. Screen 1990. Moscow: Art, pp. 149-152.
Janulaitis, K. (1987). Pages of heroic chronicle. Screen 1987. Moscow: Art, pp. 99-101.
Kamshalov A. (1977). Ruler of thoughts. Screen1975-1976. Moscow: Art, pp. 23-35.
Kapralov, G. (1966). Films and symbols. Screen 1965. Moscow: Art, pp. 82-84.
Kapralov, G. (1967). Through the poet's heart. Screen 1966-1967. Moscow: Art, pp. 16-20.
Kapralov, G. (1976). Birch of Yegor Prokudin. Screen 1974-1975. Moscow: Art, pp. 74-76.
Kapralov, G. (1977). It all started with prize. Screen 1975-1976. Moscow: Art, pp. 66-69.
Kapralov, G. (1981). Prometheus XX century. Screen 1978-1979. Moscow: Art, pp. 188-190.
Kapralov, G. (1988). "After", which should not be. Screen 1988. Moscow: Art, pp. 84-86.
Karaganov, A. (1971). Guilties’ Drama. Screen 1970-1971. Moscow: Art, pp. 57-62.
Karaganov, A. (1972). Responsibility of the criticism. Screen 1971-1972. Moscow: Art, pp. 92-
96.
Karaganov, A. (1976). The Great Patriotic War in the images of Soviet cinema. Screen 1974-
1975. Moscow: Art, pp. 8-16.
Kardin, V. (1965). Both better. Screen 1964. Moscow: Art, pp. 66-73.
Kardin, V. (1966). Is parallel lines converge? Screen 1965. Moscow: Art, pp. 88-91.
Kazakova, R. (1970). Everything should be humanly. Screen 1969-1970. Moscow: Art, pp. 44-
46.
Kazarinov, V. (1976). The rank is soldier of the Fatherland. Screen 1974-1975. Moscow: Art, pp.
46-48.
Khanyutin, Y. (1969). Uunfulfilled. Screen 1968-1969. Moscow: Art, pp. 112-115.
Khanyutin, Y. (1971). On the verge of genres. Notes about the films of young. Screen 1970-
1971. Moscow: Art, pp. 116-122.
Khanyutin, Y. (1979). Nikita Mikhalkov. Screen 1977-1978. Moscow: Art, pp. 131-136.
Khloplyankina, T. (1965). Versus. Screen 1964. Moscow: Art, pp. 110-114.
Khloplyankina, T. (1966). Whether the ice is broken? Screen 1965. Moscow: Art, pp. 100-107.
Khloplyankina, T. (1969). At the far, the civil. Screen 1968-1969. Moscow: Art, pp. 70-74.
Khloplyankina, T. (1972). "With me that's what happens..." Screen 1971-1972. Moscow: Art, pp.
75-77.
Khloplyankina, T. (1975). Return. Screen 1973-1974. Moscow: Art, pp. 64-66.
Khloplyankina, T. (1975). Two Shurka and Tatiana. Screen 1973-1974. Moscow: Art, pp. 94-96.
Khloplyankina, T. (1976). Two travel to youth. Screen 1974-1975. Moscow: Art, pp. 120-123.
Khloplyankina, T. (1977). Hello, Dersu! Screen 1975-1976. Moscow: Art, pp. 170-173.
Kholodov, E. (1966). Neither the letter nor the fact. Screen 1965. Moscow: Art, pp. 96-97.
Klado, N. (1967). So what's the deal, the critic? Screen 1966-1967. Moscow: Art, pp. 98-104.
Kolesnikova, N. (1966). "Do not run after the first line..." Screen 1965. Moscow: Art, pp. 144-
145.
Kolesnikova, N. (1967). Sophiko Chiaureli. Screen 1966-1967. Moscow: Art, pp. 82-83.
Komarov, S. (1974). Cinematography Czechoslovak Socialist Republic (1945-1970). Moscow:
Institute of Cinematography, p. 62.
Korobkov, L. (1977). Nature and circumstances. Screen 1975-1976. Moscow: Art, pp. 48-58.
Korobov, V. (1981). "... About the fate of the time". Screen 1978-1979. Moscow: Art, pp. 139-
145.
Kozhevnikova, N. Learning itself. Screen 1990. Moscow: Art, pp. 135-138.
Kozhukhova, G. (1972). Ilf and Petrov and others. Screen 1971-1972. Moscow: Art, pp. 72-74.
Kremlev, G. (1966). Born comic film. Screen 1965. Moscow: Art, pp. 108-110.
Krivitsky, K. (1979). Contemporary (M. Ulyanov - 50). Screen 1977-1978. Moscow: Art, pp.
147-153.
Kudin, V. Thinking about the national heroism. Screen 1974-1975. Moscow: Art, pp. 38-42.
Kukarkina, T. (1978). Success Logic. Screen 1976-1977. Moscow: Art, pp. 118-121.
Kurbatov, V. (1989). Remembrance and Hope. Screen 1989. Moscow: Art, pp. 178-180.
Kuznetsov, F. (1983). The courage and the strength of the Soviet people. Screen 1980-1981.
Kuznetsov, M. (1965). Debut that promises much... Screen 1964. Moscow: Art, pp. 136-142.
Kuznetsov, M. (1965). Victory and defeat of Yegor Trubnikov. Screen 1964. Moscow: Art, pp.
39-44.
Kuznetsov, M. (1978). On the human passions. Screen 1976-1977. Moscow: Art, pp. 100-104.
Kuznetsov, M. (1981). When there is a real hero. Screen 1978-1979. Moscow: Art, pp. 99-102.
Kuznetsova M. (1984). Vasily and Vasilisa. Screen 1981-1982. Moscow: Art, pp. 67-69.
Kuznetsova, M. (1983). Dostoevsky: the image. Screen 1980-1981. Moscow: Art, pp. 87-89.
Kuznetsova, M. (1985). Anxiety. Screen 1982-1983. Moscow: Art, pp. 90-93.
Kuznetsova, M. (1988). For whom is the land? Screen 1988. Moscow: Art, pp. 42-46.
Kuznetsova, M. (1989). "Boy, you are who?" Screen 1989. Moscow: Art, pp. 129-131.
Kuznetsova, M. (1990). Living Souls and low season. Screen 1990. Moscow: Art, pp. 132-134.
Kvasnetskaya, M. (1965). Match. Screen 1964. Moscow: Art, pp. 61-65.
Kvasnetskaya, M. (1969). Not fashion talent. Screen 1968-1969. Moscow: Art, pp. 91-93.
Lagina, N. (1979). Alexei Petrenko. Screen 1977-1978. Moscow: Art, pp. 121-126.
Levitin, M. (1986). Wait new meetings (Natalia Vavilova). Screen 1983-1984. Moscow: Art, pp.
122-126.
Levitin, M. (1990). Way up or search for the perpetrators. Screen 1990. Moscow: Art, pp. 38-44.
Levshina, I. (1965). Lessons of Match. Screen 1964. Moscow: Art, pp. 60-65.
Levshina, I. (1965). Transformations of Donia Trubnikova. Screen 1964. Moscow: Art, pp. 116-
121.
Levshina, I. (1966). An invention. Screen 1965. Moscow: Art, pp. 85-87.
Levshina, I. (1967). With author wave. Screen 1966-1967. Moscow: Art, pp. 105-11.
Levshina, I. (1968). Actor on the screen. Screen 1967-1968. Moscow: Art, pp. 76-79.
Levshina, I. (1969). Directing or anti-directing? Screen 1968-1969. Moscow: Art, pp. 148-149.
Levshina, I. (1972). Two awards. Screen 1971-1972. Moscow: Art, pp. 36-38.
Levshina, I. (1975). Life of Huckleberry Finn almost without incident. Screen 1973-1974.
Lipkov, A. (1970). Generosity. Screen 1969-1970. Moscow: Art, pp. 46-49.
Lipkov, A. (1971). A final judgment. Screen 1970-1971. Moscow: Art, pp. 62-69.
Lipkov, A. (1972). Chekhov Cinema. Screen 1971-1972. Moscow: Art, pp. 37-44.
Lipkov, A. (1975). Heifits Chronicle. Screen 1973-1974. Moscow: Art, pp. 24-26.
Lishchinsky, I. (1966). The effect of participation. Screen 1965. Moscow: Art, pp. 78-80.
Lishchinsky, I. (1967). The Price of the "modern". Screen 1966-1967. Moscow: Art, pp.170-172.
Lishchinsky, I. (1968). A Stage. Screen 1967-1968. Moscow: Art, pp. 62-63.
Listov, V. (1989). "But there is the fate of the poet...". Screen 1989. Moscow: Art, pp. 114-118.
Lordkipanidze, N. (1966). Other Eyes. Screen 1965. Moscow: Art, pp. 133-137.
Lordkipanidze, N. (1967). Most Dangerous. Screen 1966-1967. Moscow: Art, pp. 178-181.
Lordkipanidze, N. (1968). Opening and repetition. Screen 1967-1968. Moscow: Art, pp. 59-61.
Lordkipanidze, N. (1969). Who are you? Screen 1968-1969. Moscow: Art, pp. 85-87.
Lordkipanidze, N. (1975). And general and own. Screen 1973-1974. Moscow: Art, pp. 44-47.
Macheret, A. (1969). The last movie of Iva Pyrev. Screen 1968-1969. Moscow: Art, pp. 150-
153.
Makarov, A. (1989). Andrei from the 170th. Screen 1989. Moscow: Art, pp. 180-185.
Mamatova, L. (1987). Incredibly obvious. Screen 1987. Moscow: Art, pp. 103-106.
Mamatova, L. (1988). On the eve of renovation. Screen 1988. Moscow: Art, pp. 20-30.
Marchenko, V. (1979). On the brethren and faithfulness. Screen 1977-1978. Moscow: Art, pp.
98-101.
Markov, S. (1971). Legend and profit. Screen 1970-1971. Moscow: Art, pp. 36-38.
Markova, F. (1970). Love, death, life ... Screen 1969-1970. Moscow: Art, pp. 61-64.
Markova, F. (1971). Just War. Screen 1970-1971. Moscow: Art, pp. 40-43.
Markulan, J. (1969). Meet Ilya Averbash. Screen 1968-1969. Moscow: Art, pp. 82-84.
Materials of the Plenum of the Soviet Communist Party Central Committee (1983). Moscow, p.
7.
Matsaytis, S. (1983). Paradoxes expression (J. Budraitis). Screen 1980-1981. Moscow: Art, pp.
110-115.
Medvedev, A. (1970). Valentina Telichkina. Screen 1969-1970. Moscow: Art, pp. 64-66.
Medvedev, A. (1972). Will be continued. Screen 1971-1972. Moscow: Art, pp. 63-65.
Medvedev, A. (1975). Fifty-first Year. Screen 1973-1974. Moscow: Art, pp. 86-88.
Medvedev, A. (1979). Feat of the people, the fate of folk. Screen 1977-1978. Moscow: Art, pp.
39-46.
Medvedev, A. (1981). Long Way to itself. Screen 1978-1979. Moscow: Art, pp. 95-97.
Medvedev, A. (1982). Look back in sorrow. Screen 1979-1980. Moscow: Art, pp. 88-91.
Medvedev, B. (1966). Not the letter, but the essence... Screen 1965. Moscow: Art, pp. 92-95.
Medvedeva, G. (1965). Violation of traditions. Screen 1964. Moscow: Art, pp. 136-139.
Medvedeva, G. (1967). Knight without fear, but with the reproach. Screen 1966-1967. Moscow:
Art, pp. 25-27.
Melville, L. (1982). Eternal Law promised land. Screen 1979-1980. Moscow: Art, pp. 110-114.
Mikhalkovich, V. (1976). Man and his work. Screen 1974-1975. Moscow: Art, pp. 116-120.
Mikhalkovich, V. (1987). His voice (Leonid Kalashnikov). Screen 1987. Moscow: Art, pp. 140-
144.
Monakhova, E. (1977). Vadim Yusov. Screen 1975-1976. Moscow: Art, pp. 157-159.
Murzina, M. (1990). "Golden Duke" Everything was good, except ... Screen 1990. Moscow: Art,
pp. 219-228.
Nedelin, V. (1981). The plot of the short story. Screen 1978-1979. Moscow: Art, pp. 97-99.
Nesteva, M. (1965). Composer as the author of the movie. Screen 1964. Moscow: Art, pp. 162-
164.
Nesteva, M. (1966). Feeling genre. Screen 1965. Moscow: Art, pp. 37-38.
Novogrudsky, A. (1979). Under the sign of the October Revolution. Screen 1977-1978. Moscow:
Art, pp. 24-28.
Nujkin, A., Erokhin, A. (1990). Bitter account. Screen 1990. Moscow: Art, pp. 6-14.
Ognev, K. (1987). A measure of success (Anatoly Romashin). Screen 1987. Moscow: Art, pp.
131-135.
Orlov, D. (1986). Fold the details of the order. Screen 1983-1984. Moscow: Art, pp. 28-32.
Orlov, V. (1966). Sleeping Lion comedy. Screen 1965. Moscow: Art, pp. 110-114.
Orlov, V. (1969). With pain of the past. Screen 1968-1969. Moscow: Art, pp. 68-69.
Ostrovsky, D. (1971). Who are they? Screen 1970-1971. Moscow: Art, pp. 84-87.
Pabauskaya, N. (1988). Right to their fate (Tatiana Drubich). Screen 1988. Moscow: Art, pp.
128-134.
Pabauskaya, N. (1989). Playwright, Film and time (Evgeny Grigoriev). Screen 1989. Moscow:
Art, pp. 158-166.
Pabauskaya, N. (1990). As the stars shine ... (Gennady Shpalikov). Screen 1990. Moscow: Art,
pp. 194-200.
Paperny, Z. (1966). Be careful... Screen 1965. Moscow: Art, pp. 115-117.
Pavlyuchik, L. (1988). Gravity (Boris Nevzorov). Screen 1988. Moscow: Art, pp. 135-138.
Pavlyuchik, L. (1989). Under the sign of penitence. Screen 1989. Moscow: Art, pp. 186-192.
Pisarevsky, D. (1965). Lessons of "Chapaev". Screen 1964. Moscow: Art, pp. 216-219.
Pisarevsky, D. (1966). Let's get acquainted. Screen 1965. Moscow: Art, pp. 140-142.
Pisarevsky, D. (1967). This is his own, and this is total. Screen 1966-1967. Moscow: Art, pp.
66-68.
Pisarevsky, D. (1968). Again in formation. Screen 1967-1968. Moscow: Art, pp. 19-20.
Pisarevsky, D. (1968). Panorama of national heroism. Screen 1967-1968. Moscow: Art, pp. 23-
26.
Pisarevsky, D. (1969). "Mother" Screen 1968-1969. Moscow: Art, pp. 18-19.
Pisarevsky, D. (1970). Comedy Detective. Screen 1969-1970. Moscow: Art, pp. 58-61.
Pisarevsky, D. (1972). From relocation of terms... Screen 1971-1972. Moscow: Art, pp. 100-103.
Pisarevsky, D. (1975). Attendance and Movies. Screen 1973-1974. Moscow: Art, pp. 98-100.
Pisarevsky, D. (1977). Artists innovators: Vasilyev brothers. Screen 1975-1976. Moscow: Art,
pp. 125-128.
Pistunova, A. (1984). The sea was great (Anatoly Petritsky). Screen 1981-1982. Moscow: Art,
pp. 92-96.
Plakhov, A. (1987). Not the letter, but the essence! Screen 1987. Moscow: Art, pp. 39-44.
Pogozheva, L. (1971). "Crime and Punishment". Screen 1970-1971. Moscow: Art, pp. 78-83.
Pogozheva, L. (1975). Debut took place. Screen 1973-1974. Moscow: Art, pp. 22-23.
Povolyaev, V. (1983). It is a live picture of the history. Screen 1980-1981. Moscow: Art, pp. 69-
71.
Pritulenko, V. (1989). From what Alex runs away? Screen 1989. Moscow: Art, pp. 111-114.
Pritulenko, V. (1990). Who is the owner on earth. Screen 1990. Moscow: Art, pp. 143-149.
Proceedings of XXVI Soviet Communist Party Congress (1981). Moscow, pp. 61-63.
Pustynskaya, L. (1978). Wind of Revolution. Screen 1976-1977. Moscow: Art, pp. 132-133.
Pustynskaya, L. (1989). Its young heroine (Vera Glagoleva). Screen 1989. Moscow: Art, pp.
171-176.
Pustynskaya, L. (1990). Moment of fortune (M. Martinsone). Screen 1990. Moscow: Art,
pp.168-171.
Rachuk, I. (1983). With a mission of liberation. Screen 1980-1981. Moscow: Art, pp. 75-77.
Rakhmanov, L. (1969). Short but happy life of Tanya Tetkina. Screen 1968-1969. Moscow: Art,
pp. 64-67.
Rassadin, S. (1967). Why? Screen 1966-1967. Moscow: Art, pp. 190-196.
Resolution of the Soviet Communist Party Central Committee (1969). On increasing the
responsibility of the heads of the press, radio and television, film, culture and art institutions for
the ideological and political level of the published materials and repertoire. Moscow.
Resolution of the Soviet Communist Party Central Committee (1972). ‘On Literary Criticism’.
The Soviet Communist Party in Resolutions and Decisions of Congresses, Conferences and
Central Committee plenums. Moscow: Politizdat, 1986, Vol. 12, pp. 170-173.
Resolution of the Soviet Communist Party Central Committee (1967). ‘On measures for further
development of the social sciences and enhance their role in the building of communism’. The
Soviet Communist Party in Resolutions (1986). Moscow, Vol. 11, pp. 237-251.
Resolution of the Soviet Communist Party Central Committee "On measures for further
development of Soviet cinema." (1972). The Soviet Communist Party in Resolutions. (1986).
Moscow, Vol. 12, pp. 263-268.
Resolution of the Soviet Communist Party Central Committee On the Mosfilm (1964). Moscow.
Revich, V. (1968). About Science Fiction. Screen 1967-1968. Moscow: Art, pp. 82-86.
Revich, V. (1969). Zorge’s Companions. Screen 1968-1969. Moscow: Art, pp. 139-144.
Revich, V. (1971). Five evenings in the TV-screen. Screen 1970-1971. Moscow: Art, pp. 99-104.
Revich, V. (1972). About the workers' cause. Screen 1971-1972. Moscow: Art, pp. 82-86.
Revich, V. (1975). Should I announce Shah queen? Screen 1973-1974. Moscow: Art, pp. 92-94.
Romanenko, A. (1983). Holiday with me and without me. Screen 1980-1981. Moscow: Art, pp.
32-36.
Romanenko, A. (1984). At the root of the character. Screen 1981-1982. Moscow: Art, pp. 72-74.
Romanenko, A. (1987). How young we were. Screen 1987. Moscow: Art, pp. 113-114.
Romanenko, A. (1988). Smile, baby ... or a game for school age children. Screen 1988. Moscow:
Art, pp. 102-104.
Romanenko, A. (1989). They and we. Screen 1989. Moscow: Arts, pp. 43-48.
Rubanova, I. (1966). Strict test days and years. Screen 1965. Moscow: Art, pp. 64-68.
Rudnitsky, K. (1978). The parallels. Screen 1976-1977. Moscow: Art, pp. 122-124.
Rybak, L. (1977). Failure to escape. Screen 1975-1976. Moscow: Art, pp. 102-107.
Ryzhova, V. (1971). Composer. Music. Film. Screen 1970-1971. Moscow: Art, pp. 87-91.
Samarin, Y. (1984). Russian epic time. Screen 1981-1982. Moscow: Art, pp. 77-79.
Samarin, Y. (1985). We are looking for understanding and love. Screen 1982-1983. Moscow:
Art, pp. 93-95.
Samarin, Y. (1986). Tale about Urals. Screen 1983-1984. Moscow: Art, pp. 104-106.
Samarin, Y. (1987). No wonder all Russia remembers. Screen 1987. Moscow: Art, pp. 48-54.
Samarin, Y. (1990). Last role of Anatoly Papanov in a movie. Screen 1990. Moscow: Art, pp.
201-204.
Savinchenko, N., Shirokov, A. (1970). About the film "The Sixth of July". Ogoniok. № 13, p.25.
Savitsky, N. (1978). Man and his work. Screen 1976-1977. Moscow: Art, pp. 92-96.
Savitsky, N. (1979). Direct connection. Screen 1977-1978. Moscow: Art, pp. 87-92.
Scherbakov, K. (1969). Only true? Screen 1968-1969. Moscow: Art, pp. 98-101.
Scherbakov, K. (1988). Long breath. Screen 1988. Moscow: Art, pp. 87-90.
Screen 1964 (1965). Moscow: Art, 388 p.
Screen 1966-1967 (1967). Moscow: Art, 344 p.

Semenov, M. (1965). Instead anthem. Screen 1964. Moscow: Art, pp. 66-71.
Semenov, M. (1966). Small masterpiece. Screen 1965. Moscow: Art, pp. 138-139.
Shatsillo, D. (1976). Guerrilla prowess. Screen 1974-1975. Moscow: Art, pp. 42-46.
Shatsillo, D. (1977). The Revolution Continues. Screen 1975-1976. Moscow: Art, pp. 87-91.
Shatsillo, D. (1985). As a high score (Elena Drapeko). Screen 1982-1983. Moscow: Art, pp.108-
113.
Shatsillo, D. (1986). Poem about war and peace. Screen 1983-1984. Moscow: Art, pp. 61-64.
Shatsillo, D. (1987). Feat in ice. Screen 1987. Moscow: Art, pp. 95-99.
Shcherbakov, K. (1965). Tradition schemes quest ... Screen 1964. Moscow: Art, pp. 85-91.
Shcherbakov, K. (1967). Again about detectives. Screen 1966-1967. Moscow: Art, pp. 175-178.
Shilova, I. (1978). Regimantas Adomaitis. Screen 1976-1977. Moscow: Art, pp. 156-160.
Shilova, I. (1981). Mythology of Contemporary History. Screen 1978-1979. Moscow: Art, pp.
83-87.
Shilova, I. (1982). Natalia Andreichenko. Screen 1979-1980. Moscow: Art, pp. 132-136.
Shilova, I. (1984). His choosing the path ... (Michael Nozhkin). Screen 1981-1982. Moscow:
Art, pp. 82-84.
Shilova, I. (1985). Contemporary screen. Screen 1982-1983. Moscow: Art, pp. 14-40.
Shilova, I. (1986). Afterword or Foreword? Screen 1983-1984. Moscow: Art, pp. 94-96.
Shilova, I. (1988). Industrial conflicts, family conflicts. Screen 1988. Moscow: Art, pp. 36-41.
Shilova, I. (1990). Duty (Oleg Borisov). Screen 1990. Moscow: Art, pp. 172-177.
Shitova, V. (1972). Do not applause ... Screen 1971-1972. Moscow: Art, pp. 70-72.
Shmyrov, V. (1989). Soul of sphinx. Screen 1989. Moscow: Art, pp. 118-122.
Shmyrov, V. (1990). Returning to the theme. Screen 1990. Moscow: Art, pp. 15-20.
Sholokhov, S. (1990). Other times - other songs. Screen 1990. Moscow: Art, pp. 49-53.
Shumakov, S. (1987). ... Good fellows a lesson. Screen 1987. Moscow: Art, pp. 115-118.
Shumakov, S. (1988). About position of decent man. Screen 1988. Moscow: Art, pp. 99-101.
Shumakov, S. (1989). "There is no sadder ...". Screen 1989. Moscow: Art, pp. 131-134.
Shumakov, S. (1990). "Little Faith". Screen 1990. Moscow: Art, p.131.
Sobolev, R. (1971). "The Beginning", which has no end. Screen 1970-1971. Moscow: Art, pp.
69-74.
Sobolev, R. (1975). Twelve meetings with the eleventh muse. Screen 1973-1974. Moscow: Art,
pp. 52-54.
Sobolev, R. (1983). Simplicity Wisdom (Vsevolod Sanaev). Screen 1980-1981. Moscow: Art,
pp. 92-96.
Sologub, V. (1978). Georgy Burkov. Screen 1976-1977. Moscow: Art, pp. 164-167.
Solovyova, I. (1965). A man named Hamlet. Screen 1964. Moscow: Art, pp. 94-100.
Stishova, E. (1981). Natalia Gundareva. Screen 1978-1979. Moscow: Art, pp. 119-124.
Stishova, E. (1982). Entry (Notes on film debut). Screen 1979-1980. Moscow: Art, pp. 74-78.
Stishova, E. (1984). A few words in defense of women's virtue. Screen 1981-1982. Moscow:
Art, pp. 32-36.
Stishova, E. (1987). Close the past (My Friend Ivan Lapshin). Screen 1987. Moscow: Art, pp.
107-112.
Stishova, E. (1989). Laura and thorns. Screen 1989. Moscow: Art, pp. 31-36.
Sulkin, M. (1972). Last movie of Shaken Aimanov. Screen 1971-1972. Moscow: Art, pp. 28-32.
Sulkin, M. (1975). Brutal good truth of Tolomush Okeev. Screen 1973-1974. Moscow: Art, pp.
35-38.
Sulkin, M. (1982). Elaman engages in battle. Screen 1979-1980. Moscow: Art, pp. 96-98.
Sumenov, N. (1977). One day, the whole life. Screen 1975-1976. Moscow: Art, pp. 70-75.
Sumenov, N. (1978). Poem about the brotherhood. Screen 1976-1977. Moscow: Art, pp. 78-83.
Sumenov, N. (1981). Red Marius. Screen 1978-1979. Moscow: Art, pp. 80-83.
Sumenov, N. (1982). Several interviews on important issues. Screen 1979-1980. Moscow: Art,
pp. 106-109.
Sumenov, N. (1984). A few days after the outbreak of war. Screen 1981-1982. Moscow: Art, pp.
69-71.
Sumenov, N. (1985). Fidelity truth of history. Screen 1982-1983. Moscow: Art, pp. 78-80.
Surkov, E. (1965). Yegor Trubnikov and his time. Screen 1964. Moscow: Art, pp. 34-39.
Svobodin, A. (1968). Anna Karenina. A screen adaptation of 1967. Screen 1967-1968. Moscow:
Art, pp. 35-40.
Tarasenko, L. (1979). Emile Lotyanu. Screen 1977-1978. Moscow: Art, pp. 136-141.
Tolchenova, N. (1976). Sholokhov and cinema. Screen 1974-1975. Moscow: Art, pp. 106-110.
Tolchenova, N. (1978). The soul must work (Julia Solntseva - 70). Screen 1976-1977. Moscow:
Art, pp. 148-150.
Tolstysh, V. (1989). What audience we deserve? Screen 1989. Moscow: Art, pp. 142-150.
Troshin, A. (1970). "Art like a wild horse". Screen 1969-1970. Moscow: Art, pp. 56-58.
Troshin, A. (1971). "Or I die, or I will play ..." Screen 1970-1971. Moscow: Art, pp. 75-77.
Troshin, A. (1988). Sound of a breaking string. Screen 1988. Moscow: Art, pp. 107-108.
Tsereteli, K. (1969). "Eliso". Screen 1968-1969. Moscow: Art, p. 28.
Turbin, V. (1969). Alexander Green, his rights, his duties. Screen 1968-1969. Moscow: Art, pp.
110-111.
Turin, Y. (1977). Way of the Cross. Screen 1975-1976. Moscow: Art, pp. 96-102.
Turin, Y. (1978). Welcome win! Screen 1976-1977. Moscow: Art, pp. 97-99.
Turin, Y. (1979). Children after the war. Screen 1977-1978. Moscow: Art, pp. 92-97.
Turin, Y. (1981). Ivan Ryzhov. Screen 1978-1979. Moscow: Art, pp. 115-118.
Turin, Y. (1982). Anatoly Solonitsyn. Screen 1979-1980. Moscow: Art, pp. 136-143.
Turin, Y. (1983). Again, the historical film. Screen 1980-1981. Moscow: Art, pp. 36-43.
Turin, Y. (1984). Film-call. Screen 1981-1982. Moscow: Art, pp. 62-65.
Turin, Y. (1985). Earth, water, people. Screen 1982-1983. Moscow: Art, pp. 86-90.
Turin, Y. (1986). Faces of heroic themes. Screen 1983-1984. Moscow: Art, pp. 47-56.
Turin, Y. (1987). Humanism Lessons (Sholokhov - Bondarchuk: The destiny of man). Screen
1987. Moscow: Art, pp. 152-158.
Turin, Y. (1988). Quiet Flows the Don of Sergei Gerasimov. Screen 1988. Moscow: Art, pp.
151-154.
Turin, Y. (1989). Talent of Resistance. Screen 1989. Moscow: Art, pp. 102-105.
Tvalchrelidze, T. (1977). Sophia Chiaureli. Screen 1975-1976. Moscow: Art, pp. 145-148.
Ungureanu L. (1984). Actor with deep temperament (Mihai Volontir). Screen 1981-1982.
Urnov, D. (1987). Why? What for? Screen 1987. Moscow: Art, pp. 28-32.
Vartanov, A. (1969). Stories, events, characters. Screen 1968-1969. Moscow: Art, pp. 134-138.
Vartanov, A. (1971). Telefilms? And what is it? Screen 1970-1971. Moscow: Art, pp. 128-134.
Vartanov, A. (1972). We and G. Malyan’s film. Screen 1971-1972. Moscow: Art, pp. 47-49.
Vladimirova, E. (1979). Fidelity (I. Talankin - 50). Screen 1977-1978. Moscow: Art, pp. 154-
157.
Vlasov, M. (1984). Happy gift. Screen 1981-1982. Moscow: Art, pp. 103-106.
Warsawsky, J. (1965). Film of action delayed. Screen 1964. Moscow: Art, pp. 44-51.
Warsawsky, J. (1966). Return to movie. Screen 1965. Moscow: Art, pp. 124-132.
Warsawsky, J. (1967). Comedy of Errors. Screen 1966-1967. Moscow: Art, pp. 105-111.
Warsawsky, J. (1967). Work of the Film. Screen 1966-1967. Moscow: Art, pp. 20-24.
Warsawsky, J. (1969). Dignity. Screen 1968-1969. Moscow: Art, pp. 75-79.
Warsawsky, J. (1971). Through the chronicle. Screen 1970-1971. Moscow: Art, pp. 92-93.
Wilchek, V. (1976). Spectrogram of success. Screen 1975-1976. Moscow: Art, pp. 58-63.
Yurenev, A. (1977). Boris Babochkin. Screen 1975-1976. Moscow: Art, pp. 142-144.
Yurenev, A. (1979). Happy fate (A. Khokhlova - 80). Screen 1977-1978. Moscow: Art, pp. 145-
147.
Yurenev, R. (1975). About sensitivity of the human. Screen 1973-1974. Moscow: Art, pp. 19-21.
Yurenev, R. (1978). Indomitable (the 75th anniversary of I. Pyrev). Screen 1976-1977. Moscow:
Art, pp. 136-142.
Yurenev, R. (1982). Five parties and two actors. Screen 1979-1980. Moscow: Art, pp. 100-102.
Yurenev, R. (1983). Victory of conscience. Screen 1980-1981. Moscow: Art, pp. 82-84.
Yurenev, R. (1984). Jakov Protazanov. Screen 1981-1982. Moscow: Art, pp. 106-110.
Yurenev, R. (1985). Vsevolod Pudovkin. Screen 1982-1983. Moscow: Art, pp. 130-134.
Yurenev, R. (1986). Failure. Screen 1983-1984. Moscow: Art, pp. 100-101.
Yurenev, R. (1988). Military prose Poetry. Screen 1988. Moscow: Art, pp. 90-92.
Yurenev, R. (1989). Cleansing Fire. Screen 1989. Moscow: Art, pp. 94-96.
Zaitsev, N. (1978). Optimsm of the revolutionary perspective. Screen 1976-1977. Moscow: Art,
pp. 84-86.
Zaitsev, N. (1981). No one is forgotten and nothing is forgotten. Screen 1978-1979. Moscow:
Art, pp. 76-80.
Zak, M. (1975). Big Picture Show. From observations of cinema. Screen 1974-1975. Moscow:
Art, pp. 111-116.
Zak, M. (1977). Master. Screen 1975-1976. Moscow: Art, pp. 134-137.
Zak, M. (1978). Director selects the position. Screen 1976-1977. Moscow: Art, pp. 63-69.
Zak, M. (1981). Autobiography of love. Screen 1978-1979. Moscow: Art, pp. 92-95.
Zak, M. (1982). Counter-movement. Screen 1979-1980. Moscow: Art, pp. 103-106.
Zak, M. (1985). Business man on vacation. Screen 1982-1983. Moscow: Art, pp. 75-78.
Zak, M. (1986). Dialogues. Screen 1983-1984. Moscow: Art, pp. 32-37.
Zak, M. (1987). Checking using life. Screen 1987. Moscow: Art, pp. 22-28.
Zak, M. (1988). Stairs analysis. Screen 1988. Moscow: Art, pp. 31-35.
Zak, M. (1989). Myocardial as a social category, or to the question of entertainment movie
screen. Screen 1989. Moscow: Art, pp. 106-111.
Zakrzhevskaya, L. (1968). Seven shots over Rediul Mare. Screen 1967-1968. Moscow: Art, pp.
56-58.
Zakrzhevskaya, L. (1972). Russian Nature ... Screen 1971-1972. Moscow: Art, pp. 58-59.
Zakrzhevskaya, L. (1979). Lydia Fedoseyeva-Shukshina. Screen 1977-1978. Moscow: Art, pp.

114-120.
Zakrzhevskaya, L. (1981). Margarita Terekhova. Screen 1978-1979. Moscow: Art, pp. 111-114.
Zakrzhevskaya, L. (1982). Leonid Kuravlev. Screen 1979-1980. Moscow: Art, pp. 127-131.
Zakrzhevskaya, L. (1983). Roles, in tune with the time (Stanislav Lyubshin). Screen 1980-1981.
Zakrzhevskaya, L. (1984). Actor on the screen. Screen 1981-1982. Moscow: Art, pp. 100-102.
Zakrzhevskaya, L. (1986). In the context of time (Evgenia Glushchenko). Screen 1983-1984.
Zakrzhevskaya, L. (1987). "I love to play strong characters ..." (Elena Tsyplakova). Screen 1987.
M .: Art, 1987, pp. 127-131.
Zakrzhevskaya, L. (1988). Waits from us... (Natalia Saiko). Screen 1988. Moscow: Art, pp. 125-
128.
Zakrzhevskaya, L. (1989). The same thought (Nina Ruslanova). Screen 1989. Moscow: Art, pp.
166-170.
Zakrzhevskaya, L. (1990). The essence of the laws (Vladimir Gostyukhin). Screen 1990.
Zelenko, N. (1965). Actor conducts exploration. Screen 1964. Moscow: Art, pp. 142-147.
Zelenko, N. (1966). Citizenship. Screen 1965. Moscow: Art, pp. 56-58.
Zinoviev, M., Markov, S. (1967). Mid stream. Screen 1966-1967. Moscow: Art, pp. 74-78.
Zinoviev, M., Markov, S. (1968). Nikina from a movie and itself. Screen 1967-1968. Moscow:
Art, pp. 64-66.
Zolotussky, I. (1989). Return Screen. Screen 1989. Moscow: Art, pp. 78-81.
Zorkaya, N. (1965). Kostya Inochkin underground. Screen 1964. Moscow: Art, pp. 52-60.
Zorkaya, N. (1975). Lady Luck. Screen 1973-1974. Moscow: Art, pp. 69-71.
Zorkaya, N. (1988). Sketches for a biography (Tengiz Abduladze). Screen 1988. Moscow: Art,
pp. 110-118.
Zorky, A. (1970). From Goodbye, Gulsary. Screen 1969-1970. Moscow: Art, pp. 52-55.
Zorky, A. (1971). Origins of heroism. Screen 1970-1971. Moscow: Art, pp. 32-34.
Zorky, A. (1972). About Love? Screen 1971-1972. Moscow: Art, pp. 77-79.
Zorky, A. (1978). Mimino is Georgian Falcon. Screen 1976-1977. Moscow: Art, pp. 208-209.
Zorky, A. (1983). Tehran Case. Screen 1980-1981. Moscow: Art, pp. 137-140.
Zorky, A. (1987). Comments to the spectacle. Screen 1987. Moscow: Art, pp. 118-122.
Zorky, A. (1989). "Lone White Sail ..." (Kira Muratova). Screen 1989. Moscow: Art, pp. 152-
157.
Zorky, A. (1990). So, we need one victory (Andrey Smirnov). Screen 1990. Moscow: Art, pp.
162-167.

'Cinema Art' as part of a typical model of the

Soviet humanitarian journals in the Cold War
times
Article · June 2017

DOI: 10.13187/pwlc.2017.1.52
CITATIONS READS
0 75
1 author:
Alexander Fedorov
SEE PROFILE
Сальный Р.В. Герменевтический анализ фильма на студенческую тему (на

примере фильм П. Тодоровского «Какая чудная игра») // Медиаобразование. 2017.
№ 4. С. 158-166. View project
All content following this page was uploaded by Alexander Fedorov on 16 June 2017.

Propaganda in the World and Local Conflicts, 2017, 4(1)
Copyright © 2017 by Academic Publishing House Researcher s.r.o.

Propaganda in the World and Local Conflicts
Has been issued since 2014.
ISSN 2500-1078, E-ISSN 2500-3712
2017, 4(1): 52-61
DOI: 10.13187/pwlc.2017.1.52
www.ejournal47.com
‘Cinema Art’ as part of a typical model of the Soviet humanitarian journals in the
Cold War times
Alexander Fedorov a , *
a Anton Chekhov Taganrog Institute, Russian Federation
Abstract
The analysis of the journal Cinema Art – 1977 revealed the following main film criticism
trends:
- the magazine was unable to preserve the "thawing" tendencies, which were still strong even
in the late 1960s, and in many ways proved to be in the ideological line of the peak of the L.
Brezhnev’s epoch;
- At the same time, the journal tried to analyze the most notable works of Soviet cinema,
while, alas, not allowing even in minimal doses a criticism of the shortcomings in the works of the
most "principally" influential at that time the screen masters;
- giving a weighty tribute to the Soviet propaganda pathos, the magazine could afford to
publish the substantive discussions “on certain narrow bridgeheads”.
In general, the Cinema Art in 1977 was part of a typical model of the Soviet humanitarian
journal, which, with significant censorship concessions and powers, tried to retain at least 50% of
the total text for art analysis of the film process.
Keywords: film criticism, USSR, Soviet, film, social and cultural context, politics, magazine,
Cinema Art.
1. Introduction
1977 year was jubilee in the USSR: the 60th anniversary of the Soviet power was fulfilled. It is
clear that as in 1967, the Soviet press (and the magazine Cinema Art was no exception) should have
joyfully reported about all the victories and accomplishments.
Cinema Art was published monthly: from 50 to 54 thousand copies in 1977, against 30–
35 thousand in 1967. In each issue included several articles about the Soviet cinema, materials of
directors, screenwriters and other filmmakers, scripts and filmographies. A whole series of
ideological materials were added to the traditional headings (New Movies, Theory and History,
Interview between Films, Abroad, Script, Published on the Cinema, etc.). For example, quotation
from the speeches of the General Secretary of the Soviet Communist Party Central Committee
L. Brezhnev, Towards the 60th Anniversary of the Great October Revolution, Modernity and the
Screen...
E-mail addresses: Mediashkola@rambler.ru (A. Fedorov)
52
The editorial board of the magazine Cinema Art – 1977 consisted of 21 persons. As before,
many of them were well-known directors (S. Gerasimov, A. Zguridi, R. Carmen, S. Yutkevich) and
film functionaries. However, compared to the 1960s, film critics and film experts became
approximately twice as large (almost 50 %) in the editorial board: E. Surkov (editor in chief)
(1915–1988), N. Ignatieva (deputy editor-in-chief), A. Medvedev (deputy editor-in-chief),
V. Baskakov (1921–1999), I. Weissfeld (1909–2003), A. Karaganov (1915–2007), K. Paramonova
(1916–2005), N. Savitsky (born 1939), N. Sumenov (1938–2014) and R. Yurenev (1912–2002).
Of course, the spectrum of the authors of the journal was wider, but in comparison with the
previous jubilee year (1967), it largely lost its representativeness. Yes, the list of authors still
included: A. Vartanov (born 1931), Y. Warsawsky (1911–2000), M. Zak (1929–2011), N. Ignatieva
(born 1923), G. Kapralov (1921–2010), A. Svobodin (1922–1999), Y. Khanyutin (1929–1978),
R. Yurenev (1912–2002), etc. In addition, Cinema Art – 1977 also published such well-known film
critics as L. Anninsky, E. Bauman (1932–2017), L. Donets (1935–2016), K. Rudnitsky (1920-1988),
E. Stishova, V. Turovsky (1949–1998), but on his pages there were no articles by Y. Bogomolov
(born 1937), V. Demin (1937–1993), L. Kozlov (1933–2006), L. Pogozheva (1913–1989), L. Rybak
(1923–1988), I. Solovieva (born 1927), T. Khloplyankina (1937–1993), V. Shitova (1927–2002) and
many other well-known film critics (among the most insulting ones, for example, are the absence of
N. Zorkaya and M. Turovskaya).
Cinema Art – 1977 wrote about such notable Soviet films a Ascension by L. Shepitko, Aty-
baty, the Soldiers Were Walking by L. Bykov, I ask for Words by G. Panfilov, Leg-pull by
V. Menshov, Mimino by G. Danelia, The Eldest Son by V. Melnikov, The Key Without the Right to
Transfer by D. Asanova, The Steppe by S. Bondarchuk, The Tale of how Tsar Peter Married the
Arap by A. Mitta, The Wreath of Sonnets by V. Rubinchik, Twenty Days Without War by
A. German, Unfinished play for the mechanical piano and Slave of Love by N. Mikhalkov,
Wounded by N. Gubenko. Were published talented scenarios Moscow does not believe in words by
V. Chernykh and Reserve by A. Bitov. But, alas, in the same year the magazine also published a
servile script of a documentary about L. Brezhnev's Story of a Communist, and uncontrollably
complimentary reviews of the very weak military drama Thought on Kovpak by T. Levchuk, about
mediocre melodramas Love of the Earth and Destiny by E. Matveev...

The main material for the study were 12 issues of the Cinema Art – 1977. At the same time,
we analyzed only how the film criticism reflected on magazine’s pages the Soviet feature film
(although, of course, Cinema Art also wrote about documentary and foreign films, animation,
published articles by prominent filmmakers, writers, actors, full texts of scenarios, etc.). We used
the method of hermeneutic analysis.
3. Results
Anniversary texts
The jubilee articles of 1977 were often anonymous: apparently, not every film critic, even the
"boss", could afford to put his signature under such, for example, articles as "The Inspirational
Care of the Party" (Cinema Art, 1977: 3-8) or The Fading Light of October (Cinema Art, 1977: 1-5).
Here is just one quote from such anonymous opuses, saturated with references to L . Brezhnev's
speeches: It is great and honorable duty of the masters of the Soviet screen, called to recreate the
epoch-making picture of the life and accomplishments of the great Soviet people. Soviet cinema
art was, is and will always be the military assistant of the party (Inspiring ..., 1977: 8). In issues
10 and 11 of Cinema Art – 1977, such ideological texts occupied more than 50 % of the total volume
of the journal.
Of course, among these articles there were also "author's" works. For example, a long &
boring article of V. Dmitriev The Humanism of the Socialist Revolution and Cinematography
(Dmitriev, 1977), exerting on references from the L. Brezhnev's "works", where it was
enthusiastically asserted that the cinematographic art of the Soviet land became communist
party. The socialist primogeniture was determined by the choice initially made-together with the
communist party, with the revolution, with the people! (Dmitriev, 1977: 8).
53
Deputy Chairman of the Soviet Cinema Committee B. Pavlenok (1923 –2012) in his party-
politicized article about the current film process approved the outstanding film Ascension by
L. Shepitko, but does not stint on the praise of long-deservedly forgotten films on the historical-
revolutionary topic: Carriage from the South, Siege, Red Black Earth, Red Diplomatic Couriers
(Pavlenok, 1977: 6-14).
The indefatigable fighter of the ideological front V. Baskakov, in his article The Cinema of
Socialist Realism and the Falsification of" Sovietologists, as always (although without any
convincing arguments), refuted the opinions of the bourgeois film criticism: "Whatever our
ideological opponents say, no matter what "models" of the history of Soviet cinema they are, no
matter how hard they try to confuse the question of the continuity of the progressive development
of Soviet cinema, they will not be able to substitute the truth for falsehood, will not be able to
cover up their "true" intentions and plans" (Baskakov, 1977: 52).
Film Reviews
Editor-in-chief of Cinema Art E. Surkov was famous for his ability to balance between the
"communist party line" and the line of truly artistic. That is why, in addition to the above-
mentioned ideological materials, Cinema Art of the 1970s was active supporter of many
outstanding screen works, the publication of an interview with A. Tarkovsky and his script.
So in 1977 the magazine published two articles about the masterpiece of L. Shepitko – the
military drama Ascension (1976). Boldly noting the biblical motifs of the film, E. Stishova rightly
argued that "L. Shepitko, judging by her former films, always attracted crisis situations for the
individual, the model of this situation was repeatedly tested by the director. And in "Warmth"
and "Wings" characters are captured at the moment of the greatest aggravation of mutual
relations with the world and with themselves. Such a sequence in the choice of characters
suggests that others are uninteresting to this artist: the personality is interesting in the moment
of the maximum of its human luminescence" (Stishova, 1977: 31). And Z. Kutorga stressed that the
authors "conduct a social and moral investigation of the greatest heroism and self-sacrifice...
In parallel, they mercilessly and consistently show the moves of self-deflection and self-
justification, which naturally turn Rybak into a traitor" (Kutorga, 1977: 56).
Full support for the magazine received another masterpiece on the military theme – Twenty
Days Without War (1976) by A. German. Y. Khanyutin noted in his brilliant article: "It is
profoundly significant that an eyewitness, front-line correspondent and writer Konstantin
Simonov and young director Alexei German, who did not see this war, severely, documented the
desire to tell about the war honestly, harshly. Hence, in different generations there is a need to
see the era of the war as it was – in high and terrible, in tragic and ridiculous, in the greatest
accomplishments and in the smallest detail" (Khanyutin, 1977: 96-97).
In general, a positive review of another notable film on the military theme – Aty-baty, the
Soldiers Were Walking ... (1976) by L. Bykov – wrote A. Medvedev.
The film critic reasonably noted that the level of "Bykov's directorial mastery did not rise to
the skill level of Bykov-actor" (Medvedev, 1977: 51), but at the same time, he asserted in a positive
context, that "Leonid Bykov is building a film on colorful and juicy details that have always
worked in textures... He forces our feelings, forcing emotions, and now we laugh, loudly
laughing, and then immediately, without transition, we are compressed from pain" (Medvedev,
1977: 48).
V. Turovsky also gave ambivalently evaluation of the poetic film about the military childhood
The Wreath of Sonnets (1976) by V. Rubinchik: "The director doubted, hesitated, whether his own
poetic gift would be enough for the film. He decided to back up himself with the poetry of Bella
Akhmadulina, two poems and six sonnets of her live in the film with own life... These sonnets
heavier and complicate the film action. ... The music of Bella Akhmadulina's verse, superimposed
on the poetic nature of the film" (Turovsky, 1977: 114).
I believe that if the military drama Thought on Kovpak (1976) by T. Levchuk was on screens
in 1960s, the "thawing" editorial office of Cinema Art would give this film a negative evaluation.
But by the mid–1970s the People's Artist of the USSR, the first secretary of the Union of
Cinematographers of Ukraine, candidate member of the Central Committee of the Communist
Party of the Ukraine, a deputy of the Supreme Soviet of the Ukraine T. Levchuk (1912 –1998) joined
54
the cohort of "untouchable" directors, and Cinema Art, despite the low artistic level of this film, it
only remained to write that “Thought on Kovpak” "impresses with its scale and depth, causes a
sense of pride in Soviet people, helps to better understand the revolutionary transforming power
that the people, having defended freedom, applied to peaceful affairs. Undoubtedly, the Thought
on Kovpak is one of the best works in our cinema on a military theme in recent years" (Zemlyak,
1977: 36).
The same opinion it was possible to print in 1977 about the director's work of People's Artist
of the USSR, Secretary of the Board of the Union of Cinematographers of the USSR E. Matveev
(1922–2003), who played L. Brezhnev in the film Soldiers of Freedom. N. Tolchenova wrote the
unconditionally positive review about E. Matveev’s films Earth Love (1974) and Fate (1977) with
not forgotten quotes from the report of L. Brezhnev (Tolchenova, 1977: 34-40).
Needless to say, in the jubilee year Cinema Art was simply obliged to respond to current films
on the so-called historical-revolutionary topic. The drama Trust (1976) by V. Tregubovich was in
the category of "Leniniana" of this year. V. Ishimov's very positive review of Trust had a lot of
politics, a retelling of the plot and dialogues, but did not have the serious analysis of the movie’s
professional qualities.
Much more interesting was the review of E. Stishova for the melodrama Slave of Love (1975)
by N. Mikhalkov. Of course, the article did not say a word about the fact that first this film (under
the title Unexpected Joys) was shot by R. Khamdamov, but this shooting was banned by
censorship. E. Stishova did not dispense with the stereotyped ideological phrase relating to the plot
of the picture (Stishova, 1977: 98). On the one hand, E. Stishova admitted: "I see N. Mikhalkov as
the artist endowed with creative courage and an innate sense of form, which provided him with
such a vivid start" (Stishova, 1977: 102). But on the other hand she criticized the director, noting
that film is too refined and stylish (Stishova, 1977: 101). Although the Slave of Love, I think, is real
good melodramatic nostalgia for the departing beauty of the intelligent world on the eve of its
death under a communist sickle and hammer...
Further E. Stishova remembered the previous work of N. Mikhalkov, arguing that "the plot of
"Your own among strangers.." is ethically untenable already because the Communist special
service officer, in order to rehabilitate himself, must act "strangers", that is, bandit methods"
(Stishova, 1977: 103). Here it is necessary to think, the author of the article tried seriously (albeit
very recklessly) to convince the readers that the "crystal clean" Communist special service officers
never used "gangster methods", anywhere in their life...
As a result E. Stishova concluded that N. Mikhalkov "does not notice how flirting. It happens
because, in my opinion, that the primary impulse of creativity is just another formal experiment.
The task how to say is put on the first place, is absolutized, all outstanding forces are thrown at
its decision. The downside is indifference to the material, bordering on neglecting its historically
specific moral essence. Stylization turns into an aesthetic" (Stishova, 1977: 103).
If you dismiss the pathos about "indifference" and "historically specific moral essence," the
Slave of Love, I think, in fact, a brilliant stylization, refined and aesthetic.
It is curious that Cinema Art – 1977 wrote about another film by N. Mikhalkov: Unfinished
play for a mechanical piano (1977), perhaps the best movie of this director. A. Svobodin detail and
kindly analyzed the Unfinished Play ..., and noted that "the authors of the film freely and
uninhibitedly continue the confusion of genres, acting in the spirit of the current understanding of
Chekhov's dramaturgy" (Svobodin, 1977: 135).
Contemporary topics were presented in the journal with a number of outstanding works.
A. Lipkov (1936–2007) in a review of the drama I Ask for Words (1976) by G. Panfilov accurately
noticed that here "the director's attitude is as if impartial: he only objectively expounds the facts.
But from the viewer he demands activity – activity of thinking, analysis, evaluation" (Lipkov,
1977: 56).
Another drama, The Word for Legal Protection (1976) by V. Abdrashitov was demanded no
less activity of the audience. M. Zak generally praised this work, since "such films, probably, should
encourage not only empathy, but also "co-creation" (Zak, 1977: 94). But he immediately drew the
readers' attention to the fact that "there is a motive for a programmed discussion, well hidden in
the characters and circumstances, but ready to come to the surface after" (Zak, 1977: 94).
55
N. Ignatieva wrote very warm review of the drama Elder Son (1976) by V. Melnikov:
"The connection, the penetration of genres for this director is associated primarily with this or
that psychological mood, the state of the heroes. Therefore, genre joints, genre transitions are
natural and organic in this film"(Ignatieva, 1977: 53). And they generally work on the important
thought of the film: "kindness is associated with insecurity. She is always not ready for spiritual
hardness" (Ignatieva, 1977: 57).
I agree with T. Mamaladze's opinion about the melodrama Sweet Woman (1976) by V. Fetin:
"Restoring ... the genre of the morality sketch, it takes a concrete drama beyond the limits of one
fate, correlates it, this drama, with the antisocial essence of philistine spirituality" (Mamaladze,
1977: 26).
Dignity was appreciated and one of the best comedies of G. Danelia – Mimino (1977)
(Troshin, 1977: 22-23).
A significant place in Cinema Art – 1977 was devoted to the analysis of films about childhood
and adolescence.
In detail revealing the positive aspects of the drama Wounded (1977) by N. Gubenko,
T. Iensen noted with regret that "the scenes before and after the children's home – draws, in no
uniqueness, they are all from common places. ... Actually, the lessons that childhood gives us … a
poetic and sincere in its main part…, and alas, straying to the scheme, when the action is being
transferred to our days" (Jensen, 1977: 84-86).
T. Mamaladze preceded reflections on the films of the 1970s on the school theme in the
article of D. Asanova's drama The Key Without the Right to Transfer (1976): "The school film" was
established in the vocabulary of criticism and in the viewer's consciousness as a persistent
concept. In other cases, alas, – as a persistent stereotype. It happens that our cinema "writes" on
the topics of the modern school, using a set of ready-made tools, solutions and techniques.
However, there are a lot of good works, although the inertia of the stamp all strives to improve
the innovative reading of the topic – and sometimes leads to the course laid by the flow of the
average "school film".
True, the scheme itself is also of considerable interest. First, one way or another, it fixes
certain objective life-patterns: the emergence of "nonstandard" teachers, their opposition to the
routine. The assertion in the school environment of an equally "non-standard" student, an
intelligent clever man: often he conflicts with a class and a doctrinaire teacher and does not
always find a way to an intelligent mentor or peer. Secondly, the study of the scheme reveals a
common tendency for many school films: the school in them is not part of the mainland, not a
peninsula, but an island in an endless but serene sea. Of course, the island is inhabited, inhabited
by actors, but what their connections with the mainland, with the "outside world" and how this
world is refracted in their characters, actions, actions – we do not know. In other words, the
desire to study the life of the school in depth with all its conflicts and conflicts leads to its screen
isolation from the life of the general. The article with a hard-coded name "school" is attached to
everything – even to moral conflicts not of local, local origin. The island remains an island,
leaving it and laying a course to the mainland, linking them with a single, unstable connection,
our cinema is rarely solved. The traditional two-unit formula "school and life" breaks off at the
link..." (Mamaladze, 1977:75-76).
Based on these reflections, T. Mamaladze claimed that the authors of the film The Key
Without the Right to Transfer "do not assess their characters, they seem to endure the action
beyond the movie, take it to the mainstream of life. And life, as you know, breaks any scheme,
even the most convenient and beautifully built. In the movie, there is usually no nostalgia for the
school years, which is laid down in the "school film" scheme, which provides the lyric sound,
which is kind to the spectator's heart. Here lyricism is achieved due to a special knowledge of the
truth that the school is an institution largely lyrical, that is, based on feelings. That school is not
just part of the continent, but its beginning" (Mamaladze, 1977: 83-84).
V. Kichin approached more strictly to another film on the school topic – Leg-pull (1976) by
V. Menshov, – arguing that “this film reveals an unexpected ambivalence instead of the expected
purposefulness. The director arranges with the viewer that there will be a debate film, a
reflection film – in a word, a serious conversation. But the same, followed, clearly sound the call-
sign of the film-games, film-spectacles” (Kichin, 1977: 47).
56
And finally, Cinema Art gave deserved negative evaluation of V. Rogovoy's film Minors
(1976) (Zhavoronkov, 1977: 42-46) and drama Always with me ... (1976) by S. Schuster
(Mariamov, 1977: 36), and Ivan and Kolombina (1975) by V. Chechunov, where many
shortcomings "deprives the film of the main features of the debut – the lack of young audacity,
maximalism and independence of creative thinking. ... If the debut film replenishes the gallery of
works of overtly gray, faceless ones, this should alarm"(Bauman, 1977: 61).
Alas, V. Chirkov wrote only about the political aspects of the Night over Chile (1977) by
S. Alacorn (this film dedicated to the tragic events of the military coup of September 11, 1973),
bypassing any artistic analysis in an article (Chirkov, 1977: 69-75).
As before, Cinema Art did not forget to review the movies from the national republics. Very
critical, clearly argued article of A. Vartanov (Vartanov, 1977: 65-77) was about the state of affairs
in Turkmen cinema.
V. Silunas wrote an article about Lithuanian cinema also in the critical way. He gave a
positive opinions about the films No One Wanted to Die, Stairway to Heaven, Hercus Mantas and
Cleaved Sky (Silunas, 1977: 15-40), but wrote about weakness of Saduto-tuto (Silunas, 1977: 29).
Reviewing the drama The White Steamer (1976) by B. Shamshiyev, film critic A. Medvedev
noticed minor shortcomings, but on the whole gave a positive assessment (Medvedev, 1977: 54).
Film History
1977 year was, apparently, not rich in the thoughts of Soviet film theorists. In any case, the
separate heading Film Theory did not become in the journal, and in the available heading Theory
and History, there was no theory either.
But there were a lot of articles on the film history. In this way a large article, filled with many
details, was published by R. Yurenev. It was the text about foreign creative business trip of
S. Eisenstein (Yurenev, 1977). A few years later the material of this article organically entered into
R. Yurenev’s monograph on S. Eisenstein.
R. Yurenev’s article about the creative path of the Soviet director I. Savchenko (1906 –1950)
in general was written in a positive way. I. Savchenko appeared on the pages of this boring article
"the leading, universally recognized, revered Master & Teacher" (Yurenev, 1977: 102).
V. Shklovsky’s article about the Soviet director A. Roome (1894-1976) was written much
more vividly. In it, there was even a reference to the film Strict Youth forbidden by the Soviet
censorship: "A good movie, but it has not yet appeared on screens" (Shklovsky, 1977: 156).
L. Anninsky wrote the interesting article on the topic of Leo Tolstoy and the cinema
(Anninsky, 1977: 131-139): this is a kind of fragment from the future book of L. Anninsky about
Tolstoy and cinematography.
The most unfortunate and trivial article of Cinema Art – 1977 on a historical theme is
probably the text by I. Dubrovina Moral Potential of ordinary character (Dubrovina, 1977: 118-
134), where a lively thought is practically not seen behind the succession of timid, censored
arguments about the film characters of the 1930s-1950s ...
Cinema Sociology
Sociology in the Cinema Art – 1977 was presented by the article of D. Dondurei, where it was
correctly noted that "there is no ideal spectator community that can always adequately perceive
"true art", and, as sociological studies show, there is a clear, constant and constantly repeating
division of the audience into groups. Some, with some degree of approximation, read the
program of the work, given by its creators, decode the artistic "code" of its understanding. Others
demonstrate this type of perception, which experts qualify as inadequate to the author's design. ...
What does a viewer see in this or that film? How to understand the origins, motives and results of
such "unprofessional" perception of art and how to properly assess them? Is such a perception,
despite all its differences from the "true", "prepared", be nevertheless self-valuable – and in its
own way artistic? Or are we still another, negative, second-rate pole of the same "true",
"adequate" perception? These are questions that require special reflection, research" (Dondurei,
1977: 79).
Questions, I agree, are difficult and now…
Another Dondurei’s thesis was as follows: "At the present time, the creation of a film that
would be crowded by viewers of all cultural backgrounds, all social groups, when the most
57
delicate connoisseurs of art will gather in one room, and those who just do not have anything to
do have jumped into the cinema. The creation of such a film is associated with so many
difficulties. The audience of the cinema was stratified, differentiated into different "sub-audience"
according to their attitudes. Is a great art to please all at once" (Dondurei, 1977: 60).
Here, however, the words "at the present time" are somewhat embarrassing. That such a
bundle was not it earlier (for example, in the 1950s - 1960s)? But in general, D. Dondurei is right
that "there must be such a way. For example, the production of multi-layered, multi-oriented
films, like mille feuille cake, which can be read by different social groups in such a way that some
will see a deep comprehension of reality in them, others will be an interesting story from life, and
others – lyrical digressions of the authors. Hence the special structures of the plot collisions, the
inclusion of special themes of "spectator interest", "double bookkeeping" of the artistic structure
of the film, and the like. Such a compact, albeit extremely complex, path will ensure in modern
conditions the social functioning of the picture of its box-office and, at the same time, artistic
prestige" (Dondurei, 1977: 60).
Agree, as if it was written about the melodrama (and Academy Award winner) Moscow Does
Not Believe in Tears (1979) by V. Menshov...
4. Discussion
The editorial board of the Cinema Art – 1977 decided to celebrate the fifth anniversary of the
Resolution of the Soviet Communist Party Central Committee On Literary and Art Criticism
(1972). The editorial article (without any reference to the publication of concrete film specific
critics) wrote: "Many reviews are published (including in the “Cinema Art”), … articles that are
not correlated with the tasks put forward before our time and Communist" (Criticism ..., 1977: 7).
Further Cinema Art published a discussion about the role of film criticism in modern society.
The answers of some film critics (V. Baskakov, V. Zhdan, A. Karaganov) were filled with standard
phrases about socialist realism, ideological struggle, etc. The film critic A. Krasinsky noted that
"you can find many reviews and articles in which a high rating of a particular film is made only
on the basis of the importance and relevance of the topic. In such cases, the very low artistic level
of the film is not taken into account " (Searches ..., 1977: 17). A fair statement, as exemplified by
some of the above-quoted reviews in the Cinema Art – 1977.
The most daring text about Soviet film criticism was written by Y. Khanyutin, reasonably
asserting that "our criticism is rather toothless. Rather, critical courage is manifested, but more
and more for some reason in secondary scenes of secondary directors, or, better, foreign ones. ...
and if you do not like the movie of the leading director, then it's best to bypass the side, keep silent
- and then, as it were, you cannot make trouble!" (Searches ..., 1977: 25).
Yes, Soviet film criticism for discussions (both in 1967 and in 1977) had to carefully select the
material and personalities. Of course, it was impossible even to imagine that in the 1970s a
principal discussion could unfold on the Cinema Art pages, for example, about the films "A Story
of a Communist" (1976) or Thoughts on Kovpak …
But the Cinema Art could afford long discussions about the films not influential directors,
but about, for example, fairy tales films. In 1967, such a discussion film of the year was Aibolit-66
by R. Bykov, in 1977 – The Tale of how Tsar Peter Married the Arap (1976) by A. Mitta.
True, there could be no discussion about The Tale ... if the well-known writer, Nobel prize
laureate M. Sholokhov watched this film in the year of its creation, and not two years later... An
ardent opponent of the film S. Semanov wrote about: "In August 1977, the author of this book
brought this Russophobic film to Sholokhov in Veshenskaya, the writer became very interested in
them" (Semanov, 2006). M. Sholokhov did not like this film, however, he was not in a hurry to
express his opinion in writing, and sent his angry letter to L. Brezhnev only in March 1978, when
the discussion about the film The Tale of how Tsar Peter Married the Arap in Cinema Art,
fortunately, has already ended.
Here is a key extract from M. Sholokhov letter addressed to General Secretary of the Soviet
Communist Party Central Committee Leonid Brezhnev (March 14, 1978): "World Zionism, both
foreign and Soviet, is aggressively attacking the Russian culture. It is widely practiced to drag
through the cinema, television and the press of anti-Russian ideas, discrediting our history and
culture, opposing the Russian socialist. The appearance of “The Tale of how Tsar Peter Married
58
the Arap” by A. Mitta is the symptomatic in this sense. The dignity of the Russian nation is openly
humiliated in this film. Tsar Peter's progressive undertakings are spoiled, Russian history and
our people are ridiculed" (Sholokhov, 1978).
A tangible reaction of the authorities to this letter did not follow. The main reason for this,
apparently, is that by the time of this letter the film The Tale of how Tsar Peter Married the Arap
already widely passed across all Soviet screens, and the post factum prohibition of this movie no
longer made any sense, since such actions would be a clear indication that the authorities "missed"
the appearance of an "ideologically harmful" work ...
But back to the discussion about The Tale ... in the pages of the Cinema Art.
I. Zolotussky reproaching this film for the difference and genre blurring (Zolotussky, 1977:
62). Considering The Tale... as an unsuccessful stylization, I. Zolotussky stressed that talented
"stylization requires not only loyalty to a parodied source, but also a shine of a fake – a brilliance
that would eclipse the original and create the illusion of complete triumph over it. The charm of
stylization in its ambiguity, in unintentional balancing on the verge of seriousness and ridicule"
(Zolotussky, 1977: 63).
I. Rosenfeld, on the contrary, thought that "in the sequence, in the sense of the genre,
A. Mitta, you will not refuse. Moreover, in my opinion, he managed to solve the most complicated
task by introducing into the conditional "action" of Tsar Peter without violating the fabric of
narration, the integrity of the film and, at the same time, not turning the sovereign into a puppet"
(Rosenfeld, 1977: 48). In a similar vein also written by A. Lipkov, who insisted that "it is not the
business of tale to give a comprehensive, psychologically and historically profound analysis"
(Lipkov, 1977: 67).
But L. Onyshko was even more categorical than I. Zolotussky: "Despite the talent and efforts
of the authors, you soon notice that the image of Tsar Peter does not fit into the chosen stylistics of
the movie. He does not need this character here, not this movie. There are, after all, concepts,
images, which do not joke" (Onyshko, 1977: 49).
Y. Seleznev, who considered that "despite the author's attitude to gaiety, the film as a whole
is still boring, because it is monotonous. ... The main reason for the artistic disobedience of the
film is, in my opinion, the artificiality of its internal idea, acting in the form of a scheme"
(Seleznev, 1977: 91).
As a result, as in the case of Aibolit-66, the Cinema Art enabled critics to express different
points of view, thus proving that one can always find a springboard for discussion, even in the
"stagnant" times…
Book reviews
The bibliographic section of the journal was devoted to the analysis of current cinema books.
I.Eventov wrote a review of the monograph by D. Moldavsky With Mayakovsky in the theater and
cinema. The book about Sergei Yutkevich (1975). He marked controversial moments, but in
general considered "it is necessary to appreciate the observations contained in it and analysis, as
well as the core thoughts of the researcher" (Eventov, 1977: 138).
A. Vartanov gave the positive evaluation of A. Macheret’s book Feature film (1975).
The monograph The Golden Section of the Screen (1976) by S. Freilich also had the positive
reaction (Dmitriev, 1977: 114-122).
Other rubrics
The rubric Creative Portraits has a qualified analysis of director's and actor's works of
V. Shukshin (Rudnitsky, 1977: 96-125), the creative path of the actors L. Sverdlin (Varshavsky,
1977; 172-187) and T. Makarova (Yagunkova, 1977: 119-136) and the film critic N. Lebedev (Vlasov,
1977: 171-172). The column On the set included the reports about the filming of Steppe (1977) by
S. Bondarchuk (Tolchenova, 1977: 101-115) and Fate (1977) by E. Matveev (Donets, 1977).
5. Conclusion
So, the analysis of the Cinema Art – 1977 revealed the following main film criticism trends:
- the magazine was unable to preserve the "thawing" tendencies, which were still strong even
in the late 1960s, and in many ways proved to be in the ideological line of the peak of the
L. Brezhnev’s epoch;
59
- At the same time, the journal tried to analyze the most notable works of Soviet cinema,
while, alas, not allowing even in minimal doses a criticism of the shortcomings in the works of the
most "principally" influential at that time the screen masters;
- giving a weighty tribute to the Soviet propaganda pathos, the magazine could afford to
publish the substantive discussions “on certain narrow bridgeheads”.
In general, the Cinema Art in 1977, as in 1967, was part of a typical model of the Soviet
humanitarian journal, which, with significant censorship concessions and powers, tried to retain at
least 50% of the total text for art analysis of the film process.
References
Anninsky, 1977 – Anninsky, L.A. (1977). An apocryphal. Cinema Art, № 3, pp. 131-139.
Baskakov, 1977 – Baskakov, V.E. (1977). Cinematography of socialist realism, and the
falsification of "sovietologists". Cinema Art, № 11. pp. 38-52.
Bauman, 1977 – Bauman, E.V. (1977). Retrogression? Cinema Art, № 1, pp. 52-61.
Chirkov, 1977 – Chirkov, V. (1977). After a night - always the dawn. Cinema Art, № 7, pp. 69-75.
Criticism..., 1977 – Criticism over new boundaries (1977). Cinema Art, № 2, pp. 3-8.
Dmitriev, 1977 – Dmitriev, V. (1977). The humanism of the socialist revolution and cinema.
Cinema Art, № 11, pp. 6-25. N 12, pp. 67-74.
Dmitriev, 1977 – Dmitriev, V. (1977). Weapon theory. Cinema Art, № 5, pp. 114-122.
Dondurei, 1977 – Dondurei, D.B. (1977). Film – “Napoleon”. Cinema Art, № 8, pp. 58-61.
Donets, 1977 – Donets, L.S. (1977). Eternal Flame. Cinema Art, № 2, pp. 78-87.
Dubrovina, 1977 – Dubrovina, I. (1977). Moral Potential of ordinary character. Cinema Art,
№ 2, pp. 118-134.
Eventov, 1977 – Eventov, I. (1977). The synthesis of Arts. Cinema Art, № 2, pp. 135-138.
Film Critics..., 1977 – Film Critics answer questions (1977). Cinema Art , № 2, pp. 9-28.
Freilich, 1976 – Freilich, S.I. (1976). Golden Screen section. Moscow: Art, 360 p.
Ignatieva, 1977 – Ignatieva, N.A. (1977). Life wiser ... Cinema Art, № 2, pp. 47-57.
Inspiring..., 1977 – Inspiring care Party (1977). Cinema Art, № 9, pp. 3-8.
Ishimov, 1977 – Ishimov, V.N. (1977). At the root of trust. Cinema Art, № 6, pp. 54-65.
Javoronkov, 1977 – Javoronkov, G. (1977). I, you, we ... Cinema Art, № 9, pp. 41-52.
Jensen, 1977 – Jensen, T.S. (1977). Memory soul. Cinema Art, № 7, pp. 75-86.
Kichin, 1977 – Kichin, V.S. (1977). Confrontation. Cinema Art, № 1, pp. 41-52.
Khanyutin, 1977 – Khanyutin, Y.M. (1977). The return time. Cinema Art, № 7, pp. 86-97.
Kutorga, Gorchakov, 1977 – Kutorga, Z., Gorchakov, O. (1977). Returned past. Cinema Art,
№ 5, pp. 55-59.
Lipkov, 1977 – Lipkov, A.I. (1977). Elizaveta Uvarova today and tomorrow. Cinema Art, № 2,
pp. 55-72.
Lipkov, 1977 – Lipkov, A.I. (1977). Merry cunning mind. Cinema Art, № 3, pp. 65-72.
Macheret, 1975 – Macheret, A.V. (1975). Feature film. Moscow: Arts, 256 p.
Mamaladze, 1977 – Mamaladze, T. (1977). Empty Soul. Cinema Art, № 8, pp. 16-26.
Mamaladze, 1977 – Mamaladze, T. (1977). Writing on an unexpected topic. Cinema Art,
№ 4, pp. 75-84.
Maryamov, 1977 – Maryamov, A. (1977). Tangent to the plan. Cinema Art, № 8, pp. 27-37.
Medvedev, 1977 – Medvedev, A.N. (1977). In nameless heights. Cinema Art, № 2, pp. 44-55.
Medvedev, 1977 – Medvedev, A.N. (1977). Humanity in the offensive. Cinema Art, № 5.
pp. 36-54.
Modernity..., 1977 – Modernity and the screen (1977). Cinema Art, № 2 , pp. 3-8.
Moldavsky, 1975 – Moldavsky, D. (1975). Mayakovsky in theater and cinema. A book about
Sergei Yutkevich. Moscow.
Onyshko, 1977 – Onyshko, L. (1977). In my opinion, the film lacks nationality. Cinema Art,
№ 12, pp. 49-50.
Pavlenok, 1977 – Pavlenok, B.V. (1977). Entering the jubilee year. Cinema Art, № 1, pp. 6-14.
Rosenfeld, 1977 – Rosenfeld, I. (1977). Topics Development. Cinema Art, № 12, pp. 45-49.
Rudnicki, 1977 – Rudnicki, K.L. (1977). Prose and screen. Cinema Art, № 3, pp. 96-125.
Search..., 1977 – Search and discovery (1977). Cinema Art, № 2, pp. 9-28.
60
Seleznev, 1977 – Seleznev, Y. (1977). What is a dispute? Cinema Art, № 6, pp. 85-92.
Selezneva, 1977 – Selezneva, T. (1977). Notes about cinema memories. Cinema Art, № 3,
pp. 140-149.
Semanov, 2006 – Semanov, S.N. (2006). Brezhnev: the ruler of the "golden age." Moscow:
Veche, 320 p. https://www.litmir.co/br/?b=222362&p=46
Silunas, 1977 – Silunas, V. (1977). Poetry and Truth. Cinema Art, № 1, pp. 15-40.
Shklovsky, 1977 – Shklovsky, V.B. (1977). Thorny let the sun. Cinema Art, № 1, pp. 155-156.
Sholokhov, 1978 – Sholokhov, M.A. (1978). Letter to the General Secretary of Central
Committee of the Soviet Communist Party Leonid Brezhnev. 14.03.1978. In: Semanov,
S.N. Brezhnev: the ruler of the "golden age." Moscow: Veche, 2006. 320 p. https://www.litmir.co
/br/?b=222362&p=46
Stishova, 1977 – Stishova, E.M. (1977). Chronicle and Legend. Cinema Art,. № 9, pp. 30-41.
Stishova, 1977 – Stishova, E.M. (1977). To make a film ... Cinema Art, № 4, pp. 94-103.
Svobodin, 1977 – Svobodin, A.P. (1977). Freestyle Chekhov. Cinema Art, № 10, pp. 121-136.
Tolchenova, 1977 – Tolchenova, N.P. (1977). It's time to Chekhov. Cinema Art, № 7, pp. 86-97.
Tolchenova, 1977 – Tolchenova, N.P. (1977). Happiness total, total mount ... Cinema Art,
№ 12, pp. 31-41.
Troshin, 1977 – Troshin, A.S. (1977). Between the earth and the sky. Cinema Art, № 12,
pp. 21-31.
Turovsky, 1977 – Turovsky, V.S. (1977). The boys went to the front. Cinema Art, № 10,
pp. 114-120.
Unfading..., 1977 – Unfading light October (1977). Cinema Art, № 11, pp. 1-5.
Vartanov, 1977 – Vartanov, A.S. (1977). Film Studies and filmmaking. Cinema Art, № 8,
pp. 101-108.
Vartanov, 1977 – Vartanov, A.S. (1977). New and old Turkmen cinema. Cinema Art, № 6,
pp. 65-77.
Vlasov, 1977 – Vlasov, M.P. (1977). Scientist and Communist. Cinema Art, № 10, pp. 171-172.
Warsawsky, 1977 – Warsawsky, Y.L. (1977). Sverdlin’s principle. Cinema Art, № 11, pp. 172-187.
Yagunkova, 1977 – Yagunkova, L.D. (1977). The fate of the actor – The fate of generations.
Cinema Art, № 7, pp. 119-136.
Yurenev, 1977 – Yurenev, R.N. (1977). He was young. Cinema Art, № 1, pp. 92-124.
Yurenev, 1977 – Yurenev, R.N. (1977). Under alien sky. Cinema Art, № 6, pp. 37-53. N 8,
pp. 62-87.
Zak, 1977 – Zak, M.E. (1977). The frame and the floor to protect. Cinema Art, № 4. pp 84-94.
Zemlyak, 1977 – Zemlyak, V. (1977). Feat. Cinema Art, № 5, pp. 23-36.
Zolotussky, 1977 – Zolotussky, I.P. (1977). "Were carried out with the kings of Pushkin ..."
Cinema Art, № 3, pp. 58-64.
61

Leviathan and Sunstroke: Opinions of the

Russian Film Critics

DOI: 10.13187/ijmil.2017.1.10
CITATIONS READS
0 59
1 author:
Alexander Fedorov
SEE PROFILE
Film Studies and Film Criticism View project

International Journal of Media and Information Literacy, 2017, 2(1)

International Journal of Media and Information Literacy
E-ISSN: 2500-106X
2017, 2(1): 10-16
DOI: 10.13187/ijmil.2017.1.10
www.ejournal46.com
Leviathan and Sunstroke: Opinions of the Russian Film Critics
Abstract
Modern media criticism as a whole based on the hermeneutic approach to the analysis of the
media and media products relying on such key concepts as media agencies, media / media text
categories, media technologies, media languages, media representations and media audiences,
because they all have a direct bearing on the ideological market and structural and substantive
aspects of the analysis of media and media texts. It is interesting to see how these approaches are
implemented in concrete works of Russian film criticism concerning, for example, the two most
controversial films of the last seasons: Sunstroke (2014) by Nikita Mikhalkov and Leviathan (2014)
by Andrei Zvyagintsev.
The key questions of Sunstroke are: What kind of Russia we lost? How and why it happened?
And the key questions of Leviathan are: What kind of Russia we gained? And why is this?
The author of this article analyzed around 60 reviews of Russian critics' community (mainly of the
leading, most active and visible). They were (very) roughly divided into two groups: texts from the
authors of liberal wing, and texts from the authors of the conservative wing.
The main conclusion: Leviathan and Sunstroke, in fact, has become an indicator of the
political stratification of Russian film criticism: in many cases, films were analyzed, first of all, not
as a works of art, but as social and ideological messages. However, this is not surprising, because of
the bundle of Russian film critics' community. However, the Russian mass audience as a whole is
much more conservative than media criticism community. And, of course which is more focused on
entertainment component of media culture (and the lack of interest of the vast audience in serious
problems eloquently showed modest box-offices of Leviathan and Sunstroke).
Keywords: film criticism, media criticism, Russia, cinema, movie, film, Leviathan,
Sunstroke.
1. Introduction
Modern media criticism as a whole based on the hermeneutic approach to the analysis of the
media and media products (Bazalgette, 1995; Fedorov, 2010; 2012; Eco, 2005: 209; Silverblatt,
2001: 80-81) relying on such key concepts as media agencies, media/media text categories, media
technologies, media languages, media representations and media audiences, because they all have
a direct bearing on the ideological market and structural and substantive aspects of the analysis of
media and media texts (Eco, 2005: 209).
E-mail addresses: mediashkola@rambler.ru (A. Fedorov)
10
I think interesting to see how these approaches are implemented in concrete works of
Russian film criticism concerning, for example, the two most controversial films of the last seasons:
Sunstroke (2014) by Nikita Mikhalkov and Leviathan (2014) by Andrei Zvyagintsev.
The key questions of Sunstroke are: What kind of Russia we lost? How, and why it happened?
And the key questions of Leviathan are: What kind of Russia we gained? And why is this?

The main sources for writing this article became the materials of the journal and Internet
publications. The study used the basic methods: the problem and situational, systemic and the
comparative method. The use of these methods allows to reproduce assessment approach to the
problem of the film studies. Comparative method defines the difference in views on actual Russian
film criticism situation. I analyzed around 60 reviews of Russian critics' community (mainly of the
leading, most active and visible). They were (very) roughly divided into two groups: texts from the
authors of liberal wing, and texts from the authors of the conservative wing.
3. Discussion
Opinions of critics' community about ideology in the sociocultural context (how the media
text reflects, reinforces, inspire, or generates the values, behaviors, attitudes, concerns, myths).
The dominant concepts are: media agency, media representation, media audience)
Most rigid Russian film critics of in the liberal wing noted with pleasure the Leviathan’s total
pessimism view of contemporary Russia (Matizen, 2015; Tyrkin, 2015). But some liberal film critics
believed that, despite all pessimism, Leviathan gave the audience positive catharsis (Pavluchik,
2015; Dolin, 2014). A significant part of film critics positively celebrated the Leviathan’s clear
anticlerical pathos (Gireiev, 2015).
However, thoughtful expert opinion leads to a much more profound interpretation of
Leviathan in the social and cultural context (Shemyakin, 2015; Solntseva, 2015; Stishova 2014).
For example: "Attempts back to the late Medieval and restore the inviolable union of church and
state secularism (in the name of social and political stability) inevitably revive the anticlerical of
thinking part of the social organism" (Razlogov, 2014).
And from there it spreads the bridge to the main topic of Leviathan: personal responsibility
of each of us for “what Russia we gained” (Ivanov, 2015; Plakhov, 2015).
But it would be a significant exaggeration to say that the Leviathan has received full and
unconditional support of the Russian film criticism liberal wing. On the one hand, some critics saw
(rightly, for my opinion) the Leviathan’s overlaps (Malukova, 2014). On the other hand, the
authors of Leviathan received the reproaches in the aesthetic varnishing of reality and the
straightness of the critical promise (Zelvenskii, 2015; Maslova, 2015). M. Bezruk accused the
Leviathan of speculation and opportunism (Bezruk, 2015). And even, perhaps, the most famous
among liberal media critics' community (and not only) – Dmitry Bykov, blames the Leviathan in
the secondary and the inner emptiness (Bykov, 2015).
Russian film criticism of the conservative wing, unlike the Liberals, could not forgive the
Leviathan anticlerical attacks: (Yampolskaya, 2015). Sophisticated connoisseurs of world cinema
does not miss an opportunity to sneer at the author's ambitions of A. Zvyagintsev (Trofimenkov,
2015). Moreover, as liberals, conservative critics, also criticized the film's political opportunism
(Moskvina, 2015).
Naturally, that liberal film critics (who have long been hostile to director Nikina Mikhalkov)
expressed a negative opinion about Sunstroke. Among the most common words used in reviews as
guilty: propaganda, banality, nationalist, anti-Darwinist, monarchist, etc. (Bezruk, 2014;
Gladilschikov, 2014; Plakhov 2014; Solntseva, 2014).
One of the leading arguments against the Sunstroke author's concept became a liberal
reproach to Nikita Mikhalkov that he supported “red communists” in his films of the 1970s, and
now he supports “whites and monarchy”, but always – "God-given" power (Bykov, 2014; Kichin,
2014; Matezen, 2014; Pavluchik 2014). However, some film critics wrote that they are bored to
assess the ideology and philosophy of the authors of Sunstroke, since they do not see any artistic
merit in this movie (Zelvensky, 2014).
As a result, it seems, the only discordant note has become in the consolidated opinion of the
liberal film criticism: A. Dolin’s replica: "Words "Three hours of emptiness" and "What for?" talk
11
about the inability to elemental analysis, sorry. The essence of the Sunstroke is simple and
transparent, it is stated in two words: Russian Titanic. Fleeting love story on a ship and shipwreck
in the final, which means deluge, end of the world, and the punishment for sin. The one-piece
structure and distinct idea, which is difficult to argue"(Dolin, 2014).
Admirers of N. Mikhalkov’s movies from the ranks of the conservative film criticism use the
complimentary words and phrases in relation to the Sunstroke: perfect, great, bog cinema event,
talent, artist, etc. (Danilova, 2014; Moskvina, 2014; Omecinskaya 2014; Surikov, 2014; Vladimirov,
2014; Yampolskaya, 2014).
Further, in response to many of the cited above reproach liberals, film criticism of the
conservative wing confidently argue that Sunstroke is not propaganda, but a complex and multi-
valued work of art (Rutkovsky, 2014; Tolkunova, 2014).
Opinions of film critics' community about the market conditions that contributed to the
process of creating a media text (the dominant concepts: media agency, media technology, media
audience, media / media texts category)
In general, film criticism of the liberal wing (simultaneously arguing with the conservative
part of the audience) agree that Leviathan due to socio-critical orientation was in the center of the
political debate in media (Belikov, 2015; Bogomolov, 2015; Malukov, 2015; Pavluchik, 2015;
Plakhov, 2015).
Some critics have tried to uncover the reasons why the film was non-adequately received by
the West: "West Europe did not understand the main thing: that the Leviathan is not just a story
about a creepy private injustice, but also a political statement about the nature of modern Russia"
(Gladilschikov, 2015).
As for the most consistent opponents of Leviathan, they angered state financial support for
the film, which have so radically critical position to donor (Yampolskaya, 2015).
Film criticism of the liberal wing noted with satisfaction the low box office of very expensive
Sunstroke (budget: $ 21 million, box-office: $ 1.7 million, https://www.kinopoisk.ru/film/586308
/box/) against much less budget of Leviathan (budget: $ 3,7 million, box-office: $ 2.5 million,
https://www.kinopoisk.ru/film/705356/) (Bezruk, 2014).
Curiously, the film criticism of the conservative wing is not as primitive as it seems, for
example, Y. Bogomolov (Bogomolov, 2014). They ironically notice that their liberal colleagues have
the real "herd instinct" against the Sunstroke (Omecinskaya 2014).
Opinions film critics' community about the characters of media texts, their values, ideas,
behavior, appearance, vocabulary, facial expressions, gestures, degree of stereotyping (the
dominant concepts: media representation, media / media text category, media technology, media
audience).
Film criticism of the liberal wing did not stint on the praise for the entire ensemble cast in
Leviathan (Dolin, 2014; Kuvshinov 2014; Malukov, 2015; Plakhov 2014). For some reason they do
not notice a distinct secondary actors' images created in the Leviathan: the works of the actress
E. Liadova (she recently played a similar role in the movie The Geographer Drank His Globe
Away), actor A. Serebryakov (he played a lot of these fierce and nervous men over the past 20
years) and actor R. Madyanov (in his collection also a lot of similar nasty characters).
But some film critics accurately noticed that almost all the characters in Leviathan flawed,
and not all may evoke viewers’ sympathy (Razlogov 2014; Kudryavtsev, 2015) and pay attention to
the ambivalence of these characters, even the most, seems to be negative (Ivanov, 2015).
Film criticism of the conservative wing immediately recovered the secondary image of the
Leviathan’s characters (Razlogova, 2014). The film also received accusations of improbability: in
the nature of the character, and in their everyday life (Trofimenkov, 2015; Yampolskaya, 2015).
Although I can say that the film critics of the all "wings" are often jointly note that almost
without exception, the Leviathan’s characters do not cause any sympathy (Moskvina, 2015).
Yes, liberal criticism relates enthusiastically to the cast of Leviathan, but their relation to the
actors and the characters of Sunstroke was ironical and negative (Bezruk 2014; Kichin, 2014;
Matizen, 2014).
12
Of course, the views of the film criticism conservative wing about the characters and the
actors of Sunstroke was differ from liberal. Acting rated as brilliant, successful, wonderful,
excellent, etc. (Haknazarov, 2014; Moskvina, 2014; Omecinskaya, 2014; Rutkovsky, 2014;
Tolkunova, 2014).
E. Yampolskaya makes in the course of analysis of Sunstroke’s characters the conclusion: we
must to rise above the fray of red and white, because no heroes in the civil wars, all people are the
victims (Yampolskaya, 2015).
Opinions of film critics' community on the structure and narrative techniques in a media text (the
dominant concepts: category of media / media texts, media technology, media language, media
representation)
The main figure responsible for the structure and narrative techniques in the film is director,
and Russian film critics of the liberal wing, as a rule, do not skimp on compliments (talented,
courageous, powerful, virtuoso, polyphonic, wonderful, uncompromising, etc.) (Dolin, 2014;
Plakhov, 2014; Stishova, 2014).
But in spite of such praises, some liberal film critics (and not so little) more subdued
evaluating artistic result achieved in the Leviathan (thrift, straightness, superficiality, slurred,
scarcity, falsity, emotional coldness, dramatic inconsistencies, etc.) (Bezruk, 2015; Bykov, 2015;
Gireiev, 2015; Razlogov, 2014; Timofeevsky, 2015; Zelvensky, 2015).
Perhaps it is someone will seem paradoxical, but film critics of the conservative wing were as
close as possible to their most critically-minded liberal fellow in the evaluation of the artistic level
of Leviathan (conservative critics use the words such as straightness, boredom, dramatic
discrepancies, stamp, serial, etc.) (Kulanin, 2015; Loshakova, 2015; Moskvina, 2015; Rutkovsky,
2014; Yampolskaya, 2015).
So, liberal media criticism quite clearly divided into two camps in relation to the artistic level
of Leviathan: the unconditional fans and those who are considered Leviathan a step backwards
compared with previous works A. Zvyagintsev (The Return, Exile, and Elena). But not very many
disagreements are among the liberals on the Sunstroke: in general, all the opinions are negative
(heaviness, strained, weak, secondary, slowness, boredom, illustrative, tasteless, vulgar,
dishonesty, false, anti-liberal propaganda, obsessive self-citations, etc) (Bezruk 2014; Bykov, 2014;
Gireiev, 2014; Maslova, 2014; Zabaluev, 2014; Zelvensky, 2014).
Some liberal film critics very negatively responded to the erotic scenes in the Sunstroke.
Critics considered this scene almost vulgar parody (Ivanov, 2014; Matizen 2014; Tyrkin, 2014).
However, A. Dolin and V. Kichin several alleviate this critical blows, noting the artistry of the
analyzed media text (Dolin, 2014; Kichin, 2014).
And of course, some of the liberal film critics' community did not escape the temptation to
blame of Nikita Mikhalkov. They accused him of losing the creative form (Kudryavtsev, 2014;
Stishova, 2014).
Naturally, film critics of the conservative wing very positive appreciated the artistic level of
Sunstroke, arguing that Mikhalkov did not lost his skill and talent (Haknazarov, 2014;
Omecinskaya, 2014; Rutkovsky, 2014; Surikov, 2014; Yampolskaya, 2015).
4. Results
So, the result of the analysis, manifested in the fact that the approach of the Russian film
critics clearly delineated political and ideological criteria. Film critics of conservative and liberal
distributed in most cases into two irreconcilable camps. Such a distinction is quite typical for
today's Russian journalism. This is typical, of course, not only film studies, but in general, in media
criticism. On the one side there are a film/media critics' community groups advocating Western-
style liberal values, on the other hand - their colleagues who hold conservative positions and
special way of Russia's status.
5. Conclusion
So, Leviathan and Sunstroke, in fact, has become an indicator of the political stratification of
Russian film criticism: in many cases, films were analyzed, first of all, not as a works of art, but as
social and ideological messages. However, this is not surprising, because of the bundle of Russian
13
film critics' community. However, the Russian mass audience as a whole is much more
conservative than media criticism community. And, of course which is more focused on
entertainment component of media culture (and the lack of interest of the vast audience in serious
problems eloquently showed modest box-offices of Leviathan and Sunstroke)...
6. Acknowledgements
Article was written as part of research with the financial support of the grant of the Russian
Scientific Foundation. Project № 14-18-00014 «Synthesis of media education and media criticism
in the process of preparing future teachers," performed at the Taganrog Institute of Management
and Economics.
References
Bazalgette, 1995 – Bazalgette, C. (1995). Key aspects of media education. Moscow: Russian
Association for Film and Media Education, 51 p.
Belikov, 2015 – Belikov, E. (2015). Leviathan is Rusofobia’s serpent. 05.02.2015.
http://meownauts.com/leviathan-review/
Bezruk, 2014 – Bezruk, M. (2014). Sunstroke: Nasty anecdote. Tribune. 16.11.2014.
http://tribuna.ru/news/2014/11/16/55776/
Bezruk, 2015 – Bezruk, M. (2015). Leviathan, spitting into the soul. Tribune. 17.01.2015.
Bogomolov, 2014 – Bogomolov, Y. (2014). Sunstroke in the service of the anti-liberal
propaganda. 12.10.2014. http://www.echo.msk.ru/blog/bogomolov_y/1416986-echo/
Bogomolov, 2015 – Bogomolov, Y. (2015). Leviathan continues to intrigue. Echo of Moscow.
http://www.echo.msk.ru/blog/bogomolov_y/1482068-echo/
Bykov 2014 – Bykov D. (2014). Pant. Profile. 10.10.2014. https://ru-
ru.facebook.com/BykovDmitriyLvovich/posts/841875235856637
Bykov, 2015 – Bykov, D. (2015). All has died for a long time, including the Leviathan, that the
worst. Novaya Gazeta. № 2. 14.01.2015. http://www.novayagazeta.ru/arts/66790.html
Danilova, 2014 – Danilova, E. (2014). No ready answers. There is no right or wrong.
Ogonyok. N 40, p. 40. http://www.kommersant.ru/doc/2583718
Dolin, 2014 – Dolin, A. (2014). Cannes 2014. Day Ten: punk prayer Zvyagintsev. 23.05.2014.
http://vozduh.afisha.ru/cinema/den-desyatyy-pankmoleben-zvyaginceva/
Dolin, 2014 – Dolin, A. (2014). Mikhalkov. Abstracts. 08.10.2014.
https://www.facebook.com/adolin3/posts/10204176005176576
Dolin, 2014 – Dolin, A. (2014). Three Valleys Whale. Cinema Art. № 7.
http://kinoart.ru/archive/2014/07/tri-kita-leviafan-rezhisser-andrej-zvyagintsev
Eco, 2005 – Eco, U. (2005). The role of the reader. Research on the semiotics of the text. St.
Petersburg: Symposium, 502 p.
Fedorov, 2010 – Fedorov, A. (2010). Umberto Eco and Semitic theory of media education.
Innovations in Education, № 5, pp. 56-61.
Fedorov, 2012 – Fedorov, A. (2012). The Contemporary Mass Media Educationi in Russia: In
Search For New Theoretical Conceptions And Models. Acta Didactica Napocensia, N 1, pp. 53-64.
Gireev, 2015 – Gireev, I. (2015). Bunin’s motifs. Your leisure. 09.10.2014.
http://www.vashdosug.ru/cinema/movie/551046/tab-reviews/review74524/
Gireev, 2015 – Gireev, I. (2015). Leviathan: the final diagnosis. Your leisure. 14.01.2015.
http://www.vashdosug.ru/cinema/movie/546098/tab-reviews/review74937/
Gladilschikov, 2014 – Gladilschikov, Y. (2014). Why Mikhalkov needed Bunin. Forbes.
9.10.2014. Http://stengazeta.net/?p=10041411
Gladilschikov, 2015 – Gladilschikov, Y. (2015). Leviathan against Leviathan. New Time.
http://www.newtimes.ru/articles/detail/92746
Haknazarov, 2014 – Haknazarov, E. (2014). 89 circles of hell: Sunstroke by Nikita
Mikhalkov. Fontanka.ru. 11.10.2014. http://calendar.fontanka.ru/articles/1848/
Ivanov, 2014 – Ivanov, B. (2014). Mr. Little officer. Film.ru.
http://www.film.ru/articles/gospodin-oficerik
Ivanov, 2015 – Ivanov, B. (2015). Laughter and Grief by the White Sea. Film.ru. 29.01.2015.
http://www.film.ru/articles/smeh-i-gore-u-bela-morya
14
Kichin, 2014 – Kichin, V. (2014). Kick to the Bunin’s solar plexus. 10.10.2014. http://valery-
kichin.livejournal.com/488564.html
Kudryavtsev, 2014 – Kudryavtsev, S. (2014). Worst in Sunstroke is Sunstroke! 05.11.2014.
http://kinanet.livejournal.com/3497539.html
Kudryavtsev, 2015 – Kudryavtsev, S. (2015). Leviathan in all of us.
Kulanin, 2015 – Kulanin, R. (2015). Much Ado About Nothing. Afisha.ru. 30.01.2015.
https://afisha.mail.ru/cinema/movies/812117_leviafan/#review
Kuvshinova, 2014 – Kuvshinova, M. (2014). Cannes 2014: Leviathan by Andrei Zvyagintsev.
Seance. 23.05.2014. http://seance.ru/blog/reviews/canne2014-leviafan/
Loshakova, 2015 – Loshakova, D. (2015). Leviathan: all shades of gray.
http://weburg.net/news/51901
Malukov, 2015 – Malukov, M. (2015). Leviathan: The skeleton of the soul. 12.10.2015.
http://www.ovideo.ru/%D0%A0%D0%B5%D1%86%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B7%D0%B8%D1%8F
_%D0%BD%D0%B0_ % D1% 84% D0% B8% D0% BB% D1% 8C% D0% BC_% D0% 9B% D0%
B5% D0% B2% D0% B8% D0% B0% D1% 84% D0% B0% D0 % BD_1
Malukova, 2014 – Malukova, L. (2014). Malukova, L. (2014). Leviathan: what system are her
drinking companions. Novaya Gazeta. № 56. 26.05.2014.
http://www.novayagazeta.ru/arts/63712.html
Maslova, 2014 – Maslova, L. (2014). For the Motherland, for the old. Kommersant, № 185.
13.10.2014, p. 14. http://kommersant.ru/doc/2588555
Maslova, 2015 – Maslova, L. (2015). Whales our grave. Kommersant, № 18. 04.02.2015, p.
11. http://kommersant.ru/doc/2659827
Matizen, 2014 – Matizen, V. (2014). Sun in apoplexy. Novye Izvestia. 13.10.2014.
http://www.newizv.ru/culture/2014-10-13/208881-solnce-v-apopleksicheskom-udare.html
Matiezen, 2015 – Matiezen, V. (2015). Great monster in the spotlight. Novye Izvestia.
14.01.2015. http://www.newizv.ru/culture/2015-01-14/212968-chudishe-oblo-v-svete-sofitov.html
Moskvina, 2014 – Moskvina, T. (2014). Sunstroke by Nikita Mikhalkov. The Hollywood
Reporter. 02.10.2014. http://thr.ru/features/5081/
Moskvina, 2015 – Moskvina, T. (2015). Andrei Zvyagintsev in the historic paperback.
Arguments of the Week, № 4. 5.02.2015. http://argumenti.ru/culture/n473/387917
Omecinskaya, 2014 – Omecinskaya, E. (2014). Someone has to pull up the bell-ringer. SK-
News, № 10, p. 12.
Pavluchik, 2014 – Pavluchik, L. (2014). Sunstroke or a solar eclipse? Trud, № 144.
14.10.2014. http://www.trud.ru/index.php/article/14-10-
2014/1318473_solnechnyj_udar_ili_solnechnoe_zatmenie.html
Pavluchik, 2015 – Pavluchik, L. (2015). Leviathan lives near us. 06/02/2015.
http://kinopressa.ru
Plakhov, 2014 – Plakhov, A. (2014). Keith from the abyss of the absurd. Leviathan on the
Cote d'Azur. Kommersant. 24.05. 2014. http://www.kommersant.ru/doc/2478727
Plakhov, 2014 – Plakhov, A. (2014). Russia edged sword. Kommersant, № 187. 15.10.2014,
p. 14. http://www.kommersant.ru/doc/2589474
Plakhov, 2015 – Plakhov, A. (2015). Opinions of polar. Leviathan was the subject of
passionate debate - from canonization to demonize. Kommersant. Power, N 2, p. 46.
http://kommersant.ru/doc/2643485
Razlogov, 2014 – Razlogov, K. (2014). Leviathan in the multidimensional space of culture.
SK-News, № 8, p. 10.
Razlogova, 2014 – Razlogova, M. (2014). Marine scarecrow. Musical true, № 10.
http://www.newlookmedia.ru/?p=36945
Rutkovsky, 2014 – Rutkovsky, V. (2014). Mikhalkov Time: 8 reasons to watch Sunstroke.
Snob. 13.10.2014. http://snob.ru/selected/entry/82207?preview=print
Rutkovsky, 2015 – Rutkovsky, V. (2015). Review of the film Leviathan.
http://seance.ru/blog/reviews/press_leviathan/
Shemyakin, 2015 – Shemyakin, A. (2015). Few considerations about Leviathan. 14.01.2015.
https://www.facebook.com/shemyakins/posts/10205913277421005
15
Silverblatt, 2001 – Silverblatt, A. (2001). Media Literacy. Westport, Connecticut - London:

Praeger, 449 p.
Solntseva, 2014 – Solntseva, A. (2014). White-red war yellow-blue-red lining. Novaya
Gazeta, № 114. 10.10.2014. http://www.novayagazeta.ru/arts/65627.html
Solntseva, 2015 – Solntseva, A. (2015). Jaws Empire. Gazeta.ru. 01/13/2015.
http://www.gazeta.ru/comments/column/solnceva/6374461.shtml
Stishova, 2014 – Stishova, E. (2014). Decalogue by Andrei Zvyagintsev. Cinema Art, № 7.
http://kinoart.ru/archive/2014/07/dekalog-ot-andreya-zvyagintseva
Stishova, 2014 – Stishova, E. (2014). How did it all happen? 13.10.2014.
http://kinoart.ru/blogs/kak-vse-eto-sluchilos
Surikov, 2014 – Surikov, V. (2014). Pier of broken hearts. Expert, № 43.
http://expert.ru/expert/2014/43/pristan-razbityih-serdets/
Timofeevsky, 2015 – Timofeevsky, A. (2015). Review of the film Leviathan.
http://seance.ru/blog/reviews/press_leviathan/
Tolkunova, 2014 – Tolkunova, A. (2014). Blow from Mikhalkov. Musical true, № 20.
Trofimenkov, 2015 – Trofimenkov, M. (2015). Skeleton suitcase. Kommersant Weekend, №
3. 30.01.2015, p. 18. http://kommersant.ru/doc/2650884?isSearch
Tyrkin, 2014 – Tyrkin, S. (2014). Very dark alley.
http://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache:5C0FLJbadYoJ:gorodakterov.com.ua/ar
ticle.php%3Far_adr%3Darticle3169860+&cd=5&hl=ru&ct=clnk&gl=ru
Tyrkin, 2015 – Tyrkin, S. (2015). Clinical portrait. Komsomolskaya Pravda. 01/13/2015.
http://www.kp.ru/daily/26235.7/3117203/
Vladimirov, 2014 – Vladimirov, S. (2014). Sunstroke by Mikhalkov: a film-pilgrimage.
Komsomolskaya Pravda. 13.01.2014. http://www.kp.ru/daily/26294.5/3172010/
Yampolskaya, 2014 – Yampolskaya, E. (2014). A little sun in cold water. Culture. 10.10.2014.
http://portal-kultura.ru/articles/cinema/64168-nemnogo-solntsa-v-kholodnoy-
vode/?print=Y&CODE=64168-nemnogo-solntsa-v-kholodnoy-vode
Yampolskaya, 2015 – Yampolskaya, E. (2015). Defamation whale. Culture. 24.01.2015.
http://devec.ru/kultura/kino/1755-elena-jampolskaja-kleveta-na-kita.html
Zabaluev, 2014 – Zabaluev, Y. (2014). Treason and Homeland. Gazeta.ru. 07.10.2014.
http://www.gazeta.ru/culture/2014/10/07/a_6253261.shtml
Zelvensky, 2014 – Zelvensky, S. (2014). Sunstroke by Nikita Mikhalkov: drowned. Afisha.ru.
09.10.2014. http://vozduh.afisha.ru/cinema/solnechnyy-udar-nikity-mihalkova-ona-utonula/
Zelvensky, 2015 – Zelvensky, S. (2015). Parable of the life of the Russian province. Afisha.ru.
http://www.afisha.ru/personalpage/191661/review/581990/
Zelvensky, 2015 – Zelvensky, S. (2015). Premiere Week of Leviathan: perfect movie for
trolling Russian era. 4.02.2015. Your leisure. http://vozduh.afisha.ru/cinema/leviafan-film-s-
koncepciey-no-bez-serdca/
16

SCHOOL AND UNIVERSITY IN THE MIRROR OF

AUDIOVISUAL MEDIA TEXTS: BASIC
APPROACHES TO THE RE....
CITATIONS READS
8 164
3 authors, including:

All content following this page was uploaded by Alexander Fedorov on 04 July 2017.

Fedorov A., Levitskaya A., Gorbatkova O. School and university in the mirror of audiovisual media texts: basic
approaches to the research problem. Media Education. 2017. № 2, pp. 187-206.
SCHOOL AND UNIVERSITY IN THE MIRROR OF AUDIOVISUAL MEDIA

TEXTS: BASIC APPROACHES TO THE RESEARCH PROBLEM *

Rostov State University of Economics,
B. Sadovaya, 69, Rostov on Don, 347902, Russia
Dr. Anastasia Levitskaya,

Taganrog Institute of Management and Economics,
Petrovskaya, 45, Taganrog, 237900, Russia
tina5@rambler.ru
Dr. Olga Gorbatkova

gorbatckova.olga@yandex.ru
Abstract. In the course of the hermeneutic analysis of media texts on school and university in the
1920s and the first half of the 1950s, the authors of the article come to the conclusion that the Soviet
cinema, which relied on the communist ideology:
1) in the 1920s: the Soviet cinema tried to portray children, adolescents, and youth as principled
ideological fighters (and the example for many backward adults) for Soviet power and atheism, for
strengthening the pioneer movement, for sports records; fighters against different types of enemies,
illiteracy and homelessness, rather than ordinary schoolchildren, engrossed in the learning process and
carefree games;
2) in the 1930s and early 1940s: the Soviet cinema mostly showed schoolchildren-fighters: with
saboteurs and other enemies of people; with German invaders; with negligent and conceited pupils;
3) in the second half of the 1940s and the first half of the 1950s: the Soviet cinema highlighted
the most mild “fighting” version of the plot (the fighting with negligent and conceited pupils);
4) by the mid-1930s: the Soviet cinema formed a screen image of an ideal teacher, a faithful
conductor of the communist doctrine, respected by the state and society, a skillful professional in his
field;
5) the Soviet cinema used stereotypical storylines, role and gender character profiles in films
about school, without seeking at the same time the psychological depth of the narrative.
Keywords: film, USSR, school topic, school, students, school children, teacher, cinematography,
cinema.
* This research was funded by the grant of the Russian Science Foundation (RSF, project No. 17-18-
01001) at the Rostov State University of Economics. Project theme: “School and university in the mirror
of Soviet, Russian and Western audiovisual media texts”. Head of the project is Professor Alexander
Fedorov.

Introduction
The relevance of the research topic is highlighted by the following reasons:

audiovisual media (cinematography, television, and the internet) are effective
means of affecting the audience, especially school children and youth (due to their
age peculiarities and a high degree of their media contacts); in recent decades
187
Russian schools and universities have significantly been altered and reformed and
are still the focal point of vigorous debates; consequently, the analysis of school
and university topic transformation in the mirror of Soviet, Russian and Western
audiovisual media texts is highly topical nowadays both for culture studies, film
studies and media education.
Materials and Methods
Our research material is audiovisual media texts about school and

university; we plan to use a comparative hermeneutic analysis of audiovisual
media texts relating to the topic (including stereotypes analysis, ideological
analysis, identification analysis, iconographic analysis, narrative analysis of media
texts, media text’s character analysis, etc.), anthropological and gender analyses.
For this purpose we will understand the concept “media text” in the context
that “definitions of media texts have moved far away from the traditional view of
text as words printed in ink on pieces of paper to take on a far broader definition to
include speech, music and sound effects, image and so on... Media texts, then,
reflect the technology that is available for producing them” [Bell, 1996, p. 3].
Obviously, in this respect, we imply that an audiovisual media text (in cinema, on
television, on the internet) above all relies on the above-listed audiovisual images.
The research objective is to provide a holistic characteristic, reveal the
peculiarities, and identify the place, role and importance of the school and
university topic in the mirror of Soviet, Russian and Western audiovisual media
texts both for culture studies, film studies and media education through a
comparative analysis.
The object of research is the evolvement of the topic – school and university
in the mirror of Soviet, Russian and Western audiovisual media texts.
The subject matter of this study is the transformation of key conceptions,
stereotyped models (by which we mean a generalized representation of various
phenomena in a graphic and descriptive form) of the school and university topic in
the mirror of media texts.
The research hypothesis is that classification and a comparative analysis of
content models, genre modifications, stereotypes of media texts on school and
university will enable us to conclude about cultural, pedagogical, sociocultural
lessons of this topic transformation; forecast the development of the topic; launch a
teacher training course on the project’s subject.
We plan to use hermeneutic analysis methods of media texts suggested by
C. Bazalgette [Bazalgette, 1995], A. Silverblatt [Silverblatt, 2001, pp. 80-81] and
U. Eco [Eco, 2005, p. 209] giving due consideration to such key media education
concepts as media agencies, media/media text categories, media technologies,
media languages, media representations, and media audiences.
188
Discussion
Our research problem results from a contradiction between a

comparatively high investigation level of the school and university topic in Soviet
audiovisual media texts of the 1960s – 1980s (primarily in cinematography) by
Soviet researchers [Baranov, 1979; Gromov, 1982; Kabo, 1974; Levshina, 1978,
1989; Paramonova, 1975, 1976; Penzin, 1973, 1986; Rabinovich, 1969; Rybak,
1980; Stroeva, 1962; Tolstykh, 1988; Usov, 1980, et al.] and insufficient attention
to a comparative analysis of the topic evolution in Russian audiovisual media from
the Soviet period to the present day [Arkus, 2010; Zharikova, 2015; Shipulina,
2010]. Moreover, such kind of analysis has not been linked by Russian researchers
to a similar foreign material. On the other hand, foreign scholars [Bauer, 1998;
Dalton, 1999; Farber & Holm, 1994; Keroes, 1999; Trier, 2001, et al.] who
analyzed the school and university topic in audiovisual media texts did not attempt
to compare the Western production of this kind to the Russian one.
It should be noted that Soviet works about school and university in the
mirror of audiovisual media not infrequently were deeply influenced by the
communist ideology (especially it concerns works by K. Paramonova and Yu.
Rabinovich) that, in our opinion, prevented an in-depth analysis of the topic for
culture studies, film studies and media studies.
Foreign researchers in the first place were more interested in the political
analysis of Soviet and post-Soviet media texts [Dubois, 2007; Kenez, 1992;
Lawton, 2004; Shaw & Youngblood, 2010; Shlapentokh, 1993; Strada, 1989;
Strada & Troper, 1997] rather than in the analysis of school and university on the
screen.
Neither Russian nor foreign researchers have approached the media
education aspect of the comparative analysis of school and university in the mirror
of Soviet, Russian and Western audiovisual media texts (in the cinema, on
television, on the internet) so far. However, in our opinion, it is very useful both
for education studies and culture studies, especially for training future teachers,
cultural specialists, psychologists, sociologists, etc.
It stands to reason that reading of any media text is changeable and subject
to political regimes fluctuations. Hence, it becomes clear that Soviet publicistic and
academic literature about school and university in the mirror of audiovisual media
[Baranov, 1979; Gromov, 1982; Kabo, 1974, 1978; Paramonova, 1975, 1976;
Penzin, 1973, 1986; Rabinovich, 1969, 1991; Soloveitchik, 1975; Stroeva, 1962, et
al.] very often were based on communist ideological approaches.
Let us site a passage from a book by one of media education leaders of the
Soviet period – Y. Rabinovich (1918-1990): “The Communist party of the regional
committee has adopted the course program… It concerns the university audience –
future propagandists of the Marxist-Leninist theory, leaders of political education
circles. That is why methodological issues are addressed in detail. … By way of
example, one unit from the course “Introduction”: “Soviet multinational art” is an
active assistant of the Communist party in shaping people’s views and beliefs.
Socialist realism is a creative method of the Soviet film art. V. Lenin considered
189
the cinema to be one of the most important arts. Regulations of the Communist
party and the Soviet government about literature and art… Art in the USSR and
socialist countries in combating the bourgeois commercial cinematography,
aspirations of progressive film artists of capitalist countries to reach true
representation of reality” [Rabinovich, 1991, p. 86].
Media texts about school and university used to be analyzed in the Soviet
time mostly from that standpoint. For instance, K. Paramonova (1916-2005),
Professor of the Film Institute VGIK, when analyzing films about school children
wrote in the 1970s that “cinema artists must promote raising communism builders
by their films who are wholly developed, well-bred, tenacious and vigorous,
selflessly devoted to the Soviet motherland and Lenin’s party. … Questions of
morality and ethics, the ideal that young citizens of our country should follow – all
this is also reflected in many films” [Paramonova, 1975, p. 21].
However, much fewer ideology-driven works which used some films
about school at media studies were published in the Soviet period [Levshina, 1989;
Penzin, 1986; Rybak, 1980; Usov, 1980, et al.].
In the post-Soviet years, researchers preferred to ignore media
interpretation of school and university. Some attempts to reflect on this topic from
a new perspective were made, for example, by L. Arcus [Arcus, 2010] and N.
Shipulina [Shipulina, 2010].
O. Grigorieva (2007), T. Mitina (2015), T. Suspitzina (2002) and others
explored the teacher’s image in the context of visual anthropology and gender
studies. But again – it was done chiefly on the material of feature films.
One of the few articles that are not only about an onscreen but also about a
media image of the teacher belongs to A.A. Machenin (2016). But here again he
mainly explores a media representation of the teacher’s image rather that the
school and university topic in general but on modern material. By the way, both
A.A. Machenin and N.B. Shipulina and some others, in our opinion, rightly point
out that beginning from the 1970s – 1980s one can feel a significant decline of the
social and moral status of the teacher on the screen.
So, it should be noted that modern Russian and Soviet researchers dealt
mainly with cinematography, as a rule, ignoring other audiovisual media including
TV and the internet. But the main thing is that neither the researchers of Soviet nor
the researchers of post-Soviet audiovisual media texts set a goal to use a
comparative analysis for characterizing, describing the peculiarities, defining the
place and role of the school and university topic in the mirror of Soviet and
Russian audiovisual media for culture studies, film studies and media studies.
Neither did Soviet and Russian researchers aimed to compare the images of school
and university in Russian and Western audiovisual texts.
As to works by foreign researchers [Dubois, 2007; Kenez, 1992; Lawton,
2004; Shaw & Youngblood, 2010; Shlapentokh, 1993; Strada, 1989; Strada &
Troper, 1997, et al.], they did not analyze school and university in their studies of
Soviet and Russian audiovisual media texts. Anyway, we failed to find any
meaningful analysis of school and university in Soviet and post-Soviet audiovisual
media in Western research works during our preliminary survey on the topic;
190
though, of course, they studied the image of school and university in Western
audiovisual media texts, mainly in the cinema [Ayers, 1994; Bauer, 1998; Burbach
and Figgins, 1993; Considine, 1985; Dalton, 1999;. Edelman, 1990; Farber &
Holm, 1994; Joseph and Burnaford, 1994; Keroes, 1999; Oliker, 1993; Schwartz,
1963; Trier, 2001, et al.].
Neither did we find any Western studies concerning the media education
aspect of the topic, though it seems important to us: a comparative analysis of
school and university in Soviet, Russian and Western audiovisual media texts, in
our opinion, may be effectively used for raising students’ media competence in
social and humanitarian universities.
Results
This article touches upon only the Soviet cinematography. Let us give a
generalized hermeneutic analysis of media texts of Soviet films about school and
university with the help of technologies suggested by C. Bazalgette [Bazalgette,
1995] and U. Eco [Eco, 2005, p. 209]. For this purpose we will roughly divide
Soviet films about school and university into the following groups:
1) Soviet silent films (1919-1930);
2) sound films of the Stalin era and the first post-Stalin years (1931-1955);
3) films of the thaw period (1956-1968);
4) films of the stagnation period (1969-1984);
5) films of the perestroika period (1985-1991).
It stands to reason that these timeframes of the periods, in our opinion,
cannot be precisely defined; the same goes with attaching films to a certain period.
This article analyzes films belonging to the first two periods.
Soviet silent films about school and university (1919-1930)
Venue; historical, sociocultural, political and ideological contexts
1. Historical context (dominant concepts: media agencies, media/ media

text categories, media representations and media audiences)
а) historical background of media texts, market conditions that contributed
to the plot and creation of media texts, impact of that time events on media texts.
This historic period was marked by such important events as the civil war
(main fighting took place in 1918-1920 while in the Far East the war continued up
to 1924); famine in the Volga region (1921-1922); the Kronstadt Rebellion (1921);
antireligious policy; attempts to manage child neglect and illiteracy (during 1919-
1930); the New Economic Policy (NEP) plan implementation that restored the
economic market and petit bourgeoisie (the so-called NEPmen) for a short while
(1921-1928); creation of the USSR (1922) and the All-Soviet Union Pioneer
Organization (1922) supervised by Komsomol (established in 1918); death of
Vladimir Lenin (1924); struggle for power in the higher USSR echelons (as a
result, Leon Trotsky – the main rival of Joseph Stalin was removed from all
191
decision-making posts in 1927 and was exiled in 1929); collectivization in
agriculture (1928-1930); introduction of universal primary education in schools
(since 1930); the beginning of industrialization (the first five-year plan of the
national economy development of the USSR was adopted in 1928); Bolshevist
repressions against other political parties, the noble class, the bourgeois class, the
clergy and intelligentsia.
A relative creative freedom amid the ideological censorship in culture and
arts enabled Soviet artists, writers, photographers, theatre workers and film-makers
to carry out radical experiments with the form. Due to this relative freedom
hundreds of western entertainment films were widely shown during the NEP years.
The new economic policy in the USSR led to the establishment of
incorporated, cooperative film companies, and in the 1920s the Soviet film
industry actually worked in a competitive market that revived genre commercial
film making.
It goes without saying, the political and sociocultural conditions, events that
contributed to the plot and film production of Soviet films of the 1920s could not
but influence films about children and for children. Hence, for example, there were
produced films about exploits of teenagers during the civil war, about homeless
children and pioneers, about eradication of illiteracy and so on (Red Devils, 1923;
Vanka – a Young Pioneer, 1924; The Island of Young Pioneers, 1924; Golden
Honey, 1928; Small and Big, 1928; Torn Sleeves, 1928; Tanka – the Bar Girl,
1929, et al.)
b) how the knowledge of real historic events of a given period promotes
awareness of these media texts, examples of historical allusions in these media
texts.
There were a lot of films about children (in particular, about homeless
children) in the 1920s in contrast with films about school and university – there
were about a dozen of them. And this is understandable from the commercial point
of view: it was much easier and more beneficial to attract audiences to watch films
about heroic “red devils” fighting with “whites”, to watch screen stories about
young homeless thieves rather than films about real school everyday routine.
2. Sociocultural, ideological, worldview, religious contexts (dominant
concepts: media agencies, media/media texts categories, media representations
and media audiences)
a) ideology, world outlook of these media texts authors in the sociocultural
context; ideology and world culture reflected in the media texts.
The communist ideology in the USSR failed to attain its objective in the
1920s since the new economic policy prevented complete state regulation and total
censorship of film making (as well as of culture in general). There were no
“allotments” concerning films about school, though their creators were supposed to
stick to the communist ideology.
b) world outlook of people belonging to the “world of school” reflected in
the media texts.
The world outlook of people in Soviet silent films about school was entirely
optimistic: illiteracy and homelessness were perceived as transient phenomena in
192
contrast to the Pioneer and Komsomol movements that were recognized as
constant and inviolately progressive ones.
The value hierarchy in this worldview was: the most meaningful school
protagonists of Soviet silent cinema – pioneers and Komsomol members – were
characterized by communist ideological commitment, collectivism, heroism,
honesty, uncompromising attitude to internal and external enemies, atheism,
industry, readiness to help good or not quite good people. Adherence to such
values used to be the basic stereotype of success. Such values in the cinema were
not only to be reflected but also impressed, formed and strengthened.
3. Structure and narrative devices in these media texts (dominant concepts:
media agencies, media technologies, media languages, media representations)
The structure, plot, representativeness, ethics, genre modification,
iconography, characters can be roughly presented as follows:
a) venue and period of media texts
The setting of the media texts: the recent past (the revolution, the civil
war) and present (the 1920s). As previously noted, the movies of the 1920s showed
children mainly as fighters (with “whites”, bourgeois, kulaks and other negative
personalities). And even films about school did not focus on studies but on the
vigorous pioneer and komsomol activity.
b) household goods and living conditions: the setting and household items
in the films about school are modest and ascetic.
c) genre modifications: drama, adventure drama.
d) devices of reality representation:
– positive characters are often shown in an idealized variant;
– negative characters, by contrast, are grotesque with prominent negative
traits.
e) typology of characters (traits of character, clothes, constitution,
vocabulary, body language, the presence or otherwise of stereotyped
manner of character representation in the given media texts):
– age of characters: school students are 7-17 years old, however, there are
more teenagers among them; the age of the other characters is different, but grown-
ups under 60 prevail;
– level of education: school students’ level of education corresponds to their
grade, teachers allegedly have a higher (university) education, the education of
other characters can be different;
– social status, profession: the financial situation of school children is
approximately equal, but they can come from both workers’ and peasants’ families
and intelligentsia. Their parents have various professions.
– marital status of characters: school students are naturally unmarried yet;
most adults are married;
– appearance, clothes, constitution of characters, their character traits,
vocabulary: the appearance of school children in films of the 1920s is varied.
Photos of the 1920s give us a glimpse of the appearance, clothes and
constitution of Soviet school students and teachers of that time.
193
Soviet school students of the 1920-s at the lesson
Soviet teachers of the 1920s
Most school characters in Soviet films of the 1920s possessed tenacity of

purpose, emotionalism, energy, optimism, courage, adherence to principles,
common speech vocabulary, ambition to become part of the pioneer/komsomol
collectivism, to do well in school, to help the elderly. And if there were characters
who showed negative traits, they changed for the better in the end…
f) significant changes in the lives of the characters: a young man lives a
normal life but then he learns that his peers have already joined the
pioneer organization.
g) problem encountered by the character: disruption of a character’s usual
life (for example, the young man is eager to become a pioneer against
his religious parents’ will);
194
h) solution to the problem: the young man becomes a pioneer after
overcoming all the obstacles.
As for teachers in the films, they used to be portrayed: 1) either as fighters
for a new communist future; 2) or as representatives of the former grammar school
who gradually begin to realize the meaning of revolutionary changes.
Naturally, there were also teachers-enemies in the films of the 1920s. For
example, the film A Man with a Case (1929) showed a former “white” guard who
became a university professor after the civil war. Besides that this professor
maligned honest people, left his wife, and to crown it all killed his friend to
conceal his past crimes…
Soviet sound films of the Stalin era and the first post-Stalin years (1931-1955)
about school and university
Venue; historical, sociocultural, political and ideological contexts
1. Historical context (dominant concepts: media agencies, media/ media

text categories, media representations and media audiences)
a) historical background of media texts, market conditions that contributed
to the plot and creation of the media texts, impact of that time events on
the media texts.
The greater part of this historic period coincides with the peak of the Stalin
totalitarian era of the socialist regime (national domain, the communist party and
its ideology, I.V. Stalin’s unlimited power based on repressions and
industrialization).
The period of forcible collectivization of private peasant farms (1928-1930)
was followed by the 1932-1933 famine which claimed the lives of 7 million people
[Statement…, 2008]. The second half of the 1930s was marked by mass
repressions which affected as many as 4 million people, about a million of whom
were shot [Roginsky, 2010].
The Great Patriotic War of 1941-1945 was the most serious test for Soviet
people that took the lives of tens of millions of people. The post-war period of
1946 – the early 1950s was marked not only by reconstruction of destroyed cities
and factories but also by new (though not so large-scale as they were in the 1930s)
repressions of the Stalin regime, confrontation with leading Western countries (the
so-called post-war “cold war”). I.V. Stalin’s death in March 1953 triggered
changes in the USSR, though the most important “thaw” changes began only after
N.S. Khrushchev’s uncovering of Stalin’s crimes and his “cult of personality” at
the 20th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union in 1956.
As for school education, during the 1930s and in the early 1904s it was
mixed but from 1 September 1943 till 31 August 1954 the Regulation of the
Council of People's Commissars of the USSR №789 of 31 May 1943 “On
introduction of separate education for boys and girls in the 1943-1944 school year
in secondary schools in regional cities, capital centers of Union and autonomous
republics and large industrial cities” came into effect. It ran that “co-education of
195
boys and girls in secondary schools causes some difficulties in raising children;
such co-education neither takes into account the physical development of boys and
girls, career education, practical training, military education and training nor
provides the required discipline of school students” [Statement…, 1943].
During the greater part of the mentioned period the cinematograph in the
USSR already belongs to the state, though in 1928-1936 there was a Soviet-
German studio “Mezhrabpomfilm” in Moscow created instead of the former joint-
stock studio “Mezhrabpom-Rus” (1924-1928). In 1936, “Mezhrabpomfilm” was
transformed into a film studio “Soiuzdetfilm” (since 1948 it became known as the
M. Gorky film studio). Thus, unlike the studio “Mezhrabpomfilm” the studio
“Soiuzdetfilm” began to specialize in films for children and youth. 77 films were
shot by Soiuzdetfilm from 1936 till 1948 in all. And though they were primarily
intended for children and youth, the topic of school was not major there.
It goes without saying, that the political and sociocultural conditions, events
contributed to the plot and creation of these films, dictated their rules. That is why
the films about school of the 1930 – the first half of the 1950s to a greater or lesser
degree reflected the “general” policy of the ruling and the only party.
Good school children were always on the side of Bolsheviks while worse
students (they still appeared on the screen) either improved in the end or were duly
punished.
b) how the knowledge of real historic events of a given period promotes
awareness of these media texts, examples of historical allusions in these
media texts.
For obvious reasons the Soviet films of the 1930s – 1950s did not even
mention the terrible famine of 1932-1933, mass repressions and concentration
camps, but they contained a lot of revolutionary politics, spies and collectivism
ideas in them. Lack of market competition and self-preservation instinct made film
makers interested in the ideological and political “correctness” of their production
but not in their financial profitability.
For example, on the threshold of revolution children in the film “Three
Children from the Same Street” (1939) helped a Bolshevik to spread leaflets
against the tsar and his government. Grammar school students carried bullets in
their school bags to Bolsheviks in the film The Lonely White Sail (1937). The film
The Ballad of Cossack Golota (1937) told about children who sided with “reds”
during the civil war. A teenage gypsy in the film Friends from a Gipsy Camp
(1938) behaved in the same way. The film Partisan’s Daughters (1935) showed
children who struggled with rich peasants (that is with the so-called “kulaks”).
Courageous kids helped the Soviet border patrol in the film Ai-Gul (1936). The spy
film Gaitchy (1938) told about a pioneer who also assisted frontier guards: he
helped them arrest a Chinese spy (a former “white” guard) named Yanyga and a
traitor – engineer Sapov. The film High Award (1939) related a story about a spy
who infiltrated under a mask of a clown into a country house of a Soviet aircraft
designer where his children were spending their vacation. The film The Train to
Moscow (1938) showed children who prevented a train crash. In the film Captain
Varya (1939) a girl rescued a lighthouse-keeper. In the film Siberians (1940)
196
school students were looking for Stalin’s smoking pipe that he had given to a local
hunter during his banishment in tsar Russia. In the film “Timur and his Team”
(1940) pioneers helped elderly people and soldiers’ families with domestic work.
The topic of school was not mentioned in the trilogy by M. Donskoy (My
Apprenticeship, Gorky’s Childhood, My Universities) based on A.M. Gorky’s
prose either…
As a rule, school students in the films created in the 1930s – 1950s do not
study, instead they “1) struggle with enemies of all kinds (from spies to rodents)”;
2) hold sittings, elections, meetings and votes; 3) work or enjoy unrealistic
children’s hobbies necessary for their future profession, for example, – poultry
breeding” [Pritulenko, 1995, p. 106].
We share the view of N.I. Nusinova that “the cliché of the Soviet era –
“children are our future” turned the children’s film world of the totalitarian epoch
into the Orwellian futurology where children were little adults or aliens from the
wonderful world of communism into this still imperfect grown-up world of
communism being built. The Soviet child had a power of young Heracles, a life
experience of a mountain Aksaqal and a political awareness of a district committee
secretary of the communist party” [Nusinova, 2003].
On the whole, only 8 films about school (10%) were shot by the
“Soiuzdetfilm” studio out of 77 films: Class Seven (1938), Personal File (1939),
Spring Stream (1940), Brother of a Hero (1940), Romantic People (1941), The
Village Teacher (1947), The Red Scarf (1948) and The First Grader (1948).
Other Soviet film studios also made films about children and school during
this period, though it did not make any difference, since there were very few such
films.
Thus, “school as it is – with its daily routine, corridors, recreations,
classroom, rows of desks, blackboard, teachers and students – was nearly absent in
Stalin’s cinematograph. If it was scarcely mentioned it was given little screen time,
and the episodes connected with school served as some background of the plot (as
in the unissued film Father and Son by M. Barskaya). The unsuccessful films
Class Seven by Y. Protazanov and Personal File by A. Razumny were exceptions
that proved the rule” [Arcus, 2009, p. 206].
L. Arcus gives the following reasons for that:
– the danger of the school structure for the film industry as it reminded about
the state model too much;
– impossibility to show a school student (as a dramatic character) not as a
hero (revolutionary struggle, exposure of spies, rescuing people), because no
serious conflicts and dramas in screen versions of the Soviet school were possible;
– the changes that the state pedagogical conception underwent; it replaced
the so-called “perekovka” in the 1930s (i.e. reeducating of erring children and
teenagers with labour and collectivism, aimed at teaching them strict discipline and
the established Soviet standards of behavior, the deviation from which was
punished with repressions) [Arcus, 2009].
This conception seems weak to us due to the following reasons:
197
– the Stalin film industry endeavored to show not a real but an ideal Soviet
school with a united positive community of teachers and students where either a
liar or a boaster could appear for only a short while, as he would soon realize the
gravity of his offence and again joined the honest and modest school community).
Hence, such a presentation of school system and models of such conflicts supplied
the audience with the associations connected with a rather positive image of the
socialist state and this did not threaten the regime but, on the contrary, provided
strong support for the communist propaganda;
– though the image of a school hero dominated in the Stalin cinematography,
it coexisted with images of ordinary good school students who rectified
“misguided” fellow students;
– though the state pedagogical conception underwent substantial alterations
since the mid-1930s [Statement…, 1935], it did not affect the worked-out film
pattern of correcting bad school children: in the films Class Seven (1938) and The
Red Scarf (1948) negative characters mend their way under the influence of
positive characters…But the films of the second half of the 1940s – the first half of
the 1950s showed the established single-sex education in schools. For example, in
the film The Red Scarf (1948) a brother and a sister study in different schools – for
male and female students, whereas in the film Alesha Ptitsyn Develops his
Character (1953) the main character, who learns that a woman-trainee would teach
them a lesson, reacts so: “A college girl won’t cope with us. … It will be hard for
her to deal with us”. And his classmate agrees with him: “She’d better go to a girls’
school, girls are easier to deal with, after all”.
2. Sociocultural, ideological, worldview, religious contexts (dominant
concepts: media agencies, media/media texts categories, media representations
and media audiences)
a) ideology, world outlook of these media texts authors in the sociocultural
context; ideology, world culture reflected in the media texts.
The dominant communist ideology, total government control and strict film
censorship of the Stalin era took away any choice from film makers: they had to
stick to this ideology based on national property, collectivism, and bolshevism
(including extensive glorification of proletariat leaders), atheism, class struggle,
hatred to USA and European bourgeoisie, and “public enemies”. The so-called
socialist realism dominated in the Soviet culture of the 1930s – the first half of the
1950s, which certainly involved films about school. Undoubtedly, the socialist
realism had nothing in common with genuine realism; it was more like an idealism
created according to the official political dogmas of that time.
b) world outlook of people belonging to the “world of school” reflected in
the media texts.
The world outlook of people in Soviet films about school made in the 1930s
– the first half of the 1950s was very optimistic and aimed at building the “bright
communist future” . School students were united into a successful and happy
collective body guided by wise tutors (teachers, parents, party officials), able to
shape their own destiny, i.e. turn into standard “cogwheels” in the world-beating
socialist state machine.
198
The value hierarchy in this worldview was: communist ideological
commitment, collectivism, heroism, honesty, uncompromising attitude to internal
and external enemies, atheism, and industry, readiness to help good or not quite
good people. Adherence to such values used to be the basic stereotype of success
in that screen world. Such values, attitudes and conduct in the cinema were not
only to be reflected but also impressed, formed and strengthened. These values
were constant throughout the film action. If a student temporarily betrayed these
values, he successfully returned to them at the end of the film.
3. Structure and narrative devices in these media texts (dominant concepts:
media/media texts categories, media technologies, media languages, media
representations)
The structure, plot, representativeness, ethics, genre modification,
iconography, characters can be roughly presented as follows:
a) venue and period of media texts. Let us omit the stories about children-
heroes who help “red” soldiers and border patrol. The scene in the films
made in the 1930s – the first half of the 1950s about school is laid in
school classrooms, corridors, courtyards and flats, and the time in the
film coincides with the time when the film was released.
b) household goods and living conditions: the setting and household items
in the films about school are modest and ascetic, though the poverty of
the students’ families is not accentuated. For example, the film The
First Grader (1948) shows the beginning of the new school year: there
is a big portrait of Stalin in the hall, there is a typical Lenin’s phrase for
all Soviet schools on the wall: “Learn, learn and learn!” There is a
banner at entrance – “Welcome!” The school students hear the words
from the school radio: “We congratulate Soviet school students on the
beginning of the new school year”.
c) genre modifications: mostly drama, sometimes comedy.
d) (stereotype) devices of reality representation:
– positive characters are often shown idealized;
– negative characters, by contrast, are grotesque with prominent
negative features;
– there appears a “intermediate” option – a character who looks
negative (or partly negative, or misapprehensive) in the beginning, but
later he corrects his conduct under the influence of his friends / parents
/ peers and joins his well-bred and like-minded classmates (Wake Up
Lenochka, 1934; Class Seven, 1938; Brother of a Hero, 1940; The Red
Scarf, 1948; Towards Life, 1952; Alesha Ptitsyn Develops his
Character, 1953; Certificate of Education, 1954, etc.).
e) typology of characters (traits of character, clothes, constitution,
vocabulary, body language, the presence or otherwise of stereotyped
manner of character representation in the given media texts):
– age of characters: school students are 7-17 years old, however, there are
more teenagers among them; the age of the other characters is different, but grown-
ups under 60 prevail;
199
– level of education: school students’ level of education corresponds to their
grade, teachers allegedly have university education, the education of other
characters can be different;
– social status, profession: the financial situation of school children is
approximately equal, but they can come from both workers’ and peasants’ families
and intelligentsia. Their parents have various professions.
– marital status of characters: school students are naturally unmarried yet;
most adults are married;
– appearance, clothes, constitution of characters, their character traits,
vocabulary: the appearance of school children in the films of the 1930s – the first
half of the 1950s comply with Stalin’s socialist realism stereotypes.
This film frame from the film The Red Scarf (1948) gives a good glimpse of
the characters’ – school students’ – looks, clothes, and constitution.
A frame from the film “The Red Scarf” (1948)
Thus, school students in the films of the 1930s – the first half of the 1950s
were mostly motivated, emotional, active, optimistic, brave, balanced, with polite
speech (though sometimes rhapsodic), determined to become useful members of
the pioneer/komsomol organization, to study well and help the elderly. As for
negative characters (boastful, deceitful, etc.), they would always change for the
better at the end of the film.
As for teachers in the films, they often became symbols of struggle for new
communistic future and “to create such image of a struggling teacher, a heroic
personality (almost a mythologic hero) the film contained elements of extreme
social environment, where the teacher had to survive and resist either a real enemy,
such as former kulaks seeking to kill him (for example, in the films Tanka – the
Bar Girl, Alone) or a non-personified enemy such as homelessness, juvenile
delinquency (Road to Life, The Pedagogical Poem)” [Shipulina, 2010, p. 6].
By the second half of the 1930s the Soviet screen presented a super positive
image of the teacher and educator which was approved and respected by the
200
government (honors, diplomas and other awards) and the whole society. For
example, the main character in the film “The Teacher” (1938) was nominated a
deputy to the Supreme Soviet of the USSR, and the audience hears a phrase which
is very important for the ideological conception: “The teacher is a new person, and
the Soviet power has made him so!” The films The Village Teacher (1947), The
First Grader (1948), The Pedagogical Poem (1955) created similar screen images
of exemplary and respected teachers and educators.
Taken as a whole, the Stalin era “constructed a professional image of the
school teacher combining the images of the Soviet and Russian intellectual. The
old image was to legitimatize the Soviet one due to their common past. The main
features of the pre-revolutionary intellectual myth (the messianic idea,
enlightenment, ascetism, unselfishness) were interpreted in a new way in the Stalin
worldview.” [Chashchukhin, 2006, p. 135].
This film frame from the film The Village Teacher (1947) gives a good
glimpse of the characters’ – school teachers’ – looks, clothes, and constitution.
A frame from the film “The Village Teacher” (1947)
At the same time the Soviet cinematograph remembered to criticize the

school and teachers of the czarist regime. The films The Conduit (1935) and Man
in a Case (1939) presented negative images of grammar school teachers:
dogmatists and reasoners with a disagreeable appearance.
f) significant changes in the lives of the characters: school children live a
usual active Soviet life but there is a student among them who: is
always late for school (Wake Up Lenochka, 1934), tells lies (Brother of
a Hero, 1940), neglects schoolwork (Spring Stream, 1940), refuses to
design a model airplane (Class Seven, 1938), refuses to fulfill a
community assignment (The Red Scarf, 1948), considers himself
superior to others (Certificate of Education, 1954). There were also (but
201
very rare) worse variants when a school student commits a theft of
school property (Personal File, 1939).
g) problem encountered by the character: disruption of usual life because
there is a character among school students who for one reason or
another becomes an outsider in the harmonious team of the socialist
school.
h) solution to the problem: the “right” characters (school students,
teachers, parents, senior party officials) individually or by joint efforts
put the “wrong” student on the right track – to become a true
pioneer/communist.
Unlike the school topic the topic of university was marginal for the Soviet
cinematography of the 1920s – the first half of the 1950s (see, for example, The
Right to a Woman, 1930; The Law of Life, 1940) and had no apparent impact on
film making. Seemingly, university at that time was considered to be a too elite
institution to be worthy of mass replicating on the screen.
Conclusions
Thus, the hermeneutic analysis of media texts about school and university of
the 1920s – the first half of the 1950s enables us to draw the conclusion that the
Soviet cinematography based on the communist ideology:
– in the 1920s sought to depict children, teenagers, youth as committed
ideological fighters (who set a good example to backward-looking adults)
for the Soviet power and atheism, for the pioneer movement, for sports
records; fighters against enemies of different types, illiteracy and
homelessness, instead of usual school children who are busy studying or
playing games;
– in the 1930s – early 1940s showed school children mostly as fighters: 1)
with spies and other public enemies; 2) with German occupants; 3) with
negligent and bumptious students;
– in the second half of the 1940s – the first half of the 1950s focused on a
mild variant of school struggle against negligent and bumptious students;
– by the mid-1930s developed a screen image of an ideal teacher, a true
leader of the communist doctrine, respected by the government and
society, a skillful and successful professional;
– used stereotyped storylines, role and gender character profiles in the films
about school and university thus avoiding genuine realism and
psychological narrative depth.
202
References
Arcus, L. (2010). Adventures of a white crow: evolution of a "school film" in Soviet cinema. Seance.
June, 2. http://seance.ru/blog/whitecrow/
Ayers, W. (1994). A Teacher Ain’t Nothin’ But a Hero: Teachers and Teaching in Film. In Joseph, P., &
Burnaford, G. (Eds.). Images of Schoolteachers in Twentieth-Century America. New York: St. Martin’s
Press, pp. 147-156.
Baranov, O. (1979). The screen becomes a friend. Moscow: Education, 96 p.
Bauer, D. (1998). Indecent Proposals: Teachers in the Movies. College English. 60 (3), pp. 301-317.
Bell, A. (1996). Approaches to media discourse. London: Blackwell.
Burbach, H.J. and Figgins, M.A. (1993). A Thematic Profile of the Images of Teachers in Film. Teacher
Education Quarterly. Vol. 20, No. 2, pp. 65-75.
Chashchukhin, A.V. (2006). The construction of the teacher's image in the Stalinist propaganda of 1945-
1953. Human. Society. Control, № 3, pp. 132-135.
Considine, D. (1985). The Cinema of Adolescence. Jefferson and London, UK: McFarland & Company.
Crume, M. (1988). Images of Teachers in Novels and Films for the Adolescent, 1980-1987. PhD.
Dissertation, University of Florida.
Dalton, M. (1999). The Hollywood Curriculum: Teachers and Teaching in the Movies. New York: Peter
Lang.
Dubois, R. (2007). Une histoire politique du cinema. Paris: Sulliver, 216 p.
Edelman, R. (1990). Teachers in the Movies. American Educator. N 7(3), pp. 26-31.
Farber, P., & Holm, G. (1994a). Adolescent Freedom and the Cinematic High School. In P. Farber, E.
Provenzo, Jr., & G. Holm, (Eds.) Schooling in the Light of Popular Culture. Albany, NY: State
University of New York Press.
Farber, P., & Holm, G. (1994b). A Brotherhood of Heroes: The Charismatic Educator in Recent
American Movies. In P. Farber, E. Provenzo, Jr., & G. Holm, (Eds.) Schooling in the Light of Popular
Culture. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press.
Grigorieva, O. (2007). The image of the teacher in the Soviet cinema: from the "Spring" to thaw "Big
changes". Visual anthropology: new views on social reality. Saratov: Scientific book, pp. 223-239.
Gromov, E.S. (1982). Becoming a hero (screen and youth). A teachers' guide. Moscow: Education, 192 p.
Joseph, P., & Burnaford, G. (1994). Contemplating Images of Schoolteachers in American Culture. In P.
Joseph & G. Burnaford (Eds.) Images of Schoolteachers in Twentieth Century America. New York: St.
Martin’s Press.
Kabo, L.R. (1974). Cinema and children. Moscow: Knowledge, 96 p.
Kabo, L.R. (1978). Cinema in the Aesthetic and Moral Education of Children. Moscow: Education.
Kenez, P. (1992). Cinema and Soviet Society, 1917-1953. Cambridge, N.Y.: Cambridge University Press,
281 p.
Keroes, J. (1999). Tales Out of School: Gender, Longing, and the Teacher in Fiction and Films.
Carbondale and Edwardsville, IL: Southern Illinois University Press.
Lawton, A. (2004). Imaging Russia 2000. Films and Facts. Washington, DC: New Academia Publishing,
348 p.
Levshina, I.S. (1978). Do you like cinema? Moscow: Art, 1978, 254 p.
Levshina, I.S. (1989). A teenager and a screen. Moscow: Education, 176 p.
Machenin, A.A. (2016). The collective image of a school teacher in the reflection of the TV / Cinema /
Internet media space. Media Education. 2016. № 3, pp. 23-48.
Mitina, T.S. (2015). The image of a teacher in the Soviet cinema of the first half of the twentieth century.
Siberian Scientific Bulletin. № 2, pp. 124-128.
Nusinova, N.I. (2003). "Now you are ours." A child in Soviet cinema 1920s - 1930s. Cinema Art. № 12,
pp. 81-87.
Oliker, M.A. (1993). On the Images of Education in Popular Film. Educational Horizons. Vol. 71, No. 2.
Paramonova K.K. (1976). Film and children. Moscow.
Paramonova, K.K. (1975). Films for children, its specifics, and educational functions. Moscow:
Publishing House of the Institute of Cinematography, 51 p.
Penzin, S.N. (1973). Cinema as a means of education. Voronezh, 152 p.
Penzin, S.N. (1986). Lessons of cinema. Moscow, 66 p.
Potter, W.J. (2001). Media Literacy. Thousand Oaks – London: Sage Publication, 423 p.
203
Pritulenko, V. (1995). Addressed to children. Cinema, politics and people. 1930s. Moscow: Mainland,
229 p.
Rabinovich, Y.M. (1969). The role of cinema in the education of students. Kurgan, 26 p.
Rabinovich, Y.M. (1991). Cinema, literature, and my whole life. Kurgan: Periodicals, 120 p.
Resolution of the Council of People's Commissars of the USSR "On measures to combat juvenile
delinquency". 1935.
Statement of the State Duma of the Russian Federation "In memory of the victims of the famine of the
1930s on the territory of the USSR." 2.04.2008.
Roginsky, A. (2010). Stalinism: figures and myths. Aug. 14
Http://echo.msk.ru/programs/staliname/696621-echo/#element-text
Resolution of the Council of People's Commissars of the USSR No. 789 of May 31, 1943 "On the
Introduction of Separate Teaching of Boys and Girls in the 1943-44 academic year in incomplete
secondary and secondary schools of regional and regional cities, capital centers of Union and
autonomous republics and large industrial cities."
Rybak, L.A. (1980). Tet-a-tet with a film. On the art of being a moviegoer. Film & School. Moscow:
BPSK, 57 p.
Schwartz, J. (1963). The Portrayal of Education in American Motion Pictures, 1931-1961. PhD.
dissertation, University of Illinois, Champaign-Urbana.
Shaw, T. and Youngblood, D.J. (2010). Cinematic Cold War: The American and Soviet Struggle for
Heart and Minds. Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 301 p.
Shipulina, N.B. (2010). The image of a teacher in the Soviet and modern Russian cinema. News of VGPU.
№ 8 (52), pp. 4-16.
Shlapentokh, D. and V. (1993). Soviet Cinematography 1918-1991: Ideological Conflict and Social
Reality. N.Y.: Aldine de Gruyter.
Soloveitchik, S.L. (1975). Teacher - a profession and fate. Soviet screen. N 20.
Strada, M. (1989). A Half Century of American Cinematic Imagery: Hollywood’s Portrayal of Russian
Characters, 1933-1988. Coexistence. N 26, pp. 333-350.
Strada, M.J. and Troper, H.R. (1997). Friend or Foe? Russian in American Film and Foreign Policy.
Lanham, Md., & London: The Scarecrow Press, 255 p.
Stroeva, A.S. (1962). Children, Film and TV. Moscow: Knowledge, 47 p.
Suspitzina, T. (2002). On the teacher, husband and rank: (Re) construction of masculinities men - workers
of high school. About husband(N)bility. Moscow: New Literary Review, 2002, pp. 303-324.
Tolstysh, A.V. (1988). Below 16 and older... Moscow: Cinema Center, 64 p.
Trier, J.D. (2001). The Cinematic Representation of the Personal and Professional Lives of Teachers.
Teacher Education Quarterly, pp. 127-142.
Usov, Y.N. (1980). The technique of using film art in the ideological and aesthetic education of pupils of
8-10 classes. Tallinn, 125 p.
Zharikova, V.V. (2015). Chronotope school in the domestic film. Historical, philosophical, political and
juridical sciences, cultural studies and art history. Theory and practice. № 5 (55): Part II. pp. 59-62.
Appendix 1
77 films made by the Soiuzdetfilm studio (1936-1948)
1936: Ai-Gul’
1936: Farther and Son (was not shown)
1936: Three Children from the Same Street
1937: The Lonely White Sail
1937: Jolly Travellers
1937: Air Adventure
1937: Air-Tight Frontier
1937: The Ballad of Cossack Golota
1937: Treasure Island
1937: Alamasov Gorge
1938: Struggle Is Still On
1938: Funny Artists
204
1938: Gaitchy
1938: Gorky’s Childhood
1938: Doctor Aybolit
1938: Friends from a Gipsy Camp
1938: The Train to Moscow
1938: The Magic Pike
1938: Class Seven
1938: The Absent-Minded Man
1938: Young Communards
1939: Captain Varya
1939: Vasilisa the Beautiful
1939: Airpost
1939: My Apprenticeship
1939: High Award
1939: Commandant of Birds Island
1939: Personal File
1939: Young Captains
1939: A Soldier Returned from the Front
1939: Youth of Commanders
1940: Spring Stream
1940: Brother of a Hero
1940: Disappearance of the “Eagle”
1940: Land of Youth
1940: My Universities
1940: Siberians
1940: Salavat Yulaev
1940: Descent in a Volcano
1940: Timur and His Team
1940: Yakov Sverdlov
1941: In the Enemy's Rear
1941: How Ivan Ivanovich Quarreled with Ivan Nikiforovich
1941: The Little Humpbacked Horse
1941: The First Printer Ivan Fyodorov
1941: Romantic People
1941: The Old Courtyard
1942: A Sham Fight at Sokol
1942: The Iron Angel (was not shown)
1942: Timur’s Oath
1942: Forest Brotherhood
1942: The Prince and the Pauper
1942: The Son of Tadzhikistan
1942: Schweik is Preparing for the Battle
1943: Lermontov
1943: March-April
1943: We are from the Urals
1943: The New Adventures of Schweik
1944: Once There Was a Girl
1944: Zoya
1944: Kashchey the Deathless
1945: The Combat
1945: Fifteen Year Old Captain
1945: The Elephant and a String
1945: It Happened in Donbass
1946: Big Life
1946: Cruiser “Varyag”
1946: A Boy from the Fringe
1946: The Adventures Of Nasreddin
205
1946: Sinegoria
1946: Son of the Regimant
1946: Yablochko
1947: Private Alexander Matrosov
1947: The Village Teacher
1948: The Red Scarf
1948: The First Grader
206

Comparative analysis of the indicators' levels

of students' media competence development in
the control and experi....
CITATION READS
1 160
2 authors:

проект 14-18-00014 "Синтез медиаобразования и медиакритики в процес View

project


E-ISSN: 2500-106X
2017, 2(1): 17-38
DOI: 10.13187/ijmil.2017.1.17
www.ejournal46.com
Comparative Analysis of the Indicators’ Levels of Students’ Media Competence

Development in the Control and Experimental Groups
Alexander Fedorov a , *, Anastasia Levitskaya b

Abstract
Based on media education activities’ techniques, the authors taught a media education course
during the full academic year. The research objective was to trace the changes between the levels of
students’ media competence in a control and in an experimental group. The determination of the
media competence’s levels was based on the classification of the indicators of the development of
an individual’s media competence developed by our research team. Media competence implies the
accumulation of motives, knowledge, abilities, and skills (indicators: motivational, contact,
information, perceptual, interpretative / evaluative, practice-operational / activity, creative),
facilitating the use, critical analysis, evaluation and communication of media texts in various forms
and genres, the analysis of complex processes of media functioning. In line with this interpretation
of the media competence, the students were asked to answer 5 units of questions and do the
assignments.
90 students (average age of students: 20–21 years old) participated in the experiment:
45 students (14 male and 31 female) of the control group, who did not attend the media education
course, and 45 students (14 male and 31 female) of the experimental group, who attended media
educational classes. Our research showed that at the beginning of an academic year there was no
significant difference in the levels of media competence development between the students of the
control and experimental groups. The ratio of young men and women in the control and
experimental groups, in our opinion, is typical for Russian pedagogical universities, where for
many decades male students have consistently been a minority (from 10% to 30% of a class).
The classification of the media competence's development indicators developed by us turned
out to be an effective tool for comparative analysis between the control and experimental groups.
This analysis has proved the effectiveness of the model developed by us and the methodology for
fostering students' media literacy (the level of media competence of the students who took and
passed a one-year course in media education was four times higher than the level of similar
indicators in the control group).
Keywords: media literacy, media education, media competence, students, survey,
university.
E-mail addresses: mediashkola@rambler.ru (A. Fedorov), tina5@rambler.ru (A. Levitskaya)
17
1. Introduction
We understand media literacy as the result of media education. In general, predominant
among media educational concepts are the cognitive, educational, and creative approaches to the
use of mass media potential. However, at the implementation level most media educational
approaches integrate the three components. These are:
 acquiring knowledge about media history, structure, language, and theory —the cognitive
component;
 development of the ability to perceive media texts, to “read” their language; activation of
imagination and visual memory; development of particular kinds of thinking (including critical,
logical, creative, visual, and intuitive); informed interpretation of ideas (ethical or philosophical
problems and democratic principles), and images — the educational component;
 acquiring practical creative skills of working with media materials — creative component.
In each particular model these basic components are realized differently, depending on the
conceptual preferences of the media educator.
The learning activities used in media education are also different: descriptive (re-create the
media text, reconstruct the personages and events); personal (describe the attitudes, recollections,
and emotions caused by the media text); analytical (analyze the media text structure, language
characteristics, and viewpoints); classificatory (define the place of the text within the historical
context); explanatory (commenting about the media text or its parts); or evaluative (judging about
the merits of the text basing upon personal, ethical or formal criteria). As a result, the learners not
only are exposed to the pleasurable effects of media culture, but they also acquire experience in
media text interpretation (analyzing the author’s objectives, discussing — either orally or in writing
— the particulars of plot and characters, ethical positions of personages or the author, etc.) and
learn to connect it with personal experience of their own or others (e.g. putting themselves in the
place of this or that personage, evaluating facts and opinions, finding out causes and effects,
motives and consequences of particular actions, or the reality of events).
Moreover, while working with media texts young people have many opportunities to develop
their own creative habits and skills. For example, they may write reviews or mini-scripts; they are
exposed to representations of their cultural heritage — and through these to the personal,
historical, national, planetary and other perspectives on those events. While studying the main
media cultural genres and forms, scanning the development of a particular theme within different
genres or historical epochs, becoming familiar with the styles, techniques, and creative activities of
the great masters, etc., they acquire much relevant knowledge and learn methods and criteria of
media text evaluation. All of that contributes to the development of the student’s aesthetic
awareness, artistic taste, and creative individuality and influences the formation of civic
consciousness.
As for “media illiteracy,” we see its main danger in the possibility of a person becoming an
easy object for all sorts of manipulation on the part of the media… or becoming a media addict,
consuming all media products without discrimination

Based on media education activities’ techniques developed by us earlier (see Fedorov, 2004:
43-51), we taught a media education course in the Department of Education (Anton Chekhov
Taganrog Institute) during the full academic year. The research objective was to trace the changes
between the levels of students’ media competence in a control and in an experimental group.
The determination of the media competence’s levels was based on the classification of the
indicators of the development of an individual’s media competence developed by our research
team. Media competence implies the accumulation of motives, knowledge, abilities, and skills
(indicators: motivational, contact, information, perceptual, interpretative / evaluative, practice-
operational/activity, creative), facilitating the use, critical analysis, evaluation and communication
of media texts in various forms and genres, the analysis of complex processes of media functioning.
In line with this interpretation of the media competence, the students were asked to answer 5 units
of questions and do the assignments.
Unit 1. A closed-ended questionnaire to identify the levels of the motivational indicator of the
media competence’s development (genre, thematic, psychological, therapeutic, emotional,
18
epistemological, moral, intellectual, creative and aesthetic motives of audience’s contacts with
media texts);
Unit 2. A closed-ended questionnaire to identify the levels of the contact indicator (the
frequency of contacts with different types of media);
Unit 3. A closed-type test to detect levels of information index (knowledge of terminology,
history and theory of media culture) of the audience’s media competence;
Unit 4. A pool of assignments to assess the levels of interpretive / evaluation index;
Unit 5. A group of creative tasks to reveal the levels of the creative indicator of the media
competence’s development.
90 students of the Department of Social Pedagogy of the Anton Chekhov Taganrog Institute
(average age of students: 20–21 years old) participated in the experiment: 45 students (14 male and
31 female) of the control group, who did not attend the media education course, and 45 students
(14 male and 31 female) of the experimental group, who attended media educational classes. Our
research showed that at the beginning of an academic year there was no significant difference in
the levels of media competence development between the students of the control and experimental
groups. The ratio of young men and women in the control and experimental groups, in our opinion,
is typical for Russian pedagogical universities, where for many decades male students have
consistently been a minority (from 10% to 30% of a class).
3. Discussion
There is a number of widespread terms often used as synonyms both in Russia and other
countries: “information literacy”, “information culture”, “information knowledge” “information
competency”, “media literacy”, “multimedia literacy”, “computer literacy”, “media culture”, “media
awareness”, “media competence”, etc. (Bazalgette, Buckingham, 2013; Kubey, 1997; Potter, 2001;
Silverblatt, 2001; Yildiz, Keengwe, 2016 and others).
For example, N. Gendina, having analyzed various definitions related to information culture,
points to the following terminological inconsistency: in the modern world, “nonunified terms such
as ‘computer literacy’, ‘information literacy’ or ‘information culture’, often without clear
definitions, increasingly replace such semantically close notions denoting human information
knowledge and abilities as ‘library and bibliography culture’, ‘reading culture’, ‘library and
bibliography knowledge’, and ‘library and bibliography literacy’ ” (Gendina, 2005: 21).
Regarding media literacy as a major component of information literacy, it would be worth
referring to a survey conducted among international experts in this field (Fedorov, 2005). Many of
them agree that media literacy is a result of media education. Yet there are certain discrepancies
and confusion between such terms as “media education”, “media literacy”, and “media studies”.
S. Ozhegov defines culture as (1) the sum total of economic, social, and spiritual
achievements of human beings; (2) the state or quality of being cultured, i.e., being at a high level
of cultural development or corresponding to it; (3) the raising of plants or animals; (4) a high level
of something, the development or improvement of an ability (Ozhegov, 1989: 314). Hence it follows
that media culture (e.g., audiovisual culture) is the sum total of material and intellectual
values in the sphere of media and a historically defined system of their reproduction and
functioning in society. In relation to the audience, it may be a system of personality development
levels of a person capable of media text perception, analysis, and appraisal, media creativity, and
integration of new media knowledge.
According to N. Konovalova, personality media culture is the dialogue way of interaction
with the information society, including the evaluation, technology, and creativity components, and
resulting in the development of interaction subjects (Konovalova, 2004: 9).
Information culture may also be regarded as a system of personality development levels,
a “component of human culture and the sum total of sustained skills and ongoing application of
information technologies (IT) in one’s professional activity and everyday practice” (Inyakin,
Gorsky, 2000: 8).
N. Gendina believes that “personality information culture is part of human culture, the
sum total of information world outlook and system of knowledge and skills ensuring independent
purposeful activity to meet individual information needs by using both traditional and new
information technologies. This component is a major factor of successful professional and
nonprofessional work and social protection of an individual in the information society” (Gendina,
19
2005: 21). Y. Inyakin and V. Gorsky point out that the model of shaping information culture
includes personality culture components (knowledge, values and goal system, experience of
cognitive and creative activity and communication) in relation to IT components (databases,
Internet, TV, applications, e-mail, PowerPoint, etc.) (Inyakin, Gorsky, 2000: 10).
In our opinion, the notion of information culture is broader than media culture,
because the former pertains to complex relationships between personality and any information,
including media and the latter relates to contacts between the individual and media.
Comparison of traditional dictionary definitions of the terms “literacy” and “competence”
also reveals their similarity and proximity. For example, S. Ozhegov defines the term “competent”
as (1) knowledgeable and authoritative in a certain area; and (2) possessing competence, and the
term “competence” as (1) the matters one is knowledgeable of; and (2) one’s powers or
authorities (Ozhegov, 1989: 289). The same dictionary defines a literate person as (1) able to read
and write, also able to write correctly, without mistakes; and (2) possessing necessary knowledge or
information in a certain area (Ozhegov, 1989: 147).
Encyclopediс dictionaries define literacy as (1) in a broad sense - the possession of speaking
and writing skills in accordance with standard language requirements; (2) in a narrow sense – the
ability to read only or to read and write simple texts; and (3) the possession of knowledge in a
certain area (Soviet Encyclopedic Dictionary, 1984: 335). The term competence (compete(re) (to)
achieve, meet, be fitting) is defined as (1) the powers given by a law, statute or another enactment
to a concrete office or an official; and (2) knowledge or experience in a certain area (Soviet
Encyclopedic Dictionary, 1984: 613). There are many other definitions of literacy and competence
(competency), but in general, they only differ stylistically.
Regardless of the similarity of definitions of “competence” and “literacy”, we are inclined to
agree with N. Gendina that in popular understanding, “the word ‘literacy’ has a connotation of
simplicity and primitiveness, reflecting the lowest, elementary, level of education” (Gendina, 2005:
21). At the same time, the term “competence” seems to be more pinpoint and specific in relation
to human knowledge and abilities than the broad and polysemantic word “culture”.
Such terms as “information literacy”, “media literacy”, “information culture of personality” or
“media culture” have been frequently used in publications of the past years (Fedorov, 2001; 2005,
etc.), but the above terminological analysis leads us to the conclusion that the terms
“information competence” and “media competence” are more accurate in denoting the
individual’ abilities to use, critically analyze, evaluate, and communicate media messages of various
types, forms, and categories and to analyze complex information processes and media functioning
in society. Thus, media competence can be regarded as a component of the more general term
information competence.
Naturally, it is assumed that human information competence can and should be improved in
the process of life-long learning. This is true for school and university students, economically active
population and retired citizens (e.g., the information literacy development program for retired
citizens at the Media Education Center of the South Urals University in Chelyabinsk).
We have developed a classification of information literacy/competence indicators inspired by
the approaches of R. Kubey, J. Potter, and W. Weber and based on the six basic dimensions of
media education, outlined by leading British media educators (Bowker, 1991; Hart, 1997: 202;
Buckingham and Sefton-Green, 1997: 285, etc.): media agency (studying media agencies’ work,
functions, and goals), media categories (studying media/media text typology – forms and
genres), media technologies (media text creation methods and technologies), media
languages (i.e., verbal, audiovisual, and editing aspects of media texts), media
representations (ways of presenting and rethinking reality in media texts, authors’ concepts,
etc.), and media audiences (audience and media perception typologies).
Besides, we outlined the high, medium, and low levels of development for each information
literacy/competence indicator. Undoubtedly, this kind of typology is rather tentative. Yet it gives an
idea of a differentiated approach to information literacy/competence development when the high
level of the communication or creativity indicators may be accompanied by the low level of the
appreciation indicator. As for the perception, some people may have one articulated indicator (e.g.,
“initial identification”) while other strands may be undeveloped, “dormant”. One thing is clear:
high-level information literacy/competence is impossible without the developed media perception
and ability to analyze and evaluate media texts. Neither the high frequency of communication with
20
media nor developed media text creation skills in itself can make an individual information
competent.
4. Results
Table 1 shows that 11 % of students in the control group only exhibit a high level of the
motivational indicator, that is, a wide range of genre, thematic, emotional, epistemological,
hedonistic, intellectual, psychological, creative, aesthetic motives (including: the choice of a diverse
genre and thematic range of media texts including not entertaining genres; aspiration for a
philosophical/intellectual, aesthetic dispute/dialogue with a media text's authors, criticism,
identification, compassion; aspiration for aesthetic impressions, the acquisition of new
information, to confirm their own competence in various spheres of life and media culture, to
search for materials for educational, scientific, research purposes, etc.). This indicator in the
experimental group of students (who took the media education course) is twice as high. As well as
the number of students who are on the average level of development of the motivational indicator
of media literacy (13 %). Herewith, both in the control and in the experimental groups, the gender
difference was clearly manifested - the number of girls with a high level of motivational index of the
media literacy development significantly exceeds the number of young men. And, on the contrary,
among the young men, there were significantly more respondents who revealed a low level of the
motivational indicator (that is, the choice of only entertaining genres and themes of media texts;
strive for compensation, psychological relaxation, thrill, the desire for recreation, entertainment
and the lack of aesthetic, intellectual, creative motives for contacts with media texts).
Table 1. Classification of the identified levels of the motivational descriptor of the students’ media
competence
№ Levels of Control group (in %) Experimental group (in %)

motivational
descriptor Male Female Total Male Female Total
participants participants participants participants
1 high
0.0 16.1 11.1 14.3 29.0 24.4
2 average
21.4 35.5 31.1 35.7 48.4 44.4
3 below
average 78.6 48.4 57.8 50.0 22.6 31.2
Thus, the results of comparing the media motivation of the students of the control and
experimental groups to some extent testify to the effectiveness of the media education course,
which the students of an experimental group attended during the school year.
Analysis of Table 2 shows that there is not much difference between the students of the
control and experimental groups in relation to reading the press on the whole. About half of both
groups displayed the average level of the contact indicator (reading the press several times a week).
At the same time, there are no significant gender differences in this regard either. However, from
the very beginning, we have not considered the contact indicator as the reference one, the basic one
for the overall balance of the media competence's indicators. Undoubtedly, a person who does not
deal with the media at all cannot become media competent. But the highest level of television
viewing, listening to radio, surfing the Internet or reading the press obviously cannot be equaled to
a high level of media competence.
21
Table 2. Classification of the identified levels of the contact descriptor of the students’ media
competence (media: press)

contact
descriptor
Male Female Total Male Female Total
1 high
0.0 0.0 0.0 14.4 3.3 6.7
2 average
50.0 54.8 53.3 42.8 58.0 53.3
3 below
average 50.0 45.2 46.7 42.8 38.7 40.0
Table 3 data shows that there are certain differences in relation to listening to radio
broadcasts between students of the control and experimental groups. Thus, in the experimental
group, a high (daily) level of listening to the radio was presented by 64 % of respondents, and in the
control group – only 44 %. Compared to the control group, there are almost twice as few
respondents with a low (several times a month and less frequently) level of contacts with the radio
in the experimental group.
On the one hand, these indicators can probably be regarded as one of the results of the media
education course, but on the other hand, we should take into account a small sample of
respondents factor.
competence (media: radio)

contact
descriptor
1 high
42.8 45.2 44.4 42.8 74.2 64.4
2 average
21.5 25.8 24.4 35.7 9.6 17.9
3 below
average 35.7 29.0 31.2 21.5 16.2 17.7
The consequence of a small sample is also probably the fact that there is no gender difference
in "radio contacts" in the control group, whereas in the experimental group, among the students
with the daily habit of listening to the radio programs, there are 20 % more young women than
men.
Analysis of Table 4 gives an idea that, basically, there are no differences towards television
viewing between students of the control and experimental groups. More than 66 % of both groups
view TV every day, from 13 % to 20 % − several times a week. And only 13 % of the interviewed
control and experimental groups watch TV several times a month and less often. There is no
symptomatic gender difference.
We believe that the lack of progress in increasing the frequency of watching TV in the
experimental group is not an experiment’s drawback, since our initial aim was not to increase the
contact indicator of the student’s media literacy. As a further analysis of the results of the
experiment showed, a somewhat higher level of "telewatching" in the control group did not in any
way contribute to an increase in level of the media competence’s analytical indicator.
22
competence (media: television)

contact
descriptor
1 high
71.4 74.2 73.3 71.4 64.5 66.7
2 average
14.3 12.9 13.3 28.6 16.1 20.0
3 below
average 14.3 12.9 13.4 0.0 19.4 13.3
NB: The following table shows frequency of students' contacts with the Internet apart from
social networks/messengers/chatrooms. Thus, we were interested in their Internet use as a source
of information, entertainment, research, etc. but not as a tool for communication. Table 5 proves
that the level of contacts of Russian students with the Internet websites still comes short of
satisfactory: only 4 % to 9 % of students in the control and experimental groups go on the Internet
daily, from 15 % to 23 % − weekly. But more than half of the students of the control and
experimental groups visit Internet sites several times a month and less, and from 9 % to 24 % of
students do not surf the Internet at all.
competence (media: Internet (NB: apart from social networks/messengers/chatrooms)

contact
1 high
00.0 6.4 4.4 14.3 6.4 12.1
2 average
42.7 38.8 40.1 28.4 32.4 28.0
3 below
average 57.3 54.8 55.5 57.3 61.2 59.9
The difference in the indicators in the control and experimental groups is small, but the
analysis of the table showed that there are gender differences in contacts with the Internet. Young
people with their traditional craving for technical innovations are somewhat more active in
Internet surfing than girls. This fact is consistent with the results of similar sociological studies
conducted earlier by various organizations (for example, see: Education and information culture,
2000).
competence (media: video/computer games)

contact
descriptor
23
1 high
14.3 6.5 8.9 7.1 3.2 4.4
2 average
42.8 6.5 17.8 35.7 19.3 24.4
3 below
average 35.7 58.0 51.1 49.9 41.9 44.4
22.2 % of students of the control group (7.1 % of boys, 29.0 % of girls) and 26.7 % of students
of the experimental group (7.1 % of boys, 35.5 % of girls) never play video/computer games.
Certainly, the frequency of student contacts with video/computer games cannot be a valid
proof of their media competence. In our opinion, on the contrary: too frequent computer gaming
takes away a person's time to contact other types of media. However, the analysis of Table 5 shows
that the level of contacts between the students of the control and experimental groups is quite
comparable, and only 4–9 % of respondents have a high level. But more than half of students play
computer games less than a few times a month, and 22–26 % do not play them at all.
The gender difference in relation to computer games is very clear, since the number of young
men who are fans of this type of entertainment is at least twice the number of girls, that again
correlates with the findings of international sociological studies. Most of the popular computer
games are based on the theme of violence (new edition of "Doom", “Uncharted-4” etc.), initially not
appealing to female audience. Hence the dominant number of computer players are male.
competence (on average for all of the above media)

contact
1 high
25.7 26.5 26.2 14.3 0.0 4.4
2 average
36.7 33.3 34.3 64.3 93.5 84.4
3 below
average 38.6 40.2 39.5 21.4 6.5 11.2
So, only about 26 % of the students in the control group and 4 % of the experimental group
showed a high level of the contact indicator of media competence’s development for several types
of media in general. However, one should not forget that this result is due to a low level of contacts
of the audience with the Internet and computer games (where more than half of the respondents in
both groups demonstrated a weak level of contacts). But nearly 73 % of the interviewed students
(71 % of the boys and 74 % of the girls) in the control group and 66 % of the interviewed students in
the experimental group (71 % of the boys and 64 % of the girls) said that they watch television every
day. That is, they have a high level of the contact indicator for this type of media. Quite high was
the students' contact level in relation to listening to the radio programs (from 44 % to 64 % of the
respondents have a high level of contact with this type of media). Thus, it can be concluded that
from 50 % to 89 % of the students surveyed, showed an average or high level of the media
competence’s contact indicator, the fact which by itself, as we have already noted, cannot be
considered as the basic indicator for determining the media competence level of the respondents.
The detection of the levels of the information indicator of the media competence's
development in the control and experimental groups was held through the assessment of the test
results. Students were asked 30 questions, which were divided into blocks of 10 questions (see
Appendix 1). One block consisted of questions related to the terminology of media/media culture,
the second – to the history of media/media culture, the third – to the theory of media/media
24
culture. Points equal to the number of correct answers. Thus, the maximum number of points that
a student could score was 30.
We agreed to the following grade percentage range: 80-100 % correct answers (24-30 points)
– high level; 50 % to 80 % (15–23 points) – average; less than 50 % of correct answers (below
14 points) – below average/low level.
We should admit that the testing had its flaws. On the one hand, the format of a test lends
itself to “gaming” — ways to improve the score by guessing (intuitive or logical – by excluding the
most dubious variants). On the other hand, testing is open to cheating attempts. Still, the results of
the testing were compared with the results of interviews, that helped to make sure that they, on the
whole, correctly reflected the exit stage knowledge of the students in both the control and the
experimental groups.
Table 8. Classification of the identified levels of the information descriptor of the students’ media
competence
№ Levels of contact Control group (in %) Experimental group (in %)

descriptor
1 high
7.1 16.1 13.3 92.9 96.8 95.6
2 average
28.6 58.0 48.9 7.1 3.2 4.4
3 below average
64.3 25.9 37.8 0.0 0.0 0.0
The table's data clearly demonstrates the progress of the experimental group over the
academic year. 95 % of the students in the experimental group proved a high level of the media
literacy's information indicator (from 80 % to 100 % of correct answers to questions related to
terminology, stories and theory of media / media culture), while in the control group this level is
only 13 %. There are no results below average (less than 50 % of correct answers) in the
experimental group, whereas in the control group 37 % of the students' results were graded as poor.
Gender differences in the students' answers were manifested by the fact that girls on the
whole showed more knowledge about the terminology, theory and history of media / media culture.
As for those 13 % of students from the control group who showed a high level of media
competence's information indicator, it can be assumed that this level is reached due to self-
education and / or upbringing in the family.
The data in Table 9 show the way correct / incorrect answers of the students of the control
and experimental groups were distributed for various types of information knowledge testing in the
field of media / media culture.
It shows that the students experienced the greatest difficulty in answering the test questions
concerning the history of the media / media culture (although in the control group the number of
incorrect answers was on the whole about 50%, while in the experimental group this number was
slightly higher than 12%).
Table 9. Test results of students in the control and experimental groups in the field "Information
indicator of media competence"
Knowledge in Number Control group (in %) Experimental group (in %)

the of
fields
participants participants number participants participants number
25
Media/media Correct 55.9 74.2 68.1 97.1 97.4 97.3

culture answers
key terms Incorrect 45.1 25.8 31.9 2.9 2.6 2.7
answers
History of Correct 32.6 38.3 36.7 83.6 78.4 80.0
media answers
Incorrect 67.4 61.7 63.3 16.4 21.6 20.0
answers
Media Correct 37.8 56.5 50.6 83.6 86.8 85.8
theories answers
Incorrect 62.2 43.5 49.4 16.4 13.2 14.2
answers
Total Correct 42.1 56.3 49.2 88.1 84.2 87.7
answers
Incorrect 57.9 43.7 50.8 11.9 15.8 12.3
answers
Further, it seemed important to analyze the combination of the levels of the motivational and
informational indicators of the development of the media competence in the control and
experimental groups (see Table 10).
Table 10. The combination of the revealed levels of the motivational and informational indicators
of the development of the media competence in the control and experimental groups
№ Combination of the Control group (in %) Experimental group (in %)

motivational and informational
indicators levels
Male Female Total Male Fema Total
partici particip number particip le number
pants ants ants partic
ipant
s
1 Combination of levels below 57,1 19,3 31,1 0,0 0,0 0,0
average
2 Combination of average levels 14,3 19,4 17,8 0,0 3,3 2,2
3 Combination of high levels 0,0 6,5 4,4 14,3 29,0 25,1
4 Discrepancy of levels 28,6 54,8 46,7 85,7 67,7 72,7
Analysis of the data in Table 10 proves that the discrepancy between the levels of the
motivational and informational indicators of the media competence's development is a common
phenomenon, affecting approximately 50–70 % of the respondents. Thus, with more or less diverse
motives for contacts with media texts, a student may not have a particular awareness of the
media/media culture and vice versa. Meanwhile there is an often encountered case when the level
of the information indicator is higher than the motivational one (especially in the experimental
group that received a considerable amount of information about the media theories and history
during the course).
Our study has also showed that there is no strong correlation between the frequency of
students' contacts with the media and their motivational and/or information indicators of the
media competence's development. The majority of respondents (73 % in the control group and
66 % in the experimental group) revealed, for example, a high level of the contact indicator of
media competence in relation to TV, but only 4,44 % of the control group and 25 % in the
experimental group indicated the combination of high levels of motivational and informational
components of the development of media competence.
26
However there is a clear connection between the high level of the informational media
competence development of the students and the fact whether they have attended a media literacy
course. Only 13 % of the students in the control group revealed a high level of information
indicators, as compared to about 95 % in the experimental group.
Table 11 shows that the students of the control group generally exhibit a low level of the
interpretation / evaluation indicator of media competence's development (or unawareness of the
media language, confusion in judgments, openness to external influences, disability to interpret the
viewpoint of heroes' and authors' of a media text).
The low level of the interpretation/evaluation indicator in the experimental group is detected
3.5 times less often (20 %). When asked to analyze a media texts respondents from this group can
only retell the plot of a story/film.
The average level of the interpretation/evaluation indicator is characterized by the ability to
provide insight into the behaviour and psychological state of a media text's characters, the ability to
explain the logic of the sequence of events, the ability to talk about individual components of the
media image, however the interpretation of the author's position is missing (or it's rudimentary).
Such level was revealed by about 26 % of the students in the control group (also without significant
gender differences). In the students of the experimental group, the average level of the
interpretation / evaluation indicator of the media competence development was twice as high
(53 %).
Table 11. Classification of the revealed levels of the interpretation / evaluation indicator of the
media competence's development in the control and experimental groups

interpretation
/ evaluation
1 high 7.2 3.2 4.4 7.2 35.5 26.7
2 average 21.4 29.1 24.2 42.8 58.1 53.3
3 below average 71.4 67.7 71.4 50.0 6.4 20.0
High level of interpretation/evaluation of media competence presumes that a media text

analysis is based on the ability to mediate perception, close to "complex identification", ability to
analyze and synthesize the space and time form of a media text; understanding, interpretation and
evaluation of the author's concept in the context of the work's structure (thereat a reasoned consent
or disagreement with the author's position is argued); evaluation of the social significance of a
media text; the ability to correlate emotional perception with conceptual judgment, transfer this
judgment to other genres and types of media culture, link media texts to their own experiences and
other people's experiences. Thus, media text analysis based on high levels of "informational",
"motivational" and "perceptual" indicators was manifested by only 4% of the students in the
control group and 26% of the experimental group, with a significant gender dominance of female
respondents.
Such a noticeable difference in the levels between the students of the control and
experimental groups appeared in spite of the fact that many students in the control group had fairly
high contact levels with media. Thus, the analysis of the data in Table 11 once again approves that
the high frequency of contacts with the media does not in its own right results in a high level of
ability to fully appreciate / analyze media texts. But the levels of information and motivational
indicators are visibly reflected upon the levels of the interpretation / evaluation indicators of
students' media competence.
27
On the contrary, a comparative analysis of the tables given above shows that low levels of
motivational, information and evaluation indicators quite correlate with each other. Moreover, the
same is true for motivational, information and evaluation indicators.
Thus, the low level of the evaluation indicator of the media competence's development in
most cases is linked to the similar levels of the motivational and informational indicators and vice
versa.
If we turn to a comparative analysis of the data in the experimental group, the following
tendency is clearly visible: a high level of media competence's information indicator (95%) does not
ensure the same high level of the evaluation indicator. Generally only 26.7% of the students in the
experimental group were able to assert their high level of media competence's development at the
evaluation indicator. About a half of the students (53.3%) showed the average level. This fact
convinces us that awareness in the field of terminology, theory and history of media / media
culture does not by default translate to an increase in analytical abilities in relation to media texts.
This is also indicated by the low level figures of the evaluation indicator. It is 20% in the
experimental group, whereas the low level of knowledge in the field of media in this group has not
been elicited.
A significant correlation is demonstrated in motivational and evaluation indicators of the
experimental group's media competence (31% of students with below average level of motivational
indicator relate to 20 % of students with a low evaluation indicator, for the average level the ratio is
44% to 53%, for the high one - it is 21% to 26%).
Since operational descriptor (high level - practical skills of independent creation of a variety
of media texts; average level - practical skills to create a media text with the help of
experts/teachers; below average level - lack of hands-on skills or reluctance to engage in media
work) is an essential component of the media competence's creative indicator, we have not
analyzed it separately. It should be noted that our observations of the students' creative activities
showed that the operational indicator quite correlates to the creative indicator. Students who do
not have practical skills in media work are unable to create media texts. Although hands-on skill by
itself does not result in high level of a creative descriptor. In the same way as, for example,
knowledge and practical skills of hundreds of film and acting schools' graduates may correlate to
only half a dozen of people whose talent is truly acknowledged.
Table 12. Classification of the revealed levels of the creative indicator of the media competence's
development in the control and experimental groups

creative
descriptor
1 high 14.3 22.6 20.0 7.2 74.2 53.3
2 average 14.3 19.4 17.8 71.4 19.4 35.6
3 below 71.4 58.0 62.2 21.4 6.4 11.1

average
Analysis of the data in Table 12 shows that there is a clear correlation between the levels of
operational and creative indicators of media competence's development. Having acquired the skills
of independent creation of media texts (which are critical for the operational indicator) the
students of the experimental group exceeded the control group students by more than two times –
both at high and average levels of the creative indicator. At the same time, 53 % of the students in
the experimental group showed a high level of the creative indicator, that is, vivid creativity in
various activities (perceptual, game, artistic, etc.) related to the media. In the control group, this
percentage was only 20 %. In both cases, the number of girls with high creativity was more than the
28
number of young men. Conversely, the number of young men with a low creative indicator of the
development of media competence significantly outnumbered the similar level for girls.
Analysis of the data in Table 13 shows that the discrepancy between the levels of creative and
interpretive/evaluative indicators is demonstrated by almost half of the respondents. At the same
time, there is often a case when the level of the creative indicator of the media competence
development is higher than the evaluation level (this is especially noticeable in the experimental
group, which had the opportunity to develop its operational and creative abilities on the media
during the training course).
Table 13. The combination of the revealed levels of creative and interpretive / evaluation
indicators of the media competence's development
№ The Control group (in %) Experimental group (in %)

combination of
the revealed
levels of participants participants participants participants
creative and
interpretive /
evaluation
indicators
1 Combination of 64.3 41.9 48.9 14.3 6.5 8.9
low levels
2 Combination of 7.1 0.0 2.2 35.7 16.1 22.2
average levels
3 Combination of 7.2 3.2 4.4 7.2 32.2 24.4
high levels
4 Discrepancy of 21.4 54.8 44.5 42.8 45.2 44.5
levels
But in the control group we encounter the combination of low levels of creative and
interpretive/evaluative indicators (64 % of young men and 48 % of young women). Gender
differences were manifested primarily in the fact that coincidence of low levels of creative and
interpretive/evaluative indicators was more common for young men from the control group, while
in the experimental group, a greater number of coincidences of high levels of the above indicators
were shown by female students. A limited sample of respondents does not allow us to draw far-
reaching conclusions, but it is safe to say that female students in general were more likely to attend
classes, so they had more operational skills developed. Having analyzed all the data, we compiled a
summary table for the classification of the levels of the complex indicator of the media
competence's development of students in the control and experimental groups.
In doing so, we agreed to consider that the students with a high complex level of media
competence's development are those who showed a high level in three to four main indicators
except a contact one. There are 12 people (26.7 %) in the experimental group, 11 of them are
female. In the control group there are only two people, both female (4.4 %).
Table 14. Classification of the revealed levels of the complex indicator of the media competence's
development in the control and experimental groups
№ Level of Control group (in %) Experimental group (in %)

complex
indicator Male Female Total Male Female Total
participant participant participants participant
s s s
1 high 0,0 6,5 4,5 7,1 35,5 26,7

2 average 21,4 12,9 15,5 35,7 58,1 51,1
29
3 below 78,6 80,6 80,0 57,2 6,4 22,2

average
A group with an average complex level of media competence's development encompassed

those students who did not have a single low level of the indicator in the three most important
positions (information, evaluation and creative indicators). These were approximately half of the
experimental group (51 %: 35 % male respondents and 58 % female ones). In the control group,
there were 15 % of such students.
Finally, to students with a below average complex level of media competence, we attributed
those who had more than one low level indicators. In the control group, these were four times more
such respondents than in the experimental group. Meanwhile, in the control group the low results
of male and female respondents are quite comparable, but in the experimental one, young men
with a low level of media competence predominate: 9 times more than female students (which, in
our opinion, was due to a quantitatively small sample of respondents).
In general, the data in Table 14 prove the viability of our experimental media education
course, and the effectiveness of its methodology and techniques.
Comparative analysis of the data reflected in this article shows that in the experimental group
there is a clear overlap, and in the control group, the proximity of the evaluation and complex
indicators' levels. In our opinion, it indicates that the evaluation indicator is the most significant
indicator of the media competence's development as a whole.
Case Study 1. Classification of the revealed levels of different indicators of the media
competence's development in the experimental and control groups
The drawback of many sociological studies, in our opinion, consists in the fact that, skillfully
using the results of mass surveys, their authors do not always try to compare and contrast the
knowledge / skills of a particular person which, in some areas, can be of a very high level, but in
others – average or low.
That is why the main feature of our summative experiment was that in addition to the
traditional study and analysis of anonymous preferences and knowledge of respondents, we have
attempted a case study of the media competence levels of specific students / individuals. We have
selected a few representatives from each group of respondents (with high, average and low levels of
media competence indicators), whose creative and practical work was analyzed in order to reveal
the relationships and dependencies between the levels of motivational, contact, information,
analytical, creative (and partly operational) indicators of a particular person. First, tables 15 and 16
were compiled, giving a general idea of the classification of levels of different indicators in the
experimental and control groups.
Table 15. Classification of the revealed levels of various media literacy indicators in the
experimental group
Media literacy indicators

№ Students Level of Level of Level of Level of Level of
motivational contact information analytical creative
indicator indicator indicator indicator indicator
1 Alexandra A. a a h h a
2 Anna D. a a h a a
3 Anna K. l a h a h
4 Anna M. h a h a a
5 Anna U. l a h a h
6 Anna P. a a h h h
7 Ekaterina V. a a h a h
8 Elena V. h a h h h
9 Elena G. h a h h h
10 Elena E. h a h a h
30
11 Elena Ch. a a h a a
12 Inna V. l a h h h
13 Inna L. a a h h h
14 Irina K. a a a a h
15 Irina Kr. a a h a h
16 Irina M. h a h l l
17 Irina N. a l h a h
18 Irina Sh. h a h a a
19 Karina I. a l h a h
20 Karina Yu. l a h h h
21 Lyubov A. a a h a a
22 Maria B. h a h h h
23 Maria G. l a h h h
24 Maria K. h a h h h
25 Natalya K. h a h h h
26 Oksana M. a a h a h
27 Olga G. a a h a h
28 Tatyana B. l a h a h
29 Tatyana L. l a h a h
30 Tatyana P. a a h a h
31 Tatyana T. a a h l l
32 Alexander B. l a a l l
33 Alexey D. a l h a a
34 Alexey X. l l h l a
35 Andrey O. a a h l a
36 Valery G. l a h a a
37 Valey K. a a h l a
38 Vasily P. a a h a a
39 Vyacheslav K. l h h l a
40 Dmitry S. h a h a a
41 Evgeny K. a a h h h
42 Igor P. h l h a a
43 Roman A. l a h a l
44 Sergei D. l a h l a
45 Sergei S. l h h l l
Convention:
h − high level of the media competency's indicator
a − average level of the media competency's indicator
l − low level of the media competency's indicator
Table 16. Classification of the revealed levels of various media literacy indicators in the control
group
Media literacy indicators

№ Students Level of Level of Level of Level of Level of
motivational contact information analytical creative
1 Alexandra P. a a h a l
2 Anna K. a a a a l
3 Anna O. l a a l a
4 Valeriya K. l a a a h
5 Victoria B. h a a l l
6 Victoria U. l a a l a
31
7 Ekaterina D. a a a a h
8 Ekaterina K. h a h h h
9 Elena B. h a h a h
10 Elena L. l a l l l
11 Elena N. a l l l l
12 Elena S. a a a a l
13 Elena Sh. l a a l l
14 Elena T. a a h a l
15 Irina M. l a l l l
16 Irina S. h a a l a
17 Lybov Ch. l a l l l
18 Marina B. a a h a h
19 Natalya P. a l l l l
20 Natalya R. l l l l l
21 Oksana R. l a a l c
22 Oksana S. a a a a l
23 Olga L. l a l l l
24 Olga K. l a a l a
25 Olga V. l a a l l
26 Svetlana K. l a a l l
27 Svetlana S. h a a a h
28 Tatyana S. a a a l l
29 Yuliana S. l a l l l
30 Yulia S. l a a l a
31 Yulia Z. a l a l h
32 Alexander B. l a l l l
33 Alexey B. l a h a h
34 Alexey K. a l l l l
35 Alexey P. a a a a a
36 Andrey G. l h a a l
37 Andrey S. a a a h h
38 Anton N. l a l l l
39 Bladislav X. l a l l l
40 Dmitry K. l a l l l
41 Kirill G. l l l l l
42 Nikolay G. l a a l l
43 Oleg P. l a l l a
44 Pavel G. l a l l l
45 Sergei N. l a l l l
Convention:
h − high level of the media competency's indicator
a − average level of the media competency's indicator
l − low level of the media competency's indicator
We have analyzed the responses of students from each level group. Group "h" − students with
a high level of the indicator of media competence's development. For example, a student Maria K.,
who has only one indicator at an average level – the contact one. All the rest are high. In fact, Maria
K. has a diverse range of media motivation, she has accumulated a solid baggage of knowledge in
the field of terminology, theory and history of media education. But the main thing is that she is a
creative person with a high level of perception and analytical thinking in relation to media texts.
This applies to any kind of creative work during the media education course, for instance, her
reviews, discussions, etc. A similar level (with a somewhat narrower spectrum of motivation) was
demonstrated by the end of the year's training by Evgeny K. and Elena G. It should be noted that
32
there were 4 % of such respondents in the control group, and six times more – 26% in the
experimental group.
Group "a" indicates the average level of the indicator of the media competence's
development. For example, we can distinguish Irina K., who has only one high-level indicator –
creative. All the rest are average. This diligent student does not have a particular inclination to
study media culture. However, she is used to "learn" all the subjects from the curriculum, so she
achieves some "average" level of knowledge due to perseverance. Nevertheless, the creative
production has revealed her latent potential for non-standard solutions (for example, in collages).
There were 15 % of "a" level responses in the control group, and 51 % in the experimental group.
Group "l" is a low level of the media competence's indicator.
Typical representatives are Dmitry K., Kirill G., and Sergei N. from the control group.
The motivation of their media contacts is rather monotonous and is limited by entertainment.
They are not interested in the theory and history of the media/media culture. Perceptive and
analytical abilities in relation to media texts are undeveloped. Creative abilities are not manifested.
As a rule, they often skip classes. They are not interested in the study program they're enrolled into.
Studying for them is something like serving a four-year labor service with the ultimate goal
(probably more important than their parents, than by themselves) in the form of a Bachelor degree.
The real motives for their studies (most likely, determined by their parents) are reduced mainly to
the three "not to" (for boys: "not to join the army", "not to hang out in the streets", "not to fall
under bad influence", and for girls: "not to be worse than others", "not to idle around"). Sadly,
there majority of the students in the control group (80 %), and four times less (22 %) in the
experimental group demonstrated the "l" level.
Case Study 2: Analysis of students' creative assignments
In order to further elucidate media preferences of students and to analyze the results of students'
creative tasks on media texts' content analysis, we used the media education technology developed
by A. Silverblatt (Silverblatt, 2001: 62-64). 38 students (31 female and 7 male students aged 20-21)
participated in the experiment in Taganrog Institute. Each of them was to choose three of their
favorite media texts for analysis, that is, totally, the students analyzed 114 media texts. In each of
the media texts, the students had to identify and analyze the main characters (incl. gender, age,
race, level of education, type of work / study, marital status, number of children, appearance,
character traits, role and influence of these characters). The results obtained were summarized in
Table 17.
Its data led us to the following conclusions:
1. Of all the variety of media texts, students prefer to choose as their favorite: 1) films and
television series (55.3 %, while the number of male students who chose this option (85.7 %)
significantly exceeds the female participants (48.4 %); 2) television programs (39.5 % with female
respondents' dominance). Print and online press, computer games, and Internet websites have not
accumulated more than 8 % of respondents altogether.
Table 17. Character analysis of media texts by students
Categories Female Male

Total number of
respondents' respondents'
respondents (%)
choice (%) choice (%)
1. Media text type:
1.1. film, TV series 48.4 85.7 55.3
1.2. television program 41.9 28.6 39.5
1.3. press 6.4 0.0 5.3
1.4. computer game 3.2 0.0 2.6
1.5. other media 0.0 0.0 0.0
2. Media text genre:
2.1. comedy 25.8 28.6 26.3
2.2. melodrama 29.1 0.0 23.7
33
2.3. reality show 12.9 0.0 10.5

2.4. talk show 9.7 14.3 10.5
2.5. science fiction/fantasy 6.4 28.6 10.5
2.6. musical/game show 6.4 0.0 5.3
2.7. drama 6.4 0.0 5.3
2.8. detective story 6.4 0.0 5.3
2.9. criminal drama 0.0 28.6 5.3
2.10. other genres 6.4 14.3 7.9
3. Character gender:
3.1. male 58.1 85.7 63.2
3.2. female 41.9 14.3 36.8
4. Age of the character:
4.1. 0-5 3.2 0.0 2.6
4.2. 6-12 3.2 0.0 2.6
4.3. 13-18 3.2 14.3 5.3
4.4. 19-25 32.3 42.8 34.2
4.5. 26-35 45.2 28.6 42.1
4.6. 36-50 9.7 14.3 10.5
4.7. 50-65 6.4 14.3 7.9
4.8. over 65 0.0 0.0 0.0
5. Race and/or ethnicity of the character:
5.1. white 83.8 85.7 84.2
5.2. black 6.4 14.3 7.9
5.3. asian 3.2 0.0 2.6
5.4. hispanic 3.2 0.0 2.6
5.5. native American 0.0 0.0 0.0
5.6. other 6.4 0.0 5.3
6. Education level of the character:
6.1. university 64.5 57.2 63.2
6.2. high school 22.6 28.6 23.7
6.3. middle school 3.2 14.3 5.4
6.4. other 9.7 0.0 7.8
7. Type of job:
7.1. qualified work 67.7 57.1 65.8
7.2. unemployed 9.6 14.3 10.5
7.3. student 6.4 28.5 10.5
7.4. blue collar 9.6 14.2 10.5
7.5. top manager 3.2 0.0 2.6
7.6. other 6.4 14.2 7.9
8. Marital status of the character:
8.1. bachelor/bachelorette 51.6 71.4 55.2
8.2. married 38.7 28.5 36.8
8.3. divorced 6.4 0.0 5.2
8.4. civil marriage 3.2 0.0 2.6
8.5. widower/widow 3.2 0.0 2.6
8.6. other 0.0 0.0 0.0
9. Number of children:
9.1. 0 67.7 85.7 71.1
9.2. 1 25.8 14.2 23.6
9.3. 2 6.4 0.0 5.2
9.4. 3 and more 3.2 0.0 2.6
10. Character's appearance:
10.1 conventional attractiveness 58.1 57.1 57.8
34
10.2 undistinguished appearance 29.1 42.8 31.5

10.3. charming/glamorous 9.6 0.0 7.8
10.4. non attractive by traditional
6.4 14.2 7.8
standards
10.5 other 3.2 0.0 2.6
11. Body type/constitution of the character:
11.1. average 41.9 42.8 42.1
11.2. slim 38.7 14.2 34.2
11.3. athletic 16.1 14.2 15.7
11.4. corpulent 0.0 28.5 5.2
11.5. overweight 6.4 0.0 5.2
11.6. other 3.2 0.0 2.6
12 Character traits:
12.1. independence 70.9 57.1 68.4
12.2. dependence 3.2 0.0 2.6
12.3. intellect 51.6 42.8 50.0
12.4. ineptitude 3.2 0.0 2.6
12.5. directness 41.9 57.1 36.8
12.6. resourcefulness 9.6 14.2 10.7
12.7. ambition 35.4 57.1 42.1
12.8. inaction 3.2 0.0 2.6
12.9. wittiness 35.4 28.5 34.2
12.10. irony. sarcasm 9.6 0.0 7.8
12.11 object of irony/jokes 6.4 14.2 7.8
12.12. care 35.4 14.2 31.5
12.13. nonchalance 12.9 0.0 10.5
12.14. loyalty 35.4 14.2 31.5
12.15. treason 0.0 0.0 0.0
12.16. optimism 67.7 71.4 68.4
12.17. pessimism 0.0 0.0 0.0
12.18. truthfulness 32.2 28.5 31.5
12.19. deceitfulness 0.0 0.0 0.0
12.20. naivety 9.1 0.0 7.8
12.21. cynicism 0.0 0.0 0.0
12.22. kindness 35.4 14.2 31.5
12.23. cruelty 3.2 14.2 5.2
12.24. vigour 16.1 28.5 18.4
12.25. weakness 6.4 14.2 7.8
12.26. courage 16.1 28.5 18.4
12.27. cowardice 0.0 0.0 0.0
12.28. hardworking 32.2 14.2 29.8
12.29. laziness 0.0 0.0 0.0
12.30. pragmatism 6.4 14.2 7.8
12.31. inconsistency 0.0 0.0 0.0
12.32. principled stance 6.4 14.2 7.8
12.33. expedience 0.0 0.0 0.0
12.34. determination 12.9 14.2 13.1
12.35. lack of purpose 0.0 0.0 0.0
12.36. sensibility 41.9 28.5 40.5
12.37. coldness 0.0 0.0 0.0
12.38. tenderness 19.3 28.5 21.5
12.39. rudeness 3.2 14.2 5.2
12.40. coquetry 19.3 14.2 18.4
35
12.41. intimidation 0.0 0.0 0.0

12.42. sensuality 16.1 28.5 18.4
12.43. frigidness 0.0 0.0 0.0
12.44. other 9.6 0.0 7.8
13. Role of the character in the plot:
13.1. positive 51.6 57.1 52.6
13.2 romantic 22.5 14.2 21.0
13.3. comic 9.6 14.2 10.5
13.4. negative 3.2 14.2 5.2
13.5. other (for example. a TV
show 26.1 14.2 24.3
host)
14. Character's influence on the development of the plot:
14.1. positive influence 74.1 71.4 73.6
14.2. no/weak impact 16.1 14.2 15.7
14.3. both positive and negative 6.4 14.2 7.8
14.4. negative impact 3.2 28.5 7.8
5. Conclusions
The classification of the media competence's development indicators developed by us turned
out to be an effective tool for comparative analysis between the control and experimental groups.
This analysis has proved the effectiveness of the model developed by us and the methodology for
fostering students' media literacy (the level of media competence of the students who took and
passed a one-year course in media education was four times higher than the level of similar
indicators in the control group).
The most preferred genres of media texts were: 1) comedy (26.3 %); 2) melodrama (23.7 %,
and this is purely female preference); 3) reality shows and talk shows (10.5 % each); 4) science
fiction (with the majority of male respondents). None of the other media genres could collect more
than 6 % of the total vote. As expected, entertainment genres are dominating among the favorites.
Genres that are considered "challenging" by mass audience (drama, tragedy, parable, analytical
television program, etc.) did not exceed 6 % of the vote. 3. The vast majority of favorite media
characters, according to the sample made by students, turned out to be male (about 63 %). While
female respondents' preferences are distributed more evenly (58 % chose male characters for
analysis, and 42 % − female), over 85 % of the male respondents selected to examine a male media
character.
As one would expect, characters under the age of 18 and older than 35 years were not very
popular with students in their 20s. Maximum attention was given to their peers - the age group
between 19 and 35.
As for the ethnic characteristics, the students were unanimous – 84 % of respondents chose
media heroes with white skin. About 14% of male respondents chose African American characters,
while nearly 6,5 % of female students analyzed a character with an indefinite ethnicity (animated
character Shrek).
The respondents' current level of education (university) significantly influenced the choice of
favorite media characters with higher education (63.2 %). However, 23.7 % of respondents like
characters with secondary education, too.
Similar situation is with the type of study/occupation of popular media characters.
The majority preferred qualified employees (65.8 %). Some male respondents also chose
unemployed characters (14.3 %). Paradoxically, media characters with low qualification (10.5 % of
votes) are three times more popular than heroes holding a higher rank (2.6 %).
As expected, the most popular media characters are bachelors (55.3 %). The second place is
occupied by married characters (36.8 % with female voices prevailing).
The sympathies of twenty-something respondents, as a rule, go to childless characters (71 %).
However, a quarter of the students surveyed named among their favorite characters fathers /
mothers of a child. The popularity of characters with two or more children is minimal (from 3 % to
6 % of the vote).
36
As one might expect, students prefer physically attractive characters (57.9 %), or at least –
conventionally good-looking (31.6 %). Media characters, unattractive by traditional standards, are
appealing to only 7.9 % of respondents.
Curiously, the characters with athletic bodies have not become the leaders of student
preferences (about 15 % of the votes without a noticeable gender difference among the
respondents). Apparently, it's easier to relate with characters with "closer to real life" body (42.1 %
of votes). In fact, slim heroes of media texts are also quite popular (34.2 %) Male respondents
(28.6 %) demonstrated tolerance in relation to overweight characters.
The most popular features of media characters are such qualities as optimism (68.4 %),
independence (68.4 %), intelligence (50 %), activeness (42.1 %), sensitivity (40.5 %), directness
(36.8 %), wit (34.2 %). Such traits of media character as kindness, truthfulness, diligence,
faithfulness got about one third of the poll. Meanwhile, such strands as kindness, care, and loyalty
were more popular with female respondents; straightforwardness, activity – with male. In general,
the choice of students tends to positive media characters. Such negative character traits as deceit,
cowardice, passivity, pessimism, etc. left the respondents indifferent. At the same time, 5.3 % of the
poll distinguished cruelty and rudeness in their favourite media characters.
About half of the respondents (without significant gender differences) have identified the
positive role of the character from their favorite media text. 21 % of respondents (with the
predominance of female respondents) marked romantic function as an important. Each tenth of
the questioned singled out the character's comic function. A quarter of respondents noted that their
favorite characters (usually TV presenter) do not have a pronounced positive / negative function in
the media text, maintaining a kind of neutrality.
The majority of respondents (73.7 %) noted that the characters from their favorite media
texts have a positive impact on the development of the plot. And only 7.9 % pointed to the negative
impact (or both positive and negative impact together).
Thus, the analysis of the results of our survey confirmed the general trend of media contacts
in the students' audience – its focus on the entertaining genres of audiovisual media; preference of
characters who are physically attractive, positive, active, single, childless, educated, highly skilled
males aged 19 to 35 years. These heroes are characterized by optimism, independence, intelligence,
sensitivity, and wit. They are connoisseurs of life and have a positive impact on the development of
the plot in a media text.
References
Baake, 1999 – Baake, D. at al. (eds.) (1999). Hanbuch Mediaen: Medienkompetenz. Modelle
und Projecte. Bonn: Budeszentrale fur Politishe Bilding, 308 p.
Bazalgette, Buckingham, 2013 – Bazalgette, C. and Buckingham, D. (2013). Literacy, media
and multimodality: a critical response. Literacy. 47(2): 95-102.
Blumeke, 2000 – Blumeke, S. (2000). Mediaenpadagogiche Kompetenz. Munchen: KoPad-
Verlag, 400 p.
Bowker, 1991 – Bowker, J. (Ed.) (1991). Secondary Media Education. A Curriculum
Statement. London: British Film Institute.
Buckingham, 1991 – Buckingham, D. (1991). Teaching about Media. In: Lusted, D. (Ed.). The
Media Studies Book. London – New York: Routledge, 2-35.
Buckingham, 2003 – Buckingham, D. (2003). Media Education: Literacy, Learning and
Contemporary Culture. Cambridge, UK: Polity Press, 219 p.
Buckingham, Sefton-Green 1997 – Buckingham, D., Sefton-Green, J. (1997). Multimedia
Education: Media Literacy in the Age of Digital Culture. In: Kubey, R. (Ed.). Media Literacy in the
Information Age. New Brunswick and London: Transaction Publishers, p.290.
Education and information culture, 2000 – Education and information culture. Sociological
aspects. Works on education sociology. Vol. V. Issue VII. Moscow.
Fedorov, 2003 – Fedorov, A. (2003). Media Education and Media Literacy: Experts’
Opinions. MENTOR. A Media Education Curriculum for Teachers in the Mediterranean. Paris:
UNESCO.
Fedorov, 2004 – Fedorov, A. (2004). Media education of students of pedagogical institutes.
Pedagogy. № 4. 3-51.
37
Fedorov, 2004 – Fedorov, A. (2004). Specificity of Media Education in Pedagogical

Universities. Pedagogica. N 4, 43-51.
Fedorov, 2005 – Fedorov, A. (2005). Media Education for Future Teachers. Taganrog:
Kuchma. 314 p.
Fedorov, 2007 – Fedorov, A. (2007). Development of the Media Competence and Critical
Thinking of Pedagogical University’s Students. Moscow, 616 p.
Fedorov, 2007 – Fedorov, A. (2007). Comparative analysis of the levels of media literacy
development' indicators. Innovations in Education. № 1, 43-75.
Fedorov, 2010 – Fedorov, A. (2010). Media Education and Media Literacy: Russian Point of
View. Saarbrucken: Lambert Academic Publishing, 364 p.
Gendina, 2005 – Gendina, N. (2005). Information Literacy and Information Culture:
Alternative or Unity? (Research Results). School Library . N 3, 18-24.
Hart, 1997 – Hart, A. (1997). Textual Pleasures and Moral Dilemmas: Teaching Media
Literacy in England. In: Kubey, R. (Ed.). Media Literacy in the Information Age. New Brunswick
and London: Transaction Publishers, 202.
Inyakin, Gorsky, 2000 – Inyakin, Y., Gorsky, V. (2000). From Information Culture to the
Culture of Personality. Supplementary Education. N 10, 6-10.
Konovalova, 2004 – Konovalova, N. (2004). The Development of the Pedagogical Intitute
Students’ Media Culture. Ph. D. Dissertation. Vologda, 9.
Kubey, 1997 – Kubey, R. (1997). Media Education: Portraits of an Evolving Field. In: Kubey,
R. (Ed.) Media Literacy in the Information Age. New Brunswick & London: Transaction
Publishers, p.2.
Ozhegov, 1989 – Ozhegov, S. (1989). The Dictionary of the Russian Language. Moscow.
Potter, 2001 – Potter, W.J. (2001). Media Literacy. Thousand Oaks – London: Sage
Publication, 423 p.
Praeger, 449 p.
Weber, 2002 – Weber, W. Portfolio of Media Education. In: Informatica and Education.
2002. № 1 / http://www.infojournal.ru/journal_arxiv/2002/
Yildiz, Keengwe, 2016 – Yildiz, M.N., Keengwe, J. (Eds.) (2016). Handbook of Research on
Media Literacy in the Digital Age. Hershey: Information Science Reference.
38

Quantitative and Genre Dynamics of Film

Production of Soviet and Russian Films related
to the Subject of the School and....
Article in European Researcher · September 2017

DOI: 10.13187/er.2017.3.122
CITATIONS READS
2 126
1 author:
Alexander Fedorov
SEE PROFILE

проект 14-18-00014 "Синтез медиаобразования и медиакритики в процес View

project
All content following this page was uploaded by Alexander Fedorov on 28 September 2017.

European Researcher. Series A, 2017, 8(3)
Copyright © 2017 by Academic Publishing House Researcher
Published in the Russian Federation

European Researcher. Series A
ISSN 2219-8229
E-ISSN 2224-0136
2017, 8(3): 122-153
DOI: 10.13187/er.2017.3.122
www.erjournal.ru
UDC 378
Quantitative and Genre Dynamics of Film Production of Soviet and Russian Films
related to the Subject of the School and University
Abstract
The so-called stagnation period (1969-1985) is the peak of interest in the school / university
topic on the Soviet/Russian screen: 127 films (36.4 % of the total number of films on this topic)
appeared on the country's screens. The second place is the Russian period (1992-2017) – 93 films
(26.7 %). A notable drop in the number of films about the school and university was noted in the
1990s, and this was due to a general decrease in film production in Russia. The period from 1919 to
2017 has the specific genre situation in the school / university film topic: drama – 220 (63.0 %),
comedy – 82 (23.5 %), melodrama – 36 (10.3%).
The dramatic genre was especially prevalent (about 90 % of all films about the school and
university) between 1919 and 1955 and during the "perestroika" period, while the peaks of the
production of comedies fell on the Russian period: 41 % of all films on the school and university
theme and the period "stagnation", when this type of tape accounted for a fourth. Dominant of the
drama is quite understandable: not only school and college subjects, but the cinema as a whole was
primarily focused on the dramatic genre in the Soviet time. Comedies and melodramas grew more
in the years of relative social stability, while dramatic stories dominated the years when
confrontation prevailed in society.
Keywords: film, USSR, Russia, school topic, school, students, pupils, teacher,
cinematography, cinema.
1. Введение
Изучение научных трудов выявляет противоречие между относительно подробной
разработанностью аспектов школьной и вузовской тематики в игровых фильмах (Аркус,
2010; Баранов, 1979; Громов, 1982; Кабо, 1974; 1978; Жарикова, 2015; Левшина, 1978; 1989;
Парамонова, 1975; 1976; Пензин, 1973; 1986; Рабинович, 1969; Рыбак, 1980; Строева, 1962;
Толстых, 1988; Усов, 1980; Шипулина, 2010 и др.) и недостаточным вниманием
исследователей к статистической стороне данной темы.
Отметим, что труды ученых советского периода, посвященные теме школы и вуза,
нередко находились под очень сильным влиянием коммунистической идеологии (это весьма
характерно, например, для работ К.К. Парамоновой и Ю.М. Рабиновича), что, на наш
взгляд, мешало всестороннему анализу – как культурологических, киноведческих, так и
E-mail address: 1954alex@mail.ru (A.V. Fedorov)
122
статистических аспектов заявленной темы.

Что касается зарубежных ученых, то их в первую очередь интересовал политический
анализ советских и постсоветских медиатекстов (Dubois, 2007; Kenez, 1992; Lawton, 2004;
Shaw & Youngblood, 2010; Shlapentokh, 1993; Strada, 1989; Strada & Troper, 1997), а не анализ
экранной школьно-студенческой тематики.
2. Материалы и методы исследования

Материал нашего исследования – игровые фильмы на тему школы и вуза;
сравнительный анализ фильмопроизводства, касающегося данной тематики, включая
анализ временных периодов и жанров.
3. Обсуждение
Исследователи (как отечественные, так и западные) до сих пор не пытались выйти на
статистический аспект сравнительного анализа развития школьно-студенческой темы в
зеркале аудиовизуальных медиатекстов (в кино, на ТВ, в Интернете и др.), хотя, на наш
взгляд, он весьма полезен – как в социологическом, так и в культурологическом планах.
Стоит отметить, что отечественные исследователи – и в советское время, и в
современный период – обращались в основном к эстетическому и идеологическому анализ
игровых фильмов на тему школы и вуза, как правило, минуя киностатистику.
Что касается трудов зарубежных ученых (Dubois, 2007; Kenez, 1992; Lawton, 2004; Shaw
& Youngblood, 2010; Shlapentokh, 1993; Strada, 1989; Strada & Troper, 1997 и др.), то они в
своих трудах, касающихся советских и российских аудиовизуальных медиатекстов, не
обращались к анализу школьной и вузовской темы. Во всяком случае, в ходе
предварительных изысканий по теме, заявленной в нашем исследовании, нам не удалось
обнаружить сколь либо существенного анализа школьной и вузовской тематики в советских
и постсоветских аудиовизуальных медиа ни в одной из работ западных ученых; хотя,
разумеется, они исследовали образ школы и вуза в западных аудиовизуальных медиатекстах
(в основном – на материале кино) (Ayers, 1994; Bauer, 1998; Burbach, Figgins, 1993; Considine,
1985; Dalton, 1999;. Edelman, 1990; Farber, Holm, 1994; Joseph, Burnaford, 1994; Keroes, 1999;
Oliker, 1993; Schwartz, 1963; Trier, 2001 и др.).
Не удалось нам найти и западных исследований, где бы затрагивался статистический
аспект заявленной нами темы, хотя он представляется нам немаловажным.
4. Результаты исследования
Проследим количественную и жанровую динамику производства советских и
российских фильмов, связанных с тематикой школы и вуза, с 1919 по 2017 годы (в этот
период в СССР и России в целом было поставлено около 350 игровых картин на эту тему).
Для этого мы условно разделили фильмы советского периода на тему школы и вуза на
следующие группы:
1) фильмы периода немого кино (1919-1930) – 12 лет;
2) фильмы звукового периода кино сталинской эпохи и первых пост-сталинских лет
(1931-1955) – 25 лет;
3) фильмы периода «оттепели» (1956-1968) – 13 лет;
4) фильмы периода «стагнации» (1969-1984) – 16 лет;
5) фильмы периода «перестройки» (1985-1991) – 7 лет;
6) фильмы российского периода (1992-2017) – 26 лет.
Разумеется, временные рамки каждого из этих периодов, по-нашему мнению, не могут
быть определены абсолютно точно, так как существуют различные мнения относительно
длительности отдельных периодов (к примеру, периода «оттепели»).
В таблице 1 приводятся подробные цифровые данные по советским и российским
фильмам, связанным с тематикой школы и вуза, по которым можно проследить пики ее
востребованности в кинематографе.
123
Таблица 1. Число советских и российских фильмов, связанных с тематикой школы и вуза

(с 1919 по 2017 годы)
Временные Жанры фильмов о школе и вузе

периоды Драма Комедия Мелодрама Другие Всего
(число и (число и %) (число и %) жанры фильмов
%) (число и %)
1919-1930 9 (90,0) 0 (0,0) 0 (0,0) 1 (10%) 10 (2,8)
1931-1955 28 (87,5) 4 (12,5) 0 (0,0) 0 (0,0) 32 (9,1)
1956-1968 31 (67,4) 8 (17,4) 6 (13,0) 1 (2,2) 46 (13,2)
1969-1985 79 (62,2) 31 (24,4) 14 (11,0) 3 (2,4) 127 (36,4)
1986-1991 37 (90,3) 1 (2,4) 1 (2,4) 2 (4,9) 41 (11,8)
1992-2017 36 (38,7) 38 (40,9) 15 (16,1) 4 (4,3) 93 (26,7)
ИТОГО: 220 (63,0) 82 (23,5) 36 (10,3) 11 (3,2) 349
Если свести данные таблицы 1 в диаграммы, то они будет выглядеть следующим

образом:
80
70
1919-1930
60
50 1931-1955
40 1956-1968
30 1969-1985
20 1986-1991
10 1992-2017
0
Драма Комедия Мелодрама Другие
Рис. 1. Число советских и российских фильмов, связанных тематикой школы и вуза,

распределенных по временным периодам и жанрам
100
80 1919-1930
1931-1955
60
1956-1968
40 1969-1985
1986-1991
20
1992-2017
0
Драма % Комедия % Мелодрама % Другие %
Рис. 2. Число советских и российских фильмов, связанных тематикой школы и вуза,

распределенных по временным периодам и жанрам (в процентах)
5. Выводы
Как по таблице 1, так и по рисункам 1 и 2 можно увидеть, что период пик интереса к
школьной/вузовской теме на экране пришелся на так называемый период «застоя» (1969-
124
1985), когда на экраны страны вышло 127 лент (36,4 % от общего числа фильмов на эту
тему). На втором месте идет российский период (1992-2017) – 93 лент (26,7 %).
Ощутимое снижение числа фильмов о школе и вузе отмечалось в 1990-х годах, и
связано это было с общим уменьшением фильмопроизводства в России.
Интересно также проследить, как изменялось соотношение числа игровых фильмов,
связанных со школьной/вузовской тематикой, распределенных по жанрам. Как видно из
таблицы 1 и рисунка 2, в жанровом отношении в период с 1919 по 2017 год в
школьной/вузовской кинотематике доминировали: драмы – 220 (63,0%), комедии – 82
(23,5 %), мелодрамы – 36 (10,3%).
Данные рисунка 2 показывают, что драматический жанр особенно преобладал (около
90 % всех фильмов о школе и вузе) в период 1919-1955 годов и во времена «перестройки»,
тогда как пики производства кинокомедий пришлись на российский период: 41 % всех
фильмов на школьно-вузовскую тему (при этом значительная часть фильмов о вузе – а
российский период 2000-х годов ощутимо лидирует именно по части вузовской тематики –
решалось именно в жанре комедии) и период «застоя», когда такого рода ленты составляли
четвертую часть.
Доминанта драмы вполне объяснима – в советские времена не только школьно-
вузовские сюжеты, но кинематограф в целом был ориентирован, прежде всего, именно на
драматический жанр.
Сравнение данных таблицы 1 и рисунка 2 с составленной нами фильмографией
фильмов на школьно-вузовскую тему, обнаруживает, что комедий и мелодрам становилось
больше именно в годы относительной общественной стабильности, в то время как
драматические сюжеты доминировали в годы, когда в социуме преобладала конфронтация.
6. Благодарности
Исследование выполнено за счет финансовых средств гранта Российского научного
фонда (РНФ, проект № 17-18-01001)» в Ростовском государственном экономическом
университете. Тема проекта: «Школа и вуз в зеркале советских, российских и западных
аудиовизуальных медиатекстов». Руководитель проекта А.В. Федоров.
Литература
Аркус, 2010 – Аркус Л. Приключения белой вороны: эволюция «школьного фильма» в
советском кино // Сеанс. 2010. 2 июня. URL: http://seance.ru/blog/whitecrow/
Баранов, 1979 – Баранов О.А. Экран становится другом. М.: Просвещение, 1979. 96 с.
Григорьева, 2007 – Григорьева О. Образ учителя в советском кино: от «Весенней»
оттепели до «Большой перемены» // Визуальная антропология: новые взгляды на
социальную реальность / Под ред. Е. Р. Ярской-Смирновой, П. В. Романова, В. Л. Круткина.
Саратов: Научная книга, 2007. С. 223-239.
Громов, 1982 – Громов Е.С. Восхождение к герою (экран и молодежь). Книга для
учителя. М.: Просвещение, 1982. 192 с.
Жарикова, 2015 – Жарикова В.В. Хронотоп школы в отечественном кинематографе //
Исторические, философские, политические и юридические науки, культурология и
искусствоведение. Вопросы теории и практики. 2015. № 5 (55): в 2-х ч. Ч. II. C. 59-62.
Кабо, 1978 – Кабо Л.Р. Кино в эстетическом и нравственном воспитании детей. М.:
Просвещение, 1978.
Кабо, 1974 – Кабо Л.Р. Кино и дети. М.: Знание, 1974. 96 с.
Левшина, 1978 – Левшина И.С. Любите ли вы кино? М.: Искусство, 1978. 254 с.
Левшина, 1989 – Левшина И.С. Подросток и экран. М.: Педагогика, 1989. 176 с.
Маченин, 2016 – Маченин А.А. Собирательный образ школьного учителя в отражении
теле/кино/интернет медиапространства // Медиаобразование. 2016. № 3. C. 23-48.
Митина, 2015 – Митина Т.С. Образ учителя в советском кинематографе первой
половины двадцатого столетия // Сибирский научный вестник. 2015. № 2. С. 124-128.
Нусинова, 2003 – Нусинова Н. «Теперь ты наша». Ребенок в советском кино 20-30-х
годов // Искусство кино. 2003. № 12. С. 81-87.
Парамонова, 1975 – Парамонова К.К. Фильм для детей, его специфика и
воспитательные функции. М.: ВГИК, 1975. 51 с.
125
Парамонова, 1976 – Парамонова К.К. Фильм и дети. М., 1976.

Пензин, 1973 – Пензин С.Н. Кино как средство воспитания. Воронеж, 1973. 152 с.
Пензин, 1986 – Пензин С.Н. Уроки кино. М., 1986. 66 с.
Притуленко, 1995 – Притуленко В. Адресовано детям // Кино, политика и люди. 30-е
годы. М.: Материк, 1995. 229 с.
Рабинович, 1991 – Рабинович Ю.М. Кино, литература и вся моя жизнь. Курган:
Периодика, 1991. 120 с.
Рабинович, 1969 – Рабинович Ю.М. Роль кино в воспитании школьников. Курган, 1969.
26 с.
Рыбак, 1980 – Рыбак Л.А. Наедине с фильмом. Об искусстве быть кинозрителем. М.:
БПСК, 1980. 57 с.
Соловейчик, 1975 – Соловейчик С.Л. Учитель – профессия и судьба // Советский
экран. 1975. № 20.
Строева, 1962 – Строева А.С. Дети, кино и телевидение. М.: Знание, 1962. 47 с.
Суспицына, 2002 – Суспицына Т. Об учителе, муже и чине: (Ре)конструкция
маскулинностей мужчин – работников средней школы // О муже(N)ственности / Сост.
С. Ушакин. М.: Новое литературное обозрение, 2002. С. 303-324.
Толстых, 1988 – Толстых А.В. До 16 и старше... М.: Киноцентр, 1988. 64 с.
Усов, 2010 – Усов Ю.Н. Методика использования киноискусства в идейно-
эстетическом воспитании учащихся 8-10 классов. Таллин, 1980. 125 с.
Шипулина, 2010 – Шипулина Н.Б. Образ учителя в советском и современном
российском кинематографе // Известия ВГПУ. 2010. № 8 (52). С. 4-16
Чащухин, 2006 – Чащухин А.В. Конструирование образа учителя в сталинской
пропаганде 1945–1953 гг. // Человек. Общество. Управление. 2006. № 3. С. 132-135.
Ayers, 1994 – Ayers, W. (1994). A Teacher Ain’t Nothin’ But a Hero: Teachers and Teaching
in Film. In Joseph, P., & Burnaford, G. (Eds.). Images of Schoolteachers in Twentieth-Century
America. New York: St. Martin’s Press, pp. 147-156.
Bauer, 1998 – Bauer, D. (1998). Indecent Proposals: Teachers in the Movies. College English.
60 (3), pp.301-317.
Bell, 1996 – Bell, A. (1996). Approaches to media discourse. London: Blackwell.
Burbach, Figgins, 1993 – Burbach, H.J., Figgins, M.A. (1993). A Thematic Profile of the
Images of Teachers in Film // Teacher Education Quarterly. Vol. 20, No. 2, pp. 65-75.
Considine, 1985 – Considine, D. (1985). The Cinema of Adolescence. Jefferson and London,
UK: McFarland & Company.
Crume, 1988 – Crume, M. (1988). Images of Teachers in Novels and Films for the
Adolescent, 1980-1987. PhD. Dissertation, University of Florida.
Dalton, 1999 – Dalton, M. (1999). The Hollywood Curriculum: Teachers and Teaching in the
Movies. New York: Peter Lang.
Dubois, 2007 – Dubois, R. (2007). Une histoire politique du cinema. Paris: Sulliver, 216 p.
Edelman, 1990 – Edelman, R. (1990). Teachers in the Movies. American Educator. N 7(3),
pp. 26-31.
Farber, Holm, 1994 – Farber, P., Holm, G. (1994a). Adolescent Freedom and the Cinematic
High School. In P. Farber, E. Provenzo, Jr., & G. Holm, (Eds.). Schooling in the Light of Popular
Farber, Holm, 1994 – Farber, P., Holm, G. (1994b). A Brotherhood of Heroes: The
Charismatic Educator in Recent American Movies. In P. Farber, E. Provenzo, Jr., & G. Holm, (Eds.)
Schooling in the Light of Popular Culture. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press.
Joseph, Burnaford, 1994 – Joseph, P., Burnaford, G. (1994). Contemplating Images of
Schoolteachers in American Culture. In P. Joseph & G. Burnaford (Eds.). Images of Schoolteachers
in Twentieth Century America. New York: St. Martin’s Press.
Kenez, 1992 – Kenez, P. (1992). Cinema and Soviet Society, 1917-1953. Cambridge, N.Y.:
Cambridge University Press, 281 p.
Keroes, 1999 – Keroes, J. (1999). Tales Out of School: Gender, Longing, and the Teacher in
Fiction and Films. Carbondale and Edwardsville, IL: Southern Illinois University Press.
Lawton, 2004 – Lawton, A. (2004). Imaging Russia 2000. Films and Facts. Washington, DC:
New Academia Publishing, 348 p.
126
Oliker, 1993 – Oliker, M.A. (1993). On the Images of Education in Popular Film. Educational
Horizons. Vol. 71, No. 2.
Schwartz, 1963 – Schwartz, J. (1963). The Portrayal of Education in American Motion
Pictures, 1931-1961. PhD. dissertation, University of Illinois, Champaign-Urbana.
Shaw, Youngblood, 2010 – Shaw, T. and Youngblood, D.J. (2010). Cinematic Cold War:
The American and Soviet Struggle for Heart and Minds. Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 301 p.
Shlapentokh, 1993 – Shlapentokh D. and V. (1993). Soviet Cinematography 1918-1991:
Ideological Conflict and Social Reality. N.Y.: Aldine de Gruyter.
Strada, 1989 – Strada, M. (1989). A Half Century of American Cinematic Imagery:
Hollywood’s Portrayal of Russian Characters, 1933-1988. Coexistence. N 26, pp. 333-350.
Strada, Troper, 1997 – Strada, M.J., Troper, H.R. (1997). Friend or Foe? Russian in
American Film and Foreign Policy. Lanham, Md., & London: The Scarecrow Press, 255 p.
Trier, 2001 – Trier, J.D. (2001). The Cinematic Representation of the Personal and
Professional Lives of Teachers. Teacher Education Quarterly, pp. 127-142.
References
Arkus, 2010 – Arkus L. (2010). Priklyucheniya beloi vorony: evolyutsiya «shkol'nogo fil'ma»
v sovetskom kino [The adventures of the white crow: the evolution of the "school film" in Soviet
cinema]. Seans. 2 iyunya. URL: http://seance.ru/blog/whitecrow/
Baranov, 1979 – Baranov O.A. (1979). Ekran stanovitsya drugom [The screen becomes a
friend]. M.: Prosveshchenie, 96 s.
Grigor'eva, 2007 – Grigor'eva O. (2007). Obraz uchitelya v sovetskom kino: ot «Vesennei»
ottepeli do «Bol'shoi peremeny» [The image of a teacher in Soviet cinema: from the "Spring" thaw
to "Big change"]. Vizual'naya antropologiya: novye vzglyady na sotsial'nuyu real'nost'. Pod red.
E. R. Yarskoi-Smirnovoi, P. V. Romanova, V. L. Krutkina. Saratov: Nauchnaya kniga, S. 223-239.
Gromov, 1982 – Gromov E.S. (1982). Voskhozhdenie k geroyu (ekran i molodezh') [Ascent to
the hero (screen and youth)]. Kniga dlya uchitelya. M.: Prosveshchenie, 1982. 192 s.
Zharikova, 2015 – Zharikova V.V. (2015). Khronotop shkoly v otechestvennom
kinematografe [Chronotope of the school in the national cinema] Istoricheskie, filosofskie,
politicheskie i yuridicheskie nauki, kul'turologiya i iskusstvovedenie. Voprosy teorii i praktiki. № 5
(55): v 2-kh ch. Ch. II. C. 59-62.
Kabo, 1978 – Kabo L.R. (1978). Kino v esteticheskom i nravstvennom vospitanii detei
[Cinema in the aesthetic and moral education of childre]. M.: Prosveshchenie.
Kabo, 1974 – Kabo L.R. (1974). Kino i deti [Cinema and children]. M.: Znanie, 96 s.
Levshina, 1978 – Levshina I.S. (1978). Lyubite li vy kino? [Do you like movies?]. M.:
Iskusstvo, 254 s.
Levshina, 1989 – Levshina I.S. (1989). Podrostok i ekran [A teenager and a screen]. M.:
Pedagogika, 176 s.
Machenin, 2016 – Machenin A.A. (2016). Sobiratel'nyi obraz shkol'nogo uchitelya v
otrazhenii tele/kino/internet mediaprostranstva [The Collective Image of the School Teacher in
Reflection of the TV]. Mediaobrazovanie. № 3. C. 23-48.
Mitina, 2015 – Mitina T.S. (2015). Obraz uchitelya v sovetskom kinematografe pervoi
poloviny dvadtsatogo stoletiya [The image of a teacher in the soviet cinema of the first half of the
twentieth century]. Sibirskii nauchnyi vestnik. № 2. S. 124-128.
Nusinova, 2003 – Nusinova N. (2003). «Teper' ty nasha». Rebenok v sovetskom kino 20-30-
kh godov ["Now you are ours." A child in Soviet cinema 20-30-ies]. Iskusstvo kino. № 12. S. 81-87.
Paramonova, 1975 – Paramonova K.K. (1975). Fil'm dlya detei, ego spetsifika i vospitatel'nye
funktsii [A film for children, its specificity and educational functions]. M.: VGIK, 51 s.
Paramonova, 1976 – Paramonova K.K. (1976). Fil'm i deti [Film and children]. M.
Penzin, 1973 – Penzin S.N. (1973). Kino kak sredstvo vospitaniya [Cinema as a means of
education]. Voronezh, 152 s.
Penzin, 1986 – Penzin S.N. (1986). Uroki kino [Cinema lessons]. M., 66 s.
Pritulenko, 1995 – Pritulenko V. (1995). Adresovano detyam [Addressed to children]. Kino,
politika i lyudi. 30-e gody. M.: Materik, 229 s.
Rabinovich, 1991 – Rabinovich Yu.M. (1991). Kino, literatura i vsya moya zhizn' [Cinema,
literature and all my life]. Kurgan: Periodika, 120 s.
127
Rabinovich, 1969 – Rabinovich Yu.M. (1969). Rol' kino v vospitanii shkol'nikov [The role of
cinema in the education of schoolchildren]. Kurgan, 26 s.
Rybak, 1980 – Rybak L.A. (1980). Naedine s fil'mom. Ob iskusstve byt' kinozritelem [Alone
with the film. On the art of being a moviegoer.]. M.: BPSK, 57 s.
Soloveichik, 1975 – Soloveichik S.L. (1975). Uchitel' – professiya i sud'ba [Teacher –
profession and fate]. Sovetskii ekran. 1975. № 20.
Stroeva, 1962 – Stroeva A.S. (1962). Deti, kino i televidenie [Children, movies and
television]. M.: Znanie, 47 s.
Suspitsyna, 2002 – Suspitsyna T. (2002). Ob uchitele, muzhe i chine: (Re)konstruktsiya
maskulinnostei muzhchin – rabotnikov srednei shkoly [About the teacher, husband and rank: (Re)
the construction of masculinity of male workers of secondary school]. O muzhe(N)stvennosti /
Sost. S. Ushakin. M.: Novoe literaturnoe obozrenie, S. 303-324.
Tolstykh, 1988 – Tolstykh A.V. (1988). Do 16 i starshe... [Up to 16 and older ...]. M.:
Kinotsentr, 64 s.
Usov, 1980 – Usov Yu.N. (1980). Metodika ispol'zovaniya kinoiskusstva v ideino-
esteticheskom vospitanii uchashchikhsya 8-10 klassov [The technique of using film art in the
ideological and aesthetic education of pupils of grades 8-10]. Tallin, 125 s.
Shipulina, 2010 – Shipulina N.B. (2010). Obraz uchitelya v sovetskom i sovremennom
rossiiskom kinematografe [The image of a teacher in soviet and modern russian cinema]. Izvestiya
VGPU. № 8 (52). S. 4-16
Chashchukhin, 2006 – Chashchukhin A.V. (2006). Konstruirovanie obraza uchitelya v
stalinskoi propagande 1945–1953 gg. [The construction of the teacher's image in the Stalinist
propaganda of 1945-1953]. Chelovek. Obshchestvo. Upravlenie. № 3. S. 132-135.
Ayers, 1994 – Ayers, W. (1994). A Teacher Ain’t Nothin’ But a Hero: Teachers and Teaching
in Film. In Joseph, P., & Burnaford, G. (Eds.). Images of Schoolteachers in Twentieth-Century
America. New York: St. Martin’s Press, pp. 147-156.
Bauer, 1998 – Bauer, D. (1998). Indecent Proposals: Teachers in the Movies. College English.
60 (3), pp.301-317.
Bell, 1996 – Bell, A. (1996). Approaches to media discourse. London: Blackwell.
Burbach, Figgins, 1993 – Burbach, H.J., Figgins, M.A. (1993). A Thematic Profile of the
Images of Teachers in Film // Teacher Education Quarterly. Vol. 20, No. 2, pp. 65-75.
Considine, 1985 – Considine, D. (1985). The Cinema of Adolescence. Jefferson and London,
UK: McFarland & Company.
Crume, 1988 – Crume, M. (1988). Images of Teachers in Novels and Films for the
Adolescent, 1980-1987. PhD. Dissertation, University of Florida.
Dalton, 1999 – Dalton, M. (1999). The Hollywood Curriculum: Teachers and Teaching in the
Movies. New York: Peter Lang.
Dubois, 2007 – Dubois, R. (2007). Une histoire politique du cinema. Paris: Sulliver, 216 p.
Edelman, 1990 – Edelman, R. (1990). Teachers in the Movies. American Educator. N 7(3),
pp. 26-31.
Farber, Holm, 1994 – Farber, P., Holm, G. (1994a). Adolescent Freedom and the Cinematic
High School. In P. Farber, E. Provenzo, Jr., & G. Holm, (Eds.). Schooling in the Light of Popular
Farber, Holm, 1994 – Farber, P., Holm, G. (1994b). A Brotherhood of Heroes: The
Charismatic Educator in Recent American Movies. In P. Farber, E. Provenzo, Jr., & G. Holm, (Eds.)
Schooling in the Light of Popular Culture. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press.
Joseph, Burnaford, 1994 – Joseph, P., Burnaford, G. (1994). Contemplating Images of
Schoolteachers in American Culture. In P. Joseph & G. Burnaford (Eds.). Images of Schoolteachers
in Twentieth Century America. New York: St. Martin’s Press.
Kenez, 1992 – Kenez, P. (1992). Cinema and Soviet Society, 1917-1953. Cambridge, N.Y.:
Cambridge University Press, 281 p.
Keroes, 1999 – Keroes, J. (1999). Tales Out of School: Gender, Longing, and the Teacher in
Fiction and Films. Carbondale and Edwardsville, IL: Southern Illinois University Press.
Lawton, 2004 – Lawton, A. (2004). Imaging Russia 2000. Films and Facts. Washington, DC:
New Academia Publishing, 348 p.
Oliker, 1993 – Oliker, M.A. (1993). On the Images of Education in Popular Film. Educational
128
Horizons. Vol. 71, No. 2.

Schwartz, 1963 – Schwartz, J. (1963). The Portrayal of Education in American Motion
Pictures, 1931-1961. PhD. dissertation, University of Illinois, Champaign-Urbana.
Shaw, Youngblood, 2010 – Shaw, T. and Youngblood, D.J. (2010). Cinematic Cold War:
The American and Soviet Struggle for Heart and Minds. Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 301 p.
Shlapentokh, 1993 – Shlapentokh D. and V. (1993). Soviet Cinematography 1918-1991:
Ideological Conflict and Social Reality. N.Y.: Aldine de Gruyter.
Strada, 1989 – Strada, M. (1989). A Half Century of American Cinematic Imagery:
Hollywood’s Portrayal of Russian Characters, 1933-1988. Coexistence. N 26, pp. 333-350.
Strada, Troper, 1997 – Strada, M.J., Troper, H.R. (1997). Friend or Foe? Russian in
Trier, 2001 – Trier, J.D. (2001). The Cinematic Representation of the Personal and
Professional Lives of Teachers. Teacher Education Quarterly, pp. 127-142.
УДК 378
Количественная и жанровая динамика кинопроизводства советских и

российских фильмов, связанных тематикой школы и вуза
Александр Викторович Федоров a , *

a Ростовский государственный экономический университет, Российская Федерация
Аннотация. Период пик интереса к школьной/вузовской теме на

советском/российском экране пришелся на так называемый период «застоя» (1969-1985),
когда на экраны страны вышло 127 лент (36,4 % от общего числа фильмов на эту тему).
На втором месте идет российский период (1992-2017) – 93 лент (26,7 %). Ощутимое
снижение числа фильмов о школе и вузе отмечалось в 1990-х годах, и связано это было с
общим уменьшением фильмопроизводства в России. В жанровом отношении в период с 1919
по 2017 год в школьной/вузовской кинотематике доминировали: драмы – 220 (63,0 %),
комедии – 82 (23,5%), мелодрамы – 36 (10,3 %).
Драматический жанр особенно преобладал (около 90 % всех фильмов о школе и вузе)
в период 1919-1955 годов и во времена «перестройки», тогда как пики производства
кинокомедий пришлись на российский период: 41 % всех фильмов на школьно-вузовскую
тему и период «застоя», когда такого рода ленты составляли четвертую часть. Доминанта
драмы вполне объяснима – в советские времена не только школьно-вузовские сюжеты, но
кинематограф в целом был ориентирован, прежде всего, именно на драматический жанр.
Комедий и мелодрам становилось больше именно в годы относительной общественной
стабильности, в то время как драматические сюжеты доминировали в годы, когда в социуме
преобладала конфронтация.
Ключевые слова: фильм, СССР, Россия, школьная тема, школа, вуз, школьник,
ученик, учитель, кинематограф.
*Корреспондирующий автор
Адрес электронной почты: 1954alex@mail.ru (А.В. Федоров)
129
Приложения
Советские и российские фильмы и сериалы о школе и вузе

(фильмографии)
Дети и молодежь появлялись в качестве персонажей в сотнях советских и российских

фильмов. В данный список включены не просто фильмы с персонажами-
детьми/школьниками / студентами, а те фильмы, где заметное положение занимает именно
школьная и вузовская тема. Исключения сделаны в основном для некоторых значимых для
темы воспитания подрастающего поколения фильмов (например, действие которых
происходит в летних лагерях отдыха для школьников).
Фильмография советских фильмов о школе и вузе
1919-1930
1924
Ванька – юный пионер. СССР, 1924. Режиссер и сценарист Пётр Малахов. Актеры:
Шура Константинов, Урсула Круг, Алексей Масеев и др. Драма.
Остров юных пионеров. СССР, 1924. Режиссер Алексей Ган. Сценарист и
исполнитель главной роли Владимир Веревкин. Агитфильм.
1925
Федькина правда. СССР, 1925. Режиссер Ольга Преображенская. Сценаристы:
Николай Асеев, Александр Перегуда. Актеры: Юрий Зимин, Марик Майя, Даниил
Введенский, Елена Дейнеко и др. Драма.
1928
Золотой мед. СССР, 1928. Режиссеры: Николай Береснев, Владимир Петров.
Сценарист
Николай Береснев. Актеры: Федор Богданов, Пётр Кузнецов, Фатима Гилязова и др.
Драма.
Маленькие и большие. СССР, 1928. Режиссер Дмитрий Бассалыго. Сценаристы:
Дмитрий Бассалыго, Александр Филимонов. Актеры: Ольга Третьякова, Иван Капралов,
Сергей Минин и др. Драма.
Оторванные рукава. СССР, 1928. Режиссер Б. Юрцев. Сценаристы: Иван Пырьев,
Борис Юрцев. Актеры: Александр Жуков, Лебедев, Серпуховитин, Александр Сафронов и др.
Драма.
1929
Танька-трактирщица. СССР, 1929. Режиссер Борис Светозаров. Сценаристы: Борис
Светозаров, Константин Минаев. Актеры: Неонила Иванова-Толмачёва, Кузьма
Ястребецкий, Любовь Ненашева и др. Драма.
Человек с портфелем. СССР, 1929. Режиссер Чеслав Сабинский. Сценарист А.
Кириллов (автор пьесы – А. Файко). Актеры: Николай Монахов, Ирина Володко, Коля
Симонович и др. Драма.
1930
Право на женщину / Студентка. СССР, 1930. Режиссер Алексей Каплер.
Сценаристы: Алексей Каплер, Николай Бажан. Актеры: Татьяна Златогорова, Владимир
Сокирко, Иван Скуратов, Таня Мухина и др. Драма.
Право отцов. СССР, 1930. Режиссер Вера Строева. Сценаристы: Вера Строева,
Станислав Уэйтинг-Радзинский, Серафима Рошаль. Актеры: И. Трердохлеб, Г. Ростов и др.
Драма.
130
1931-1955
1931
Путевка в жизнь. СССР, 1931. Режиссер Николай Экк. Сценаристы: Александр
Столпер, Николай Экк, Регина Янушкевич. Актеры: Йыван Кырля, Михаил Джагофаров,
Александр Новиков, Николай Баталов, Мария Антропова, Михаил Жаров и др. Драма.
Человек без футляра. СССР, 1931. Режиссер Вера Строева. Сценаристы: Серафима
Рошаль, Вера Строева. Актеры: Борис Фердинандов, Михаил Викторов, Николай Надемский
и др. Драма.
1932
Поздравляю с переходом. СССР, 1932. Режиссер и сценарист Евгения Григорович.
Актеры: С. Пельтик, Т. Зайченко, Иван Твердохлеб и др. Драма.
Сенька с "Мимозы". СССР, 1932. Режиссер Алексей Маслюков. Сценаристы:
Николай Сказбуш, Алексей Маслюков. Актеры: Витя Фридрих, Борис Безгин, Николай
Надемский. Драма.
1933
Отчаянный батальон. СССР, 1933. Режиссеры и сценаристы: Абрам Народицкий,
Наум Угрюмов. Актеры: Геннадий Мичурин, Роза Свердлова и др. Драма.
1934
Разбудите Леночку. СССР, 1934. Режиссер Антонина Кудрявцева. Сценаристы:
Николай Олейников, Евгений Шварц. Актеры: Янина Жеймо, Сергей Герасимов и др.
Комедия.
1935
Кондуит. СССР, 1935. Режиссер Борис Шелонцев. Сценаристы: Лев Кассиль, Лазарь
Юдин (автор повести "Кондуит и Швамбрания" – Л. Кассиль). Актеры: А. Кобзев, Е.
Борисевич, Владимир Гардин и др. Драма.
1936
Настоящий товарищ. СССР, 1936. Режиссеры: Лазарь Бодик, Абрам Окунчиков.
Сценарист Агния Барто. Актеры: Михаил Тарханов, Степан Шагайда, Дмитрий Голубинский
1937
Буйная ватага. СССР, 1937. Режиссеры: Александр Попов, Гамар Саламзаде.
Сценарист
Юрий Фидлер. Актеры: А. Варганова, Муртаза Ахмедов, А. Багирова и др. Комедия.
1938
Семиклассники. СССР, 1938. Режиссеры: Яков Протазанов, Григорий Левкоев.
Сценаристы: Наум Кауфман, В. Любимова. Актеры: Юра Митаев, Александр Зражевский,
Анна Запорожец, Николай Гладков и др. Драма.
1939
Личное дело. СССР, 1939. Режиссер Александр Разумный. Сценаристы: Аркадий
Гайдар, В. Поташев. Актеры: Лора Минаев, Петя Гроховский, Борис Рунге, Лев Мирский и
др. Драма.
Учитель. СССР, 1939. Режиссер и сценарист Сергей Герасимов. Актеры: Борис
Чирков, Тамара Макарова, Павел Волков и др. Драма.
Человек в футляре. СССР, 1939. Режиссер и сценарист Исидор Анненский. Актеры:
Николай Хмелев, Михаил Жаров, Ольга Андровская, Владимир Гардин, Фаина Раневская,
Алексей Грибов и др. Драма.
131
1940
Брат героя. СССР, 1940. Режиссер Юрий Васильчиков. Сценарист Лев Кассиль
(автор «Черемыш — брат героя» - Л. Кассиль). Актеры: Николай Крючков, Петр Леонтьев,
Елизавета Найденова и др. Драма.
Весенний поток. СССР, 1940. Режиссёр Владимир Юренев. Актеры: Александр
Зражевский, Михаил Астангов, Валентина Серова и др. Драма.
Закон жизни. СССР, 1940. Режиссеры: Александр Столпер, Борис Иванов.
Сценарист Александр Авдеенко. Актеры: Даниил Сагал, Александр Лукьянов, Освальд
Глазунов, Нина Зорская и др. Драма.
Приятели. СССР, 1940. Режиссер Михаил Гавронский. Сценарист Николай Таубе.
Актеры: Михаил Кузнецов, Тамара Алёшина, Владимир Гардин, Василий Меркурьев,
Константин Сорокин, и др. Драма.
Тимур и его команда. СССР, 1940. Режиссер Александр Разумный. Сценарист
Аркадий Гайдар. Актеры: Ливий Щипачёв, Пётр Савин, Лев Потёмкин, Виктор Селезнёв,
Петя Гроховский и др. Драма.
1941
Романтики. СССР, 1941. Режиссер Марк Донской. Сценаристы: Тихон Семушкин,
Федор Кнорре. Актеры: Даниил Сагал, Дарига Тналина, Ирина Федотова, Владимир
Владиславский, Лев Свердлин и др. Драма.
1947
Сельская учительница. СССР, 1947. Режиссер Марк Донской. Сценарист Мария
Смирнова. Актеры: Вера Марецкая, Даниил Сагал, Павел Оленев, Владимир Марута,
Владимир Белокуров и др. Драма.
1948
Красный галстук. СССР, 1948. Режиссеры: Владимир Сухобоков, Мария Сауц.
Сценарист и автор одноименной пьесы Сергей Михалков. Актеры: Александр Соколов,
Ирина Начинкина, Слава Котов, Анатолий Ганичев, Александр Хвыля и др. Драма.
Первоклассница. СССР, 1948. Режиссер Илья Фрэз. Сценарист Евгений Шварц.
Актеры: Наталья Защипина, Тамара Макарова, Кира Головко и др. Драма.
1952
Навстречу жизни. СССР, 1952. Режиссер Николай Лебедев. Сценарист Екатерина
Виноградская (автор повести «Звездочка» - Иван Василенко). Актеры: Надежда Румянцева,
Владимир Соколов, Георгий Семёнов, Василий Меркурьев, Сергей Гурзо, Виктор Хохряков,
Анатолий Кузнецов и др. Драма.
1953
Алеша Птицын вырабатывает характер. СССР, 1953. Режиссер Анатолий
Граник. Сценарист Агния Барто. Актеры: Виктор Каргопольцев, Ольга Пыжова, Валентина
Сперантова, Наталья Селезнёва, Надежда Румянцева и др. Комедия.
Честь товарища. СССР, 1953. Режиссер Николай Лебедев. Сценаристы: Борис
Изюмский, Леонид Жежеленко (автор повести «Алые погоны» - Б. Изюмский). Актеры:
Константин Скоробогатов, Борис Коковкин, Геннадий Мичурин, Владимир Дружников,
Юрий Толубеев и др. Драма.
1954
Аттестат зрелости. СССР, 1954. Режиссер Татьяна Лукашевич. Сценарист и автор
одноименной повести Лия Гераскина. Актеры: Василий Лановой, Вадим Грачёв, Галина
Ляпина, Тамара Кирсанова и др. Драма.
Два друга. СССР, 1954. Режиссер Виктор Эйсымонт. Сценарист Николай Носов
(автор повести «Витя Малеев в школе и дома» - Н. Носов). Актеры: Леонид Крауклис,
Владимир Гуськов, Миша Аронов, Витя Белов, Янина Жеймо и др. Драматическая комедия.
Сёстры Рахмановы. СССР, 1954. Режиссер Камил Ярматов. Сценарист Владимир
132
Швейцер. Актеры: Сара Ишантураева, Яйра Абдулаева, Юлдуз Ризаева и др. Драма.
1955
Васек Трубачев и его товарищи. СССР, 1955. Режиссеры: Илья Фрэз, Эдуард
Бочаров.
Сценаристы: Валентина Осеева-Хмелева, Борис Старшев (автор повести - В. Осеева).
Актеры: Олег Вишнев, Саша Чудаков, Вова Семенович, Слава Девкин, Жора Александров,
Наталья Рычагова, Леонид Харитонов, Иван Пельтцер, Юрий Медведев, Пётр Алейников и
др. Драма.
Два капитана. СССР, 1955. Режиссер Владимир Венгеров. Сценаристы: Вениамин
Каверин, Евгений Габрилович (автор одноименного романа – В. Каверин). Актеры:
Александр Михайлов, Ольга Заботкина, Анатолий Адоскин, Евгений Лебедев, Борис Беляев
Педагогическая поэма. СССР, 1955. Режиссеры: Мечислава Маевская, Алексей
Маслюков. Сценаристы: Иосиф Маневич, Алексей Маслюков (автор одноименного романа –
Антон Макаренко). Актеры: Владимир Емельянов, Михаил Покотило, Елена Лицканович,
Нина Крачковская, Константин Михайлов, Павел Кадочников, Георгий Юматов, Юрий
Саранцев, Юлиан Панич и др. Драма.
Сын. СССР, 1955. Режиссер Юрий Озеров. Сценарист Татьяна Сытина. Актеры:
Леонид Харитонов, Пётр Константинов, Варвара Каргашёва, Виктор Гераскин, Надежда
Румянцева, Константин Сорокин, Алексей Грибов, Владимир Белокуров, Роза Макагонова и
др. Драма.
1956-1968
1956
Весна на заречной улице. СССР, 1956. Режиссеры: Феликс Миронер, Марлен
Хуциев. Сценарист Феликс Миронер. Актеры: Нина Иванова, Николай Рыбников, Владимир
Гуляев, Валентина Пугачёва, Геннадий Юхтин и др. Мелодрама.
Разные судьбы. СССР, 1956. Режиссер Леонид Луков. Сценаристы: Леонид Луков,
Яков Смоляк. Актеры: Татьяна Пилецкая, Юлиан Панич, Лев Свердлин, Ольга Жизнева,
Татьяна Конюхова, Георгий Юматов, Ада Войцик, Владимир Дорофеев, Сергей Блинников,
Валентина Ушакова, Константин Сорокин, Всеволод Санаев, Бруно Фрейндлих и др. Драма.
1957
Они встретились в пути. СССР, 1957. Режиссер Татьяна Лукашевич. Сценарист
Леонид Пантелеев. Актеры: Виктор Авдюшко, Роза Макагонова, Николай Комиссаров,
Миша Меркулов, Нина Дорошина, Пётр Щербаков, Вера Васильева и др. Мелодрама.
Повесть о первой любви. СССР, 1957. Режиссер Василий Левин. Сценарист Мария
Смирнова (автор повести Н. Атаров). Актеры: Джемма Осмоловская, Кирилл Столяров,
Владимир Земляникин, Сергей Столяров и др. Мелодрама.
1958
Город зажигает огни. СССР, 1958. Режиссер и сценарист Владимир Венгеров.
Актеры: Николай Погодин, Елена Добронравова, Олег Борисов, Лилиана Алешникова,
Юрий Любимов, Алиса Фрейндлих и др. Драма.
Сверстницы. СССР, 1958. Режиссер Василий Ордынский. Сценарист Алла Белякова.
Актеры: Лидия Федосеева-Шукшина, Людмила Крылова, Маргарита Кошелева, Владимир
Костин, Всеволод Сафонов, Кирилл Столяров и др. Драма.
Флаги на башнях. СССР, 1958. Режиссер Абрам Народицкий. Сценарист Иосиф
Маневич. Актеры: Владимир Емельянов, Владимир Судьин, Константин Доронин, Илья
Милютенко, Роза Макагонова, Ада Роговцева и др. Драма.
1959
Мальчики. СССР, 1959. Режиссер Суламифь Цыбульник. Сценаристы: Анна
Лисянская, Дора Вольперт. Актеры: Лёня Бабич, Николай Чурсин, Саша Карпов, Лидия
Сухаревская и др. Драма.
133
На пороге жизни. СССР, 1959. Режиссер Константин Пипинашвили. Сценарист

Юрий Кротков. Актеры: Лейла Абашидзе, Отар Хатиашвили, Гоча Абашидзе и др. Драма.
Это было весной. СССР, 1959. Режиссеры: Артур Войтецкий, Карл Гаккель. Актеры:
Людмила Бутенина, Лев Жуков и др. Драма.
До будущей весны. СССР, 1960. Режиссер Виктор Соколов. Сценарист Сергей
Воронин.
Актеры: Людмила Марченко, Иннокентий Смоктуновский, Валентин Архипенко и др.
Мелодрама.
1960
Тучи над Борском. СССР, 1960. Режиссер Василий Ордынский. Сценаристы: Семён
Лунгин, Илья Нусинов. Актеры: Инна Гулая, Роман Хомятов, Владимир Ивашов, Наталья
Антонова, Виктор Рождественский, Инна Чурикова и др. Драма.
Чудотворная. СССР, 1960. Режиссер Владимир Скуйбин. Сценарист Владимир
Тендряков. Актеры: Владимир Васильев, Нина Меньшикова, Антонина Павлычева, Клавдия
Половикова, Владимир Покровский, Иван Рыжов, Станислав Чекан и др. Драма.
1961
А если это любовь? СССР, 1961. Режиссер Юлий Райзман. Сценаристы: Иосиф
Ольшанский, Юлий Райзман, Нина Руднева. Актеры: Жанна Прохоренко, Игорь Пушкарёв,
Александра Назарова, Нина Шорина и др. Драма.
Друг мой, Колька! СССР, 1961. Режиссеры: Александр Митта, Алексей Салтыков.
Сценаристы: Сергей Ермолинский, Александр Хмелик (автор одноименной пьесы –
А. Хмелик). Актеры: Александр Кобозев, Анна Родионова, Анатолий Кузнецов, Савелий
Крамаров, Борис Новиков и др. Драма.
Мишка, Серега и я. СССР, 1961. Режиссер Георгий Победоносцев. Сценаристы:
Ниссон Зелеранский, Борис Ларин. Актеры: Юрий Цветов, Виктор Семёнов, Валерий
Рыжаков, Василий Шукшин, Владимир Гусев и др. Драма.
1962
Грешный ангел. СССР, 1962. Режиссер Геннадий Казанский. Сценарист Михаил
Берестинский. Актеры: Ольга Красина, Николай Волков (ст.), Нина Веселовская, Геннадий
Фролов, Юрий Медведев, Борис Чирков, Галина Волчек и др. Драма.
Бей, барабан! СССР, 1962. Режиссер Алексей Салтыков. Сценаристы: Сергей
Ермолинский, Александр Хмелик. Актеры: Алексей Крыченков, Люся Слепнева, Александр
Демьяненко, Савелий Крамаров, Татьяна Конюхова и др. Драма.
Дикая собака Динго. СССР, 1962. Режиссер Юлий Карасик. Сценарист Анатолий
Гребнев (автор одноименной повести – Р. Фраерман). Актеры: Галина Польских, Владимир
Особик, Талас Умурзаков, Анна Родионова и др. Драма.
Маленькие мечтатели. СССР, 1962. Режиссеры: Олег Гречихо, Виктор Туров,
Арсений Ястребов. Сценаристы: Елена Каплинская, Валентин Морозов, Нелли Морозова,
Лилия Неменова, Геннадий Шпаликов. Актеры: Борис Битюков, Георгий Жжёнов, Ира
Кривошанова и др. Драма.
Мы вас любим. СССР, 1962. Режиссер Эдуард Бочаров. Сценарист Сергей
Михалков. Актеры: Александр Барсов, Вова Фурманкевич, Алеша Абрамов и др. Драма.
Приходите завтра. СССР, 1962. Режиссер и сценарист Евгений Ташков. Актеры:
Екатерина Савинова, Анатолий Папанов, Юрий Горобец, Антонина Максимова, Надежда
Животова, Александр Ширвиндт, Юрий Белов, Борис Бибиков и др. Комедия.
1963
Большие и маленькие. СССР, 1963. Режиссер Мария Фёдорова. Сценарист Иосиф
Маневич. Актеры: Олеся Иванова, Василий Горчаков, Нина Меньшикова, Николай Бармин,
Лев Свердлин, Любовь Виролайнен, Василий Ливанов и др. Драма.
Маленькие рыцари. СССР, 1963. Режиссеры: Нинель Ненова-Цулая, Гено Цулая.
Сценарист: Эдишер Кипиани. Актеры: Додо Чоговадзе, Дато Гиоргадзе, Нино Натадзе и др.
Драма.
134
Меня зовут Кожа. СССР, 1963. Режиссер Абдулла Карсакбаев. Сценарист Ниссон
Зелеранский. Актеры: Нурлан Сегизбаев, М. Кокенов, Гульнар Курабаева и др. Комедия.
Случай в Даш-Кале. СССР, 1963. Режиссер Меред Атаханов. Сценаристы: Морис
Симашко, Николай Фигуровский. Актеры: Куллук Ходжаев, Дурды Сапаров, Аннагуль
Аннакулиева и др. Драма.
Трудные дети. СССР, 1963. Режиссер Всеволод Цветков. Сценарист Юрий Сотник.
Актеры: Александр Кекиш, Гена Бирюков, Татьяна Пельтцер и др. Комедия.
Улица Ньютона, дом 1. СССР, 1963. Режиссер Теодор Вульфович. Сценаристы:
Теодор Вульфович, Эдвард Радзинский. Актеры: Юрий Ильенко, Лариса Кадочникова,
Евгений Фридман, Евгений Агафонов и др. Драма.
1964
Добро пожаловать, или Посторонним вход воспрещен! СССР, 1964. Режиссер
Элем Климов. Сценаристы: Семён Лунгин, Илья Нусинов. Актеры: Евгений Евстигнеев,
Арина Алейникова, Илья Рутберг, Лидия Смирнова, Алексей Смирнов, Виктор Косых и др.
Комедия.
1965
Вниманию граждан и организаций. СССР, 1965. Режиссер Артур Войтецкий.
Сценарист Олег Прокопенко. Актеры: Виталий Беляков, Антоша Сочивко, Юрий Леонидов и
др. Драма.
Звонят, откройте дверь. СССР, 1965. Режиссер Александр Митта. Сценарист
Александр Володин. Актеры: Елена Проклова, Ролан Быков, Владимир Белокуров, Сергей
Никоненко, Ольга Семёнова, Виктор Косых и др. Драма.
Мимо окон идут поезда. СССР, 1965. Режиссеры: Эдуард Гаврилов, Валерий
Кремнев. Сценаристы: Любовь Кабо, Александр Хмелик. Актеры: Лев Круглый, Мария
Стерникова, Элла Некрасова и др. Драма.
Наваждение. СССР, 1965 (новелла из фильма «Операция «Ы»). Режиссер Леонид
Гайдай.
Сценаристы: Яков Костюковский, Морис Слободской, Леонид Гайдай. Актеры:
Александр Демьяненко, Наталья Селезнёва, Виктор Павлов и др. Комедия.
Первая Бастилия. СССР, 1965. Режиссер Михаил Ершов. Сценарист Юрий Яковлев.
Актеры: Валерий Головненков, Елизавета Солодова, Евгений Матвеев и др. Драма.
1966
Первый учитель. СССР, 1966. Режиссер Андрей Кончаловский. Сценаристы:
Чингиз Айтматов, Борис Добродеев, Андрей Кончаловский (автор одноименной повести –
Ч. Айтматов). Актеры: Болот Бейшеналиев, Наталья Аринбасарова, Д. Куюкова,
И. Ногайбаев и др. Драма.
Республика ШКИД. СССР, 1966. Режиссер Геннадий Полока. Сценарист Леонид
Пантелеев. Актеры: Сергей Юрский, Юлия Бурыгина, Павел Луспекаев, Александр
Мельников, Анатолий Столбов и др. Драматическая комедия.
Тени старого замка. СССР, 1966. Режиссер Мария Муат. Актеры: Л. Губанов,
В. Муравьев, М. Болдуман, Ю. Пузырев, Ю. Лученко и др. Детектив.
Три с половиной дня из жизни Ивана Семёнова, второклассника и
второгодника. СССР, 1966. Режиссер Константин Березовский. Сценарист Лев
Давыдычев. Актеры: Владимир Воробей, Елена Калашникова, Борис Ихлов и др. Комедия.
1967
Личная жизнь Кузяева Валентина. СССР, 1967. Режиссеры: Илья Авербах, Игорь
Масленников. Сценарист Наталья Рязанцева. Актеры: Виктор Ильичёв, Тамара Коновалова,
Инна Сергеева и др. Драма.
Я вас любил... СССР, 1967. Режиссер Илья Фрэз. Сценарист Михаил Львовский.
Актеры:
Виктор Перевалов, Виолетта Хуснулова, Виталий Ованесов, Лора Умарова, Валерий
Рыжаков, Евгений Весник, Наталья Селезнёва и др. Комедийная мелодрама.
135
1968
Гольфстрим. СССР, 1968. Режиссер Владимир Довгань. Сценарист Олег
Прокопенко. Актеры: Николай Бурляев, Валентин Марченко, Елена Легурова, Георгий
Вицин и др. Драма.
Доживем до понедельника. СССР, 1968. Режиссер Станислав Ростоцкий.
Сценарист Георгий Полонский. Актеры: Вячеслав Тихонов, Ирина Печерникова, Нина
Меньшикова, Михаил Зимин, Ольга Жизнева, Ольга Остроумова, Игорь Старыгин, Юрий
Чернов, Любовь Соколова и др. Драма.
Когда я был маленьким. СССР, 1968. Режиссер Альгирдас Араминас. Сценаристы
Альгирдас Араминас, Ицхокас Мерас. Актеры: Линас Крищюнас, Юлия Каваляускайте,
Элена Ремишаускене и др. Мелодрама.
Мужской разговор. СССР, 1968. Режиссер Игорь Шатров. Сценаристы: Валентин
Ежов, Вадим Фролов (автор повести «Что к чему» - В. Фролов). Актеры: Николай Яхонтов,
Александр Кавалеров, Василий Шукшин, Нинель Мышкова, Леонид Куравлёв и др. Драма.
Переходный возраст. СССР, 1968. Режиссер Ричард Викторов. Сценарист
Александр Хмелик. Актеры: Елена Проклова, Сережа Макеев, Виталий Сегеда, Александр
Барский, Лена Беспалова, Игорь Ледогоров и др. Драма.
Урок литературы. СССР, 1968. Режиссер Алексей Коренев. Сценарист Виктория
Токарева (автор рассказа «День без вранья» - В. Токарева). Актеры: Евгений Стеблов,
Леонид Куравлёв, Инна Макарова, Валентина Малявина, Евгений Леонов, Лариса Пашкова,
Любовь Добржанская, Готлиб Ронинсон, Виктория Фёдорова, Николай Парфёнов и др.
Комедия.
1969-1985
1969
Завтра, третьего апреля... СССР, 1969. Режиссер Игорь Масленников. Сценарист
Владимир Валуцкий. Актеры: Слава Горошенков, Наталья Данилова, Женя Малянцев,
Лариса Малеванная, Александр Демьяненко, Виктор Ильичёв, Павел Луспекаев, Константин
Райкин и др. Комедия.
Мальчишки. СССР, 1969. Режиссеры: Леонид Макарычев, Аян Шахмалиева.
Актеры: Андрей Константинов, Виктор Жуков, Майя Булгакова и др. Драма.
Я помню тебя, учитель. СССР, 1969. Режиссер Гасан Сеидбейли. Сценарист
Максуд Ибрагимбеков. Актеры: Сулейман Алескеров, Насиба Зейналова, Шафига Мамедова
1970
Внимание, черепаха! СССР, 1970. Режиссер Ролан Быков. Сценаристы: Семён
Лунгин, Илья Нусинов. Актеры: Галина Буданова, Алексей Ершов, Андрей Самотолкин,
Михаил Мартиросян, Алексей Баталов, Ирина Азер и др. Драма.
Волшебная сила. СССР, 1970. Режиссер Наум Бирман. Сценарист Виктор
Драгунский.
Актеры: Людмила Сенчина, Николай Трофимов, Костя Цепкаев, Людмила
Васютинская, Игорь Богданов, Нина Ургант, Татьяна Доронина, Аркадий Райкин и др.
Комедия.
Золотые часы. СССР, 1970. Режиссер Марк Толмачёв. Сценарист Леонид
Пантелеев. Актеры: Андрей Никонов, Олег Шорин, Виктор Глазырин, Алексей Смирнов,
Савелий Крамаров и др. Драма.
Переступи порог. СССР, 1970. Режиссер Ричард Викторов. Сценарист Анатолий
Гребнев. Актеры: Евгений Карельских, Ирина Короткова, Константин Кошкин, Наталья
Рычагова, Михаил Любезнов и др. Драма.
Тайна железной двери. СССР, 1970. Режиссер Михаил Юзовский. Сценарист
Александр Рейжевский (автор повести «Шел по городу волшебник» Ю.Томин). Актеры:
Эвальдас Микалюнас, Андрей Харыбин, Алиса Фрейндлих, Олег Табаков, Савелий Крамаров
и др. Фантастическая комедия.
136
1971
Маленькая исповедь. СССР, 1971. Режиссер Альгирдас Араминас. Сценаристы:
Альгирдас Араминас, Ицхокас Мерас (автор повести «Арберон» В. Бубнис). Актеры: Андрюс
Карка, Рута Сталилюнайте, Гедиминас Карка и др. Драма.
Ох, уж эта Настя. СССР, 1971. Режиссер Юрий Победоносцев. Сценарист Валентина
Спирина. Актеры: Ира Волкова, Таня Невская, Сергей Кусков, Наталья Гвоздикова, Нина
Архипова и др. Комедия.
«Тигры» на льду. СССР. 1971. Режиссеры: Валентин Козачков, Альберт Осипов.
Сценаристы: Виктор Мережко, Николай Горбунов. Актеры: Юля Корнева, Витя Снорков,
Дима Сосновский, Саша Кривенко, Наталья Фатеева, Владимир Грамматиков и др. Драма.
1972
Береги друга. СССР, 1972. Режиссеры: Мухтар Ага-Мирзаев, Исан Каримов.
Сценаристы: Владимир Барабаш, Ярослав Филиппов. Драма.
Большая перемена. СССР, 1972. Режиссер Алексей Коренев. Сценаристы: Алексей
Коренев, Георгий Садовников. Актеры: Михаил Кононов, Евгений Леонов, Ролан Быков,
Александр Збруев, Светлана Крючкова, Юрий Кузьменков, Савелий Крамаров, Наталия
Богунова, Наталья Гвоздикова, Виктор Проскурин, Валерий Носик, Нина Маслова, Ирина
Азер, Людмила Касаткина, Валентина Талызина, Михаил Яншин, Лев Дуров, Люсьена
Овчинникова и др. Комедия.
Очкарик. СССР, 1972. Режиссёр Альгимантас Видугирис. В ролях: Кубанычбек
Алыбаев, Бермета Маликова, Олег Каркавцев и др. Драма.
Перевод с английского. СССР, 1972. Режиссер Инесса Селезнёва. Сценаристы:
Георгий Полонский, Наталья Долинина. Актеры: Майя Булгакова, Георгий Тараторкин,
Андрей Тенета, Армен Джигарханян, Валентина Талызина и др. Драма.
Точка, точка, запятая... СССР, 1972. Режиссер Александр Митта. Сценаристы:
Михаил Львовский, Александр Митта. Актеры: Сергей Данченко, Миша Козловский, Юрий
Никулин, Евгений Герасимов, Владимир Заманский, Жанна Прохоренко и др. Комедия.
Учитель пения. СССР, 1972. Режиссер Наум Бирман. Сценарист Эмиль Брагинский.
Актеры: Андрей Попов, Людмила Иванова, Ирина Алфёрова, Константин Кошкин, Евгений
Евстигнеев, Людмила Аринина, Александр Демьяненко, Георгий Штиль и др. Комедия.
Чудак из пятого "Б". СССР, 1972. Режиссер Илья Фрэз. Сценарист Владимир
Железников. Актеры: Андрей Войновский, Роза Агишева, Татьяна Пельтцер, Нина
Корниенко, Николай Мерзликин, Евгений Весник и др. Комедия.
Юлька. СССР, 1972. Режиссер Константин Жук. Сценарист Евгения Рудых. Актеры:
Ирина Варлей, Виктор Царьков, Сергей Проханов и др. Драма.
1973
Весёлые истории. СССР, 1973. Режиссеры: Альгимантас Кундялис, Гитис Лукшас,
Стасис Мотеюнас. Сценарист и автор рассказов Николай Носов. Актеры: Дайва Дауётите,
Алёша Денисов, Артурас Правилонис и др. Комедия.
Каждый вечер после работы. СССР, 1973. Режиссер Константин Ершов.
Сценаристы: Константин Ершов, Олег Прокопенко (автор повести «Елена Николаевна»
М. Глушко). Актеры: Зинаида Славина, Александр Граве, Ирина Бунина, Николай Гринько и
др. Драма.
Капля в море. СССР, 1973. Режиссер и сценарист Яков Сегель. Актеры: Саша
Масленников, Валентина Телегина, Лилиана Алешникова, Арина Алейникова, Зоя Фёдорова
и др. Комедия.
Пожар во флигеле, или подвиг во льдах. СССР, 1973. Режиссер Евгений
Татарский. Сценарист Валерий Попов (автор рассказов – В. Драгунский). Актеры: Саша
Михайлов, Саша Хмельницкий, Олег Даль и др. Комедия.
Разные люди. СССР, 1973. Режиссер: Геннадий Павлов. Сценарист Наталья
Долинина. Актеры: Владимир Иванов, Виталий Ованесов, Алла Богина, Александр
Бордуков, Геннадий Сайфулин, Ирина Муравьёва, Борис Чирков, Наталья Сайко и др.
Драма.
137
1974
Валькины паруса. СССР, 1974. Режиссер Николай Жуков. Сценарист Валентина
Спирина. Актеры: Андрей Цепкало, Феликс Смирнов, Гера Котовский и др. Драма.
Весенние перевертыши. СССР, 1974. Режиссер Григорий Аронов. Сценарист и
автор одноименной повести Владимир Тендряков. Актеры: Роман Мадянов, Лариса
Малеванная, Николай Пеньков, Лев Дуров, Николай Гринько и др. Драма.
Земные и небесные приключения. СССР, 1974. Режиссер Игорь Ветров.
Сценарист Юрий Пархоменко. Актеры: Анатолий Матешко, Елена Плюйко, Валерий
Провоторов, Елизавета Дедова, Михаил Глузский, Лаймонас Норейка, Глеб Стриженов и др.
Драма.
Кыш и двапортфеля. СССР, 1974. Режиссер Эдуард Гаврилов. Сценарист Юз
(Иосиф) Алешковский. Актеры: Андрей Кондратьев, Катя Кузнецова, Леонид Куравлёв,
Лариса Лужина, Владимир Заманский, Людмила Гладунко и др. Комедия.
Лжинка, или Маленькая ложь и большие неприятности. СССР, 1974.
Режиссер: Алла Сурикова. Актеры: Володя Пустовит, Зорий Коваль, Маргарита Кошелева и
др. Мюзикл.
Не болит голова у дятла. СССР, 1974. Режиссер Динара Асанова. Сценарист Юрий
Клепиков. Актеры: Александр Жезляев, Елена Цыплакова, Александр Богданов, Ира
Обольская, Екатерина Васильева, Николай Гринько и др. Драма.
Такие высокие горы. СССР, 1974. Режиссер Юлия Солнцева. Сценарист Валентина
Никиткина. Актеры: Сергей Бондарчук, Константин Смирнов, Ирина Скобцева и др. Драма.
1975
Дневник директора школы. СССР, 1975. Режиссер Борис Фрумин. Сценарист
Анатолий Гребнев. Актеры: Олег Борисов, Ия Саввина, Алла Покровская, Людмила
Гурченко, Елена Соловей, Георгий Тейх, Николай Лавров, Юрий Визбор, Виктор Павлов и
др. Драма.
Любовь с первого взгляда. СССР, 1975. Режиссер Резо Эсадзе. Сценарист Эдуард
Тополь. Актеры: Вахтанг Панчулидзе, Наталья Юриздицкая, Рамаз Чхиквадзе и др.
Комедия.
Меняю собаку на паровоз. СССР, 1975. Режиссер Никита Хубов. Сценаристы:
Сергей Михалков, Никита Хубов. Актеры: Дмитрий Шевелев, Татьяна Лаврова, Виктор
Сергачёв, Дмитрий Ажнин, Павел Панков, Олег Табаков и др. Комедия.
Порясающий Берендеев. СССР, 1975. Режиссер Игорь Вознесенский. Сценарист
Владимир Потоцкий. Актеры: Сергей Образов, Андрей Харыбин, Евгений Евстигнеев,
Лилия Журкина, Борис Иванов, Леонид Каневский, Лев Дуров, Алексей Смирнов и др.
Комедия.
Сто дней после детства. СССР, 1975. Режиссер Сергей Соловьев. Сценаристы:
Александр Александров, Сергей Соловьев. Актеры: Борис Токарев, Татьяна Друбич, Ирина
Малышева, Юрий Агилин, Нина Меньшикова, Сергей Шакуров, Арина Алейникова и др.
Драма.
Школа господина Мариуса. СССР, 1975. Режиссер Микк Микивер. Сценаристы:
Арво Круусемент, Лембит Реммельгас. Актеры: Харри Кырвитс, Антс Эскола, Мария
Кленская, Кальё Кийск, Юри Ярвет и др. Драма.
Что с тобой происходит? СССР, 1975. Режиссер Владимир Саруханов. Сценарист
Юз Алешковский. Актеры: Вячеслав Баранов, Оля Пономарева, Борис Зайденберг, Данута
Столярская, Лилиана Алешникова и др. Драма.
Чужие письма. СССР, 1975. Режиссер Илья Авербах. Сценарист Наталья Рязанцева.
Актеры: Ирина Купченко, Светлана Смирнова, Сергей Коваленков, Зинаида Шарко, Олег
Янковский, Иван Бортник и др. Драма.
Это мы не проходили. СССР, 1975. Режиссер Илья Фрэз. Сценаристы: Илья Фрэз,
Михаил Львовский. Актеры: Наталья Рычагова, Борис Токарев, Андрей Ростоцкий, Татьяна
Канаева, Ирина Калиновская, Антонина Максимова, Татьяна Пельтцер, Нина Зоткина, Вера
Васильева и др. Драма.
138
Эта тревожная зима. СССР, 1975. Режиссер Игорь Николаев. Сценарист Валентина
Спирина. Актеры: Александр Копов, Эдуард Марцевич, Елена Костерова и др. Драма.
1976
Все дело в брате. СССР, 1976. Режиссер Валентин Горлов. Сценаристы: Павел
Лунгин, Валентин Горлов. Актеры: Роман Мадянов, Юрий Дуванов, Наташа Сеземан,
Марина Горлова, Элеонора Шашкова и др. Драма.
Два капитана. СССР, 1976. Режиссер Евгений Карелов. Сценаристы: Евгений
Карелов, Вениамин Каверин (автор одноименного романа – В. Каверин). Актеры: Борис
Токарев, Серёжа Кудрявцев, Елена Прудникова, Лена Лобкина, Юрий Богатырёв, Николай
Гриценко, Ирина Печерникова и др. Драма.
Дневник Карлоса Эспинолы. СССР, 1976. Режиссер и сценарист Валентин
Селиванов. Актеры: Хоссе Бельместр, Марина Мухина, Карлос Сохо, Элеонора Шашкова,
Вячеслав Шалевич, Людмила Чурсина и др. Драма.
Додумался, поздравляю! СССР, 1976. Режиссер Эдуард Гаврилов. Сценарист
Анатолий Усов. Актеры: Алексей Ершов, Наталья Тенищева, Юра Юрьев, Люся Мухина,
Роман Мадянов, Галина Польских, Олег Анофриев и др. Драма.
Ключ без права передачи. СССР, 1976. Режиссер Динара Асанова. Сценарист
Георгий Полонский. Актеры: Елена Проклова, Алексей Петренко, Лидия Федосеева-
Шукшина, Любовь Малиновская, Зиновий Гердт, Екатерина Васильева, Олег Хроменков,
Анвар Асанов, Марина Левтова, Елена Цыплакова и др. Драма.
Несовершеннолетние. СССР, 1976. Режиссер Владимир Роговой. Сценарист
Эдуард Тополь. Актеры: Владимир Летенков, Станислав Жданько, Николай Муравьёв,
Леонид Каюров, Павел Николаи, Вера Васильева, Юрий Кузьменков, Юрий Медведев и др.
Драма.
Опровержение. СССР, 1976. Режиссер Юрий Кавтарадзе. Сценаристы: Василий
Ардаматский, Юрий Кавтарадзе. Актеры: Лилиана Алешникова, Борис Гусаков, Николай
Скоробогатов, Пётр Щербаков и др. Драма.
Остров юности. СССР, 1976. Режиссеры: Юлий Слупский, Борис Шиленко.
Сценарист Александр Власов. Актеры: Владимир Андреев, Оля Демшевская, Виталий
Лобзин и др. Драма.
Подранки. СССР, 1976. Режиссер и сценарист Николай Губенко. Актеры: Юозас
Будрайтис, Алексей Черствов, Георгий Бурков, Александр Калягин, Жанна Болотова, Ролан
Быков, Николай Губенко, Наталья Гундарева, Евгений Евстигнеев и др. Драма.
Предательница. СССР, 1976. Режиссер Никита Хубов. Сценаристы: Валерий Демин,
Людмила Демина, Никита Хубов. Актеры: Лариса Блинова, Георгий Киянцев, Игорь Кучин
Розыгрыш. СССР, 1976. Режиссер Владимир Меньшов. Сценарист Семён Лунгин.
Актеры: Дмитрий Харатьян, Евгения Ханаева, Наталья Вавилова, Андрей Гусев, Евдокия
Германова, Олег Табаков, Наталья Фатеева, Зиновий Гердт, Владимир Меньшов, Гарри
Бардин и др. Музыкальная драма.
Тимур и его команда. СССР, 1976. Режиссеры: Александр Бланк, Сергей Линков.
Сценаристы: Александр Бланк, Сергей Линков, Нина Давыдова (автор повести – А. Гайдар).
Актеры: Антон Табаков, Инга Третьякова, Вячеслав Баранов, Лев Идашкин, Леонид
Куравлёв, Бруно Фрейндлих, Любовь Соколова, Николай Гринько и др. Драма.
Цветы для Оли. СССР, 1976. Режиссер Радомир Василевский. Сценарист Радий
Погодин. Актеры: Анна Надточий, Александр Лихачев, Вадим Шевченко и др. Мелодрама.
1977
Доброта. СССР, 1977. Режиссер Эдуард Гаврилов. Сценаристы: Семен Ласкин,
Василий Соловьёв (автор повести «Абсолютный слух» - С.Ласкин). Актеры: Тамара Сёмина,
Леонид Неведомский, Николай Константинов, Владимир Звягин, Андрей Гусев, Алина
Покровская и др. Драма.
Жили-были в первом классе... СССР, 1977. Режиссер Маргарита Касымова.
Сценаристы: Владимир Железников, Алексей Леонтьев (автор повести «Поющий тростник»
Г. Галахова). Актеры: Сино Ахмедов, Улугбек Садыков, Женя Бабаев и др. Драма.
139
Последняя двойка. СССР, 1977. Режиссер Борис Нащекин. Сценарист И. Витин.

Актеры: Александр Ивахин, Евгений Герасимов, Людмила Иванова и др. Драма.
Школьный вальс. СССР, 1977. Режиссер Павел Любимов. Сценарист Анна
Родионова.
Актеры: Елена Цыплакова, Сергей Насибов, Евгения Симонова, Наталья Вилькина,
Юрий Соломин, Нина Меньшикова и др. Мелодрама.
1978
Баламут. СССР, 1978. Режиссер Владимир Роговой. Сценарист Сергей Бодров (ст.).
Актеры: Вадим Андреев, Наталья Казначеева, Николай Денисов, Владимир Шихов,
Валентина Клягина и др. Комедия.
Когда я стану великаном. СССР, 1978. Режиссер Инна Туманян. Сценаристы:
Инна Туманян, Александр Кузнецов. Актеры: Михаил Ефремов, Наташа Сеземан, Лия
Ахеджакова, Инна Ульянова, Марина Шиманская, Олег Ефремов, Владимир Качан и др.
Драма.
Последний шанс. СССР, 1978. Режиссер Эдуард Гаврилов. Сценаристы: Ирина
Рабкина, Борис Рабкин. Актеры: Андрей Мартынов, Леонид Каюров, Олег Ефремов, Марина
Левтова, Андрей Харыбин, Анатолий Кузнецов, Любовь Соколова, Людмила Шагалова,
Валентина Ананьина, Наталья Гвоздикова, Александр Кавалеров и др. Драма.
Расписание на послезавтра. СССР, 1978. Режиссер Игорь Добролюбов. Сценарист
Нина Фомина. Актеры: Олег Даль, Маргарита Терехова, Тамара Дегтярёва, Александр
Леньков, Александр Денисов, Валентин Никулин, Вячеслав Баранов, Юрий Воротницкий,
Владимир Солодовников, Ирина Метлицкая, Полина Медведева, Евгений Стеблов,
Валентина Титова, Борис Новиков и др. Драма.
Сдается квартира с ребенком. СССР, 1978. Режиссер Виктор Крючков. Сценарист
Эдуард Акопов. Актеры: Елена Фетисенко, Александр Копов, Миша Кожекин, Людмила
Дьяконова, Павел Винник, Алла Мещерякова, Виталий Соломин, Николай Парфёнов и др.
Комедия.
Смилуйся над нами. СССР, 1978. Режиссер Альгирдас Араминас. Актеры:
Альгирдас Латенас, Дмитрий Миргородский, Татьяна Майорова и др. Драма.
Уроки французского. СССР, 1978. Режиссер и сценарист Евгений Ташков. Автор
одноименного рассказа – Валентин Распутин. Актеры: Михаил Егоров, Татьяна Ташкова,
Галина Яцкина, Валентина Талызина, Борис Новиков и др. Драма.
1979
В моей смерти прошу винить Клаву К. СССР, 1979. Режиссеры: Николай
Лебедев, Эрнест Ясан. Сценарист Михаил Львовский. Актеры: Надежда Боргесани-
Горшкова, Владимир Шевельков, Лена Хопшоносова и др. Мелодрама.
Камертон. СССР, 1979. Режиссер Виллен Новак. Сценарист Леонид Браславский.
Актеры: Елена Шанина, Борис Сабуров, Андрей Ташков и др. Драма.
Кузнечик. СССР, 1979. Режиссер Борис Григорьев. Сценарист Феликс Миронер.
Актеры:
Людмила Нильская, Николай Иванов, Людмила Аринина, Анатолий Ромашин,
Марина Левтова, Вячеслав Баранов и др. Драма.
Мой первый друг. СССР, 1979. Режиссер Яков Базелян. Сценаристы: Ганна Слуцки,
Александр Хмелик. Актеры: Егор Грамматиков, Валерий Владинов, Анна Голубева, Ольга
Волкова и др. Драма.
Полоска нескошенных диких цветов. СССР, 1979. Режиссер Юрий Ильенко.
Сценаристы: Юрий Ильенко, Олесь Гончар. Актеры: Юра Маджула, Алексей Черствов,
Регимантас Адомайтис, Людмила Ефименко, Зинаида Славина и др. Драма.
Приключения маленького папы. СССР, 1979. Режиссер Дмитрий Крупко.
Сценарист Дмитрий Крупко (автор повести «Когда папа был маленьким» А. Раскин).Актеры:
Валентин Юцкевич, Александр Демьяненко, Татьяна Томышева и др. Комедия.
Приключения Электроника. СССР, 1979. Режиссер Константин Бромберг.
Сценарист Евгений Велтистов. Актеры: Юрий Торсуев, Владимир Торсуев, Василий
Скромный, Оксана Алексеева, Николай Гринько, Елизавета Никищихина, Владимир Басов,
140
Николай Караченцов, Евгений Весник, Майя Булгакова и др. Фантастика.

Та сторона, где ветер. СССР, 1979. Режиссер Ваграм Кеворков. Сценарист
Владислав Крапивин. Актеры: Алексей Мелехов, Виктор Березин, Денис Скударь, Илья
Тихонов и др. Драма.
Ты только не плачь. СССР, 1979. Режиссер Алексей Мороз. Сценаристы: Сергей
Иванов, Михаил Герман. Актеры: Лена Середа, Володя Чубарев, Павел Кадочников, Валерия
Чайковская и др. Драма.
Я буду ждать. СССР, 1979. Режиссер Виктор Живолуб. Сценарист Анатолий
Степанов. Актеры: Николай Ерёменко (мл.), Анна Твеленёва, Ирина Шевчук, Константин
Степанков, Рита Гладунко, Юрий Каморный и др. Мелодрама.
1980
Алёша. СССР, 1980. Режиссер Виктор Обухов. Сценарист Анатолий Шайкевич.
Актеры: Виталий Юшков, Наталия Флоренская, Эрнст Романов, Геннадий Корольков и др.
Драма.
Вам и не снилось... СССР, 1980. Режиссер Илья Фрэз. Сценаристы: Галина
Щербакова, Илья Фрэз. Актеры: Татьяна Аксюта, Никита Михайловский, Елена Соловей,
Ирина Мирошниченко, Лидия Федосеева-Шукшина, Альберт Филозов, Татьяна Пельтцер,
Руфина Нифонтова, Евгений Герасимов, Леонид Филатов и др. Мелодрама.
Неоконченный урок. СССР, 1980. Режиссер Анатолий Тютюнник. Сценарист
Виктор Гераскин (автор повести «Когда мы взрослеем» - Н.Зелеранский). Актеры: Валерий
Никифоров, Альбина Матвеева, Галина Польских и др. Драма.
Подготовка к экзамену. СССР, 1980. Режиссер Борис Конунов. Сценаристы:
Евгений Багиров, Александр Юровский (автор одноименной повести Н. Дементьев). Актеры:
Елена Финогеева, Геннадий Скоморохов, Наталья Стриженова, Ион Унгуряну и др.
Мелодрама.
Последний побег. СССР, 1980. Режиссер Леонид Менакер. Сценарист Александр
Галин.
Актеры: Михаил Ульянов, Алексей Серебряков, Ирина Купченко, Леонид Дьячков,
Валерий Гатаев, Евгения Ханаева, Виктор Павлов и др. Драма.
Спасатель. СССР, 1980. Режиссер и сценарист Сергей Соловьев. Актеры: Татьяна
Друбич, Василий Мищенко, Сергей Шакуров, Ольга Белявская, Вячеслав Кононенко,
Александр Кайдановский и др. Драма.
Тихие троечники. СССР, 1980. Режиссер Вячеслав Никифоров. Сценарист
Владимир Потоцкий. Актеры: Дмитрий Андриевский, Сережа Скрибо, Елена Антонюк,
Марина Левтова, Евгения Ханаева, Елена Драпеко, Ольга Остроумова, Альберт Филозов и
др. Драма.
1981
Все наоборот. СССР, 1981. Режиссеры: Виталий Фетисов, Владимир Грамматиков.
Сценарист Павел Лунгин. Актеры: Михаил Ефремов, Ольга Машная, Олег Табаков, Светлана
Немоляева, Александр Пашутин и др. Комедия.
Наше призвание. СССР, 1981. Режиссер Геннадий Полока. Сценаристы: Геннадий
Полока, Евгений Митько (автор книги Н. Огнев). Актеры: Валерий Золотухин, Павел
Кадочников, Василий Мищенко, Георгий Тейх, Игорь Наумов, Ия Саввина, Фёдор Никитин,
Валентина Теличкина и др. Драматическая комедия.
Придут страсти-мордасти. СССР, 1981. Режиссер и сценарист Эрнест Ясан.
Актеры: Дмитрий Кузьмин, Антон Гранат, Людмила Шевель и др. Драма.
Прощание за чертой. СССР, 1981. Режиссер Карен Геворкян. Сценаристы: Карен
Геворкян, Александр Диванян. Актеры: Л. Манукян, А. Миракян, В. Плузян и др. Драма.
Снег на зеленом поле. СССР, 1981. Режиссер Валентин Морозов. Сценарист Эдуард
Шим. Актеры: Дима Веселков, Саша Гладкобородов, Оля Дуренкова и др. Драма.
Трудное начало. СССР, 1981. Режиссер Тенгиз Магалашвили. Сценаристы: Эрлом
Ахвледиани, Тенгиз Магалашвили. Актеры: Ираклий Хизанишвили, Нани Чиквинидзе,
Эдишер Магалашвили и др. Драма.
Что бы ты выбрал? СССР, 1981. Режиссер Динара Асанова. Сценарист Александр
141
Кургатников. Актеры: Анвар Асанов, Марина Кривицкая, Настя Никольская, Ярослав

Яковлев, Лидия Федосеева-Шукшина, Екатерина Васильева, Елена Соловей и др. Драма.
Кафедра. СССР, 1982. Режиссер Иван Киасашвили. Сценаристы: Ирина Грекова,
Семён Лунгин, Марк Розовский (автор одноименной повести – И. Грекова). Актеры: Андрей
Попов, Светлана Кузьмина, Ростислав Янковский, Галина Макарова, Елена Степанова,
Игорь Ясулович, Елена Антоненко, Александр Кайдановский, Виктор Сергачёв и др. Драма.
1982
Колыбельная для брата. СССР, 1982. Режиссер Виктор Волков. Актеры: Егор
Грамматиков, Лена Москаленко, Володя Зотов и др. Драма.
Мы жили по соседству. СССР, 1982. Режиссер и сценарист Николай Лырчиков.
Актеры: Жанна Прохоренко, Андрей Мартынов, Антон Голышев и др. Мелодрама.
С тех пор, как мы вместе. СССР, 1982. Режиссер Владимир Григорьев. Сценарист
Святослав Тараховский. Актеры: Светлана Смирнова, Андрис Лиелайс, Антонина Шуранова
и др. Мелодрама.
4:0 в пользу Танечки. СССР, 1982. Режиссер Радомир Василевский. Сценарист
Михаил Дымов. Актеры: Наталия Флоренская, Андрей Мягков, Светлана Немоляева,
Евгения Ханаева, Юрий Васильев, Елена Санько, Вацлав Дворжецкий и др. Комедия.
Чужая пятерка. СССР, 1982. режиссер Г. Бзаров. Сценарист В. Малиновская.
Актеры: У. Хамраев, В. Ибрагимова, Ф. Реджаметова и др. Драма.
1983
Если верить Лопотухину. СССР, 1983. Режиссер Михаил Козаков. Сценарист
Александр Хмелик. Актеры: Григорий Евсеев, Леонид Броневой, Светлана Крючкова,
Борислав Брондуков и др. Комедия.
Магия черная и белая. СССР, 1983. Режиссер Наум Бирман. Сценарист Валерий
Приёмыхов. Актеры: Павел Плисов, Антон Гранат, Рита Иванова, Александр Леньков и др.
Комедия.
Обман. СССР, 1983. Режиссер Николай Раужин. Сценарист Альберт Иванов (автор
рассказа. «Любовь октябрёнка Овечкина» Н. Соломко). Актеры: Ольга Дольникова,
Вячеслав Невинный, Любовь Германова и др. Мелодрама.
Опасные пустяки. СССР, 1983. Режиссер: Виктор Волков. Актеры: Инна Гомес,
Наталья Гусева, Коля Макаров и др. Агитфильм.
Пацаны. СССР, 1983. Режиссер Динара Асанова. Сценарист Юрий Клепиков.
Актеры: Валерий Приёмыхов, Андрей Зыков, Сергей Наумов, Евгений Никитин, Олег Хорев,
Александр Совков, Ольга Машная и др. Драма.
Плыви, кораблик. СССР, 1983. Режиссер Григорий Аронов. Сценаристы: Сергей
Александрович, Григорий Аронов. Актеры: Стефания Станюта, Павлик Шагин, Татьяна
Иванова и др. Драма.
Признать виновным. СССР, 1983. Режиссер Игорь Вознесенский. Сценаристы:
Владимир Карасев, Юрий Иванов. Актеры: Александр Михайлов, Владимир Шевельков,
Игорь Рогачёв, Александр Силин, Марина Яковлева, Вера Сотникова, Ирина Мирошниченко
Приключения Петрова и Васечкина. СССР, 1983. Режиссер Владимир Алеников.
Сценаристы: Владимир Алеников, Валентин Горлов. Актеры: Дмитрий Барков, Егор
Дружинин, Инга Ильм и др. Музыкальная комедия.
Талисман. СССР, 1983. Режиссеры: Араик Габриэлян, Вениамин Дорман. Сценарист
Виктория Токарева. Актеры: Денис Чурмантеев, Наталья Варлей, Лидия Федосеева-
Шукшина, Спартак Мишулин, Лия Ахеджакова, Борислав Брондуков, Элеонора Шашкова и
др. Комедия.
Уроки на завтра. СССР, 1983. Режиссер А. Акбарходжаев. Сценарист М. Мухаммад
Дост. Актеры: М. Мухаммад Дост, Б. Ихтияров, М. Абзалов и др. Драма.
Утро без отметок. СССР, 1983. Режиссер Владимир Мартынов. Сценарист Оскар
Ремез.
Актеры: Кирилл Головко-Серский, Маша Вартикова, Павел Гайдученко и др. Комедия.
Чучело. СССР, 1983. Режиссер Ролан Быков. Сценаристы: Ролан Быков, Владимир
142
Железников. Актеры: Кристина Орбакайте, Юрий Никулин, Елена Санаева, Дмитрий

Егоров, Ксения Филиппова и др. Драма.
1984
Благие намерения. СССР, 1984. Режиссер Андрей Бенкендорф. Сценарист и автор
одноименной повести Альберт Лиханов. Актеры: Марина Яковлева, Юрий Платонов, Маша
Баленко и др. Драма.
Дневник, письмо и первоклассница. СССР, 1984. Режиссер Хабиб Файзиев.
Сценарист
Валентина Малиновская. Актеры: Равшан Хамраев, Улугбек Хамраев, Гулнора
Пайзиева и др. Драма.
Единица с обманом. СССР, 1984. Режиссер Андрей Праченко. Сценарист
Александр Гусельников (автор одноименной повести В. Нестайко). Актеры: Елена
Борзунова, Елена Зайцева, Олег Кропот и др. Комедия.
Идущий следом. СССР, 1984. Режиссер Родион Нахапетов. Сценаристы: Родион
Нахапетов, Юлий Николин. Актеры: Ивар Калныньш, Николай Гринько, Елена Прудникова,
Пётр Глебов, Андрей Смирнов, Вера Глаголева, Владислав Стржельчик, Римма Маркова и
др. Драма.
Лидер. СССР, 1984. Режиссер Борис Дуров. Сценарист Даль Орлов. Актеры: Алексей
Волков, Александр Стриженов, Екатерина Стриженова, Валентина Карева, Анатолий
Опритов, Любовь Стриженова и др. Драма.
Моя маленькая жена. СССР, 1984. Режиссер Раймундас Банионис. Сценарист
Римантас Шавялис. Актеры: Элеонора Коризнайте, Саулюс Баландис, Ингеборга
Дапкунайте и др. Мелодрама.
Подслушанный разговор. СССР, 1984. Режиссер и сценарист Сергей Потепалов.
Актеры: Гия Думбадзе, Алексей Полуян, Ольга Агапова и др. Мелодрама.
Пока не выпал снег. СССР, 1984. Режиссер Игорь Апасян. Сценаристы: Елена
Щербиновская, Людмила Абрамова, Игорь Апасян. Актеры: Наталья Сайко, Александр
Пороховщиков, Елена Соловей, Евгения Добровольская, Ольга Машная и др. Драма.
Почти ровесники. СССР, 1984. Режиссер Татьяна Пименова. Сценарист Денис
Драгунский. Актеры: Михаил Морозов, Елена Новосельская, Юра Жуков и др. Драма.
Сильная личность из 2 «А». СССР, 1984. Режиссер Анатолий Ниточкин.
Сценарист Геннадий Мамлин. Актеры: Женя Пивоваров, Екатерина Лычева, Любовь
Соколова, Андрей Мартынов, Валентина Теличкина и др. Комедия.
Сладкий сок внутри травы. СССР, 1984. Режиссеры: Аманбек Альпиев, Сергей
Бодров (ст.). Сценаристы: Зауреш Ергалиева, Сергей Бодров (ст.). Актеры: Гульшад Омарова,
Айгерим Беккулова, Элико Минашвили и др. Мелодрама.
Солнце в кармане. СССР, 1984. Режиссер Эдуард Гаврилов. Сценаристы: Эдуард
Гаврилов, Ольга Сидельникова. Актеры: Даша Вишнякова, Вера Ивлева, Мария Скворцова и
др. Драма.
Третий в пятом ряду. СССР, 1984. Режиссер Сергей Олейник. Сценарист Екатерина
Маркова (автор одноименной повести А. Алексин). Актеры: Алла Покровская, Александр
Продан, Юлия Космачёва и др. Драма.
1985
Валентин и Валентина. СССР, 1985. Режиссер Георгий Натансон. Сценаристы:
Георгий Натансон, Михаил Рощин (автор одноименной пьесы – В. Рощин). Актеры: Марина
Зудина, Николай Стоцкий, Татьяна Доронина, Нина Русланова, Зинаида Дехтярёва, Борис
Щербаков, Лариса Удовиченко, Люсьена Овчинникова и др. Мелодрама.
Зловредное воскресенье. СССР, 1985. Режиссер Владимир Мартынов. Сценарист
Оскар Ремез. Актеры: Павел Гайдученко, Михаил Пуговкин, Вера Васильева, Валентина
Талызина, Марина Дюжева, Раиса Рязанова, Георгий Штиль, Борислав Брондуков, Евгений
Герасимов, Марина Яковлева и др. Комедия.
Игры для детей школьного возраста. СССР, 1985. Режиссеры: Арво Ихо, Лейда
Лайус
Сценарист Марина Шептунова (автор повести «Приемная мать» - С. Раннамаа).
143
Актеры: Моника Ярв, Хендрик Тоомпере и др. Драма.

Как молоды мы были. СССР, 1985. Режиссер и сценарист М. Беликов. Актеры:
Т. Денисенко, Е. Шкурпело, А. Пашутин и др. Мелодрама.
Мужчины есть мужчины. СССР, 1985. Режиссер и сценарист Алексей Мороз.
Актеры: Петя Митрюхин, Виталий Шевцов, Сергей Хусаинов и др. Комедия.
Непохожая. СССР, 1985. Режиссеры: Владимир Алеников, Мария Муат. Сценарист
Екатерина Маркова (автор повести «Родео Лиды Карякиной» - Людмила Сабинина).
Актеры: Ольга Толстецкая, Клара Лучко, Евгения Ханаева, Александра Турган, Всеволод
Абдулов, Александра Захарова, Юрий Чернов, Александр Пашутин и др. Драма.
Осторожно - Василёк! СССР, 1985. Режиссер Эдуард Гаврилов. Сценарист Ольга
Сидельникова. Актеры: Илья Тюрин, Георгий Бурков, Олег Ефремов и др. Комедия.
С нами не соскучишься. СССР, 1985. Режиссер Антонина Зиновьева. Сценарист
Сергей Иванов. Актеры: Павел Суворов, Анастасия Фатеева, Ксения Кутепова, Полина
Кутепова, Геннадий Сайфулин и др. Драма.
1986-1991
1986
Белая лошадь - горе не моё. СССР, 1986. Режиссер: Виктор Спиридонов. Актеры:
Сергей Балабанов, Леонид Марков, Александр Пороховщиков и др. Драма.
Была не была. СССР, 1986. Режиссер Валерий Федосов. Сценаристы: Александр
Чумак, Юрий Перов. Актеры: Григорий Катаев, Тина Лаптева, Алексей Жарков, Валентина
Теличкина, Лариса Белогурова и др. Драма.
За явным преимуществом. СССР, 1986. Режиссер Владимир Саруханов.
Сценарист Анатолий Мадорский. Актеры: Олег Старосацкий, Нина Саруханова, Владимир
Борисов, Игорь Буланцев, Паул Буткевич, Армен Джигарханян и др. Драма.
Здравствуйте, Гульнора Рахимовна! СССР, 1986. Режиссер Абдурахим Кудусов.
Сценаристы: Валентина Малиновская, В. Федоров. Актеры: Тамара Яндиева, Бахтиер
Фидоев, Ирбек Алиев и др. Драма.
Листопад в пору лета. СССР, 1986. Режиссер Тофик Исмайлов. Сценарист Асим
Джалилов. Актеры: Сиявуш Аслан, Наджиба Гусейнова, Фирангиз Шарифова и др. Драма.
Малявкин и компания. СССР, 1986. Режиссер Юрий Кузьменко. Сценарист Юрий
Яковлев. Актеры: Сергей Савостьянов, Максим Гапонов, Ася Власенко и др. Комедия.
Очень страшная история. СССР, 1986. Режиссер Никита Хубов. В ролях: Андрюша
Козлов, Толя Юртаев, Вера Панасенкова, Людмила Артемьева, Станислав Садальский и др.
Детектив.
Плюмбум, или Опасная игра. СССР, 1986. Режиссер Вадим Абдрашитов.
Сценарист Александр Миндадзе. Актеры: Антон Андросов, Елена Дмитриева, Елена
Яковлева, Зоя Лирова, Александр Феклистов, Владимир Стеклов, Александр Пашутин и др.
Драма.
Экзамен на директора. СССР, 1986. Режиссер Александр Ефремов. Сценаристы:
Владимир Бутромеев, Евгений Митько. Актеры: Сергей Шкаликов, Михаил Глузский, Юрий
Казючиц и др. Драма.
Я — вожатый форпоста. СССР, 1986. Режиссер Геннадий Полока. Сценаристы:
Евгений Митько, Геннадий Полока (автор книги Н. Огнев). Актеры: Павел Кадочников,
Василий Мищенко, Валерий Золотухин, Ия Саввина и др. Драма.
1987
Дом с привидениями. СССР, 1987. Режиссер Ефим Гальперин. Сценарист Семён
Лунгин. Актеры: Катя Цуканова, Виктория Гаврилова, Ярослав Лисоволик, Сергей Домнин и
др. Драма.
Забавы молодых. СССР, 1987. Режиссер Евгений Герасимов. Сценарист Виктор
Мережко. Актеры: Станислав Любшин, Марина Зудина, Нина Русланова, Валентина
Теличкина, Николай Парфёнов, Виктор Павлов, Вячеслав Невинный, Алексей Серебряков,
Владимир Качан, Ирина Климова и др. Драма.
Завтра была война. СССР, 1987. Режиссер Юрий Кара. Сценарист и автор
144
одноименнйо повести Борис Васильев. Актеры: Сергей Никоненко, Нина Русланова, Вера
Алентова, Ирина Чериченко, Наталья Негода, Юлия Тархова, Владимир Заманский и др.
Драма.
Мы - ваши дети. СССР, 1987. Режиссер Ольгерд Воронцов. Сценаристы: Геннадий
Никитин, Ольга Пыжова (авторы пьесы «Иван» Г. Никитин и О. Пыжова). Актеры: Галина
Польских, Леонид Куравлёв, Валерий Малинин, Валерий Баринов, Сергей Сазонтьев и др.
Драма.
Пощечина, которой не было. СССР, 1987. Режиссер Игорь Шатров. Сценаристы:
Рустам Ибрагимбеков, Виктор Багдасаров. Актеры: Андрей Болтнев, Людмила Соловьёва,
Владимир Стеклов, Ольга Рачинская, Вадим Любшин, Игорь Кашинцев, Ксения Стриж,
Александр Стриженов и др. Драма.
Соблазн. СССР, 1987. Режиссер Вячеслав Сорокин. Сценаристы: Юрий Клепиков,
Валерий Стародубцев. Актеры: Алиса Зыкина, Наталия Сорокина, Сергей Лучников, Елена
Руфанова и др. Драма.
Тихоня. СССР, 1987. Режиссер Ю. Азимов. Сценаристы: П. Луцик, А. Саморядов.
Актеры: Г. Аминова, А. Каримова, А. Мухитдинов и др. Драма.
Шантажист. СССР, 1987. Режиссер Валерий Курыкин. Сценарист Эдуард
Володарский.
Актеры: Михаил Ефремов, Андрей Тихомирнов, Александр Ширвиндт, Марина
Старых, Нина Гомиашвили, Леонид Куравлёв, Валентина Титова, Сергей Гармаш и др.
Драма.
1988
Воля Вселенной. СССР, 1988. Режиссёр Дмитрий Михлеев. Актеры: Вячеслав
Илющенко, Наталья Гусева, Андрей Бабошкин, Виктор Ильичёв и др. Мелодрама.
Дорогая Елена Сергеевна. СССР, 1988. Режиссер Эльдар Рязанов. Сценаристы:
Людмила Разумовская, Эльдар Рязанов (автор одноименной пьесы – Л. Разумовская).
Актеры: Марина Неёлова, Наталья Щукина, Фёдор Дунаевский, Дмитрий Марьянов, Андрей
Тихомирнов. Драма.
Куколка. СССР, 1988. Режиссер Исаак Фридберг. Сценарист Игорь Агеев. Актеры:
Светлана Засыпкина, Ирина Метлицкая, Владимир Меньшов, Наталья Назарова и др.
Драма.
На окраине, где-то в городе… СССР, 1988. Режиссер Валерий Пендраковский.
Сценарист Владислав Романов. Актеры: Александр Ларионов, Андрей Мананников, Антон
Шереметьев и др. Драма.
Публикация. СССР, 1988. Режиссер Виктор Волков. Сценарист Юрий Коротков.
Актеры: Людмила Аринина, Лариса Шахворостова, Владислав Дашевский, Никита Гурьев и
др. Драма.
Пусть я умру, господи... СССР, 1988. Режиссер Борис Григорьев. Сценарист Галина
Щербакова. Актеры: Галина Польских, Иван Лапиков, Елена Морозова, Игорь Ледогоров,
Лидия Федосеева-Шукшина, Леонид Куравлёв и др. Драма.
Работа над ошибками. СССР, 1988. Режиссер Андрей Бенкендорф. Сценарист
Владимир Холодов (автор одноименной повести – Ю. Поляков). Актеры: Евгений Князев,
Оксана Дроздова, Елена Чухалёнок и др. Драма.
Стукач. СССР, 1988. Режиссер и сценарист Николай Лырчиков. Актеры: Артем
Тынкасов, Александр Феклистов, Аркадий Левин, Виктор Павлюченков, Владимир Стеклов,
Игорь Дмитриев и др. Драма.
Шут. СССР, 1988. Режиссер Андрей Эшпай. Сценарист и автор одноименной повести
Юрий Вяземский. Актеры: Дмитрий Весенский, Мария Маевская, Игорь Костолевский и др.
Драма.
Щенок. СССР, 1988. Режиссер Александр Гришин. Сценарист Юрий Щекочихин.
Актеры: Сергей Роженцев, Федор Гаврилов, Владимир Шевельков, Вениамин Смехов,
Всеволод Сафонов и др. Драма.
1989
Авария – дочь мента. СССР, 1989. Режиссёр Михаил Туманишвили. Сценарист
145
Юрий Коротков. Актеры: Оксана Арбузова, Владимир Ильин, Анастасия Вознесенская,

Николай Пастухов, Борис Романов, Игорь Нефёдов и др. Драма.
Астенический синдром. СССР, 1989. Режиссер Кира Муратова. Сценаристы: Кира
Муратова, Сергей Попов, Александр Черных. Актеры: Ольга Антонова, Сергей Попов,
Галина Захурдаева, Наталья Бузько, Александра Свенская, Павел Полищук (II), Наталья
Раллева, Галина Касперович, Виктор Аристов и др. Драма.
Казенный дом. СССР, 1989. Режиссёр Альберт Мкртчян. Автор сценария Михаил
Кончакивский. Актеры: Галина Польских, Нина Русланова, Алёша Сергиевский, Алёша
Колесов, Павел Гайдученко и др. Драма.
Князь Удача Андреевич. СССР, 1989. Режиссер Геннадий Байсак. Сценарист
Валерий Приемыхов. Актеры: Евгений Пивоваров, Дмитрий Головин, Светлана Крючкова,
Виктор Павлов, Армен Джигарханян, Станислав Садальский и др. Детектив.
Мир в другом измерении. СССР, 1989. Режиссеры: Михаил Кончакивский,
Альберт Мкртчян. Сценаристы: Михаил Кончакивский, Елена Ласкарева. Актеры: Алеша
Колесов, Иван Бортник, Владимир Кукушкин, Александра Колкунова, Ирина
Мирошниченко, Нина Русланова, Галина Польских, Владимир Ильин, Владимир Самойлов
Поджигатели. СССР, 1989. Режиссер Александр Сурин. Сценарист Алла
Криницына. Актеры: Наталья Федотова, Елена Сидорук, Лариса Осипова, Елена Крючкова,
Виктория Князева и др. Драма.
1990
Сообщница. СССР, 1990. Режиссер Владимир Опенышев. Сценарист Нина
Филиппова. Актеры: Юлия Тархова, Александр Баширов, Сергей Быстрицкий и др. Драма.
СЭР. СССР, 1989. Режиссер и сценарист Сергей Бодров (ст.). Актеры: Володя
Козырев, Светлана Гайтан, Александр Буреев и др. Драма.
Это было у моря. СССР, 1989. Режиссер Аян Шахмалиева. Сценарист Елена
Лобачевская. Актеры: Нина Русланова, Светлана Крючкова, Ника Турбина, Катя Политова и
др. Драма.
Сделано в СССР. СССР, 1990. Режиссеры: Владимир Шамшурин, Святослав
Тараховский. Сценарист Святослав Тараховский. Актеры: Армен Джигарханян, Оксана
Арбузова, Кирилл Белевич, Александра Фомичёва, Алла Клюка, Вера Панасенкова, Леонид
Куравлёв, Эдуард Марцевич, Валентина Теличкина и др. Драма.
Хомо новус. СССР, 1990. Режиссер Пал Эрдёш. Сценарист Зоя Кудря. Актеры:
Ирина Купченко, Георгий Тараторкин, Анна Баженова, Римма Маркова и др. Драма.
1991
Милый Эп. СССР, 1991. Режиссер Олег Фомин. Сценарист и автор одноименной
повести Геннадий Михасенко. Актеры: Михаил Палатник, Инна Хрулёва, Игорь Юраш,
Александр Стриженов, Ирина Рябцева и др. Драма.
Окно. СССР, 1991. Режиссеры Гасан Аблуч, Энвер Аблуч. Сценарист Иси Мелик-заде.
Актеры: Ильхам Бабаев, Валех Керимов, Яшар Нури и др. Драма.
Фильмография российских фильмов (включая сериалы) о школе и вузе
1992-2017
1993
Равноправие. Россия, 1993. Режиссер Сергей Багиров. Сценарист Александр
Детков. Актеры: Наталья Карпунина и др. Драма.
Рыпкина любовь. Россия, 1993. Режиссёр: Сергей Багиров. В ролях: Костя Курас,
Олег Абрамов, Павел Евсеев, Оксана Шевченко и др. Комедия.
1994
АБВГД Ltd Россия, 1992-1994. Сценаристы: Михаил Васильев, Константин
146
Наумочкин, Олег Осипов, Алексей Овчинников. Актеры:Антон Табаков, Роман Рябов,

Авангард Леонтьев, Мария Порошина, Ярослав Бойко, Гоша Куценко и др. Комедия.
1995
Какая чудная игра. Россия, 1995. Режиссер и сценарист Пётр Тодоровский.
Актеры: Андрей Ильин, Геннадий Назаров, Денис Константинов, Геннадий Митник, Елена
Яковлева, Лариса Удовиченко, Николай Бурляев, Юрий Кузнецов, Алексей Золотницкий,
Дмитрий Марьянов, Мария Шукшина и др. Драма.
1996
Экзамены. Россия, 1996. Режиссер и сценарист Дмитрий Панченко. Актеры:
Георгий Предвечнов, Георгий Бутусов, Виталий Бурятинский и др. Драма.
1997
Американка. Россия, 1997. Режиссер Дмитрий Месхиев. Сценарист Юрий
Коротков. Актеры: Сергей Васильев, Наталья Данилова, Нина Усатова, Виктор Бычков,
Юрий Кузнецов, Алиса Гребенщикова и др. Мелодрама.
Змеиный источник. Россия, 1997. Режиссер и сценарист Николай Лебедев.
Актеры: Екатерина Гусева, Ольга Остроумова, Евгений Миронов и др. Триллер.
2000
Нежный возраст. Россия, 2000. Режиссер Сергей Соловьев. Сценаристы: Дмитрий
Соловьев, Сергей Соловьев. Актеры: Дмитрий Соловьев, Елена Камаева, Ольга Сидорова,
Людмила Савельева, Кирилл Лавров, Сергей Гармаш, Андрей Панин, Валентин Гафт и др.
Драма.
2001
Московские окна. Россия, 2001. Режиссер Александр Аравин. Сценаристы:
Константин Наумочкин, Алексей Каранович, Игорь Осипов, Алексей Овчинников, Сергей
Кобцев, Алексей Поярков, Владимир Неклюдов, Дмитрий Руковишников, Владимир
Смирных. Актеры: Анна Арланова, Марина Могилевская, Игорь Бочкин, Елена Аминова,
Ксения Алфёрова, Илья Древнов, Николай Чиндяйкин, Елена Финогеева, Игорь Петренко и
др. Мелодрама.
Общага. Россия, 2001. Режиссер Борис Берзнер. Актеры: Владимир Гусев (II),
Наталья Карпунина, Юрий Круглов, Максим Лагашкин и др. Комедия.
2002
Займемся любовью. Россия, 2002. Режиссер Денис Евстигнеев. Сценарист Ариф
Алиев. Актеры: Кирилл Малов, Евгений Цыганов, Ульяна Лукина, Андрей Новиков, Иван
Кокорин и др. Драма.
Королева красоты, или Очень трудное детство. Россия, 2002. Режиссеры:
Игорь Ахмедов, Борис Чертков. Сценарист Игорь Ахмедов. Актеры: Женя Горбунов, Дарья
Сазонова, Александр Королёв, Александр Белявский, Елена Кондулайнен и др. Комедия.
Пер-р-р-вокурсница. Россия, 2002. Режиссер и сценарист Юрий Рогозин. Актеры:
Мария Шалаева, Дмитрий Шевченко, Юрий Данильченко и др. Комедия.
Театральная академия. Россия, 2002. Режиссеры: Александр Замятин, Вадим
Шмелев. Сценаристы: Александр Бачило, Родион Белецкий, Дмитрий Курилов, Юрий
Солодов, Вадим Шмелев. Актеры: Денис Никифоров, Ольга Битюцкая, Михаил Богдасаров,
Игорь Верник, Эммануил Виторган и др. Комедия.
2003
Весёлая компания. Россия, 2003. Режиссер Владимир Тихий. Сценаристы: Олег
Зима, Георгий Конн, Александра Смилянская, Армен Ватьян. Актеры: Олег Мосалев,
Евгений Сиротин, Артём Мазунов, Екатерина Лыкова, Эммануил Виторган, Александр
Лыков и др. Комедия.
Простые истины. Россия, 1999-2003. Режиссеры: Вадим Шмелев, Евгений
147
Старков, Александр Замятин, Юрий Беленький. Сценаристы: Юрий Беленький, Марк Левин,
Вадим Шмелев и др. Актеры: Борис Невзоров, Елена Фатюшина, Наталья Чернявская,
Антонина Венедиктова, Анна Исайкина, Ольга Будина и др. Драма.
2004
Кадеты. Россия, 2004. Режиссер Сергей Артимович. Сценарист Игорь Евсюков.
Актеры: Александр Головин, Аристарх Венес, Алексей Мерзлов и др. Драма.
Курсанты. Россия, 2004. Режиссер Андрей Кавун. Сценарист Зоя Кудря. Актеры:
Андрей Чадов, Иван Стебунов, Александр Голубев, Алексей Горбунов, Елена Ксенофонтова,
Владимир Вдовиченков, Игорь Петренко, Андрей Мерзликин и др. Драма.
Ночь светла. Россия - Украина, 2004. Режиссер Роман Балаян. Сценаристы:
Рустам Ибрагимбеков, Роман Балаян. Актеры: Андрей Кузичёв, Алексей Панин, Ольга
Сутулова, Ирина Купченко, Владимир Гостюхин и др. Мелодрама.
Вовочка. Россия, 2000-2004. Режиссер и сценарист Андрей Максимков. Актеры:
Игорь Качанов, Виктория Корхина, Вадим Гущин, Татьяна Иванова и др. Комедия.
2005
ОБЖ. Россия, 2000-2005. Режиссеры: Антон Азаров, Максим Демченко, Максим
Кубринский, Алексей Волынский, Антон Духовской, Полина Бахаревская, Павел Симонов,
Дмитрий Петрушков. Сценаристы: Антон Зинченко, Вячеслав Лейкин, Антон Духовской,
Татьяна Григорченкова, Иван Милов, Сергей Дмитриев. Актеры: Антон Азаров, Анна
Виноградова, Леандра Кудряшова и др. Комедия.
Студенты-1 Россия, 2005. Режиссер Ольга Перуновская. Сценаристы: Вячеслав
Дусмухаметов, Виталий Коломиец и др. Актеры: Евгений Кулаков, Сергей Рудзевич, Алексей
Янин, Дарья Лузина, Юрий Кузнецов, Владимир Стержаков, Дмитрий Марьянов и др.
Комедия.
Тронутые. Россия, 2005. Режиссер Анатолий Газиев. Сценаристы: Анатолий Газиев,
Дмитрий Заболотских. Актеры: Дмитрий Паламарчук, Валентин Захаров, Виталий Исаков,
Сергей Барковский и др. Комедия.
2006
Большие девочки. Россия, 2006. Режиссеры: Александр Назаров (II), Роман
Самгин, Эдуард Ливнев. Сценаристы: Ольга Данилова, Сергей Борзунов, Вадим Голованов,
Константин Наумочкин, Иван Филиппов, Алексей Гордовский, Роман Романов (III), Михаил
Васильев (II), Наталья Заякина. Актеры: Ольга Остроумова, Валентина Теличкина, Галина
Петрова и др. Комедия.
Студенты-2. Россия, 2006. Режиссер Ольга Перуновская. Сценаристы: Роман
Романов, Алекс Легат, Василий Иванов и др. Актеры: Ивар Калныньш, Владимир
Стержаков, Михаил Мамаев и др. Комедия.
Студенты International. Россия, 2006. Режиссер Ольга Перуновская. Сценаристы:
Виталий Шляппо, Вячеслав Дусмухаметов, Алексей Троцюк и др. Актеры: Евгений Кулаков,
Евгения Волкова, Алексей Лонгин, Юлия Зимина, Александр Пальчиков, Валерий
Золотухин, Александр Панкратов-Чёрный, Владимир Стержаков, Эвелина Блёданс и др.
Комедия.
2007
Исчезнувшая империя (Любовь в СССР). Россия, 2007. Режиссер Карен
Шахназаров. Сценаристы: Сергей Рокотов, Евгений Никишов. Актеры: Александр Ляпин,
Лидия Милюзина, Егор Барановский, Иван Купреенко, Армен Джигарханян, Ольга
Тумайкина, Владимир Ильин и др. Драма.
Кадетство. Россия, 2006-2007. Режиссеры: Сергей Арланов, Валентин Козловский,
Павел Игнатов и др. Сценаристы: Леонид Купридо, Александр Булынко, Сергей Олехник и
др. Актеры: Александр Головин, Борис Корчевников, Иван Добронравов и др. Комедия.
Потапов, к доске! Россия, 2007. Режиссер Александр Орлов. Сценаристы: Тамара
Крюкова, Александр Орлов, Сергей Тарасов. Актеры: Александр Олейников, Виталий
Кулаков, Мария Фомина, Валерия Хардина, Лия Ахеджакова и др. Комедия.
148
Своя команда. Россия, 2007. Режиссеры: Дмитрий Панченко, Виктория Орлова,

Эдуард Ливнев. Сценаристы: Кирилл Керзок, Дмитрий Щербаков, Елена Имамова, Дмитрий
Курилов, Татьяна Малахова, Елена Романенко, Михаил Щедринский, Михаил Беленький,
Татьяна Глущенко, Мария Крашенинникова. Актеры: Вячеслав Кулаков, Анастасия
Шеховцова, Ирина Цывина и др. Драма.
Учитель в законе. Россия, 2007. Режиссер Александр Мохов. Сценаристы: Алексей
Подосенов, Александр Мохов. Актеры: Юрий Беляев, Наталия Вдовина, Кристина
Бабушкина и др. Драма.
Школа № 1. Россия, 2007. Режиссеры: Кирилл Белевич, Гюзель Султанова.
Сценарист
Елена Воробей. Актеры: Артём Крестников, Сергей Назаров, Мария Костикова, Янина
Студилина, Лана Щербакова и др. Драматическая комедия.
2008
Взрослая жизнь девчонки Полины Субботиной. Россия, 2008. Режиссер
Александр Сурин. Сценарист Алла Криницына. Актеры: Любовь Тихомирова, Елизавета
Арзамасова, Алексей Кравченко и др. Драма.
Взрослые игры. Россия, 2008. Режиссеры: Юрий Ильин, Юлия Морева, Юрий
Дружинин. Сценаристы: Елена Ласкарева, Алена Головаш, Анастасия Волкова, Инна
Вознюк, Юлия Миланович, Елена Медведева. Актеры: Мария Климова, Степан Старчиков,
Екатерина Кабак, Олег Морозов и др. Мелодрама.
Все умрут, а я останусь. Россия, 2008. Режиссер Валерия Гай Германика.
Сценаристы: Александр Родионов, Юрий Клавдиев. Актеры: Полина Филоненко, Агния
Кузнецова, Ольга Шувалова, Юлия Александрова, Донатас Грудович и др. Драма.
Приколы на переменке. Россия, 2007-2008. Режиссеры: Виктор Рудниченко,
Игорь Широков. Сценаристы: Яна Тюльпанова, Игорь Брусенцев. Актеры: Глеб Шевчук,
Василий Ракша, Владислав Демидов, Джеймс Бэглоу и др. Комедия.
Розыгрыш. Россия, 2008. Режиссер Андрей Кудиненко. Сценаристы: Александр
Качан, Андрей Житков. Актеры: Юрий Кузнецов, Ирина Купченко, Дмитрий Дюжев,
Дмитрий Харатьян, Евдокия Германова и др. Комедия.
Стиляги. Россия, 2008. Режиссер Валерий Тодоровский. Сценарист Юрий
Коротков. Актеры: Антон Шагин, Оксана Акиньшина, Евгения Брик, Максим Матвеев,
Екатерина Вилкова, Сергей Гармаш, Олег Янковский, Ирина Розанова, Леонид Ярмольник,
Алексей Горбунов и др. Музыкальная драма.
Юленька. Россия, 2008. Режиссер Александр Стриженов. Сценаристы: Андрей
Курейчик, Григорий Подземельный, Валентин Спиридонов. Актеры: Дарья Балабанова,
Марат Башаров, Оксана Лаврентьева, Александра Дыхне, Ирина Купченко и др.
Мистический триллер.
2009
Барвиха. Россия, 2009. Режиссер Евгений Лаврентьев. Сценаристы: Шура Никитин,
Александр Чалдранян, Илья Артибилов и др. Актеры: Лянка Грыу, Марина Орлова, Анна
Михайловская, Анна Хилькевич, Елена Меркулова и др. Драма.
Крыша. Россия, 2009. Режиссер Борис Грачевский. Сценаристы: Ирина Бурденкова,
Борис Грачевский. Актеры: Софья Ардова, Мария Белова, Анфиса Черных, Мария
Шукшина, Валерий Гаркалин и др. Драма.
Чучуло-2. Россия, 2009. Режиссер Сергей Кузнецов. Сценарист Галина Арбузова
(автор повести «Чучело 2, или Игра мотыльков» - В. Железников). Актеры: Елизавета
Бирюкова, Василий Ракша, Полина Дядюх, Алёна Бабенко, Алексей Булдаков, Владислав
Ветров и др. Драма.
2010
Детям до 16… Россия, 2010. Режиссер Андрей Кавун. Актеры: Лянка Грыу, Анна
Старшенбаум, Павел Прилучный, Дмитрий Кубасов, Родион Долгирев, Алексей Горбунов,
Ирина Мерцалова, Алексей Шевченков, Ольга Хохлова, Валерий Тодоровский и др.
Мелодрама.
149
Кремлёвские курсанты. Россия, 2009-2010. Режиссеры: Валентин Козловский,

Дмитрий Чирков. Сценаристы: Леонид Купридо, Андрей Чивурин, Александр Кушнаренко,
Валентин Иванов и др. Актеры: Денис Береснев, Павел Бессонов, Аристарх Венес и др.
Драма.
Старшеклассники. Россия, 2006-2010. Режиссеры: Ядвига Закржевская, Петр
Смирнов, Павел Симонов, Татьяна Симонова, Галина Муртазина, Каролина Кубринская,
Полина Бахаревская, Валентина Мозолькова, Денис Шибаев, Михаил Смирнов, Олег
Тищенко. Сценаристы: Петр Смирнов, Мария Ошмянская, Антон Зинченко, Петр Внуков,
Анна Кумачева, Иван Милов, Александра Лусникова, Светлана Сивак, Дамир Салимзянов,
Михаил Годин. Актеры: Артём Анчуков, Полина Бахаревская, Александр Бахаревский,
Наталья Бахматова и др. Драма.
Ранетки. Россия, 2008-2010. Режиссеры: Сергей Арланов, Валентин Козловский,
Карен Захаров, Олег Смольников, Андрей Головков. Сценаристы: Татиана Донская, Ольга
Шевченко, Наталья Назарова и др. Актеры: Анна Руднева, Наталья Мильниченко, Евгения
Огурцова, Валерия Козлова и др. Музыкальная комедия.
Школа. Россия, 2010. Режиссеры: Валерия Гай Германика, Руслан Маликов,
Наталия Мещанинова. Сценаристы: Наталья Ворожбит, Нелли Высоцкая, Вячеслав
Дурненков, Юрий Клавдиев, Иван Угаров, Ольга Ларионова. Актеры: Алексей Литвиненко,
Валентина Лукащук, Анна Шепелева, Наталья Терешкова, Игорь Огурцов, Анатолий
Семёнов, Елена Папанова, Александра Ребенок, Наталья Сапецкая и др. Драма.
2011
Белая ворона. Россия, 2011. Режиссер Сергей Быстрицкий. Сценарист Альжбета
Горицвет. Актеры: Глафира Тарханова, Иван Жидков, Александр Лойе и др. Мелодрама.
Золотые. (Барвиха-2). Россия, 2011. Режиссеры: Михаил Соловьёв, Владислав
Каптур. Сценаристы: Елена Любарская, Григорий Зельцер. Актеры: Лянка Грыу, Наталья
Бардо, Марина Орлова, Анна Михайловская, Андрей Дементьев, Артём Волков, Равшана
Куркова, Анна Хилькевич, Елена Меркулова и др. Драма.
Папины дочки. Россия, 2007-2011. Режиссеры: Сергей Алдонин, Ирина Васильева
(II), Александр Жигалкин, Валентин Козловский, Эдуард Радзюкевич, Иван Агапов, Олег
Смольников, Карен Захаров. Сценаристы: Вячеслав Дусмухаметов, Алексей Троцюк,
Виталий Шляппо, Илья Полежайкин, Андрей Дерьков, Александр Гаврильчик, Аскар
Бисембин, Денис Хорошун. Актеры: Андрей Леонов, Ольга Волкова, Мирослава Карпович,
Анастасия Сиваева, Елизавета Арзамасова и др. Комедия.
Универ. Россия, 2008-2011. Режиссеры: Пётр Точилин, Иван Китаев, Роман
Самгин, Жанна Кадникова. Сценаристы: Вячеслав Дусмухаметов, Семён Слепаков, Илья
Полежайкин, Максим Пешков и др. Актеры: Андрей Гайдулян, Валентина Рубцова, Виталий
Гогунский, Мария Кожевникова и др. Комедия.
Институт благородных девиц. Россия, 2010-2011. Режиссеры: Леонид
Белозорович, Сергей Данелян, Юрий Попович, Ольга Грекова, Сахат Дурсунов, Валерий
Рожко, Александр Зеленков. Сценаристы: Юрий Беленький, Елена Ласкарева, Анастасия
Волкова, Сергей Кушнир и др. Актеры: Алиса Сапегина, Александр Арсентьев, Иван
Колесников, Ксения Хаирова и др. Драма.
Физика или химия. Россия, 2011. Режиссер Рамиль Сабитов. Сценарист Василий
Павлов. Актеры: Любовь Германова, Александр Смирнов, Виктория Полторак, Мария
Викторова, Анна Невская и др. Мелодрама.
2012
День учителя. Россия, 2012. Режиссер и сценарист Сергей Мокрицкий. Актеры:
Анатолий Кот, Светлана Немоляева, Ирина Рахманова, Людмила Титова и др. Комедия.
Закрытая школа. Россия, 2011-2012. Режиссёры: Олег Асадулин, Константин
Статский, Антон Новосельцев, Константин Максимов, Марк Горобец, Андрей Записов,
Александр Зеленков, Сергей Пищиков. Сценаристы: Алла Максименко, Лусинэ Мартиросян,
Оксана Васина и др. Актеры: Антон Хабаров, Татьяна Васильева, Павел Прилучный, Алексей
Коряков и др. Мистический триллер.
После школы. Россия-Эстония, 2012. Режиссеры: Андрей Болтенко, Владимир
150
Пресняков, Олег Пресняков. Сценаристы: Владимир Пресняков, Олег Пресняков. Актеры:

Сергей Шакуров, Михаил Пореченков, Михаил Трухин, Ксения Раппопорт, Александр
Гордон, Анна Михалкова и др. Музыкальная комедия.
Частное пионерское. Россия, 2012. Режиссер Александр Карпиловский.
Сценаристы: Алексей Бородачёв, Александр Карпиловский, Татьяна Мирошник. Актеры:
Семён Трескунов, Егор Клинаев, Анфиса Вистингаузен, Юлия Рутберг, Светлана Иванова,
Владимир Зайцев, Ирина Линдт, Раиса Рязанова, Роман Мадянов и др. Драматическая
комедия.
2013
Географ глобус пропил. Россия, 2013. Режиссер Александр Велединский.
Сценаристы: Александр Велединский, Валерий Тодоровский, Рауф Кубаев (автор
одноименного романа – Алексей Иванов). Актеры: Константин Хабенский, Елена Лядова,
Александр Робак, Евгения Брик, Анна Уколова, Агриппина Стеклова и др. Драма.
И шарик вернётся. Россия, 2013. Режиссер Валерий Девятилов. Сценаристы: Анна
Аносова, Лариса Леоненко. Актеры: Татьяна Космачёва, Екатерина Травова, Полина
Филоненко и др. Мелодрама.
Тайны института благородных девиц. Россия, 2013. Режиссеры: Сергей
Данелян, Сахат Дурсунов, Александр И. Строев, Бата Недич. Сценаристы: Михаил
Беленький, Юрий Беленький, Виталий Полосухин, Сергей Кушнир и др. Актеры: Алиса
Сапегина, Алёна Созинова, Полина Беленькая и др. Драма.
Универ: день открытых дверей. Россия, 2013. Режиссер Роман Новиков. Актеры:
Анна Кузина, Роман Петренко, Александр Дулерайн, Арарат Кещян, Илья Полежайкин,
Юлия Галиченко и др. Комедия.
Учитель в законе. Возвращение. Россия, 2013. Режиссеры: Сергей Виноградов,
Рустам Уразаев. Сценаристы: Василий Игерин, Андрей Тартаков. Актеры: Юрий Беляев,
Сергей Векслер, Наталия Антонова, Олеся Судзиловская, Владимир Стеклов и др. Драма.
Цена любви. Россия, 2013. Режиссер Александр Хван. Сценарист Мария Никитина.
Актеры: Анна Невская, Юрий Батурин, Анастасия Матвеева и др. Мелодрама.
2014
Анжелика. Россия, 2014. Режиссеры: Радда Новикова, Антон Федотов, Валерия
Ивановская, Антон Маслов. Сценаристы: Ирина Журавлёва, Денис Остапчук, Денис Ворочай
и др. Актеры: Анжелика Каширина, Ксения Теплова, Мария Баева, Любовь Толкалина и др.
Комедия.
Выпускной. Россия, 2014. Режиссер Всеволод Бродский. Сценаристы: Александр
Незлобин, Сергей Светлаков, Илья Бурец, Дмитрий Нелидов, Тимофей Зайцев. Актеры:
Виктор Грудев, Кристина Исайкина, Ольга Хохлова, Сергей Бурунов и др. Комедия.
Дневник мамы первоклассника. Россия, 2014. Режиссер Андрей Силкин.
Сценарист Мария Зверева (автор повести – М. Трауб). Актеры: Светлана Ходченкова, Дима
Полунин, Дмитрий Ендальцев и др. Мелодрама.
Класс коррекции. Россия, 2014. Режиссер Иван Твердовский. Сценаристы: Иван
Твердовский, Мария Бородянская, Дмитрий Ланчихин (по одноименной книге
Е. Мурашовой). Актеры: Мария Поезжаева, Филипп Авдеев, Никита Кукушкин, Артём
Маркарьян, Ирина Вилкова и др. Драма.
Мальчики + девочки. Россия, 2014. Режиссер Евгений Соколов. Сценарист
Евгений Фролов. Актеры: Артём Минин, Влада Лукина, Наталья Меньшова, Андрей
Максимов и др. Драма.
Овечка Долли была злая и рано умерла. Россия, 2014. Режиссер Алексей
Пиманов. Сценаристы: Галина Сальгарелли, Елена Серова, Алексей Пиманов. Актеры:
Данила Шевченко, Юлия Савичева, Виктор Сухоруков и др. Фантастика.
Семицветик. Россия, 2014. Режиссер Елизавета Трусевич. Сценаристы: Дмитрий
Полищук, Елизавета Трусевич. Актеры: Светлана Немоляева, Иван Оранский, Анна Потебня
Учителя. Россия, 2014. Режиссер Вардан Акопян. Сценаристы: Ольга Ларионова,
Яна Райская, Юлия Разумовская. Актеры: Марк Богатырёв, Ольга Красько, Ирина Розанова
151
Я не вернусь. Россия – Эстония – Финляндия, 2014. Режиссер Ильмар Рааг.
Сценаристы: Ярослава Пулинович, Олег Газе. Актеры: Полина Пушкарук, Виктория
Лобачева, Андрей Астраханцев и др. Драма.
2015
Клинч. Россия, 2015. Режиссер Сергей Пускепалис. Сценаристы: Алексей
Слаповский, Сергей Пускепалис. Актеры: Алексей Серебряков, Ася Домская, Агриппина
Стеклова и др. Драма.
Призрак. Россия, 2015. Режиссер Александр Войтинский. Сценаристы: Олег
Маловичко, Андрей Золотарев. Актеры: Фёдор Бондарчук, Семён Трескунов, Ян Цапник,
Игорь Угольников и др. Мистическая комедия.
Работа над ошибками. Россия, 2015. Режиссер Сергей Гиргель. Сценарист
Екатерина Андерсон. Актеры: Ольга Бурлакова, Александр Никитин, Вера Полякова,
Александр Душечкин и др. Мелодрама.
Сельский учитель. Россия, 2015. Режиссер Дмитрий Сорокин. Сценаристы:
Анастасия Экарева, Кира Худолей. Актеры: Артём Семакин, Ирина Таранник, Юлия
Кокрятская и др. Драма.
Училка. Россия, 2015. Режиссер Алексей Петрухин. Сценаристы: Екатерина Асмус,
Алексей Петрухин. Актеры: Ирина Купченко, Анна Чурина, Андрей Мерзликин, Роза
Хайруллина, Алиса Гребенщикова, Ольга Егорова, Алексей Огурцов и др. Драма.
Частное пионерское. Ура, каникулы!!! (Частное пионерское -2). Россия,
2015. Режиссер Александр Карпиловский. Сценаристы: Олег Сироткин, Алла Гусева,
Марина Шихалеева, Александр Карпиловский Татьяна Мирошник. Актеры: Семён
Трескунов, Егор Клинаев, Анфиса Вистингаузен, Василий Мищенко и др. Комедия.
14+ Россия, 2015. Режиссер и сценарист Андрей Зайцев. Актеры: Глеб Калюжный,
Ульяна Васькович, Ольга Озоллапиня, Дмитрий Блохин, Ирина Фролова, Шандор Беркеши,
Дмитрий Баринов и др. Мелодрама.
Я – учитель. Россия, 2015. Режиссер Сергей Мокрицкий. Сценарист Алексей
Бородачёв.
Актеры: Александр Ковтунец, Юлия Пересильд, Андрей Смоляков и др. Драма.
2016
Два отца и два сына. Россия, 2013-2016. Режиссер: Радда Новикова. Сценаристы:
Александр Трофимов, Сергей Сазонов, Василий Смолин, Сергей Лебедев, Алексей Акимов,
Станислав Гунько, Александр Завгородний, Александр Касьянов, Сергей Баронов. Актеры:
Дмитрий Нагиев, Максим Студеновский, Илья Костюков, Виктория Лукина, Анна Якунина,
Галина Петрова, Алика Смехова и др. Комедия.
Любимая учительница. Россия – Украина, 2016. Режиссер Леонид Белозорович.
Сценаристы: Мария Бек, Елена Бойко. Актеры: Алина Сергеева, Олег Гаас, Ольга Радчук,
Алена Узлюк и др. Драма.
Первокурсница. Россия, 2016. Режиссер Валерия Ивановская. Сценаристы:
Евгений Куратов, Вадим Фоминых. Актеры: Анна Тараторкина, Екатерина Симаходская,
Алексей Анищенко, Аристарх Венес и др. Мелодрама.
Универ: новая общага. Россия, 2011-2016. Режиссеры: Рустам Мосафир,
Константин Смирнов, Максим Зыков, Тимофей Шоталов. Сценаристы: Евгений Соболев,
Антон Колбасов, Максим Вахитов, Юлия Галиченко, Илья Полежайкин и др. Актеры:
Виталий Гогунский, Арарат Кещян, Станислав Ярушин, Анна Кузина, Настасья Самбурская,
Анна Хилькевич и др. Комедия.
Ученик. Россия, 2016. Режиссер Кирилл Серебренников. Сценаристы: Кирилл
Серебренников, Мариус фон Майенбург. Актеры: Виктория Исакова, Пётр Скворцов,
Александр Горчилин, Юлия Ауг и др. Драма.
Учитель в законе. Схватка. Россия, 2016. Режиссеры: Борис Казаков, Александр
Калугин. Сценаристы: Камиль Закиров, Виктор Михеев. Актеры: Юрий Беляев, Игорь
Миркурбанов, Александра Флоринская, Юрий Цурило и др. Драма.
Физрук. Россия, 2014-2016. Режиссеры: Сергей Сенцов, Фёдор Стуков, Дмитрий
152
Губарев. Сценаристы: Константин Майер, Александр Вялых, Ксения Воронина, Михаил

Чистов, Алексей Ляпичев и др. Актеры: Дмитрий Нагиев, Александр Гордон, Полина Гренц,
Анастасия Панина и др. Комедия.
Хороший мальчик. Россия, 2016. Режиссер Оксана Карас. Сценаристы: Михаил
Местецкий, Оксана Карас, Роман Кантор. Актеры: Семён Трескунов, Анастасия Богатырева,
Василий Буткевич, Михаил Ефремов, Иева Андреевайте, Константин Хабенский, Ирина
Денисова, Татьяна Догилева, Ирина Пегова и др. Комедия.
2017
Реальные пацаны. Россия, 2010-2017. Режиссер Жанна Кадникова. Сценаристы:
Антон Зайцев, Жанна Кадникова, Максим Филипьев, Юрий Овчинников, Денис Шенин.
Актеры: Николай Наумов, Зоя Бербер, Антон Богданов, Владимир Селиванов, Станислав
Тляшев, Мария Скорницкая, Валентина Мазунина и др. Комедия.
Притяжение. Россия, 2017. Режиссер Фёдор Бондарчук. Сценаристы: Олег
Маловичко, Андрей Золотарев. Актеры: Ирина Старшенбаум, Олег Меньшиков, Александр
Петров, Никита Кукушкин и др. Фантастика.
Филфак. Россия, 2017. Режиссер Фёдор Стуков. Актеры: Денис Парамонов, Алексей
Золотовицкий, Василий Поспелов, Ефим Шифрин, Александра Бортич, Алексей
Литвиненко и др. Комедия.
Спасти Пушкина. Россия, 2017. Режиссер Филипп Коршунов. Сценарист Елена
Исаева.
Актеры: Константин Крюков, Ирина Крутик, Алексей Лукин и др. Комедия.
Частное пионерское – 3. Россия, 2017. Режиссер Александр Карпиловский.
Сценаристы:
Олег Сироткин, Алла Максименко, Александр Карпиловский. Актеры: Семён
Трескунов, Егор Клинаев, Анфиса Вистингаузен, Олег Блинов и др. Комедия.
(Составитель фильмографии: Александр Федоров)
153

The Problems of Contemporary Education

Directions, Objectives, and Author's Concepts
of Audiovisual Media Interp....
Article · September 2017

DOI: 10.13187/ejced.2017.3.516
CITATIONS READS
0 94

Russian Science Foundation (RSF). Project 17-18-01001 “School and university in the mirror of the
Soviet, Russian and Western audiovisual media texts View project
Modern Russian Language: problem of standard and ecology View project
All content following this page was uploaded by Alexander Fedorov on 12 September 2017.

Copyright © 2017 by Academic Publishing

House Researcher s.r.o.
ISSN 2304-9650
E-ISSN 2305-6746
2017, 6(3): 516-529
DOI: 10.13187/ejced.2017.3.516
www.ejournal1.com

the basis of international legislation. Using the
hyperlinks to the article is not considered a violation
of copyright.
The Problems of Contemporary Education
Directions, Objectives, and Author's Concepts of Audiovisual Media Interpretations

of School and University Theme in the Soviet Cinema of the "Thaw" Period
(1956–1968)
Alexander Fedorov a , *, Anastasia Levitskaya b, Olga Gorbatkova a, Anvar M. Mamadaliev c

c International Network Center for Fundamental and Applied Research, Russian Federation
Abstract
The "thaw period" films (1956–1968) on the school/university topic can be conditionally
divided into two stages: early (1956–1963) and late "thaw" (1964–1968), although, naturally, there
was a somewhat diffusion between these periods. The "thaw" audiovisual texts about school and
university life, according to the authorities, were to support the main course of the state policy in
the educational and socio-cultural spheres of the time, that is, to show that the Soviet education
and culture system is being reformed: 1) the educational process is out of the strict Stalin's
framework (while retaining general communist landmarks and a rigid anti-religious orientation);
2) the relationship between teachers and students is becoming more democratic, to some extent,
creative, based on the experience of Soviet educators / innovators of the 1920s; 3) there are
problem zones at school and university (for example, the taboo was removed from the previous
interpretation of a Soviet teacher's image as almost an ideal representative of the most educated
part of the people). The first "thaw" stage was more or less characterized by a romantic reliance on
the pedagogical experience of revolutionary Soviet pedagogy of the 1920s and the creation of
touching lyrical stories, where, despite minor difficulties, the harmony of good teachers and,
E-mail addresses: 1954alex@mail.ru (A. Fedorov), a.levitskaya@tmei.ru (A. Levitskaya),
gorbatckova.olga@yandex.ru (O. Gorbatkova)
516
sometimes, flawed and misled at the beginning, but later good students, won. In the course of the
second stage of the "thaw", new tendencies began to manifest themselves more often: on the one
hand, the crisis, the disappointment and fatigue on the part of teachers, and on the other, the
pragmatic cynicism of students.
Keywords: audiovisual text, film, the USSR, school, university, students, pupils, teachers,
cinema.
1. Introduction
In this article, we address the goals, objectives, and author's concepts of audiovisual media
interpretations of school and university in the Soviet cinema of the "thaw" period (1956-1968).
Here, as in our previous work (Fedorov, Levitskaya, Gorbatkova, 2017), relying on the technologies
developed by C. Bazalgette (Bazalgette 1995), A. Silverblatt (Silverblatt, 2001: 80-81), W.J. Potter
(Potter, 2001) and U. Eco (Eco, 1998; 2005: 209), we conduct a general hermeneutic analysis
Soviet feature films, taking into account such key concepts of media education as "media agencies",
"media / media text categories", "media technologies", "media languages", "media representations"
and "media audiences".

The material of our research is comprised of audiovisual media texts on the theme of school
and university. The main method is a comparative hermeneutic analysis of Soviet films of the thaw
era (1956–1968) concerning this subject (including: analysis of stereotypes, ideological analysis,
identification analysis, iconographic analysis, plot analysis, character analysis, etc.). We also review
and analyze books and articles related to school and university in films (Anninsky, 1991; Arcus,
2010; Grigorieva, 2007; Zharikova, 2015; Mitina, 2015; Mykhailin, Belyaeva, 2012; Paramonova,
1975; Pukhachev, 2008; Romanova, 2012; Soloveitchik, 1975; Fedorova, 2012; Shipulina, 2010;
Youngblood, 2012; Prokhorov, 2007, etc.).
3. Discussion
The "thaw" (1956–1968) in the USSR quite significantly changed media interpretations of
school and university. A characteristic feature of the this period was the so-called "return to Lenin's
norms of life," which in practice meant that, politicians tried to take, from their point of view, the
most valuable aspects of the 1920s policy. As for the schools – it meant democracy elements in the
educational process, a certain, albeit constrained by ideology, creative freedom of teachers and
students. As A. Prokhorov aptly notes, films about school in the 1960s reflected the general spirit of
the revived utopianism (Prokhorov, 2007).
In this context, it is interesting to compare two films of the 1960s depicting schools of the
1920s: Beat, the Drum! (1962) and Republic of SHKID (1966).
The first of these films, made during the "early thaw" period, is a mixture of naive (although
perhaps timeserving disguised as "naive") ideas of the authors about the total rightness of the
communist reformers of the school system (young characters organizing the pioneers' community)
and the negative image of the representatives of the old gymnasium (the teacher of mathematics
and the best, well-born students of the class.
The second one, on the contrary, (also somewhat naively, but sincerely) asserts the possibility
of integration of the best representatives of the pre-revolutionary intelligentsia (the principal of
school for orphans named after Dostoevsky – Viktor Nikolayevich Sorokin, nicknamed VikNikSor)
in the process of creating a new school. VikNikSor in the filigree performance by S. Jursky is "a
great idealist and utopian. Vikniksor believes that a person is unique, and the collective of unique
people can be an association of creative individuals who do not have to give up themselves and
freedom to be together" (Arcus, 2009).
Both films were shot in black and white for a reason, so that the image on the screen
reminded viewers of the surviving chronicles of the 1920s. However, against the mediocre visual
background of Beat, the Drum!, the picture of the Republic of SHKID was sophisticated and
esthetic, an excellent play of light and shadow referring the audience to the silent film classics.
Equally extraordinary was the film montage. Actors' performance in the Republic of SHKID was
significantly superior to the straightforward interpretation of the characters in Beat, the Drum!
517
As for the use of black and white picture in films depicting schools, in our opinion, it was not
always justified. Of course, the intention of the authors of Beat, the Drum! (1962) and the Republic
of SHKID (1966) to produce films resembling a newsreel from the 1920s is understandable. But
what drove a director to choose to film in black and white a merry satirical comedy "Welcome, or
No Trespassing!"? Most of the other films depicting school and university (Spring in the Riverside
Street, 1956, See You Next Spring, 1960; My Friend, Kolka, 1961; Mishka, Serega and I, 1961; Wild
Dog Dingo, 1962, We Love You, 1962, Come Tomorrow, 1962, Call, open the door, 1965, I Loved
You ... (1967), We'll Live Till Monday, 1968, The Transitional Age, 1968, The Man-to-Man Talk,
1968, etc.) could have been color. Apparently, there are good reasons why in the XXI century with
the help of computer processing (I think, without any damage to the artistic expression), color
versions of the popular films were created – Spring in the Riverside Street (1956) and Come
Tomorrow (1962).
Presumably, Soviet cinematographers of the 1960s were too susceptible to the fashion for the
black-and-white stylistics of the French "new wave" and "cinema-verite", believing that modern
films about schoolchildren should be as close as possible to the "chronicle" image.
The film Mishka, Serega and I (1961) is a vivid example of the school's film interpretation in
the initial phase of the "thaw" period. Two conflicts unfold concurrently: 1) an eighth grade boy
Igor now and then makes mistakes, taking up with punks, then with a selfish and foppish boxing
trainer; 2) a young class teacher cannot establish contact with his eighth grade. In the course of the
film viewers see obvious signs of a deficit of socialist times: a queue to buy a TV is so long that
shoppers have to come daily to register in the waiting list, and builders fail to finish an apartment
house by May 1 without the help of high school children who work there as electrical installers after
school. However, conflicts are resolved by the end of the film: the young teacher becomes
schoolchildren's favourite, and Igor gives his friends the word to be an exemplary Komsomol
member. Notably, before this promise he utters a lofty monologue: "For people like me, there is no
place in communism! But without communism I will not live! ... And without the Komsomol I can
not live!". Most likely, this phrase appeared in the film as a reaction of scriptwriters to the adoption
by the 22nd CPSU Congress (1961) of the Charter of the CPSU, including the Moral Code of the
builder of communism, whose material base was promised to be created by 1980.
By the way, the rhetoric about communism in the thaw films depicting education system
underwent a curious transformation. While in the picture Mishka, Serega and I (1961) these words
sound quite seriously, and the drama about parents and children Big and Small (1963) ends with
pretentious narrative comment: "Why did you not ask yourself: Was I a communist in my family
life?, the film Citizens and Organizations, please note (1965), produced only two years later,
features a high school student who comes up with a device activated by the movement of students
along the school corridor which immediately plays a recording of a cheerful voice: "Stop! Are you
ready to live and work in communism?", shown with an obvious irony. Two years later the authors
of Valentin Kuzyaev's Personal Life (1967) went further: in the key episode of the film, located in
the television studio, the then popular band "Singing Guitars" is performing a cheerful pro-
Communist song with the words: "Do you want to go camping? Yes! Do you want a million? No!",
while the main character, a not very intelligent high school student Kuzyaev listens to it without
any enthusiasm and, contrary to previous school film standards, he never becomes better than he is
by the end of the film.
L. Arcus, in our opinion, very accurately noticed the characteristic feature of the thaw period
films about schoolchildren: in the 1960s, not all of them portrayed a non-conformist character
being corrected under the influence of mentors, peers and parents. For example, in the film My
friend, Kolka! (1961) "there is a class of children. There is a boy standing out of the crowd, Kolka
Snegirev. But this time he is not a renegade and egoist, but on the contrary – a bright individuality,
an artist, a man who searches for truth, and not a form, for real, not imaginary. He requires
breathing from life, and sincerity from the people. He is clearly loved by authors and spectators.
His class wants to help him, get over troubles – but without the intention to change him, to
assimilate with others. They like him the way he is. It's not a fantasy genre, it is a "thaw" period
film with its charming ability of wishful thinking" (Arcus, 2009). The truth is, the film did not
escape from some treacle, especially in a touchingly happy ending, when Kolka, the founder of the
SSoCS (Secret Society of С-Students), deftly defeats carnapers and deserves the gratitude of the
police and a vigorous pioneer song of classmates.
518
Non-standard students with strong personality and subtle inner world were the main
characters in many other school films of the 1960s: Wild Dog Dingo (1962), Call, open the door
(1965), I loved you ... (1967), We'll Live Till Monday (1968), Transitional Age (1968), The Man-to-
Man Talk (1968).
The cinema images of Soviet teachers changed in the thaw period, too. Very important in this
respect is the image of a school teacher from the melodrama Spring in the Riverside Street (1956).
Here, perhaps, for the first time in the Soviet cinema, a story of the student's love for his teacher
appeared. Actually, the authors of the film made sure that there was nothing shocking in this
situation: the love story unfolds within the walls of the evening school, the students of which are
although young, but grown-up people – workers of the metallurgical plant.
Despite the lyrical melodrama of this story, it contained a kind of ideological overtone: in
fact, according to the then ideological doctrine, the working class was "the main component of the
structure of Soviet society, the bearer of knowledge necessary for Soviet people" and therefore
could "teach the teachers (the intelligentsia) what is impossible to learn in any institution: to be a
real Soviet person" (Grigorieva, 2007). And the main character – the teacher of the evening school
Tatiana – is so young and inexperienced, that is really likely to fall in love with a charming Sasha,
her, so-to-speak, "mentor" from the working class. On the other hand, thanks to the talent of the
film's creators, the situation was ambiguous: "in a typical melodrama of the 1930s, Sasha would be
entrusted with saving Tanya from herself, but Spring in the Riverside Street boldly leaves the
question of who has improved who open (Youngblood, 2012: 177).
In the earlier mentioned film My Friend, Kolka! (1961) the previously unshakably positive
image of a teacher / mentor appears in the form of two rival characters: a liberal one and a
conservative one. A conservative is the teacher Lydia Mikhailovna. In fact, she and a chairman of
the pioneer council Valera Novikov "could become the ideal heroes for films in the previous
decades. Always with some unfortunate young character who tore himself away from the collective
and placed own interests above the interests of the class and school, there appeared to a number of
wiser and more reasonable teachers and comrades ready to teach a harsh moral lesson, threatening
to expel from school or exclude from pioneers or Komsomol members . But Lydia Mikhailovna and
Valera Novikov are not portrayed as ideal carriers of collective wisdom" (Artemieva, 2015: 54-55):
an active public figure and an excellent student Valera is a cynical informer, while a teacher is an
avid party functionary (she coordinates all her work with the opinion of the district committee of
the CPSU) and a retrograde.
Liberal vs. conservative pedagogical conflicts arose later in the films My name is Kogea
(1963), Trains go past the windows (1965), We'll live till Monday (1968) and many others.
In particular, in the drama Trains Go by the Windows (1965), the headmaster of a provincial
boarding school, remarkably performed by L. Krugly, at first seems to be a positive democrat and a
wise mentor for children and teens, while a traditional duo of a conservative middle aged school
teacher and a young teacher (a recent graduate of the university) unfolds along. However,
gradually, the image of the ironic headmaster gives away the authoritarian features of a tough,
soulless manager, and he turns out to be much more dangerous for a young heroine than explicit
conservatives.
Seemingly an outspoken conservative and a negative character in the satirical comedy
Welcome, or No Trespassing! (1964) – the principal of the pioneer summer camp Dynin, brilliantly
performed by Y. Evstigneev, is also not so straightforward: he sincerely desires that the institution
entrusted to him is kept in order (though supported by denunciations), so that schoolchildren get
full nutrition (and not chat while eating), play active games (but quietly), bathe in the river (under
supervision and in shallow parts), watch movies in the evenings (but without love episodes).
Another negative image of a teacher, however presented more harshly, appeared in the film
What if it's love? (1961). There's a scandal at school: a strict teacher of the German language gets a
love letter, written by a high school senior Boris addressed to his classmate Ksenia. Ideologically
brought up Maria Pavlovna is certainly very worried: honour and moral standards of Soviet school
are challenged. Thus, due to her interference, relationships of Ksenia and Boris are being discussed
by school faculty, their classmates, parents, and neighbours.
Today the conflict of the film by Y. Raizman What if it's love? seems to be trifle: school
seniors date, so what? However in 1961 things were different. The problem of the first teenage love,
519
that fell under the social pressure, was discussed earnestly in almost all press. In a word, this film
had about the same resonance in the 1960s, as Little Vera in the end of the 1980s.
Sexual motif was, perhaps, the boldest one in the Raizman's film, because strict Stalin's
censorship that ruled in the 1930s-1950s, did not let premarital sexual contacts between school
students (and youth in general) on the screen. It was only in the NEP (New Economic Policy in
Russia in the 1920s) period that Soviet cinema could afford making such a film as A Prostitute
(1927). In the sound Soviet cinema (until the Perestroika), love affairs of young women could only
be depicted in retro period films, such as film adaptation of Leo Tolstoy's (Resurrection) and Panas
Mirny's Hooker, where main characters were young "fallen" women, but action took place,
naturally, during the times of "hated Tsar's regime".
We agree with an opinion that the motif of sexual guilt was born by the Soviet culture's
Puritanism, grounded in the 1930s both socialistically and socially realistically. In the 1960s the
love language was slowly rehabilitated, but the sex language only remains to exist within medical or
obscene vocabularies. According to Maria Pavlovna and Ksenia's mother, sex before marriage is
something catastrophically amoral. "Better" characters (for example, a young teacher) clean Boris
and Ksenia's love of suspicions in "this". The thaw period film criticism followed the same route"
(Romanova, 2012: 192). Sexual context in school films was so important for Soviet society and
state, that it was argued about in the Central Committee of CPSU, in the Ministry of Culture and
The Cinematographers' Union. As a result, the film scene of intimacy between Boris and Ksenia
was cut shorter and voiced over.
Lev Anninsky wrote that "the message of Raizman's film is that he plunged the plot in the
atmosphere of thick everyday life, social force, rigid predetermination, small pinpricks that people
stung, killed the feeling with" (Anninsky, 1991: 82). Iconographic analysis of the drama What if it's
love? reveals its other differences from "thaw" optimism. Black-and-white visual picture distinctly
portrays gloomy ill-provision, as though borrowed from the famous black sequence of Polish
cinema of the late 1950s: black windows of the new, still not inhabited flats, dusty grounds around
apartment buildings, windy emptiness around the new neighbourhood (Romanova, 2012: 194).
Moreover, it turns out that a lot of secondary film characters are united not because of mutual
positive values, but because of their desire to hurt the feelings of vulnerable teens in love.
Surprisingly, a melodrama Story of the First Love (1957), produced 4 years earlier, did not
give rise to such censorship tornado, although it contained such plot twists that in our opinion,
could have shocked the chaste Soviet public: 1) a ninth grader falls in love with his classmate and
he wins her affection, too; 2) a PE teacher openly pesters his pretty student; 3) defending his
girlfriend's honour, the main character courageously fights against an indecent teacher. One has to
agree that no Soviet film about school until the 1980s depicted anything like the second and the
third point. However, unlike Y. Raizman's film, Story of the First Love didn't contain any sexual
scenes, and most importantly, all the plot's rough angles were smoothed by the soft lyricism of a
melodrama, where even the "bad guy" PE teacher sincerely sings a hit song "Why, oh, why, I don't
know, I believed your blue eyes..." The actors' age, performing ninth graders was deliberately
distanced from school: J. Osmolovskaya was 19, K. Stolyarov – 20, and V .Zemlyanikin – 24.
The film made by the end of the thaw period – We'll live till Monday (1968), defined the
authors' understanding of the Soviet school crisis as a model of the state crisis. L. Arcus accurately
points out that a History teacher Melnikov in this drama is a kind of a white crow, an outsider:
"almost invisible ripple of anguish runs through his face: because of ignorance ("There is no such a
verb in the Russian language, my dear, save our ears"), because of vulgarity ("Baratynsky is a poet
of the secondary importance"), of silliness ("Folly should be a fool's private property"), of lies and
profanation of his subject ("Look at the textbook published this year"). In rendering it sounds like
dissidentism, but Tikhonov succeeds most in expressing the state of hopeless torment when he's
silent. It's amazing, what acting school we have lost! There are a lot of close-ups in the film, and
one can write a book about the ways Tikhonov watches. The way he looks at his students: at a poet
Genka Shestopal, he sees himself as if in the mirror; at a cynical handsome guy Batischev – seeing
an eternal opponent. He watches his whole class at the end of the film having a presentiment of
what is going to happen to each of them, and being aware that nothing could be changes. The main
colour of his portrait is ash fatigue" (Arcus, 2009). This having no alternative weariness explains
why a bachelor Melnikov is not in a hurry to return affection of a pretty English teacher, why in
520
spite of his intense longing for a different job, he continues teaching History lessons, subjected to
political climate.
On the other hand, there's something "unprofessional" about Melnikov. He looked at school
as if from the outside, and he taught a lesson as though it was his first day in class and he came
across the emotional deafness of pupils for the first time" (Soloveichik, 1975).
Though his main pedagogical opponent, a Literature teacher Svetlana Mikhailovna is
"limited, teaches her subject "from here to here", dryasdust, self righteous, and avidly follows
instructions, apart from other film teachers in the past, she has neither jolly enthusiasm, nor
fanaticism. Only loneliness and again, fatigue" (Arcus, 2009).
Thus, We'll live till Monday no less than M. Khutsiev's masterpiece July Rain (1966), finely
demonstrated the crisis (or even the collapse) of "thaw" ideals in Soviet intelligentsia, who sharper
than others felt the essence of regressive political, social and cultural tendencies in the USSR.
Nevertheless, the major "thaw" school film, in the allegoric form having depicted the
bureaucratic model of the authoritarian Soviet state, was a bold comedy Welcome, or no
Trespassing! directed by Elem Klimov based on the script by Semyon Lungin and Ilya Nusinov.
Perhaps we can agree with the opinion that the main technique in the film is an oxymoron, a
combination of the incongruous: "the film's title is positioned in the frame as a political satire: the
sign "Welcome" with a shining sun adorns the tightly closed gates of the camp (the most deft,
however, know where you can climb through a hole in the fence). Lower is an peephole with the
suspicious word "or"; and, finally, at the bottom – "No Trespassing"; all together is a typical
example of foreign policy of the socialism times. The word "or" allows one to assume a choice
between both parts of the name, and equate them with the meaning "that is" (Fedorova, 2012: 218).
Soviet censorship, of course, went through this film of E. Klimov with his unwavering
ideological hand, but did not succeed in deciphering the essence of the satirical film text to the full
extent.
For example, many scenes of E. Klimov's film feature a persistent overhead slogan: "Children
are the masters of our camp!", that, on the one hand, caused associations with the state, built by
the camp type, and on the other hand, it hinted at the sheer hypocrisy of using the word "masters"
in it, since in the USSR the real masters of life were party bosses and bureaucrats, and not workers,
peasants and their children.
Unlike the period of the 1920s – early 1950s, the Soviet cinema of the "thaw" era increasingly
touched upon the subject of university. Sometimes in the comedic genre (Come Tomorrow, 1962,
Madness, 1965), but mostly in the (melo) dramatic (Different Fates, 1956, They Met on the Way,
1957, The City lights up, 1958, Peers, 1958, 1, Newton Street, 1963).
In the films Different Fates (1956), The City lights up (1958) and Peers (1958), the theme of
the university played a marginal role. In the melodrama They met on the Way (1957) – is was the
key one. The girl who successfully entered the pedagogical college gives a helping hand to the
worker who failed the entrance exams, as a result, the young tutor and her student fall in love with
each other, and the latter, of course, becomes a successful student next year. In between, a cute
career-centered student deserves public condemnation, and a gray-bearded "old school" professor
sings songs together with his students. In a word, the film, although from the "thaw" period, was
absolutely tied (both by the plot and style) to the late Stalin's epoch.
In the popular musical comedy Come Tomorrow (1962) a provincial girl Frosya, thanks to
innate vocal abilities, enters the conservatory and, despite all sorts of obstacles and absurdities,
eventually becomes a favorite of a wise teacher. A film with such a simple story and with such a
heroine could have also appeared in the late 1940s, 1950s, and even in the 1970s.
Another film about students is 1, Newton Street (1963). It also tells a story of a provincial guy
who enters a university in the capital, but in the genre of a drama. Student Timothy faces a serious
life test: his scientific work, written together with a classmate, wins a prestigious competition, but
... soon it turns out that it contains an awkward mistake. A weak classmate begs Timofey not to tell
anyone about this, but he rejects this dishonest proposal and leaves for his hometown, where, he
works on a new version of scientific work. Perhaps, there are no particular hallmarks of the thaw
period. Stories about high tones students, for whom the truth is the most valuable asset, often
unfolded in (audiovisual) texts both in Stalin's times and in post-thaw times, too. Only some details
in 1, Newton Street give us a hint about its historical background: poets performing at the
Mayakovsky's monument, Y. Kim's songs and expressive camera work.
521
4. Results
The "thaw period" films (1956–1968) on the school/university topic
Place of action, historical, social, cultural, political, and ideological context
1. Historical context (dominant concepts: "media agencies", "media categories", "media
representations" and "media audiences").
a) features of the historical period when media texts were created, market conditions that
contributed to the idea, the process of creating media texts, the degree of influence of that time on
media texts.
The timeframe for the historical period of the "thaw" has been defined conditionally from
1956 (denunciation of Stalin's personality cult at the XX Congress of the CPSU) to 1968 (the
invasion of Soviet troops in Czechoslovakia).
The main characteristics of this historical period:
- condemnation of Stalin's personality cult;
- end of mass terror of the state's citizens, while maintaining a "milder" struggle (which, as a
rule, did not involve prolonged imprisonment and physical extermination) with dissenters (like
Boris Pasternak, Andrei Sinyavsky, Alexander Solzhenitsyn, and others);
- the continuation of the process of industrialization (mainly heavy and military industries);
- agricultural reforms (development of virgin lands, creation of economic councils, etc.);
- realization of the state program of mass housing construction;
- a successful start of the "space era" (launching the world's first satellite, the world's first
cosmonaut);
- renewal of the communist ideology, oriented to the works of V. Lenin and post-Stalinist
ideologists, with less intense than, for example, in the 1920s, but still open fight against religion;
- official theses about the established unified community of the Soviet people and the absence
in the USSR of class, ethnic, national, and racial problems;
- the rejection of the idea of the world revolution and the proletariat's dictatorship, replacing
it with the idea of a "peaceful coexistence of socialist and capitalist systems" (which, of course, did
not exclude the ideological confrontation against bourgeois states, the militarization, unleashing
local military conflicts, intervention in Hungary (1956) and Czechoslovakia (1968), military and
economic support of pro-communist regimes in developing countries, for example, in Cuba).
- a drastic growth of film production, the resumption of the Moscow International Film
Festival;
- expansion (still with censorship) of scope of creative freedom in the cultural sphere,
including literature, theater and cinema;
- the gradual curtailment of the "thaw" tendencies (including the cinema), the reduction of
the criticism of Stalinism (after Leonid Brezhnev came to power in October 1964) against the
backdrop of solemn celebrations of Soviet communist jubilees on a national scale.
"The Law on Strengthening the School's Contact with Life and on the Further Development of
the Public Education System in the USSR" (1958) began another reform of the Soviet educational
system. The obligatory education was 8 years. An 11-year program incorporating vocational (two
days a week) as well as academic training replaced the traditional ten-year primary and secondary
general school. The role and share (up to 15 %) of vocational training in the educational process
sharply increased. It was assumed that schoolchildren will work twice a week in special training
workshops (or plants/factories), and General Certificate of Education will be supplemented with a
certificate of the acquired vocational qualification. By 1962 all seven-year-schools were turned into
eight-year schools. However, it soon became clear that enhancement of labor training had a
negative effect: the level of knowledge of students in basic subjects dropped. That is why, in
September 1966, the Soviet school returned to a ten year program again, and the idea of
professional training within the school curriculum, was left behind.
522
Table 1. Key dates and events in the USSR and the world in the "thaw" period (1956–1968):
politics, economy, and culture
Years Key dates and events in the USSR and the world in the "thaw" period (1956–1968):
politics, economy, and culture
1956 Khrushchev’s secret speech, denunciating the deceased Joseph Stalin made to a closed
session of the 20th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union: February 25.
Pro-Stalin's riots in Tbilisi: March.
"Cominform" (Communist Information Bureau) was dissolved: April 17.
Resolution of the CPSU Central Committee “On Overcoming the Personality Cult and Its
Consequences”: June 30.
The cancellation of tuition fees in the senior classes of secondary school, as well as in
secondary special and higher educational institutions of the USSR : September.
The Hungarian Revolution: October 23 – November 9.
The Suez crisis in Egypt: October 30 – December 22.
The High Courses for Film Directors (higher education establishment) opened in
Moscow: November.
1957 Letter of CPSU Central Committee about "Fostering political work of party
organizations among masses and suppression of attacks of anti-Soviet hostile elements":
January.
Plenum of CPSU Central Committee on Literature and Art: June 22-29.
The exclusion from the leadership of the CPSU of the "anti-party opposition" (G.
Malenkov, V. Molotov, L. Kaganovich, D. Shepilov): June 29.
World Festival of Youth and Students in Moscow: July 28-August 11.
A test of the first Soviet intercontinental ballistic missile capable of reaching the
territory of the United States.
The successful launch of the world's first artificial satellites: October - November.
The publication in the western countries of the novel by B. Pasternak Doctor Zhivago:
November.
1958 The Soviet film The Cranes Are Flying is awarded the main prize of the Cannes Film
Festival – Palme d'Or: May.
Exhibition of American abstractionists in Moscow.
The opening of the monument of V. Mayakovsky in Moscow, where poets freely
performed: July.
The award of the Nobel Prize for Literature to Boris Pasternak - "For significant
achievements in contemporary lyrical poetry, as well as for the continuation of the
traditions of the great Russian epic novel" (Doctor Zhivago). The denunciation of Boris
Pasternak by the USSR authorities and the leaders of the Union of Soviet Writers:
October.
Boris Pasternak is expelled from the Soviet Writers' Union: October 27.
"The law on strengthening the school's connection with life and the further development
of the system of public education in the USSR": December 24.
Adoption of the "Fundamentals of Criminal Legislation", abolishing the concept of
"enemy of the people", raising the age of criminal liability from 14 to 16: December 25.
1959 The victory of pro-communist revolutionaries in Cuba: January 1.
Order of the Minister of Culture of the USSR "On serious shortcomings of ideological
and educational work in the All-Union State Institute of Cinematography": January 18.
XXI Congress of the CPSU: the proclamation of the complete and final victory of
socialism: January 27 – February 5.
Opening of the American exhibition in Moscow: July 25.
The First Moscow International Film Festival: August 3–17.
Negotiations between Nikita Khrushchev and D. Eisenhower in the United States:
September 15–27.
1960 Resolution of the Central Committee of the CPSU "On the tasks of party propaganda in
the modern conditions": January 9.
523
The U.S. spy plane, piloted by G. Powers is shot down: May 1.

The election of L.I. Brezhnev as the Chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of
the USSR: May 4.
Opening of the Higher two-year scriptwriters' courses in Moscow: November 1.
1961 Soviet note of protest to US President J. Kennedy, related to the the anti-Castro landing
in Cuba: April 8.
Launch of the world's first Soviet spacecraft with a man on board: April 12.
Decree of the Presidium of the Supreme Council of the USSR "On Strengthening the
Struggle Against Persons Who Avoid Socially Useful Work and Lead an Antisocial
Parasitic Way of Life": May 4.
The beginning of the construction of the Berlin Wall: August 13.
XXII Congress of the CPSU. Adoption of the new Program and the new Charter of the
CPSU. Decision on the removal of Stalin's remains from the tomb in Mausoleum:
October 7–31.
1962 The increase in prices for meat (by 30 %) and milk (by 25 %) in the USSR: June 1.
The demonstration of Novocherkassk workers who protested the increase for food
prices is dispersed by gunfire: June 2.
Decree of the Central Committee of the CPSU "On measures to improve the leadership
of the artistic cinematography": July 19.
Resolution of the Central Committee of the CPSU "On increasing the effectiveness of
statements by the Soviet press": September 18.
After the start of the installation of Soviet missiles in Cuba, the US declares a sea
blockade of the island. The politically tense Caribbean crisis begins, which forces the
USSR to remove missiles from Cuba in exchange for the US promise to abandon the
occupation of the "Island of Freedom": October 14 – November 20.
"New World" journal publishes Alexander Solzhenitsyn's novel One Day of Ivan
Denisovich: November.
Nikita Khrushchev visits an exhibition of Moscow artists in the Manege (today Moscow
Art Exhibition): December 1.
1963 The meeting of the leadership of the CPSU with the creative intelligentsia of the USSR in
the Kremlin: March 7–8.
Resolution of the Central Committee of the CPSU and the Council of Ministers of the
USSR "On measures for the further development of higher and secondary education":
May 9.
Reaching the agreement between the USSR and the United States on creating a "hot"
telephone line between Moscow and Washington: June 20.
Resolution of the plenum of the Central Committee of the CPSU "On the forthcoming
tasks of the party's ideological work": June.
Jamming of the Voice of America, BBC and German Wave programs in Russian on the
territory of the USSR ceased.
The assassination of the US President J. Kennedy in Dallas: November 24.
1964 Report of the KGB to the Central Committee of the CPSU on the anti-Soviet attitudes of
VGIK students.
Resolution of the Central Committee of the CPSU "On the film studio Mosfilm":
February 3.
The US starts the war in Vietnam: August 2.
Plenum of the Central Committee of the CPSU removes Nikita Khrushchev from power
and elect Leonid Brezhnev the First Secretary of the CPSU Central Committee: October
14.
1965 Alexey Leonov, leaving his spacecraft for 12 minutes, becomes the first person to walk in
space: March 18.
The USSR supplies missiles to North Vietnam: April 5.
David Lean's film of Doctor Zhivago, starring Omar Sharif and Julie Christie, is
released: December.
524
1966 France withdraws from the NATO military organization: February 21.
XXIII Congress of the CPSU: March 29 – April 8.
The visit of French President General de Gaulle to Moscow: June 20 – July 1.
1967 Six-day war in the Middle East, breaking diplomatic relations between Israel and the
USSR: July 5–10.
Resolution of the Central Committee of the CPSU "On measures for the further
development of social sciences and enhancing their role in communist construction":
August 14.
Solemn celebration of the 50th anniversary of Soviet power: November.
1968 Order Committee on Cinematography of the USSR "On the purchase and rental of
foreign films" (for the purpose of excluding the penetration of bourgeois propaganda on
the Soviet screen): July 31.
"Student Revolution" in Paris: May.
The resumption of the USSR jamming the broadcasts of "Voice of America" and other
western radio stations in Russian on the USSR territory: August 20.
The invasion of Soviet troops in Czechoslovakia: August 21.
The publication of A. Solzhenitsyn's The First Circle abroad: December.
Soviet "thaw" audiovisual texts on the subject of school and university, according to the
authorities, were supposed to support the main lines of the then state policy in the educational and
socio-cultural spheres, that is, to show that the Soviet system of education, upbringing and culture
is being reformed, and namely:
- the educational process goes beyond the previous strict framework of the Stalinist rules
(while maintaining common communist landmarks and a rigid anti-religious orientation);
- the relationships between teachers and students are becoming more democratic, creative,
based on the experience of Soviet pedagogues – innovators of the 1920s;
- there are some problem zones at school and university (in particular, the interpretation of
the image of the Soviet teacher as an ideal representative of the educated part of the society was de-
idealized).
Genre modifications of school and university subjects: drama, detective, less often –
melodrama, comedy.
b) how does the knowledge of true historical events of a particular period help to understand
the given media texts, examples of historical references in these media texts.
In the films Flags on the Towers (1958), Beat, the Drum! (1962), The First Teacher (1966),
Republic of SHKID (1966), the pioneer movement of the 1920s and the pedagogical direction of
Soviet teachers (like A. Makarenko, V. Soroka-Rosinsky, etc.) was shown as a positive approach.
The films Clouds over Borsk (1960), Miraculous (1960), Sinful Angel (1962), consistently reflected
the anti-religious state policy. The films Welcome, or No Trespassing! (1964), Trains Go by the
Windows (1965) and We'll Live till Monday (1968), featured some teachers with serious
professional flaws. Story of the First Love (1957), What if it's love? (1961), Wild Dog Dingo (1962),
I Loved You... (1967) depicted the problem of love relations between high school students.
In the Soviet films of the "thaw" period, schoolchildren, of course, could be featured sitting
in meetings, condemning someone for misconduct (for instance, religiosity or laziness). But on the
whole, the cinematic focus of the interpretation of the school and university theme shifted towards
the ordinary school life, to the development of the personality (Wild Dog Dingo", 1962, The Gulf
Stream (1968), We'll Live Till Monday, 1968, The Man-to Man Talk, 1968, Transitional Age, 1968,
etc.), to the examination of the inner world of teachers (Trains Go by the Windows, 1965, The First
Teacher, 1966, We'll Live Till Monday, 1968, Literature Lesson (1968), etc. At the same time,
schoolchildren (unlike their film counterparts in the 1920s and 1930s) no longer appeared on the
screen as some sort of conductors of the communist tomorrow, leading the lost adults on the right
track.
2. Socio-cultural, ideological, religious context (dominant concepts: "media agencies",
"media categories", "media representations" and "media audience").
a) ideology, directions, goals, objectives, world outlook, the concepts of the media texts'
authors in the socio-cultural context; ideology, culture of the world, depicted in these media texts.
525
In the period of the thaw, communist ideology (including anti-capitalist, anti-religious

orientation, the theory of socialist realism) in the USSR continued to dominate. Filmmaking was
also under censorship (albeit less strict than in the 1930s and 1940s). Therefore the authors of the
majority of audiovisual media texts on the school-university theme were to comply with these rules
of the game. In fact, in some films (such as, Welcome, or No Trespassing!, 1964, We'll Live Till
Monday, 1968, Literature Lesson, 1968), these rules were violated by certain oddities that arose, as
it seemed, in spite of the genre or thematic field, say - whimsical rhythms, fancies of intonation,
figurative accents in "wrong" places or seemingly irrelevant artistic arrangement of the narrative.
Film viewers who anticipated to watch another innocent drama soon began to feel uncomfortable.
They could not help feeling that though everything seemed to be clear and correct in the film, yet
something was wrong, something was subtly annoying and makes the perception unsettled
(Kovalov, 2016: 11).
b) the world outlook of the characters in media texts about school
In general, the worldview of the characters of audiovisual media texts on the theme of school
and university during the thaw, as in the previous three decades, was optimistic, at that time the
optimism was connected with the prospects of building "socialism with a human face". Students -
vivid personalities were often ridden by doubts (Wild Dog Dingo, I loved you..., We'll live till
Monday, etc.). Doubts and reflections were also characteristic of screen teachers, too (Trains go by
the windows, We'll Live Till Monday, Literature Lesson, etc.).
At first glance, the hierarchy of values, according to this world view, has remained the same:
communist ideology, collectivism, diligence, honesty, atheism, willingness to give a helping hand to
good or flawed people. But there were also new colors: audiovisual media texts virtually didn't
portray hatred of the internal class enemies, the heroism of the students gave way to everyday
events (including first school love); at the same time, the level of critical reflection of reality has
noticeably risen. For example, a school teacher from the witty comedy "Literature Lesson" not only
openly dislikes his randomly chosen profession, but sets himself the task of living for at least one
day ... without lying (of course, it was for this seditious intention that the film was banned for
screening).
Thus, it was the model of "socialism with a human face," rather than classical communist
ideals, that determined the world view of the characters in the audiovisual "school world" of the
thaw period. And it was this model that quickly began to disappear when the end of the thaw by the
Brezhnev regime after the events in Czechoslovakia in 1968, when Soviet tanks were brought into
Prague in fear that "socialism with a human face" could win in a single state.
3. Structure and narrative modes in media texts (dominant concepts: "media categories",
"media technologies", "media languages", "media representations")
Schematically, the structure, plot, representativeness, ethics, genre modifications,
iconography, characters of audiovisual media texts about school and university in "thaw" period
can be presented as follows:
a) the location and time period in media texts. Leaving aside the plots where schoolchildren
and students appeared (often episodically) only outside the walls of educational institutions (let us
recall, Valery, the schoolboy from the Elusive Avengers who, fighting the enemies of Soviet state,
actually never appear at school), one can say that the main location in films on the school theme of
the "thaw" era is school classes and corridors, and the plot is set mostly (if it's not a retro about
1920s) at the time when the film is made.
b) the environment typical for these media texts, household items: the furnishings and
household items of school films are still modest, at times ascetic (as, for example, in The First
Teacher).
It is very indicative that in Soviet films on the school topic in many cases "there is no private
space for a teenager – his room. Most often because of its actual absence due to the poor housing
situation in the country, but even when the room is there, nothing there characterizes the owner.
It's just a room with a bed and a desk, there is not the slightest attribute of its owner. ...
The commitment for intellectual and high culture and the neglect of interior and decor. The same
reason is why a fashionably dressed character is almost always negative" (Zharikova, 2015: 62).
c) genre modifications: mostly drama, sometimes melodrama or comedy.
d) (stereotyped) devices to depict reality: positive characters are less often shown as
idealized, while negative ones, on the contrary, have deeper dimensions than just a caricature.
526
However, relapses, of course, are possible. For example, in the professionally helpless Boys (1959),
a cheesy teacher brings to the class a model of the space satellite, thus causing a sensation in the
class only consisting of diligent and perfect schoolchildren. And in the detective story Shadows of
an Old Castle (1966), a super-positive teacher who instantly finds contact with schoolchildren takes
a job in an Estonian boarding school located in an ancient castle, very soon finds out that the key
faculty members (presented rather grotesquely) are former Nazis and treacherous enemies of
Soviet power.
e) character typology (character traits, clothing, physique, vocabulary, facial expressions,
key gestures, presence or absence of the stereotypical manner of representing the characters in
these media texts):
- the age of characters: the age of schoolchildren is in the range of 7–17 years, however,
teenagers are more common. The age of the adult characters (teachers, parents, grandparents, etc.)
can be anything, but adults below 60 prevail;
- the education level: for schoolchildren it corresponds to their class; the teachers presumably
graduated from higher education institution, supporting characters can have any level of
education;
- social status, occupation: the financial situation of the students is approximately the same,
they can be either from the families of workers and farmers, or from the intelligentsia.
The professions of their parents are in a fairly diverse range.
- the marital status of the characters: schoolchildren, naturally, are not bound by marriage;
adult characters are mostly married, however, single teachers appear in film more frequently;
- appearance, clothes, body build, features of their characters, vocabulary: the appearance of
schoolchildren and students in the films of the "thaw" period is in the framework of then popular
ideas about how the students should look (for example, wearing school uniform was obligatory).
A shot from the movie What if it's love? (1961) gives a good idea of the appearance, clothes,
physique of characters – schoolchildren.
School children in the thaw films are mostly not so purposeful, bold, polite and active as their
peers from the moving pictures in the 1930s, but on the whole they remain optimistic about life.
However, more and more often negative characters appear, the hopes for reformation of whom are
not as big as they used to be.
Teachers from the films of the early thaw period look similar to those in the 1930s and 1940s:
they were distinguished by modesty in clothes. Teachers' clothes don't follow fashion. They look
more like a uniform: a dark suit, a skirt/trousers and a jacket with a white or light blouse, classical
shoes. Classical hairdo for a female teacher is a hair bun (Tatiana Sergeevna (a teacher from the
film Spring in the Riverside Street – A.F. & A.L.) at home walks around with loose hair, but she
gathers it in a bun every time she goes to work)" (Grigorieva, 2007).
Late thaw film teachers are no longer perceived by unambiguous symbols of the struggle for
communism, they have lost an ideal halo, and more often they are in doubts, discontent with their
life. Another serious, symptomatic for modern culture as a whole, a social problem, articulated by
Soviet cinema, is a social gap decrease between a teacher and a student (Shipulina, 2010).
In particular, in the comedy Literature Lesson (1968), a young teacher is on back-slapping terms
with a struggling student.
A shot from the movie We'll Live Till Monday (1968) reflects the appearance, clothes,
physique of the characters-teachers of the late thaw years.
Negative image of school and teachers of the "tsarist regime" in the thaw period occupied a
marginal place in Soviet cinema (The First Bastille, 1965).
f) a significant change in the life of media characters: schoolchildren live a normal life, but
among them there are students who: learn poorly (Big and Small, 1963, Attention, Citizens and
Organizations, 1965; Three and a half days from the life of Ivan Semyonov, a second-grader and
a repeater, 1966), behave badly (My name is Kogia, 1963, Three and a half days from the life of
Ivan Semyonov, a second-grader and a repeater, 1966), are exposed to bad influence (Mishka,
Serega and I, 1961), become religious (Clouds over Borsk, 1960, Miraculous, 1960), lay hands on
other people's money (We love you, 1962), fall in love earlier the due age (Story of the First Love,
1957, What if it's love?, 1961, Wild Dog Dingo, 1963, I loved you, 1967).
j) the challenge that the characters face: disturbance of the habitual life, because a character,
for different reasons not fitting into the standard framework of school life, shows up.
527
i) solving the problem: early thaw period: "correct" characters (schoolchildren, teachers,
parents) individually or together, return nonconformist schoolchildren to ordinary life (My Name
is Kogia, 1963, Three and a half days from the life of Ivan Semenov, a second grader and a
repeater, 1966, Mishka, Serega and I, 1961, etc.); peak and decline of the thaw: negative characters
(conservative teachers, parents, counselors and other retrogrades) successfully or unsuccessfully
try to restore the status quo (What if it's Love, 1961, My friend, Kolka! .. 1961, Welcome, or No
Trespassing!, 1964, Trains Go by the Windows, 1965).
5. Conclusion
In summary, the "thaw period" films (1956–1968) concerning school/university can be
conditionally divided into two stages: early (1956–1963) and late (1964–1968), although, of course,
there was a certain diffusion between the cinematography of these periods.
These audiovisual texts, according to the authorities, were supposed to support the main
state policy in the educational and socio-cultural spheres, that is, to show that the Soviet system of
education, upbringing and culture is being reformed: 1) the educational process goes beyond the
previous strict framework of the Stalinist rules (while maintaining common communist landmarks
and a rigid anti-religious orientation); 2) the relationships between teachers and students are
becoming more democratic, creative, based on the experience of Soviet pedagogues – innovators of
the 1920s; 3) there are some problem zones at school and university (in particular, the
interpretation of the image of the Soviet teacher as an ideal representative of the educated part of
the society was de-idealized).
The early thaw stage was characterized by a romantic reliance on the pedagogical experience
of the revolutionary Soviet pedagogy of the 1920s and the creation of touching lyrical stories,
where, despite minor difficulties, the harmony of good teachers and, at first, stumbling but in the
end, good students, won.
During the second stage of the thaw, new tendencies were manifested increasingly frequent:
on the one hand, the crisis, the disillusionment and fatigue of teachers, and on the other hand, the
pragmatic cynicism of students.
6. Acknowledgements
This research was funded by the grant of the Russian Science Foundation (RSF, project No.
17-18-01001) at the Rostov State University of Economics. Project theme: "School and university in
the mirror of Soviet, Russian and Western audiovisual media texts". Head of the project is
professor Alexander Fedorov.
References
Anninsky, 1991– Anninsky, L. (1991). The sixties and we. Moscow: Cinema Center, 255 p.
Arcus, 2010 – Arcus, L. (2010). Adventures of a white crow: evolution of a "school film" in
Soviet cinema. Seance. June, 2. http://seance.ru/blog/whitecrow/
Artemieva, 2015 – Artemieva, E.A. (2015). Typology of images of adolescents in the Soviet
film drama 1960s–1980s. PhD Dis. Moscow, 2015.
Bazalgette, 1995 – Bazalgette, C. (1995). Key Aspects of Media Education. Moscow:
Association for Film Education.
Eco, 1998 – Eco, U. (1998). Lack of Structure. Introduction to Semiology. St. Petersburg:
Petropolis, 432 p.
Eco, 2005 – Eco, U. (2005). The Role of the Reader. Studies on the Semiotics of the Text. St.
Fedorov et al., 2017 – Fedorov, A.V., Levitskaya, A.A., Gorbatkova, O.I. (2017). School and
university in the mirror of audiovisual media texts: basic approaches to the research problem.
Media education, № 2.
Fedorova, 2012 – Fedorova, M. (2012). Welcome, or No Trespassing (1964). Noah's Ark of
Russian Cinema. Moscow: Globus-Press, pp. 218-222.
Grigorieva, 2007 – Grigorieva, O. (2007). The image of the teacher in the Soviet cinema:
from the "Spring" thaw to "Big break". Visual anthropology: new views on social reality. Saratov:
Scientific book, 223-239.
Kovalov, 2016 – Kovalov, O.A. (2016). Studies of the strange. St.-Petersburg: Séance, 328 p.
528
Mikhailin, Belyaeva, 2012 – Mikhailin, V., Belyaeva, G. (2012). The historian in hysterics.
Teacher of History in the Soviet cinema of the 1960s–1970s. Involuntary stock. No. 5 (85).
Mitina, 2015 – Mitina, T.S. (2015). The image of a teacher in the Soviet cinema of the "thaw"
period. Siberian Scientific Bulletin. N 4, pp. 150-156.
Paramonova, 1975 – Paramonova, K.K. (1975). Films for children, its specifics, and
educational functions. Moscow: Publishing House of the Institute of Cinematography, 51 p.
Potter, 2001 – Potter, W.J. (2001). Media Literacy. Thousand Oaks – London: Sage
Publication, 423 p.
Pukhachev, 2008 – Pukhachev, S.B. (2008). Evolution of the teacher's image in the Russian
cinema (the experience of analyzing the cultural memory of the generation). Soviet culture in the
modern social space of Russia: transformations and perspectives. Ekaterinburg.
Report…, 1961 – Report of the cultural department of the CPSU Central Committee on
Y. Rаizman’s film And if it's love?, 1961.
Romanova, 2012 – Romanova, O. (2012). And if this is love? Noah's Ark of Russian Cinema.
Moscow: Globe-Press, pp. 190-194.
Shipulina, 2010 – Shipulina, N.B. (2010). The image of a teacher in Soviet and modern
Russian cinema. Izvestiya of Volgograd State Pedagogical University, № 8 (52), pp. 4-16.
Praeger, 449 p.
Soloveichik, 1975 – Soloveichik, S.L. (1975). Teacher: a profession and fate. Soviet screen.
N 20.
Youngblood, 2012 – Youngblood, D. (2012). Spring in the Riverside Street. Noah's Ark of
Russian Cinema. Moscow: Globus-Press, pp. 175-179.
Zharikova, 2015 – Zharikova, V.V. (2015). Chronotope school in the Russian film. Historical,
philosophical, political and juridical sciences, cultural studies and art history. Theory and
practice. № 5 (55): Part II. pp. 59-62.
529

Directions, objectives, and author's concepts of

audiovisual media interpretations of school and
university in the Sov....
Article · September 2017
CITATIONS READS
2 116


All content following this page was uploaded by Alexander Fedorov on 14 August 2017.

Fedorov, A., Levitskaya, A., Gorbatkova, O. Directions, objectives,
and author's concepts of audiovisual media interpretations of school
and university in the Soviet cinema of the "stagnation" period (1969-
1985) . Media Education. 2017. № 3.
Media Culture
Directions, objectives, and author's concepts of audiovisual media interpretations of school

and university in the Soviet cinema of the "stagnation" period (1969-1985) *


a.levitskaya@tmei.ru
Dr. Olga Gorbatkova

Abstract. The films of the "stagnation" period (1969-1985) related to school/university topic show that on
the screen:
- the educational process went beyond the previous strict framework of rules, the persistence of rigid communist
landmarks, and the anti-religious orientation were no longer imposed;
- the students' activity that mostly used to be directed to the outside world, began to shift to their inner worlds and
feelings;
- the main conflicts were built on the opposition of non-ordinary teachers and students vs. stagnation, bureaucracy,
mediocricy of the authorities / colleagues / classmates;
- the relationships between teachers and students were becoming more democratic and free;
- the prestige of the pedagogical profession in the eyes of students and society went sharply down;
- there were problem zones at school and university (crisis, disappointment and fatigue, professional "burnout" of
teachers; pragmatic cynicism of students, teenage cruelty, etc.).
Transformation also existed in the gender aspect of the school/university films. In the 1960s and the mid-
1970s, the screen teacher is usually a man; then in the late 1970s - early 1980s the teachers are mostly female,
often single and lonely.
Keywords: audiovisual text, cinema, film, school, students, teachers, the USSR.
* This research was funded by the grant of the Russian Science Foundation (RSF, project No. 17-18-01001) at
Rostov State University of Economics. Project theme: "School and university in the mirror of Soviet, Russian
and Western audiovisual media texts". Head of the project is professor Alexander Fedorov.
Introduction
In this article, we address the objectives and author's concepts of audiovisual media
interpretations of school and university in the Soviet cinema of the "stagnation" period (1969-
1985). Here, as in our previous work [Fedorov, Levitskaya, Gorbatkova, 2017], relying on
technologies developed by C. Bazalgette [1995], A. Silverblatt [Silverblatt, 2001, pp. 80-81],
W.J. Potter [Potter, 2001] and U. Eco [Eco, 1998; 2005]; on the theoretical approaches of O.V.
Aronson [Aronson, 2003] and N.A. Khrenov [Khrenov, 2006; 2008], we make a generalized
hermeneutic analysis of media texts of Soviet feature films of this period relating to school and
university, taking into account such key concepts of media literacy education as "media
agencies", "media categories", "media technologies", "media languages", "media
representations" and "media audiences".

The material of our research is audiovisual media texts on the theme of school and
university. The main method is the comparative hermeneutic analysis of Soviet films of the
stagnation period (1969-1985), concerning this subject (including the analysis of stereotypes,
ideological analysis, identification analysis, iconographic analysis, plot analysis, and character
analysis). We also analyze books and articles devoted to school and university in films [Arcus,
2010; Grigorieva, 2007; Gromov, 1981; Kichin, 1977; Mamaladze, 1977, etc.].
Discussion
The post-thaw period began to point out schoolchildren's pragmatic and ironic attitude
towards teachers. About twenty years ago the teacher on the screen was a wise role model, a fair
mentor. But in the movie Cross the Threshold (1970), a high school student with advanced
mathematical abilities, not in the least afraid of the wrathful reaction of the teacher, openly
declares: "I don't want to be in your shoes ... I hope to find a better use for my abilities ... You
had not thought that you would end up in school, I hope that I manage to avoid such a fate".
Thus, as Literature Lesson (1968), that was "shelved", i.e. not released in the cinemas, this film
crossed the threshold of a positive character's respectful attitude to the pedagogical profession.
Similarly, the teacher's authority was challenged in the drama Translation from English
(1972), where the teacher-trainee performed by G. Taratorkin did not hesitate to admit that he
entered a pedagogical university because of the fear of failing more complicated examinations at
technical university. An English teacher, performed by M. Bulgakova looked old-fashioned,
deliberately communistically engaged elderly idealist, with fragile health damaged by stressful
work.
The main character of the drama The Diary of the School Principal (1975), unlike his
colleague from We'll Live till Monday (1968), has neither an antique-style apartment with an
aristocratic mother, nor a girl-admirer with damp eyes, nor a velvet voice; no gestures, no
righteous anger, no civic pathos... He has a small two room flat, an aging wife, a chronic time
trouble and a face of the man who forgot when he had last looked at himself in the mirror
[Arcus, 2012]. Such a teacher, certainly, did not make the young audience willing to take up the
burden of the pedagogical profession. In the brilliant performance of Oleg Borisov, the audience
saw a person who has already denied himself the right to drama. A person who lives the life as it
is, within the time released - because there won't be another life or time. A man who no longer
charges life, time, or people - he only hopes to pay his dues. He does not feel himself a hero, he
fulfills his duties. This is a quiet standing of the intellectual in the face of a deceitful era [Arcus,
2012]. The principal is bitterly questioned by his own son: "Is this what you wasted your life
on?"
A similar situation occurs in the drama Almost the same age (1984), where a wife sadly
tells her husband, a young teacher: "It's time to become someone ... Look at yourself, what are
you?". And then, with sarcasm, she adds: "A teacher ..." The situation is no better in the drama
Sweet Grass Juice (1984), where a beginning teacher complains that children are terrible and her
life did not work out precisely because of the recklessly chosen pedagogical profession.
It seems that the authors of the drama The Follower (1984) were going to argue with such
a pessimistic stance, making a film about the high destiny of the teacher, the noble beauty of his
work, the continuity of the pedagogical occupation. From the very first shots, The Follower
gravitates toward a symbol, parable-like system. Another variation of the return of the prodigal
son is played on the screen. The story of a young, ambitious guy who could not fight the
temptation (an invitation to move from the countryside to the capital, a prestigious job in the
ministry) to change his occupation (the hero quits his teaching job at a rural school), but then on
top of his success he rethinks his life and starts it anew, returning to an abandoned father's home.
There is something about the story of temptation and return for lots of filmmakers.
Perhaps, because it allows to show a person at the turning points of life, to look deeper and more
closely into his character. In The Follower at first it seems that the traditional plot scheme will be
filled with deep meaning. There is neither an odd one out scene, nor an accidental detail,
everything is carefully thought out - from the texture of the interiors to the costumes of the
characters. If a small orphan Valya in the severe post-war years steals a pen from an old teacher
Rusov, then a passing truck, by will of fate, will necessarily bring the boy to that wooden house
from which he has just escaped. If an old Rusov adopts Valya, Rusov, Jr., after many years,
having abandoned his wife and son in Moscow, will also adopt a mop headed boy, deprived of
parental love. Even an occasional meeting with a chauffeur has not been spared. In about twenty
years, in some incomprehensible way, he will find Valentin Rusov in the ministerial office and
ask him to sell a house in a remote town of Kandaurovka.
This deliberate, circular plot sometimes loses the breath of real life. Signs of the time are
limited to Robertino Loretti's songs and Yevgeny Evtushenko's poems, and the characters often
seem too static and unambiguous. The purity and nobility of the conception are not implemented
to the fullest - neither in drama, which suffers from schematism and straightforward motivations,
nor in the film direction that attempts to translate the plot in a poetic vein. Alas, the poetics of the
movie is based on banal symbols and trite metaphors, like a damaged model set of a rural school
that is gathering dust on the balcony of the luxuriously furnished apartment of the protagonist
during his career peak.
I. Kalnysh is constrained, unemotional in the role of Valentin Rusov. We cannot sense
the inspiration of the teaching talent, which is so often declared in verbal form. Whenever the
actor tries to play emotional generosity, it turns out pretentious falsity, as in the scene where
Valentin, who for the first time after a long separation, met his beloved woman, eagerly invites
his best student Vanechka to enter the room at a moment, frankly speaking, not suitable for
onlookers.
Even such a talented master, as Nikolai Grinko, was powerless to overcome the
commonplace didactics of his character, the old Rusov. However, in the film opening shots,
peering at his wise and sad eyes, one believes that such a person is able to teach goodness and
kindness. But as soon as N. Grinko's character begins to speak, the didacticism speaks up.
Moreover, after viewing the film, its title raises a different, unplanned by the authors connotation
- replication, unwillingness to go further, to introduce something intimate.
Things turn really bad for the teachers in Practical Joke (1976). A pragmatic schoolboy
here is completely hardened, walks with a pompous gait, has imperious habits, rules the class. He
is terrible in anger. The pejorative monologue that he refers to the honorable teacher on the day
of her jubilee (the zero result of life, no one needs you now, the old shoe, etc.) almost falls under
the crime of personal insult" [Arcus, 2012].
However, one should not think that the 1970s' film represented educators solely as lost
(albeit talented) losers who concede defeat in verbal fights to young pragmatists. In the same
years, some school films featured talented teachers in full harmony with equally bright students.
Of course, by this time the school theme in the Soviet cinema has undergone significant
changes. In Problem Child (Certificate of Maturity, 1954) the "healthy class" unanimously
cleared of individuality an extraordinary but too proud and independent tenth-grader. But in the
1970s it were outstanding people who set the tone in such films as Practical Joke (1976), The
Key That Should Not Be Handed On (1976), Schedule For the Day after Tomorrow (1978) and
The Tuning Fork (1979). Their authors unequivocally made it clear that though it happens rather
seldom, no school is immune from the presence of outstanding students.
These wunderkinds appeared on the screen for the reason. First, they were an exception.
Then they became more numerous, almost the whole class (The Key That Should Not Be Handed
On, Tuning Fork). And in I. Dobrolyubov's film Schedule For the Day after Tomorrow, an
experimental "school for geniuses" in physics and mathematics emerged. The school principal
matches his position: he is a young Ph.D., he plays water polo with his students. Certainly, the
teachers also have academic degrees and titles. They are all cheerful, witty people. Their students
catch up with them, too.
While one can doubt how the advanced intellectual teachers from The Key That Should
Not Be Handed On and The Tuning Fork managed to turn the ordinary class into an elite class, it
is a different story here. Special teachers. Special school. Special students with special
problems? By no means – the problems are the same: the "geniuses" also fall in love, to the best
of their ability cause material damage (two school laboratories are blown up in one and a half
hours of screen time (not on purpose, of course, but because of a failed scientific experiment),
some schoolchildren even have low grades in some subjects.
Using the terminology of "young Einsteins", the guarantee of a harmonious development
of an individual is the compensation by liberal arts subjects of the gravitation towards sciences.
Well, the new Literature teacher successfully copes with the task.
However, something similar has happened before in the films about "ordinary" schools.
In the development of the relationships and characters of the "geniuses" the film slid over the
surface, not trying to create deeper images.
As some directors say, one can't surpass the acting of children and animals. And it is true
that young actors often "overplay" adults. Schedule For the Day after Tomorrow came the other
way. Adults cast (performed by the remarkable actors O. Dal, M. Terekhova, V. Nikulin, etc.) in
all respects surpassed its younger colleagues. One can object that Schedule For the Day after
Tomorrow features an ideal school. But, it seems, even "ideal" students have many difficult
problems that require non-trivial solutions.
Similarly, The Key That Should Not Be Handed On can't be perceived today as alive and
modern - something elusive. And this "something" is, oddly enough, the falsehood. All senior
students are unique: an owlish young man is as talented, inspirational, and wise as a forty-year-
old intellectual. Sasha Maidanov is a rebel without a cause, a knight without fear and reproach.
The third one is so educated that even now he is ready to defend his Ph.D. thesis [Arcus, 2012].
The film was quite sharply criticized by E. Gromov, who insisted that "one way or
another, Marina Maksimovna (a teacher) consciously and unconsciously creates a closed
microcosm with her class, with limited access for only gifted, bright, intelligent pupils. And
where are those who are not as talented? Those who prefer streets to poetry? How did a
charming Marina Maximovna manage to turn an ordinary Leningrad class into a small
semblance of the Tsarskoe Selo Lyceum (Alexander Pushkin's school - author's note)? ...
Talented teacher, focused exclusively on talented children, willing or not brings up arrogance,
and she has it, too. There is only a step away from a haughty neglect of rough, everyday work,
and people who do it " [Gromov, 1981, pp. 34-35].
One of the most interesting teacher's film images of stagnation period can be found in the
film The Rescuer (1980). Its author, Sergei Solovyev, has long been interested in the eternal
themes in art: good and evil, friendship and betrayal, truth and lies, love and hatred, conscience,
duty, beauty... However, it does not mean that The Rescuer was far from the timely problems of
the turn of the 1970s - 1980s.
S. Solovyev sincerely and convincingly spoke of the danger of experiencing the beauty.
The idea of The Rescuer is simultaneously simple and complex. The picture as if continues and
develops the message of his previous work – One Hundred Days After Childhood (1975). It is no
coincidence that one of the main roles was performed by Sergei Shakurov in both films. In One
Hundred Days After Childhood he played a summer camp counselor who strove to bring the
children into the bright world of the Beautiful, to elevate their souls. In fact, he succeeded. But
the world of school lessons is sometimes so far from the life around us.
Andrei Larikov (S. Shakurov) from The Rescuer is a school teacher of literature, a
teacher by avocation. Talent sowing "wisdom, good, eternal".
– I came here five years ago. Happy...To teach. No luggage... But now something is
wrong... I tell them all sorts of things. About the stars. About love. And then everything ends. And
very different words come up...He draws this sad conclusion in the conversation with his friends,
that culminated the film.
What if one of Larikov's pupils perceives his lessons as the norm of life? There is such a
person - a school graduate Asya. The relationship between Asya and her former teacher embody
the main idea of the film.
– I loved someone very much. And I believed him very much. And then he betrayed me.
For no special reason, just like that. These monologue by Asya Vedeneeva is her soul crying,
the tragedy of a person disillusioned with the beloved one.
There is an alternative – the "prose of life", aiming to keep up with the Joneses. As, for
example, the sailor of the rescue station Vilya ("Where have you seen it, this spiritual beauty?").
Or, perhaps, as a fashionable dressmaker Grigory Ganin ("I'm content with my life. I have a
good life, and Larikov's spells have nothing to do with it!")? The authors are not in haste to
deliver a verdict on them: both Vilya and Grisha are still very young. Sergei Soloviev does not
give ready didactic solutions to the problem. Nevertheless, the moral result of the picture is
convincing: Larikov understands that his efforts are worth it. If the words are confirmed by the
deeds:
– I've taught one, at least. This is, probably, a lot. A good person has a ripple effect...
The title The Rescuer is ambiguous. Larikov seeks to save the souls of his students –
Asya, Vilya, and Grisha – from selfishness, callousness. And Vilya literally saves Asya – pulling
her out of the water. On the whole, every film character is looking for his/her place in the world.
The film's cast is marvellous. Vasily Mishchenko skillfully conveys sharp changes in the
emotional state of his hero. Now, with a contemptuous smile and prickly eyes saying that he was
"an evil and lonely man," and then Vilya is capable of a self-sacrificing act. He may stammer
and lie to a girl about love, and then really fall in love, unexpectedly and deeply. During his
rather short term of work at the rescue station Vilya actually saved only one person. Not many.
But at the same time, enough. Therefore, it was this unexpected salvation of Asya that became
the beginning of a genuine acquisition of the world around him.
The world created by Sergei Solovyov is surprisingly, provocatively beautiful. "I love the
lavish withering of nature," – he echoes the classical poet Alexander Pushkin, ("Autumn"). The
events pass before us as if "in a magic crystal of elegies" (A. Medvedev), sensitive to fleeting
experiences and moods, able to create an atmosphere of in-depth attention to the internal world
of man.
The Rescuer often flashes Asya's memory about a few minutes spent together with
Larikov: – Under this tree, we hid from the downpour. You and I. We stood side by side. You
know, this pouring rain haunts me in my night dreams... Pavel Lebeshev's camera envelops these
frames with an orange haze of nostalgia. Then the color will return (by the way, by the mid-
1970s almost all the films on the school theme had become color, the fashion for the black and
white image had passed). The yellow leaves will rustle again and again, and it will rain again,
and the mist will cloud over an old, cozy town. The nature, the lake, the deserted beach, and the
old rescue station will trustfully open their beauty. The harmony of nature, the harmony of the
settled world of antiquities is contrasted in The Rescuer with human unsettledness, doubts. The
effect is amplified not only by the camera work but also by the elegiac, sad and light melody of
I. Schwartz.
How can one measure own life against the ideal concept of it? What should one do if
one's dream is betrayed? These complicated questions are facing the main female character of
the film, Asya Vedeneeva (T. Drubich). Contradictions between the ideal beauty and reality are
at the center of the sharp inner and outer conflicts of the film's heroes. They lead Asya to a tragic
decision - an attempt to commit suicide. There are as if two endings in the film. One is semantic
and another one is narrative. The narrative one is a scene of a former classmate Vilya (V.
Mishchenko) leaving for the army service. The semantic ending is Asya's failed suicidal attempt,
the denouement of her dramatic contradictions.
The beginning of the episode is deliberately serene. On the eve of his departure for the
army service, a rescue station worker Vilya wants to see his workplace for the last time: an old,
chipped building on the shore of a picturesque lake. It's autumn and pretty cold. In the middle of
the veranda with a rotten floor is a billiard table, dimly glittering with holes of a broken cloth.
Vilya reluctantly strikes cue, then pulls out the marine binoculars ...
The whole sequence is filmed by the camera man P. Lebeshev slowly, with dignity, with
a long panorama over the landscape and the "objective world," admiring the ancient station
building, the beauty of the lonesome lake, the signs of autumn, which fully came to power.
...Lazily leading binoculars along the lake surface, Vilya suddenly discovers in the
distance a girl in a white cloak comes to the shore. He curiously continues to observe. The girl
pushes a rubber boat and sails to the center of the lake. V. Mischenko plays around with the
situation: Vilya, like many "small bosses", likes showing off his authority. That's why he starts
habitually yelling in the megaphone. But his confidence vanishes, when Asya pierced the boat
with a nail and began to sink...
As a little digression, a few words about the boat and the nail. One of the most quoted
Anton Chekhov's sayings goes that if in the first chapter there is a rifle handing on the wall, it
should go off in the second or the third chapter. A. Chekhov is one of Sergey Solovyov's favorite
writers (his director's debut was a screen adaptation of Chekhov's stories). There is an exact
position for such seemingly trivial things as an inflatable boat and a nail, in the film. Asya
bought this boat as a gift to her beloved. A big nail is the one on which a poster of Botticelli
picture was hanging, Vedeneeva was going to give it to Larikov, too.
Thus, with the help of the object symbolism S. Solovyov once again highlights the main
idea of the film: actions in the name of good and love may one day turn around, by no means
joyful side of being, experiencing the beauty is not easy.
But let's return to the The Rescuer characters. – What's going on? – Vilya is wondering.
And a smooth rhythm of the picture is changing. Vilya feverishly rushes to the rescue. First with
an empty aqualung, then without it. He has never seen a person drowning before. For the first
time, a man who has accustomed to a tranquil float of life must make an Act.
... And here they are on the shore. It is only now that Tatiana Drubich's heroine wakes up
from the state of deep trance, in which she had been still. She starts hysterics. Vilya acts almost
according to the instructions for saving from drowning, he slaps her on the cheek. But
immediately he touches her face with his palm gently.
Apparently far from each other people in everyday life, the author puts them in an
extreme situation. The characters of the film tell each other those things that under other
circumstances, they could never admit. Deliberately indifferent, Asya tells the story of her
unsuccessful marriage: – He proposed. The family is good. Everyone is getting married. It's time
for me, too. Tatyana Drubich convincingly conveys the intonation of the character, her even and
cold tone.
P. Lebeshev is a master of a poetic portrait, sensitive to the director's vision of the frame.
Asya's face appears on the screen in the shaky reflections of the veranda glass, as if enveloped in
a hazy veil. Unearthly. Detached. Initially, Vilya does not understand Asya. But later, when she
tells him about her feelings for Larikov and about his betrayal, Vilya realized it was true love.
A flashback continues the sequence. There are two people under the tree in the rain,
Larikov and Asya. He is reciting s poem. The music of I. Schwartz sounds exciting, tender and
simultaneously disturbing. Both characters of The Rescuer acquire something. Asya regains the
outer world, Vilya attains an inner world. No wonder he admits when saying goodbye: – After
this night, maybe, I'll have nothing else in my life.
The ending is a simple and clear narration wise, but is difficult otherwise. It was
important to deliver a complex range of feelings of the characters to the audience, to give a
chance to think about the serious turning point in their lives.
Summing up, the school in film – both in the 1960s and in the 1970s – was in many
respects more vital, more true to life than in the 1930s-1950s, when the main charge of
admiration was dedicated to teachers, most commonly presented as a gray haired teacher grading
students' essays. Moreover, a different view, a negative image of the teacher was often met with
hostility. As E. Gromov wrote, very different teachers are being shown. From very good, almost
ideal, to purely negative. Sometimes the critical attitude towards the teacher prevails. There is no
need to care of a strict balance, if such bright personalities work in the cinematographic school"
[Gromov, 1981, p. 35].
In Other People's Letters (1975) a new type of a school student appeared – macabre
(from French macabre: gloomy, terrible). This type was only new for Soviet cinema, in western
countries it has long been known (for example, The Bad Seed (1956) by M. LeRoy and The
Exorcist (1973) by W. Friedkin). In fact, "macabre teenagers are therefore especially scary, that
their rebellion is more terrible than that of typical teenagers because it will not pass with age.
These characters are interesting primarily because they do not fulfill the main law of the drama –
they remain the same in the beginning and at the end, the story does not change anything them.
Only adult characters will change – they become aware of their helplessness and horrified. ... It
is in Other People's Letters that for the first time a macabre teenager appears – a young man who
not only causes an unaccountable fear in adults (this type appeared much earlier, back in 1968
We'll Live till Monday, its character Batischev has some resemblance but very distant, since his
position is debunked by the author), but the new type acts actively, encroaching on some rights.
It is important to note that this image will find its continuation in Plumbum or the Dangerous
Game, Dear Elena Sergeevna and a number of films in the second half of the 1980s [Artemieva,
2015, p. 121].
On the other hand, it was in the 1970s when entertaining films about school came out.
Perhaps one of the last Soviet black-and-white films about schoolchildren – Oh, That Nastya
(1971), tells about a ten-year-old girl living in a world of charming fantasies. It is really a pity
that this romantic and musical story, where the animation was organically intertwined, was
deprived of colors.
The director V. Menshov in his musical melodrama about school and schoolchildren The
Practical Joke (1976) used color to the full effect. The film critic T. Kukarkina began her article
about The Practical Joke with praise: "Menshov chose for his first director's work a dynamic
form of narration, catchy, bright, and spectacular. Musical acts, beautiful faces, elegant interiors,
and the plot tension overrode psychological thoroughness. The director has focused his attention
on incessant emotional impact. This is facilitated by a rhythm, original editing transitions, and
the lack of long shots and panning. Everything is big, bright. The film is exciting, and easily
creates empathy for the characters" [Kukarkina, 1978, p. 119]. But then she practically deleted
all this value with a severe verdict: "The declared problems, moral conflicts are blurred, scattered
in different semantic series, replaced by normative rules of ethics. ... The playwright's plan to
solve essential problems is obvious, but simplified to elementary commandments" [Kukarkina,
1978, p.121].
V. Kichin was also very strict to The Practical Joke, arguing that the film, instead of the
expected purposefulness at first, reveals an unexpected ambivalence. The director makes a deal
with the viewer that there will be a debate film, a reflection film – in a word, a serious
conversation. But right there, "call signs" of a game movie, a show clearly sound" [Kichin, 1977,
p. 47].
In our opinion, both T. Kukarkina and V. Kichin, being aware of the original entertaining
thrust of The Practical Joke, in vain tried to assess it as an attempt to create a psychological
drama. In our opinion, there was no duality in the film: unlike The Diary of the School Principal
and Other People's Letters, it never pretended to be dramatic, but was elaborate mixture of
melodrama and musical.
The bid for entertainment was made by the authors of the comedy Troublemaker (1978).
The working title of this picture – "Students Male and Female" was self explanatory. But the
change was for a reason. The protagonist of the film, a graduate of the rural school Petr
Gorokhov, enrolled at the Economics department of a Moscow university, stands out among the
other film characters so much that the final title justifies the content, Peter is a real troublemaker.
The genre of the film is a comedy, with musical elements. Young people sing and dance, and the
rest of the time they attend lectures and fall in love. A comedy is a conventional genre, allowing
different approaches. In one instance, the truth of the characters is preserved. In another one,
only ridiculous situations that more or less conventional characters find themselves, are
important. In the third case, grotesque exaggeration becomes predominant. The example of
Troublemaker shows that it is possible to simultaneously use three of these trends together. The
whole point is whether the unity of the constituents is achieved at the same time. Many episodes
of Troublemaker are depicted in an eccentric manner, almost in the traditions of silent films'
fireworks of laughter. However, along with funny and moderately instructive scenes there are
also many weak, inexpressive episodes.
Even explicit school mischief makers sometimes were featured on the screen of the 1970s
so impressively that the effect turned out to be, in the end, probably not what the authors had
expected. For example, the film about troubled teenagers – Juveniles (1976) – turned out to be
weak and sketchy: "since the film authors, building up the plot, limit all culminating events
within the boundaries of the dance square, they can be misunderstood, as if they sincerely
believe that the root of evil for our youth lurks on a small outdoor dance floor. ... since they do
not illuminate another motivation, other sources of criminal juvenile activity in the town -
stabbing rampage, theft, alcohol addiction. Since nothing in this film has been seriously
explained or analyzed, the viewer has nothing else but, based on what he saw, to draw the
following conclusions: dances, where everything is permitted, where young people are
absolutely uncontrolled, is a hotbed of evil, and therefore it is necessary to eliminate them. ...
The film Juveniles is bursting into battle, claiming to be a topical report about our life, our
imperfect reality. But this report is unreliable. And most importantly, it is pedagogically
incompetent [Zhavoronkov, 1977, pp. 42, 46]. In fact, the naive statement: "the boys are naughty
because they do not go in for sports", the total failure of the "good" characters, contrasted with
the flamboyant hooligan, exposed the artificial plot. A similar scheme but at a higher artistic
level was used in The Last Chance (1978).
In the TV program aimed at teens, the leading actor from the film Plead Guilty (1983)
accused his villain film character – the son of successful and wealthy parents, a ninth-grader
Kolya. In fact, led by a confident director's hand, the actor did not spare black colors: cigarettes,
wine, "elite" possessions, cruelty, excessive self-confidence – the most stereotypical set of
interests and inclinations of a young "silver spoon" Nikolay.
Below is a scene typical for the general interpretation of the image. Nikolay is sitting in
his room, the walls are covered with posters of international pop idols. He is holding a book in
English (the kid is not inept) in one hand, and an imported knife with a retractable blade in
another hand. A self-satisfied smile wanders playfully on his face. The scene is a sign, a poster.
It can be easily put in the frame and placed on the pages of the Soviet satirical magazine
Crocodile. Meanwhile, the authors continue to increase the "negative charge" of Kolya's
character in the same cardboard style, to a cheerful music. Nikolai beats and loots a drunk,
bullies a first-grader, steals alcohol, drowns a poor dog. There is no question about the film's
sincere reflection of reality. The trouble with the film is that it is done unnecessarily rectilinearly,
didactically, not attempting to penetrate the psychology of the characters.
The authors' message is clear – a guilty person must carry punishment he deserved. The
film's creators, obviously, wanted to make the characters and their actions extremely transparent
for the young audience. Hence the contrast between Nikolai and most of his classmates – they
are modestly dressed, speak the right words, go in for sports and regularly attend extracurricular
activities. Hence the fate's twist of Kolya's ex buddy, who goes on summer holidays to his
parents in Siberia, and returns as a reformed person.
Falsehood, even in the smallest detail, vocabulary that is strange to ordinary
schoolchildren, the discrepancy between the age of actors and their characters – all these errors
are immediately spotted by young spectators, as a result there is a barrier of alienation between
them and the screen. Therefore, simplifying, scheming the conflict and characters, the authors do
not achieve the desired, effective impact on the audience. Neither modern musical rhythms, nor
bright colors of a wide screen can save the day.
By the way, director I. Voznesensky initially wanted to integrate a black and white
chronicle, where real juvenile criminals would speak about themselves. The blending between
the feature film and the documentary had been planned, but unfortunately, the idea was not
realized. Such a hybrid, could have significantly affect if not the drama, then the style of the film
Plead Guilty, make it closer to real life.
After all, there is the character in the film, that is sharp and recognizable – Kolya's
mother. The actress I. Miroshnichenko emphasizes the hypocrisy of her heroine: on the one
hand, the exemplary morality she preaches in journal articles, on the other – her own values of
personal gain, prosperity, useful connections with "influential people". This fashionably dressed
woman skillfully plays the mother, dedicated to her son's interests and his moral principles, she
can even shed a tear on her makeup. Next, with a businesslike tone, she makes phone calls to her
powerful acquaintances looking for the possibility to sweep under the carpet her son's ill
behaviour. All in vain – in the ending Kolya in fury stabs a girl with a knife and is put on trial.
At the very end of the film, an episode suddenly comes up, as if baked in from another
film. It is easy to imagine the scene of the trial in the sense of a moralistic poster, with the
prosecutor's speech, with the witnesses' testimony, and the last plea of the accused. But I.
Voznesensky used a truly cinematic mode. The trial scene is entirely built on black-and-white
stop frames, that the camera caught and the director selected the amazingly in-depth moments.
Every film character appears only for a few seconds, but these seconds speak volumes. The
frozen movements, facial expressions, eyes speak for themselves. Unfortunately, the film on the
whole has not been made with such consideration. The script's weaknesses turned out to be
insuperable and the conception was not fulfilled.
We agree with E. Gromov: "Films about difficult adolescents touch upon problems that
are not easy to solve. The whole thing is the way these problems are considered. It has long been
known that if an artist, raising in his work some serious and acute problems, frankly admits that
he does not know how to solve them, then no claims can be made on him. The art of posing the
right question is justified – you value its (the question's) correct statement, an invitation to
arguments and reflections. It is quite another matter that, for the sake of a "happy" ending, they
try to convince you of the existence of a positive program, moreover giving it a universal
meaning. Then you don't believe the artist, and he rather takes you away from the discussion of
the life problem, rather than attracts attention to it" [Gromov, 1981, pp. 37-38].
In the 1970s, films appeared about evening schools for adults (The Big Break, 1972,
Different People, 1973, Every Night After Work, 1973). There were obvious significant changes
in their interpretations. One can agree that the The Big Break (1972) paraphrases The Spring on
Zarechnaya Street (1956), but "if in the first film there is a feeling of sincere faith in the
possibility of building a new society, faith in the possibility of creating / educating a new person,
then in the second – it's just a game that both the characters of the film, and the audience who
watch the film, agree to. In both films, a special role, a special status of the teacher is
emphasized. The ideal of a teacher who, proudly fulfilling his special mission both at home and
at school, has remained the exclusive teacher's image in Soviet cinema for decades. But while in
the 1950s this image is perceived as the only possible one, and the presented models of behavior
could be considered as role models, the same image of the "correct" Soviet teacher in the 1970s
acquires a touch of irony" [Grigorieva, 2007]. And while in The Spring on Zarechnaya Street
workers are first and foremost the history's leaders, factory workers in The Big Break are
ordinary people with their own problems, and simple feelings [Grigorieva, 2007].
As well as in the thaw period, a significant share of films about school and university in
the 1970s and the first half of the 1980s was devoted to love stories. It would seem that just
recently, in the late 1950s – early 1960s, Soviet cinema heatedly asserted the right of school
seniors to love. In the 1970s films about younger teenage love appeared (Woodpeckers Don't Get
Headaches, One Hundred Days After Childhood). The right of high school students to love was
already undeniable, the filmmakers were interested in the variety, complexity of modern
thoughts and feelings, their relationship with each other, and with adults.
However, this kind of complexity was not intrinsic to all films about school / student
love. Some of them were made according to the old plot templates. For example, the film Yulka
(1972) did not narrate so much about love, but agitated graduates of the eighth class to enter
vocational schools, where the teaching staff was wonderful, and the students were all good and
smart.
My Anfisa (1979) features a love story of Anfisa and Nikolai, charismatic young people.
Anfisa is a house painter, a good cook, and a skydiver. Nikolai is a student majoring in Language
Arts, likes sleeping, dreams of travelling to Africa, he is lazy, and is not really good at anything.
These simple initial data are transformed by the laws of melodrama rather traditionally [Demin,
1980]. Firstly, influenced by Anfisa, Nicholai drops out of the university (since he's disillusioned
with the profession of the teacher). Secondly, he learns to jump with a parachute. In other words,
he completely re-educates and becomes a different person. That is the actual impact of their love.
However, the future is envisioned by Nikolai rather vaguely: he might serve in the army
for two years, and then he'll see where it goes from there. To put it mildly, the moral outcome of
his "re-education" does not look as optimistic.
Anfisa and Nicholai were played by talented actors – M. Levtova and L. Kayurov, but the
script's poverty did not allow them to create authentic, psychologically profound images. Nikolai
is a university student, but the range of his interests has remained unclear to the film audience.
Kolya, as a rule, is either meaningfully silent or demonstrates some lazy movements.
A few decades ago, cinema industry had presented such situations in a dramatic, edifying
and didactic way. The authors of My Anfisa, undoubtedly, wanted to avoid this. That's why this
is not a melodrama in its pure form - there are elements of a musical, and a lyrical comedy, too.
Humor and melodic tunes, to some extent, concealed the lack of fresh thought and made trite
situations more lively. But it seems that the artistic value of the film did not benefit from this and
as a result, it was part of the gray mainstream.
Curiously enough, a film that was made two years later, Double truble will come (1981),
featured a similar storyline: a young hero from a well-to-do family (this time a high school
student) falls in love with plasterer / house painter in her twenties. Due to the Soviet censorship
of the stagnation period their relationship was limited only to the chaste kiss of the schoolboy on
the cheek of the seductive representative of the working class, and his (also very modest)
amorous dreams. A similar innocent plot design of the misalliance (this time between two
teenagers) was also used in the drama Before the Snow Falls Down (1984).
Naturally, the school-love theme was used in the comedy genre, too. For example, the
film All The Way Around (1981) used a motif which was well attested in classical literature and,
consequently, in cinema, too: parents are trying to protect their daughter from dating with her
classmate. Then he changes into female clothes and comes disguised as her friend. The girl's
parents were played by great actors O. Tabakov and S. Nemoliaeva, and they, of course, did their
best to breathe life into the storyline. But the finale of the film, that could be summarized by the
sentence from a popular song lyrics "The First Love Comes and Goes Away", micrified their
efforts. The authors' message to the audience was: teenage problems should not be exaggerated,
school students are not able to understand their feelings yet.
Films on school/student love theme plunged into the retro atmosphere quite more seldom.
The end of the fifties-the beginning of the sixties was the time to reconsider the past. Time of
spiritual renewal, of space exploration, of poems being recited on Mayakovsky Square. This
time, on behalf of the current generation in their forties, i.e. those who were in their twenties
back then, was remembered in the film How Young We Were, written and directed by M.
Belikov. His previous work, which title also cited the line from the popular song – The Night Is
Short (1982), spoke about the difficult post-war childhood. In the drama How Young We Were
(1985), the director as though continued following his character, who turned from a schoolboy of
a provincial town into a student of an engineering construction university.
The film impresses with the accuracy of the period features, from a musical phonogram,
carefully bringing back the melodies of those years, to the meticulous signs. The camera,
escaping from the cramped, dimly communal (shared) apartments, bathing in bright colors and in
bewitching mirror glare, takes us away to wide avenues filled with people enthusiastically
shouting the same word – "Gagarin!". From the dance floor filled with fireworks of lights we
transfer to the emerald meadow and rocky seashore. Together with the film character Sasha, we
get into a noisy student dormitory, where there is a lively exchange of a fresh saucepan of borsch
for a snow-white shirt, and a tape recorder - for fashionable shoes. The first lectures, the first
dates, the first part time jobs. A typical life of an ordinary student, familiar to many of us. M.
Belikov makes his hero surprisingly vulnerable, open-minded, romantic, capable of a reckless act
and human compassion.
How Young We Were is a nostalgic melodrama. Sasha, captivatingly performed by T.
Denisenko, seems to be concerned about one thing: is it love or not? What if it's love? Is it
enough or not? Probably a lot, since the authors are not tempted by excessive symbolism.
Although the author's slightly indulgent and touching attitude to all without exception, actions of
the protagonist, gives rise to a certain bewilderment – what about the hypertrophied infantilism
of Sasha?
Another love melodrama – School Waltz (1977), traces its characters on the illusive
border between the last school waltz and the independent adult life. According to the storyline,
an interesting, remarkable Zosya (E. Tsyplakova) sincerely entrusted her first love to her
classmate Gosha, who turned out to be disgraceful.
While Zosia for E. Tsyplakova was a natural spin-off of her previous roles: of a seventh
grader (Woodpeckers Don't Get Headaches), a ninth-grader (The Key That Should Not Be
Handed On), E. Simonova was more likely to be seen in adult roles (Afonya, Missing Expedition,
Ordinary Miracle). Nevertheless, E. Simonova managed to play the first, obsessive, ready to be
ridiculed, love. The culmination of her image was the episode in the marriage registry office.
Dina is standing next to Gosha, now her lawful husband, but stolen from Zosya. The desire is
achieved, but the actress almost without words copes to say about lots of things: that having
Gosha as a husband does not mean being loved by him, that she could not be able to make him
happy, and they were not going to be together for a long.
Unfortunately, Gosha's image is less convincing, not dramatically justified. Having left
his beloved girlfriend in a difficult moment and subsequently declaring that he values his
personal freedom more than anything else, Gosha gives way to the insistent but unloved Dina,
and marries her. The reasons for such a contradictory behaviour remain behind the scenes, the
viewer will perhaps remember his tightness and restraint.
Without support in the psychological motivation, the authors of the film force their hero
to commit a strange act: Gosha, having run away from Dina directly from the wedding
ceremony, teams up with complete strangers, drunkards in the backyard and shares a bottle with
them. This must have depicted the highest degree of despair, the turmoil that seized him. But as a
matter of fact, the effect is the same as traditional, tacky cigarettes draw, designed to replace
psychology, deep penetration into the image with a conventional sign, which denotes a person's
commotion. This episode seems an unfortunate mistake, because in general, School Waltz is
quite compelling. Low-keyed conversations, soft color tones, ordinary interiors (not everybody
lives in luxurious apartments, as some heroes of The Practical Joke), no unnecessary editing and
optical effects.
In the film I Ask to Accuse Klava K. Of My Death (1979), the filmmakers again, as in the
thaw period drama What if it's love? (1961), turned to the theme of unhappy love, that makes one
think about a suicide. Grasshopper (1979) was bold enough to show how a nice female student
uses amorous / sexual connections for career growth and material well-being. The heroine of the
film jumps onto the steps of success with victorious ease, not really pondering the future of those
who helped her to climb up there. She, as a Grasshopper, is a certain social type, very accurately
observed by the script writer F. Mironer. This type is distinguished first of all by a utilitarian
approach to science, to their job, to people who are close, and the desire to live at someone else's
expense. Lena behaves as a prospector, greedily seeking gold placer mines, in her pursuit of
imaginary values she misses the true values - spirituality, fidelity, kindness, wrote film critics in
the 1970s [Atamanova, 1979].
We remember how important it was for the Soviet cinema of the 1920s-1950s (and even
in many films of the 1960s and 1970s) to show the positive impact of the
collective/community/class on the person who had dropped out of it. At the end of the stagnation
period, this storyline acquired a new interpretation in Scarecrow (1983) by R. Bykov: the cruelty
of the "children's community in need of a black sheep for self-assertion and aggression output.
This story is about being an outsider against one's will, and not as a conscious choice" [Arcus,
2012].
"Won't I ever laugh again? Has my life passed by and nothing else is going to happen? I
will not love anybody else!" the twelve-year-old girl cries in despair. You believe these words,
they do not seem to be a stretch, a falsity. R. Bykov, who had previously directed films for and
about children in a comedy, musical tone, this time turned to drama with tragic notes. The script
based on V. Zheleznikov's novel presented a serious conflict – mocking and bullying a sixth-
grader Lena Bessoltseva. At first, she tries to adjust herself to her new school, to fit in with her
new classmates who promptly nickname her.
The world of Lena's classmates is extremely sour and miserable. Most of them long for
their academic service, school lessons to finish, so that they can put on a branded jeans, get a
little money and have fun. Their entertainment is monotonous - dull trampling to music, retelling
ambiguous anecdotes, or jokes about teachers. They talk about money, clothes, other people's
success. However, the circle of interests of their teacher (E. Sanaeva) is not much wider – all her
thoughts seem to be focused on one thing: her engagement and future marriage.
This is the world where Lena Bessoltseva, a thin, awkward girl who always finds herself
in ridiculous situations. She is just as unlike her classmates, as her kind grandfather is unlike
other adults in the film. He buys old paintings that once belonged to his ancestral home, but
walks around wearing a shabby, mended coat. A long conversation of an old man Bessoltsev (Y.
Nikulin) with Lena sounds like a soul confession. The audience understands that they are related
by spiritual closeness, such an open-hearted outlook, consonant with the autumn landscape of an
ancient Russian town filmed by the camera work. The scene when Lena falls asleep on a
disturbing, chilly, windy autumn evening, and wakes up on a sunny winter morning, goes out
into the yard and sees the snow dazzlingly shining, how clear and deep the sky is above her head,
acquires a special meaning. She feels renewal, finds the strength to fight on.
The pinnacle of her struggle is a scene in church's ruins, where a good-looking and
popular Dima Somov, renounces Lena, being afraid to admit his own cowardice. When the
teenagers burn a scarecrow of a "traitor" on bonfire, the drama reaches a point of a real tragedy.
Where were the adults meanwhile? One of the scenes answers this question. The tourists
descend from a tour boat to see the sights of the town. They are offered to refreshments when a
group of teenagers runs out into the square, chasing a thin girl. They knock her off her feet and
begin beating. "How horrible!", someone in the crowd exclaims. But next the teenagers scatter in
different directions, and vacation mood takes over – in a minute the tourists forget about what
happened. Indifference, vanity, spiritual emptiness cause the authors' sadness as much as a
mercantile interest. They urge to stop and think not only teenagers "having fun", but also adults,
passively watching their, sometimes cruel entertainment. Scarecrow is a warning film. It speaks
with genuine pain that under certain circumstances a conspiracy of silence may destroy or
conquer everything moral.
The film was in many ways unusual for Soviet cinema. It was arguing with the sugary
sweetness of the school theme, where neat boys and girls diligently studies and listened to their
parents. The film turned out to be tough to watch, very disturbing.
In the same year, 1983, an equally sharp drama about teenagers was made - Boys
(screenplay by Y. Klepikov, directed by D. Asanova). This film was about more than troubled
adolescents, it was of those who had already chosen a slippery path of crime, those who had been
bailed out by a former athlete, the head of the correctional labor colony Antonov (V.
Priyomykhov).
There are two scenes in the film, short but very significant. In one of them, grandmother
pitifully gives her grandson a packet of cigarettes, habitually saying, that he should quit smoking.
"I will, granny, of course I will", her grandson as usually answers. In the second scene, the TV
journalist asks Antonov about his educational method. And when he can't specify some rules, the
journalist complains that it's not good enough for a TV show.
In fact, Antonov doesn't have a graduate degree. He doesn't know how to speculate about
the principles of pedagogy. But he knows more than that, he managed to find the key for his
students' hearts, the key that so hopelessly escapes from the hands of his well-educated deputy,
who seems to be building his relations with the teenagers by textbooks.
The teacher Antonov is not ideal. He sometimes screams and scolds, but he is always just
because he values trust, respect and honesty foremost. He is aware that if there is no mutual
understanding, there will be no upbringing.
The film's authors are also not inclined to idealize the situation: in Boys there are no
episodes of hasty moral healing of lost souls. On the contrary, there are scenes of painful failures
- a sudden rebellion, escapes from the colony (some of the actors were actual juvenile offenders).
However on the whole the film gives hope and faith in the future of troubled adolescents.
The drama Games for School Children (1985) turned to the problem that Soviet cinema
had tried to avoid before: the formation of personality in orphanages. There are a lot of brutal,
naturalistic scenes at an orphanage filled with isolation, aggressiveness, hysteria, and anger.
Violent fights between the girls, one of the scenes is shocking: a high school girl locks a seven-
year-old in the washing machine and switches it on. The main character of the film is a high
school student Marie. Self-absorption and detachment change for a spark of hope;
uncompromising decisiveness of actions gives way to helpless depression.
Teachers rarely appear in the film. Games for School Children try to provide an insider's
view: we see the events through the eyes of Marie, choosing from dozens of daily impressions
what she considers the most important. Hence the motives of loneliness and the lack of spiritual
warmth are dominating.
Results
The stagnation period films (1969-1985) on the school/university topic.
Place of action, historical, social, cultural, political, and ideological context
1. Historical context (dominant concepts: "media agencies", "media categories", "media
representations" and "media audiences").
a) features of the historical period when media texts were created, market conditions that
contributed to the idea, the process of creating media texts, the degree of influence of that time
on media texts.
The timeframe for the historical period of the "stagnation" has been defined conditionally
from 1969 (increase of censorship and ideological control after the invasion of Soviet troops in
Czechoslovakia) to 1985 (M. Gorbachev's coming to power).
The main characteristics of this historical period:
- essential extirpation of the "thaw" tendencies (including the cinema industry), the actual
rejection of Stalin's criticism against the backdrop of the growing expansion of the spectrum of
solemn celebrations of Soviet-communist jubilees on a national scale;
- continuation of the exploitation of the official doctrine of the established common
community of the Soviet people and the absence of class, ethnic, or racial problems; the
possibility of peaceful coexistence of socialist and capitalist systems (in the framework of the so-
called détente (policy of the lessening of tensions between the West and the East);
- maintenance of the ideological struggle with bourgeois states, militarization, military
and economic support for pro-communist regimes in developing countries, armed intervention in
Afghanistan;
- aggravation of tension with the People's Republic of China;
- increasing tension with the West (esp., the USA) in connection with the events in
Afghanistan, Poland and the incident with the South Korean airliner shot down by
a Soviet interceptor;
- "soft" struggle against dissenters: A. Solzhenitsyn, A. Sakharov, etc.;
- continuation of the industrialization (mainly heavy and military industry), construction
of BAM (Baikal-Amur Railway);
- mass housing construction for the population;
- continuation of space exploration (including the first Soviet-American space project);
- end of the intensive struggle with religion;
- unusually swift change of the Soviet leaders: within a relatively short period of time
from November 1982 to March 1985, one after another, the three General Secretaries of the
CPSU died;
- another attempt of the education reform (Decree of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR
"On the main directions of the reform of the general and professional school" of April 12, 1984
N 13-XI).
The so-called ideological struggle against the imperialist West was going on very
intensely during the stagnation period. As a response to the attempt to liberalize socialism in
Czechoslovakia in early January 1969, there was a secret Resolution of the Central Committee of
the CPSU "On increasing the responsibility of the senior officers of the press, radio and
television, cinema, culture and art institutions for the ideological and political level of all
published materials and repertoire", 1969]. It stated that in the context of the escalating
ideological struggle between socialism and capitalism, "it is the task of journalists, writers, film
directors and artists to oppose any manifestations of bourgeois ideology, but propagandize the
communist ideals, the advantages of socialism, the Soviet way of life, to analyze and expose
various kinds of petty-bourgeois and revisionist trends. Meanwhile, some authors, directors, etc.
depart from class criteria when assessing and covering complex social and political problems,
facts and events, and sometimes they reflect the views, that are alien to the ideology of socialist
society. There are attempts to assess the important periods of the history of the party and state in
a one-sided, subjectivist way, and to criticize the shortcomings not from the position of
communist and civic interest, but as outsiders, that contradicts the principles of socialist realism
and communist journalism ... Some heads of publishing houses, television channels, cultural and
art institutions do not take the proper measures to prevent the publication of ideologically
erroneous works, they do not work well with the authors, they show compliance and political
expediency in making decisions about the publication of ideologically perverse materials. ... The
Central Committee of the CPSU considers it necessary to emphasize the special responsibility of
the heads of organizations and departments and editorial teams for the ideological orientation of
the published works" [Decree ..., 1969].
Of course, this decision could not but affect the cinema industry, so the practice of
replenishing the list of films banned by the censorship continued, and ideological control of
screenplays and the filming process intensified.
In the year of the 50th anniversary of the USSR, on January 21, 1972, the Resolution of
the CPSU Central Committee "On Literary and Art Criticism" was issued, where, in unison with
the above mentioned decree, it was argued that "criticism is still not sufficiently active and
consistent in affirming the revolutionary, humanistic ideals of the art of socialist realism, the
disclosure of the reactionary essence of bourgeois "mass culture" and decadent trends, in the
struggle against various kinds of non-Marxist views on literature and art, and revisionist
aesthetic concepts" [Resolution, 1972].
In the same year, 1972, the Resolution of the Central Committee of the CPSU "On
Measures for the Further Development of Soviet Cinematography" (2.08.1972) was issued,
where it was once again reminded that "cinema art is called upon to actively promote the
formation of a Marxist-Leninist world outlook among the broad masses, to shape the spirit of
selfless devotion to our multinational socialist homeland, Soviet patriotism and socialist
internationalism, the assertion of communist moral principles, the irreconcilable attitude toward
the bourgeoisie ideology and morals, petty-bourgeois remnants, to everything that prevents our
progress" [Resolution On Measures ..., 1972].
Thus, in about three years, a series of resolutions were adopted concerning culture and
ideology aimed not only at combating the harmful influences of the West, but also at propagating
communist ideology. Trying to influence the formation of the worldview of Soviet youth, the
country's leadership in October 1976 published the Resolution of the Central Committee of the
CPSU "On working with creative youth", which also affected the cinema and other media.
However, apparently, some alarming signals about the real moods of the population
(especially young people) that reached the Kremlin through the special services did not allow the
CPSU ideological apparatus to relax. In April 1979, the Central Committee of the CPSU adopted
a resolution "On the further improvement of ideological, political and educational work," which,
in particular, stated that: "The communist party organizations, cultural bodies, ideological
institutions and departments, creative unions, are assigned the mission to improve the ideological
and political education and the Marxist-Leninist education of the artistic intelligentsia. They
should constantly care for the upbringing of high ideology, citizenship, the development of
creative activity of writers, artists, composers, theater and cinema specialists, and journalists.
They must pay attention to the creation of new significant works of literature and art that talently
reflect the heroic accomplishments of the Soviet people, the problems of the development of
socialist society, used by our ideological opponents. They must intensify the activity of creative
unions in analyzing trends in the development of literature and art" [Resolution, 1979].
Later on, similar to the previous documents, it was stressed that "imperialist propaganda
... is continuously conducting fierce attacks on the minds of Soviet people, striving to use their
most sophisticated methods and modern technical means to poison their understanding with
slander against Soviet reality, to tarnish socialism, to embellish imperialism and its predatory,
inhuman policies and practices. Perverted information and biased coverage of facts,
underreporting, half-truth and shameless lies - everything is put to use. Therefore, one of the
most important tasks of ideological, educational and informational work is to help Soviet people
recognize the whole falsity of this slanderous propaganda, in a clear, concrete and convincing
manner to expose its insidious methods, to bring the truth about the world's first country of
victorious socialism to the international community. It should always be remembered that the
marginalization of the coverage of actual problems, lack of promptness, questions left
unanswered, are beneficial only to our class enemy" [Resolution, 1979].
It was 1979 that was almost the final for a brief détente in political relations between the
USSR and the West, the cold war began to gain momentum. Soon after the invasion of Soviet
troops in Afghanistan (late December 1979), the jamming of the broadcasts of Voice of America
and other Western radio stations in Russian on the territory of the USSR resumed (from August
20-21, 1980).
The power of Yu.V. Andropov (years of life: 1914-1984) further exacerbated ideological
confrontation and counterpropaganda: in June 1983, the Resolution of the Plenum of the CPSU
Central Committee "Actual Issues of the Party's Ideological and Political Work with Masses"
was adopted.
The brief office period of K. Chernenko (years of life: 1911-1985) was marked not only
by the escalation of ideological confrontation, but also by an attempt of the education reform
(relatively stable in the 1970s). The decision about the reform was taken at the Plenum of the
Central Committee of the CPSU in June 1983. K. Chernenko approved it and published the
Decree of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR "On the main directions of the reform of the
secondary and vocational school" (April 12, 1984 N 13-XI), which presupposed:
- return to the eleven-year secondary education;
- streaming high-school students into various advanced level classes (i.e. Language Arts,
Science, Maths);
- the establishment of secondary vocational schools;
- limiting the number of students in a class to 25-30 people;
- increase of teachers' salary [Decree ..., 1984].
Again, as in the late 1950s and early 1960s, the task was "to radically improve the
implementation of labor education, training and vocational guidance in the general education
school; to strengthen the polytechnical, practical orientation of teaching; to expand significantly
the training of skilled workers in the vocational training system; to implement the transition to
universal vocational education for young people" [Decree ..., 1984].
However, in reality, the idea of labor training in schools (as it had happened in the first
half of the 1960s), was very soon rejected: since 1988, vocational training in secondary school
became elective, not obligatory. In fact, neither the teachers' salary, nor the prestige of the
pedagogical profession really increased (the latter, by the way, was reflected in the films on the
school topic).
It is clear that the Decree of the Supreme Council of the USSR "On the main directions of
the reform of the secondary and vocational school" has to some extent been embodied in Soviet
audiovisual media texts, but because of "perestroika" started in 1986, films, violating prior
taboos of school representation in films, have appeared.
As for the direct reflection of political events (see Table 1), it barely appeared in the films
on the school/university theme of the stagnation era: neither the Soviet-Chinese conflict nor the
war in Afghanistan affected the "school" films in any way. The only truly politicized film was
The Diary of Carlos Espinola (1976), depicting the international boarding school for children of
foreign (often – Latin American) oppositionists. In the course of action, a schoolboy named
Carlos learns that his father was sentenced to death for an opposition struggle (most likely in
Chile) and (apparently) for pro-Soviet views.
Table 1. Key dates and events in the USSR and worldwide in stagnation period (1969-
1985): politics, economics, culture (compiled by A. Fedorov)
Years Key dates and events in the USSR and worldwide in stagnation period (1969-1985):
politics, economics, culture
1969 Resolution of the Central Committee of the CPSU "On increasing the responsibility of the executive
managers of the press, radio and television, cinema, culture and art institutions for the ideological and
political level of published materials and repertoire": January 7.
The publication of the New Edition of the Third Program of the CPSU, that didn't contain promises to
build communism in the near future.
Armed conflict between the USSR and China on Damansky Island: March.
Resolution of the Central Committee of the CPSU and the Council of Ministers of the USSR "On
measures for the further development of Soviet children's literature": March 26.
The approval by the Ministry of Education of the RSFSR of the elective course for the secondary school
"Fundamentals of the Cinema Art": April.
The landing of American astronauts on the moon: July 20.
Resolution of the Council of Ministers of the USSR on the measures for the development of color
television in the USSR: August 9.
Organization of preparatory courses at universities: August 19.
The beginning of Soviet-American negotiations on the limitation of strategic nuclear weapons: November
17.
The exemption of A. Solzhenitsyn from the USSR Writers' Union: November.
1970 100-year anniversary of V. Lenin: April 22.
Twentieth anniversary of victory over Germany in the Great Patriotic War: 9 May.
The treaties between the USSR and Germany, Germany and Poland on the recognition of postwar borders
in Europe: August.
Adoption of the Charter of the secondary school: September 8.
A. Solzhenitsyn is awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature: October 8.
1971 XXIV Congress of the CPSU: March 30 - April 9.
Five hundred thousand people in Washington, D.C. and 125,000 in San Francisco march in protest
against the Vietnam War - April 24.
The United Kingdom accused about 100 Soviet diplomats of espionage - September 24.
1972 Resolution of the Central Committee of the CPSU "On Literary and Art Criticism": January 21.
Visit of US President Richard Nixon to the USSR. Between the USSR and the United States, an
agreement was signed on limiting missile defense and on the joint space program "Soyuz" - "Apollo":
May 22-30.
Resolution of the Central Committee of the CPSU "On measures for the further development of Soviet
cinema": August 2.
Trade agreement between the USSR and the USA: October 18.
The 50th anniversary of the USSR: December 30.
1973 Armed insurgency in Chile. The President of Chile S. Allende was killed. General A. Pinochet came to
power in Chile: September.
War in the Middle East: October.
Increase in world oil prices.
The publication (in Paris) of the first volume of the anti-Soviet / anti-communist book of A.I.
Solzhenitsyn "The Gulag Archipelago": December.
1974 A. Solzhenitsyn was expelled from the USSR: February 13.

Visit of the US President Richard Nixon to the USSR. The agreement on restriction of underground
nuclear tests is signed: on July, 3rd.
The resignation of US President Richard Nixon: August 8.
Visit of the US President J. Ford to the USSR: November 23-24.
1975 The Soviet Union's refusal to trade with the US in protest against the statements of the American
Congress on Jewish emigration: January 15.
End of the Vietnam War: April 30.
The 30th anniversary of the victory over Germany in the Great Patriotic War: 9 May.
Signing the USSR (together with 35 countries) of the Final Act of the Conference on Security and
Cooperation in Europe: August 1.
Another break in the jamming of "enemy votes" (except for Radio Liberty) - as a result of the signing of
the Helsinki Act.
Joint Soviet-American space flight: July.
A Russian nuclear physicist, and an activist for disarmament and peace A.D. Sakharov is awarded the
Nobel Peace Prize: October 9.
1976 XXV Congress of the CPSU: February 24 - March 5.
Reaching of the agreement between the USSR and the USA on the prohibition of underground nuclear
explosions for peaceful purposes with a capacity of over 150 kilotons: on May 28.
Resolution of the Central Committee of the CPSU "On work with creative youth": October 12.
1977 The Soviet icebreaker Arktika becomes the first surface ship to reach the North Pole - August 17.
Opening of the Belgrade Conference on Monitoring the Implementation of the Decisions of the
Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe: 4 October.
The 60th anniversary of Soviet power: November 7.
The Soviet National Anthem's lyrics are returned after a 24-year period, with Joseph Stalin's name
omitted.
1978 A military coup in Afganistan - April 27.
Start of Islamic Revolution in Iran.
1979 Resolution of the Central Committee of the CPSU "On further improvement of ideological, political and
educational work": April 26.
The agreement between the USSR and the USA on the limitation of strategic offensive weapons: June 18.
The 60th anniversary of Soviet cinema: August 27.
The second coup d'état in Afghanistan, supported by the USSR: September 16.
The entry of the USSR troops into Afghanistan, the beginning of the Afghan war: December.
1980 In response to the invasion of Soviet troops in Afghanistan, the United States suspended ratification of
the treaty on the limitation of strategic offensive arms, announced a boycott of the Olympic Games in
Moscow and an embargo on the supply of modern technologies and grains to the USSR: January 4.
Academician AD Sakharov was exiled to Gorky. By decree of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of
the USSR, he was deprived of the 3 titles of Hero of Socialist Labor, and by a decree of the Council of
Ministers of the USSR - the title of laureate Stalin (1953) and Lenin (1956) prizes: January 22.
The Olympic Games in Moscow: July 19 - August 3.
The USSR resumed jamming the broadcasts of "Voice of America" and other Western radio stations in
Russian on the territory of the USSR: from August 20-21.
Activity of the Solidarity movement in Poland.
1981 XXVI Congress of the CPSU: February 23 - March 3.
Abolition of the US embargo on grain supplies to the USSR: April 24.
The beginning of the production of neutron weapons in the United States.
The signing of a contract between the USSR and Germany on the supply of gas to West Germany:
November 20.
Imposing the martial law in Poland: December 13.
Statement by US President R. Reagan on the inadmissibility of Soviet interference in the affairs of
Poland, the announcement of new sanctions against the USSR: December 29.
1982 Signing a contract between the USSR and France for the supply of Siberian gas: January 23.
The British-Argentine armed conflict in the Falklands: March-April.
Resolution of the Central Committee of the CPSU "On the creative links of literary and art magazines
with the practice of communist construction": July 30.
The death of Leonid Brezhnev: November 10, Yu.V. Andropov comes to power.
Cancellation of the US sanctions imposed against the USSR in connection with the events in Poland:
November 13.
The 60th anniversary of the USSR: December 30.
1983 Resolution of the plenum of the Central Committee of the CPSU "Actual issues of the ideological, mass-
political work of the party": June.
The government of Poland announces the end of martial law and amnesty for political prisoners - July 20.
A South Korean civilian aircraft was shot down over the territory of the USSR: September 1.
Y. Andropov's statement with a statement against the deployment of Pershing-2 missiles in Europe and
the abolition of a moratorium on the deployment of medium-range nuclear missiles: November 24.
1984 The conference on disarmament is opened in Stockholm: January 17.
The death of Y. Andropov, K. Chernenko comes to power: 9 February.
Decree of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR "On the main directions of reform of the general and
vocational schools": April 12.
Resolution of the Central Committee of the CPSU and the Council of Ministers of the USSR "On
measures to further enhance the ideological and artistic level of motion pictures and strengthen the
material and technical base of cinematography": April 19.
Statement on the Boycott of the USSR Olympic Games in Los Angeles: May 8.
The French President F. Mitterrand visits the USSR: June 21-23.
The Soviet protest against the US military program "Star Wars": June 29.
Visit of the member of the Politburo M. Gorbachev in the UK, his meeting with Prime Minister M.
Thatcher: December 15-21.
1985 The death of K. Chernenko, Mikhail Gorbachev comes to power: March.
The resumption of negotiations on arms limitation in Geneva: March 12.
The 40th anniversary of the victory over Germany in the Great Patriotic War: May 9.
Meeting of M. Gorbachev and Reagan in Geneva: November 19-21.
According to the authorities, the Soviet audiovisual texts in 1969-1985, related to

school and university, were supposed to support the main lines of the then state policy in the
educational, social, and cultural spheres, that is, to show that while maintaining common
ideological guidelines, the Soviet system of education, upbringing and culture:
- cares about the inner world of a school student and focuses on the formation of a
"comprehensively developed personality";
- the relationship between teachers and students remains democratic, to some extent creative;
- there are problem zones at school and university (criticism became especially visible in the first
half of the 1980s, with the release of such significant works as The Rescuer by S. Soloviev, Boys
by D. Asanova and Scarecrow by R. Bykov).
b) how the knowledge of real historical events of a particular period helps to understand the
given media texts, examples of historical references in these media texts.
The Golden Watch (1968) and Our Calling (1981), features a positive view on the
pedagogical experience of Soviet educators and the pioneer movement of the 1920s, however,
these films no longer had such broad resonance as the thaw period film Republic of ShKID
(1966). In the 1970s and early 1980s, the tendencies of returning to the Lenin's norms of life and
the ideas of "good Bolsheviks" have already lost their appeal.
The films The Big Break (1972), Translation from English (1972), Different People,
1973; The Diary of the School Principal (1975), The Key That Should Not Be Handed On
(1976); Refutation (1976); The Rescuer (1980) reflected the problems in the pedagogical
environment, which to some extent echoed the message for self-criticism, contained in the
reports of the CPSU congresses.
2. Social, cultural, ideological, and religious context (dominant concepts: "media
agencies", "media categories", "media representations" and "media audience").
a) ideology, directions, goals, objectives, world outlook, the concepts of the media texts'
authors in the socio-cultural context; ideology, culture of the world, depicted in media texts.
In the era of "stagnation", the communist ideology (including the anti-capitalist theory of
socialist realism) in the USSR continued to dominate, the film industry found itself under harder
censorship than in "thaw" period, so the authors of most audiovisual media texts on the school-
university theme were working within these strict frames, although every year the school and
university subjects in Soviet cinema step by step won back new "permitted" territories.
In the films Woodpeckers Don't Get Headaches (1974), Love at First Sight (1975), One
Hundred Days After Childhood (1975), School Waltz (1977), I Ask to Accuse Klava K. Of My
Death (1979), Love and Lies (orig. Vam i ne snilos, 1980), All The Way Around (1981), Cheating
(1983), etc. the theme of love relationships between school students was unveiled on the whole
in a puritan way. However, such events as the triumphant march of rock music and the sexual
revolution sweeping western countries in the 1970s, touched upon popular culture in the Soviet
Union, too. Thus, in School Waltz (1977), a pretty senior not only had sexual relations with her
classmate, but was also pregnant (the situation had been absolutely impossible in the chaste
cinema of the previous years). Alyosha (1980) featured a young teacher in the technical college
falling in love with his seventeen-year-old student and proposing to her. Despite all the rigors of
Soviet censorship, some films contained episodes exposing adolescent interest in sex:
schoolchildren examined a low neckline of a good-looking teacher in binoculars (We Used to
Live Next Door, 1982), a schoolgirl admired the nude figure of a young teacher taking the
shower (Good Intentions, 1984).
While in the film Little Confession (1971) rock music was still a novelty, a few years later
it sounded in many films about school/education (Brother is the Whole Point, 1976; The
Practical Joke, 1976; I Will Wait, 1979, etc.).
b) the world outlook of the characters of the "school world" depicted in media texts
In general, the world view of the audiovisual media texts' characters featuring school and
university storylines during the stagnation period, as in the previous decades, was optimistic,
however, some anxiety about the morale of teachers and students (The Diary of the School
Principal (1975), The Key That Should Not Be Handed On (1976), The Rescuer (1980), The
Chair (1982), The Boys (1983), Scarecrow (1983), etc.). There were outstanding personalities,
troubled with reflection and doubt among the characters (schoolchildren, students and teachers)
(Cross the Threshold, Translation from English, The Diary of the School Principal, One
Hundred Days After Childhood, The Key That Should Not Be Handed On, The Traitor, The
Rescuer, The Boys, Scarecrow). But there were also new dramatic plot twists: in Other People's
Letters (1975), an impudent high school student rudely interfered in personal life of the teacher
who sheltered her, and in Scarecrow (1983) aggressive classmates harassed a defenseless girl.
At the same time, there was a mass production of "school" films, where the usual
hierarchy of values dominated (communist ideology, collectivism, diligence, honesty,
willingness to give a helping hand): Yulka, 1972; Valka's Sail, 1974; Such High Mountains,
1974; Little Dad's Adventures, 1979; Sail, Ship, 1983; The Diary, The Letter and The First
Grader, 1984, The Sun in Your Pocket, 1984; Watch Out - Vasilyok, 1985, etc. It seems that the
story of a reformed struggling school boy from the comedy Malicious Sunday (1985) could have
been filmed in the late 1940s and 1950s. Such films generated a touching, pathetic intonation in
relation to the school children characters [Gromov, 1981, p. 36].
Meanwhile, Soviet economy problems were highlighted on the screen more and more
often. For example, Translation from English (1972) shows the excitement of schoolchildren
about petty but deficit foreign merchandise (chewing gums and badges). The comedy Crank
from the 5B (1972) features a shot taken at the department store and consumers' hype at the
counter. In Quiet C-Students (1980), one of the characters proudly declares that he waited for
three years for his turn to buy the sought after car.
3. Structure and narrative techniques in these media texts (dominant concepts: "media
categories", "media technologies", "media languages", "media representations")
Schematically, the structure, plot, representativeness, ethics, features of genre modification,
iconography, character characters of audiovisual media texts on school and university topic in
the "stagnation" period can be presented as follows:
a) the location and time period in media texts. The main location in films is school classes and
corridors, schoolyards and flats; the plot is set mostly (if it's not a retro about 1920s) at the time
when the film is made.
b) the environment typical for these media texts, household items: the furnishings and household
items of school films are still modest, however sometimes wealthy apartments are shown (The
Practical Joke, Grasshopper, The Chair, The Follower) .
c) genre modifications of school and university subjects: drama, comedy, melodrama, less often -
fiction;
d) narrative techniques, narrative bias: positive characters are rarely idealized, and negative
ones tend to be presented ambiguously too, although there are many relapses from the "soothing"
cinema of the 1950s;
e) typology of characters (character traits, clothing, physique, vocabulary, facial expressions,
character gestures, the presence or absence of the stereotypical manner of representing the
characters in these media texts):
- characters' age: the age of schoolchildren is in the range of 7-17 years, however, teenage
characters are most common; the age of other characters (teachers, parents, grandparents, etc.)
varies, but adults but adults below 60 prevail;
- education level: corresponding school year for students, teachers presumably have a university
degree, supporting characters can have any level of education;
- social status, profession: the financial situation of students is basically the same (although from
the second half of the 1970s the material inequality of individual characters began to be more
clearly indicated), they can be either from the families of workers and farmers, or from the
intelligentsia. The parents' jobs are diverse.
- characters' marital status: school students, naturally, are not married; adult characters are
mostly married, however, single teachers often appear on the screen (resulting in plot twists
connected with the love relationships of male teachers with university or college female
students);
- appearance, clothing, physique of characters, features of their characters, vocabulary: the
appearance of the characters of school children and students in the films of the stagnation period
is within the framework of the canons of the student's image of that time. The boys' hairdo
changed in the mid 1970s: the western fashion for men's long hair no longer shocked the
teachers.
Schoolchildren in the films 1969-1985, as in the "thaw" period, did not exhibit fanaticism of
their peers in the films of the 1920s -1930s, but on the whole they retained optimism. However,
more and more often villain characters, who clearly had no chance of reformation, appeared on
screen.
Teachers from the films of the stagnation period, like in the days of the late thaw, were
increasingly confronted with doubts and sad contemplations. The distance between them and the
students became more fragile (this was especially evident in the dramas Other People's Letters,
Traitor, Alyosha, 4:0 in Tanechka's favor, Good Intentions, Almost Peers). As for the
appearance, now they could already afford some liberties in their clothes (for example, a suede
jacket, a flirty scarf, in-style blouse and hairdo).
f) a significant change in the life of media characters and the challenge that the characters face
(a violation of the usual life):
Option 1: among the next-door characters, schoolchildren who live a normal life, are those who
for some reason do not fit into the standard framework of interpersonal communication and
learning process, that is:
- they perform weekly at school and thus hold back the class' rating (The Last "Fail" Grade,
1977, Quiet C-Students, 1980, Another Student's A, 1982 etc.);
- try to dominate, subjugate their classmates, acting sometimes violently (Kindness, 1977; Plead
Guilty, 1983; Scarecrow, 1983; Leader, 1984; Games for Schoolchildren, 1985, etc. .);
- stand out among classmates (in a good way or in a bad way) so conflict with the rest of the
class and / or teachers (Cross the Threshold, 1970, Little Confession, 1971, Oh, This Nastya,
1971); Translation from English, 1972; Crank from the 5B, 1972); Stunning Berendeev, 1975;
Other People's Letters , 1975; What's Wrong With You?, 1975; The Practical Joke, 1976;
Kindness, 1977; Once Upon a Time There Lived the First Grade, 1977; Flat with the Child to
Rent, 1978; The Tuning Fork, 1979; Unfinished Lesson, 1980; Revision For the Exam, 1980;
Lullaby for Brother, 1982; If to Believe Lopotukhin, 1983; Mascot, 1983; Scarecrow, 1983, The
Morning Without Marks, 1983; The Leader, 1984; The Third One in the Fifth Row, 1984;
Malicious Sunday, 1985; Different, 1985);
- fall in love (Boys, 1969; Yulka, 1972; Woodpeckers Don't Get Headaches, 1974; Love at First
Sight, 1975; One Hundred Days After Childhood, 1975; School Waltz, 1977; I Ask to Accuse
Klava K. Of My Death, 1979; Love and Lies, 1980; All The Way Around, 1981; Cheating, 1983;
Overheard Conversation, 1984, Before the Snow Falls Down, 1984, etc.).
Option 2: there are extraordinary teachers among faculty - those who also do not fit into the
standard school framework, that is, they try to:
- resist the outdated and / or, from their point of view, incorrect methods of the school principal
and / or teaching staff and collide with him / them (Every Evening After Work, 1973; The Key
That Should Not Be Handed On, 1976; Refutation, 1976; Kindness, 1977; Alyosha, 1980,
Unfinished Lesson, 1980, etc.);
- establish trust-based relations with the students, no matter how difficult it may be (The Big
Break, 1972; The Key That Should Not Be Handed On, 1976; The Traitor, 1976; Kindness,
1977; The Tuning Fork, 1979; Alyosha, 1980; Unfinished Lesson, 1980; 4:0 in Favor of
Tanechka, 1982; Good Intentions, 1984; Almost Peers, 1984; Men Are Men, 1985).
j) Solving the problem:
Option 1 (student-centered):
- "correct" characters (schoolchildren, teachers, parents, other adults) return non-conformist and /
or students in love to ordinary life by individual and joint efforts (Translation from English,
1972; Yulka, 1972; Kindness, 1977; The Last "Fail" Mark, 1977; The Tuning Fork, 1979; Quiet
C-Students, 1980; All the Way Around, 1981; The Morning Without Marks, 1983);
- "odd ones out" school students keep their belief, because they do not comply to
educational/parental influence (Cross the Threshold, 1970; Other People's Letters, 1975; The
Practical Joke, 1976; Love and Lies, 1980; The Leader, 1984).
Option 2 (teachers-centered):
- unconventional teachers triumph (Translation from English, 1972; Kindness, 1977; Quiet C-
Students, 1980; 4:0 in Favor of Tanechka, 1982; Good Intentions, 1984; Almost Peers, 1984 ), or
(as in Every Evening after Work, 1973; Other People's Letters, 1975; The Key That Should Not
Be Handed On, 1976; The Traitor, 1976; and Alyosha, 1980) the result of their effect on students
is ambiguous.
The transformation of the gender aspect within the school/university theme in cinema is notable.
In the 1960s - the mid 1970s, the on-screen teacher was often a man (Mishka, Serega and I,
1961; The Fallen Angel, 1962; Come Tomorrow, 1962; The First Teacher, 1966; The Republic of
Shkid, 1966; The Literature Lesson, 1968; We'll Live Till Monday, 1968; Cross the Threshold,
1970; The Big Break, 1972; Translation from English, 1972; A Teacher of Singing, 1972; Yulka,
1972; The Diary of the School Principal, 1975; One Hundred Days After Childhood, 1975). But
in the late 1970s - early 1980s, due to the actual state of things, images of female educators,
often single, lonely and disturbed, appear: Other People's Letters, 1975; The Key That Should
Not Be Handed On, 1976; The Traitor, 1976; The Practical Joke, 1976; Flowers for Olya, 1976;
Flat with the Child to Rent, 1978; French Lessons, 1978; The Tuning Fork, 1979; Love and Lies,
1980; Quiet C-Students, 1980; Lullaby for Brother, 1982; Scarecrow, 1983, Good Intentions,
1984; The Third One in the Fifth Row, 1984; Men Are Men, 1985);
The gender aspect in cinema on the school topic culminated, in our opinion, in the film
Men Are Men (1985). A pompous pioneer complains to the teacher that boys in her class perform
poorly and hold the whole class back, so that she wishes a separate education returned. The male
part of the class takes this as a challenge and literally starting the next day boys impress the
whole school both by exemplary behavior and by excellent grades.
Conclusions
One may agree that most of the films dedicated to school during the stagnation period in
the USSR were based on typical stereotypes that to some extent reflected life-like patterns: the
emergence of non-fitting-in teachers, their opposition to the routine; a non-standard student, an
intelligent student who often conflicts with a class and a doctrinal teacher and does not always
find an ally represented by an intelligent mentor or a peer [Mamaladze, 1977, pp. 75-76]. But the
thesis about the isolation of the screen school from real school life has been refuted by storylines,
conflicts and characters of such debated and remarkable films as Other People's Letters, The
Diary of the School Principal, The Rescuer, Scarecrow and Games for School Children.
Summing up, the analysis of the films of the stagnation period (1969-1985) about
school/university showed that on the screen:
- the education/ formation process went beyond the previous strict framework for the
preservation of rigid communist landmarks, and the anti-religious orientation was no longer
imposed;
- the storyline was not directly linked to key international political events, although to varying
degrees they were dependent on domestic political attitudes;
- the main story clashes were built on the opposition of non-ordinary teachers and students with
stagnation, bureaucracy, mediocre authorities / colleagues / class. The problem zones (economic
crisis, disappointment and fatigue, professional "burnout" of teachers, bureaucratism, pragmatic
cynicism of students, teenage cruelty, etc.) were not concealed;
- schoolchildren in the films 1969-1985, as in the "thaw" period, did not exhibit fanaticism of
their peers in the films of the 1920s -1930s, but on the whole they retained optimism. However,
more and more often villain characters, who clearly had no chance of reformation, appeared on
screen;
- the activity of students, that used to be mostly directed to the outside world, even more than in
the 1960s, in the stagnation period began to touch upon their inner world (Oh, this Nastya, 1971;
Spring Flips, 1974; Woodpeckers Don't Get Headaches, 1974; One Hundred Days After
Childhood, 1975; Other People's Letters, 1975; French Lessons, 1978; The Rescuer, 1980;
Scarecrow, 1983);
- the relations between teachers and students have become more democratic, in some instances
even reaching back-slapping terms;
- the prestige of the pedagogical profession has began to decline in the eyes of students and
general public;
- images of female teachers, often lonely and anxious, began to prevail;
- income and property differentiation increasingly manifested itself;
- there were changes in the appearance of students and teachers, it became more casual; in a
latent form, the motif of female sexuality gradually emerged;
- stories about university students (We Have Not Covered It, 1975; Troublemaker, 1978;
Grasshopper, 1979; I Will Wait, 1979; Since We've Been Together, 1982; My Little Wife, 1984;
Valentin and Valentina, 1985; How Young We Were, 1985) unlike the "thaw" analogues were
practically devoid of intellectual disputes, and were densely immersed in the genre element of
melodrama and / or comedy. On the whole, the love theme in the cinema about school/university
was generally delivered with the melodrama accents;
- since the mid-1970s, the color image has led to an increase in the entertainment aspects of
films.
References
Arcus, L. (2010). Adventures of a white crow: evolution of a "school film" in Soviet cinema. Seance. June, 2.
http://seance.ru/blog/whitecrow/
Aronson, O.V. (2003). Metacinema. Moscow: Ad Marginem.
Atamanova, N. (1979). Grasshopper. Sputnik of the viewer, № 5.
Bazalgette, C. (1995). Key Aspects of Media Education. Moscow: Association for Film Education.
Demin, V.P. (1980) My Anfisa. Sputnik of the viewer, № 7.
Eco U. (1998). Lack of Structure. Introduction to Semiology. St. Petersburg: Petropolis, 432 p.
Eco U. (2005). The Role of the Reader. Studies on the Semiotics of the Text. St. Petersburg: Symposium, 502 p.
Fedorov, A.V., Levitskaya, A.A., Gorbatkova, O.I. (2017). School and university in the mirror of audiovisual media
texts: basic approaches to the research problem. Media education, № 2.
Grigorieva, O. (2007). The image of the teacher in the Soviet cinema: from the "Spring thaw" to "Big Break". Visual
anthropology: new views on social reality. Saratov: Scientific book, 223-239.
Gromov, E. (1981). School film waltz. Screen 1978-1979. Moscow: Art, 31-38.
Kichin, V.S. (1977). Confrontation. Cinema Art. №. 1, 41-52.
Khrenov, N.A. (2006). Cinema - rehabilitation of archetypal reality. Moscow: Agraf, 704 p.
Khrenov, N.A. (2008). Images of the "Great Gap". Cinema in the context of changing cultural cycles. Moscow:
Progress-tradition, 536 p,
Kukarkina, T. (1978). Logic of Success. Screen 1976-1977. Moscow: Art, 118-121.
Mamaladze, T. (1977). Composition on an unexpected topic. Cinema art. № 4, 75-84.
Report of the cultural department of the CPSU Central Committee on Y. Reizman’s film What if it's love?, 1961.
Resolution of the Soviet Communist Party Central Committee (1969). On increasing the responsibility of the
leaders of the press, radio and television, cinematography, cultural and art institutions for the ideological and
political level of published materials and repertoire. January 7, 1969. Moscow.
Resolution of the Soviet Communist Party Central Committee (1972). On Literary and Art Criticism. January 21,
1972. The Soviet Communist Party in resolutions and decisions of congresses, conferences and plenums. Moscow:
Politizdat, 1986. Vol. 12, 170-173.
Resolution of the Soviet Communist Party Central Committee (1972). On measures for the further development of
Soviet cinema. August 2, 1972. The Soviet Communist Party in resolutions and decisions of congresses, conferences
and plenums. Moscow: Politizdat, Vol. 12, 263-268.
Resolution of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR (1984). On the main directions of the reform of the schools. April
12, 1984, n 13-XI.
Silverblatt, A. (2001). Media Literacy. Westport, Connecticut – London: Praeger, 449 p.
Zhavoronkov, G.I. (1977). You, we... Cinema art. № 9, 41-52.

Soviet Cinema in Cinema Art Journal (1967)
Article · December 2017

DOI: 10.13187/ijmil.2017.2.79
CITATIONS READS
0 41
1 author:
Alexander Fedorov
SEE PROFILE
All content following this page was uploaded by Alexander Fedorov on 24 November 2017.


E-ISSN: 2500-106X
2017, 2(2): 79-89
DOI: 10.13187/ijmil.2017.2.79
www.ejournal46.com
Soviet Cinema in Cinema Art Journal (1967)
Abstract
The analysis of the articles of magazine Cinema Art – 1967 identified the following key film
criticism trends:
- Despite the folding thaw effects, the magazine tried to keep the ideological position of the
late 1950s – early 1960s;
- The authors of the magazine tried to analyze the most notable works of the Soviet cinema,
even criticized certain shortcomings in the films of famous and influential at that time masters of
the screen;
- Paying tribute to the inevitable Soviet propaganda rhetoric, the magazine could afford to
publish informative theoretical and sociological discussion, and the texts of outstanding script;
- However, in some cases, the magazine could (perhaps by order "from above") cause painful
a critical blow to the talented work screen.
In general, the Cinema Art (1967) was a kind of typical model of the Soviet humanities
journals (with the entire obligatory bow to censorship) that try to stay in the position of "socialism
with a human face".
Keywords: film critic, USSR, Soviet, film, social and cultural context, politics, film, journal,
Cinema Art.
1. Introduction
1967 was a special year for the USSR: the 50th anniversary of the Soviet power. It is clear that
the Soviet press was ideologically obliged to do everything possible to present this half-century
period as the progressive succession way of victories and landmark achievements, including,
of course, in the "most important of the arts" – a movie. The magazine Cinema Art, the influential
publication among filmmakers, professionals and spectators’ elite played here a special role.
Cinema Art’s monthly output was very impressive by today's edition (from 30 to 35 thousand
copies). Each issue published from 6 to 14 articles about the Soviet films. Plus scripts,
filmographies, etc. Traditional for the magazine headings (New Movies, Problems of the theory,
Discussion, Television, Among the actors, Abroad, Script, Filmography, Bibliography, etc.) have
been added in 1967 to the special commemorative section: By October the 50th anniversary, Year
after year, Films of the jubilee year, Soviet film for the world.
As is well known, the final blow to the Soviet "thaw" trends was caused by the Soviet
leadership in response to the events of the "Prague Spring" – in 1968. But in 1967, the magazine is
still headed by L. Pogozheva whose editorship (1956-1969) almost had a peak at the "thaw", and on
its decline.
79
Recalling this time, A. Medvedev noted that "Pogozheva was a kind remarkable woman,
rather well-known critic... I cannot say that she had some extraordinary professional qualities as
a critic, even though she was the authoritative author, and her opinion was important"
(Medvedev, 2011).
Film critic M. Sulkin says much warmer about deputy chief editor of Cinema Art magazine –
Y. Warsawsky: "He was extraordinarily talented, accurate sense of art critic, researcher, analyst,
writer endowed with the gift" (Sulkin, 2000).
In 1967, the editorial board of the magazine Cinema Art consisted of 18 people, however, they
were mostly known directors (G. Kozintsev, L. Kulidzhanov, I. Pyryev, S. Yutkevich) and film
functionaries. The numbers of film critics amongst them there were only four: L. Pogozheva
(editor), J. Warsawsky (deputy editor), A. Karaganov, and R. Yurenev.
Of course, the range of authors of the magazine was much wider. In 1967, a venerable and
relatively young at that time, film critics and film scholars there were published. Of course, Cinema
Art published the articles by no all known Soviet critics of the 1960s. But in general, the author's
list was quite representative: M. Bleyman (1904-1973), Y. Bogomolov (p. 1937), G. Bohemsky
(1920-1995), V. Demin (1937-1993), S. Freilich (1920-2005), N. Ignatieva (p. 1923), G. Kapralov
(1921-2010), A. Karaganov (1915-2007), Y. Khanyutin (1929-1978), T. Khloplyankina (1937-1993),
V. Kisunko (1940-2010), N. Kleiman (p. 1937), L. Kozlov (1933-2006), G. Kremlev (1905-1975),
M. Kushnirov (p. 1937), E. Levin (1935-1991), J. Markulan (1920-1978), V. Matusevich (1937-
2009), K. Paramonova (1916-2005), L. Pogozheva (1913-1989), L. Roshal (1936-2010), L. Rybak
(1923-1988), V. Shitova (1927-2002), K. Shcherbakov (p. 1938), I. Soloviova (p. 1927), A. Svobodin
(1922-1999), M. Sulkin (p. 1928), E. Surkov (1915-1988), A. Vartanov (p. 1931), J. Warsawsky
(1911-2000), I. Weissfeld (1909-2003), R. Yurenev (1912-2002), M. Zak (1929-2011) and others.
In 1967, the magazine wrote about such significant Soviet films like Aibolit- 66 by R. Bykov,
The S. City by I. Kheifits, Journalist by S. Gerasimov, Prisoner of the Caucasus by L. Gaidai, Head
of Chukotka by V. Melnikov, Adventures of a Dentist by E. Klimov, Republic of SHKID by
G. Poloka and other. Cinema Art also published outstanding scripts: Pirosmani by E. Akhvlediani
and G. Shangelaya, Holy Spirit (No Path Through Fire) by E. Gabrilovich and G. Panfilov, There
Were Two Comrades by Y. Dunsky and V. Frid, Three Days of Victor Chernyshov by E. Grigoriev.
The pearls of the magazine became the articles of famous directors G. Kozintsev (Deep Screen) and
Andrei Tarkovsky (Telling Time).

The main material for the study was 12 issues of the magazine Cinema Art (1967). At the
same time, I analyzed only as a film critics’ articles reflected the Soviet feature film (though,
of course, the magazine wrote about documentary, popular science, animation, and foreign cinema,
published articles of prominent directors, writers, operators, actors, the full texts of scenarios,
filmographies). I used the method of hermeneutic analysis of the texts.
3. Discussion and Results

Ideology
So, the jubilee year obliged Cinema Art to carry out "an ideological mandate to the party":
basically in the category By October, the 50th anniversary, Year after year (footage from the
Soviet films with short inscriptions designed illustrate the consistently high ideological and artistic
level of the cinema in the USSR in the 50 years of its existence), etc. Especially a lot of articles of
this kind in the jubilee, that is, the November issue of the magazine.
As a rule, the most "ideologically" article is not signed by the author: "Happy New Year,
comrades! With the onset of the first month of the anniversary year – the year of the Great
October Revolution! ... The direct participants in the revolution, comrades of Lenin still paced in
our ranks... And ... the life is strongly linked with the ideas of socialism and communism" (Year
1967: 1).
But some film critics, who did not want to succumb to the temptation of anonymity wrote
their articles also with the strong communist pathos:
"The history of the Soviet cinema, militant art of socialist realism, is a shining example of
active influence on the cinema of other countries" (Abramov, 1967: 17).
80
"October has brought world cinema a new character, the ideas, the very spirit of creative
innovation. ... Screen, freed from the yoke of dictatorship and oppression of commercial
reactionary ideas, has become one of the most important forms of artistic people awareness of
their past, present and future" (Weissfeld, 1967: 29).
"High ideology, an inextricable link with the life of people, the revolutionary spirit - all this
has created a tradition of innovation and prepared the victory of socialist realism. ... So now we
are proud to recognize that our Soviet cinema and there is free art, serving millions and tens of
millions of working people dreamed of Lenin" (Yurenev, 1967: 5, 8).
The praise of socialist realism and its impact on the world cinematography was in the essays
of history of the Soviet cinema (Freilich, 1967: 35-45) and the review of the international
symposium (Karaganov, 1967).
However the "thaw" articles of L. Pogozheva and Y. Warsawsky were out this fanfare
background.
For example, J. Warsawsky recalled with pleasure thaw peak – 1957 year, when the "cinema,
developing the best traditions of the past years, becoming smarter, braver, more honest – and
therefore more optimistic"(Warsawsky, 1967: 4).
L. Pogozheva, sincerely supporting thaw trends, introduced readers to a very friendly
overview of the development of Soviet cinema from 1957 to 1967 (Pogozheva, 1967: 39-53).
Remembering such landmark films of the second half of 1950 – the first half of 1960, as Spring on
Zarechnaya Street by F. Mironer and M. Khutsiev, It was in Penkovo by S. Rostotsky, Someone
else's children by T. Abuladze , The House I live in by J. Segel and L. Kulidzhanov, Forty First,
Ballad of a soldier by G. Chuhraj, Destiny of Man, War and Peace by S. Bondarchuk, Pavel
Korchagin, The Peace for Inbound by A. Alov and V. Naumov, Communist, And if this is love?,
Your Contemporary by Y. Raisman, Lenin, Lenin in Poland by S. Yutkevich, The cranes Are Flying
by M. Kalatozov, The Living and the Dead by A. Stolper, Ivan's Childhood by A. Tarkovsky, Nine
days in one year, Ordinary fascism by M. Romm, Serioja by I. Talankin and G. Danelia, Chairman
by A. Saltykov, The first Teacher by A. Konchalovsky, Two by M. Bogin, Wedding by
M. Kobakhidze, A Guy lives here by V. Shukshin, Journalist by S. Gerasimov, Shadows of
forgotten ancestors by S. Parajanov, Nobody wanted to die by V. Žalakevičius, Hamlet by G.
Kozintsev, Wings by L. Shepitko, I'm twenty years by M. Khutsiev and others films, L. Pogozheva
find the exact characteristics of their artistic and audience success. In particular, she wrote about
the thaw movies on the modern theme (of the second half of 1950s): "These films were very kind.
They are downright shone with love for people, delight in front of our boys and girls.
This enthusiasm sometimes reached sentimentality" (Pogozheva, 1967: 41).
Film Reviews
For obvious reasons, critics of the Cinema Art were a priori careful approach to the analysis
of films as a member of the editorial board (G. Kozintsev, L. Kulidzhanov, I. Pyrev, S. Yutkevich)
and other Soviet classics or equivalent masters of the screen.
At the same time, it should be noted that the magazine was not afraid to notice significant
shortcomings even in the works of the masters. I think S. Gerasimov was unhappy to read such lines
about his film Journalist: "Where the declaration overrides the dramatic action there slips
edification. ... If not everything in the film came out, the "blame" in this not Gerasimov as director,
but Gerasimov as screenwriter"(Klado, 1967: 75). And even Iron Stream by E. Dzigan, which was
made a special rate of film ideological jubilee year, received such accusations illustrative,
psychological imperfection of characters, negligent actor makeup, etc. (Lvov, 1967: 68).
Even Lenin's film series by M. Donskoy (Mother's Heart, Mother’s Fidelity) received low-key,
but still subjected criticism (Kisunko, 1967: 33).
The member of the editorial board – a famous Soviet film director I. Pyryev also not escaped
critical shots: his film The Light of a Distant Star was named too wordy (Kara, 1967: 59-67).
In this regard, I would suggest that when L. Pogozheva was dismissed from the post of chief
editor (1969), authorities charged her not only in too obvious "thaw", but also in the fact that the
magazine criticized of the classics of the Soviet screen...
As usual, Cinema Art devoted much attention to adaptations. T. Shah-Azizova caustically
criticized adaptation of A. Chekhov's Darling (directed by S. Kolosov): "Breaking the fragile fabric
of ‘Darling’, shifting accents, director separates the synthesis of poetry and comedy, brings up the
81
first melodrama, the second – to the farce. The story deliberately modest and everyday style,
intricate turns and spectacular" (Shah-Azizova, 1967: 53).
Acute critical arrows pierced the adaptation of Lermontov's Hero of Our Time directed by
S. Rostotsky because "the screen just illustrated the individual episodes of the novel, is simplified,
the cinematic embellished. We have not seen the drama of strong character in negligible
time"(Bleyman, 1967: 51).
Even harder magazine praised the Uncle's Dream (based on F. Dostoevsky's story) by
K.Voinov: "This discrepancy cinematographic product of literary significantly absolutely
everything. ... Here it's all about the inability to penetrate into the essence: in the spirit, in the
style of Dostoevsky"(Pitlyar, 1967: 44).
But the full support of the critic N. Kovarsky received a play adaptation of A. Sukhov-Kobylin
Death of Tarelkin - Merry Days of Razpluev by E. Garin and H. Lokshina: "Garin and Lokshina so
precise in the formulation of the film, in spite of significant bills… It seems complete, nothing is
lost on the playback screen comedy. But it is marked not only fidelity to the letter and the spirit of
comedy. He is faithful and the spirit of the time" (Kovarsky, 1967: 21).
Cinema Art responded positively on the adaptation of Chekhov's stories, taken by I. Heifetz
(In the S. city): "Other film adaptation set to a feuilleton way, but here is all a matter of respect,
cause you more sympathy than an ironic smile. This is a serious, careful, I would even say,
diligent work" (Papernyi, 1967: 62).
As always deep in thought and an interesting shape the review came from the pen of Y. Khanutin.
Analyzing the strengths and weaknesses of the film adaptation of the novel A. Green's Running on
Waves (directed by P. Lubimov), the critic did a reasonable conclusion: "The tragedy has already
unfulfilled in the film has turned out sharper than the happiness of searches that can still happen.
Perhaps, for the authors of ‘Running on Waves’ is also to some extent their unfulfilled that beckons
imperiously calls, but not always and not all awards comprehension" (Khanutin, 1967: 62).
Several articles in the magazine were devoted to experimental musical Aibolit-66 by R. Bykov
(based on K. Chukovsky’s fairy tale). B. Sarnov very aptly that "Rolan Bykov decided to do (and
succeeded) a film about the impotence of Evil. Quite deliberately he personified all the forces of
Evil in the world the image of a puny, pathetic, quite insignificant (in all senses of the word)
person. He seems to have decided to remove Evil from the pedestal on which it was unwittingly
built bitter experience of mankind" (Sarnov, 1967: 22). He was echoed by L. Zakrzhewska: "This is
a very well – to make sure that, in general, it is possible to cope with the Evils… This is very useful
– be realistic. In this and the wisdom and the present of the tale, which we told Rolan Bykov"
(Zakrzhewska, 1967: 28).
Became cinema event of 1960s Chairman by A. Saltykov caused many heated discussions in
the Soviet press. By entering into a polemic with the famous writer B. Balter (1919-1974), who told
the negative things about this psychological drama of post-war rural life, E. Surkov wrote that "if
we do the third year arguing about Trubnikov as a living person, this indicate a bright talent of
the director, screenwriter, actor, managed in one nature to express so many important and
significant for all of us" (Surkov, 1973: 73).
Sad comedy SHKID Republic by G. Poloka was very favorably disposed to the magazine:
"The authors, deliberately trying to make the interesting and spectacular film, immediately take
the bull by the horns and seize the attention of the audience. G. Poloka uses threads and unusual
and romantic atmosphere. He openly, defiantly attract expressive means of silent cinema,
in other places was a stylized this film under the old movie" (Koval, 1967: 53).
Equally warm Cinema Art was met and ironic comedy Head of Chukotka by V. Melnikov:
"Smile of sympathy and compassion to the hero is transferred to us, the viewers, we are found in
the funny lad living features of the Revolution: it is not on duty signs and concrete embodiment of
its energy, romance, justice" (Ignatieva, 1967: 33). Of course reference to Revolution is the soft
mat under the watchful censorship, but overall review was very friendly.
Another movie about Russian Revolution times reviewed in a more sober style. For example,
Elusive Avengers by E. Keosayan. Dry praised this popular Eastern, K. Shcherbakov noticed
readers that "the action … lost happily found a combination of irony and seriousness, games and
reality. There are scenes of heavy and dull" (Shcherbakov, 1967: 60).
M. Zak is very true rated film Vale by G. Pozhenyan: "The rift between poetry and cinema
runs through the entire film. What did he cause? The answer, which is closer and easier: poet
82
G. Pozhenyan has failed in the role of director. ... But there is something less obvious and easy. ...
‘Vale" only ornamented signs of poetry" (Zak, 1967: 27-28).
The judgment of Y. Bogomolov about Four pages of a young life by R. Esadze was no less
hard, but reasonable: "Moral is interesting. Morality is boring" (Bogomolov, 1967: 70).
But, unfortunately, magazine took, I think, purely "commanding" position in relation to the
excellent ironic satire Adventures of a Dentist by E. Klimov. I do not remember that any other
Soviet film received a resume, so devastatingly unfair to the talented directing: "The script was
a deep, easy and good. The film turned out flat, strained and evil" (Svobodin, 1967: 41).
But the famous comedy Prisoner of the Caucasus by L. Gaidai has caused log approval:
"The film was lucky (and justice) of the audience and critics. Other reviews were like toast,
exclamation marks, faced as the glasses ... The sense of humor must protect authors from
excessive praise" (Zak, 1967: 85). M. Kushnirov’s article also was devoted to reflections on the
comic and satirical stories on the screen – in newsreel Wick. Here critic identified both advantages
and disadvantages (Kushnirov, 1967: 15-16).
Curiously, but T. Khoplyankina made a strong and brave (for those times) the output from
viewing student films. This conclusion was about the Soviet cinema in general: "Well shoot – yes,
this is the dream of all film directors. Good idea? What for? Perhaps the absence of thought is the
main problem of our cinema?" (Khloplyankina, 1967: 51).
Alas, but this conclusion remains relevant and today. However, now many Russian
filmmakers greater dream is not to shoot well, but make good money on the "kickbacks" and other
tricks in the process of filming themselves...
As in other years, Cinema Art did not forget to review and cinematography of Soviet
republics.
Thus, S. Mikhailova said a lot of good words about the Belarusian cinema. However, there are
quite a few out there and criticisms, oddly enough, to the address of one of the best films of
V. Turov: "The failure befell V. Turov in his latest work. His film 'I come from childhood’, he
conceived as the first part of the triptych of the military youth generation as an autobiographical
confession. But the scenario of G. Shpalikov written as a series of sketches led to Turov
compositional looseness of the film, to the meaningful emptiness" (Mikhailova, 1967: 101).
However, the authors of the magazine did not hasten to extol and other films of directors
from the Soviet republics. M. Sulkin noted that in the “Aimanov-director not all managed” in
Land of the Fathers (Sulkin, 1967: 78). A. Vartanov wrote about the film Sky of our childhood by
T. Okeev: "When I see the poetic perception of the world in this film, I am especially disappointed
when meet with edifying episodes, straight, caused by the desire of authors to put all the dots on
"i" (Vartanov, 1967: 43).
Sometimes the "protective" historical and revolutionary themes and acute problems of the
films became for Cinema Art an occasion is almost complete withdrawal from the evaluation of the
artistic level. Article about the films Bitter grain and Stairway to Heaven were written in a similar
vein (Gurov, 1967: 62).
The peak of such isolation from the critical function in favor of the ideological category was in
a review of, I think, deservedly forgotten film "26 Baku Commissars" (1965): "I do not want to
follow the traditional review way to list the shortcomings of the film, pick slips author. In this
case, in my opinion, it is more important to say that succeeded in the development of historical
and revolutionary topics" (Seyidbeyli, 1967: 82).
Film theory
An amazing event was in the theoretical section of the Cinema Art-1967, I think that had no
counterparts either before or after. The debut book of a young film critic V. Demin Film without
intrigue (Demin, 1966) became the basis for two solid theoretical articles speculating about the
features of film-plots structure.
The first line of article of the venerable film critic I. Weissfeld were as follows: "Let's start
with the literary style. Do we frequently have to read theoretical books written with a primer,
painted charm of youth, spontaneity? I recently read a book: ‘Film without intrigue’ by Victor
Demin. The stylistic feature of this book is the freedom of the narrative, the ease of "installation"
passages, sometimes quite unexpected. Reading the book, you will gradually get used to it. You is
not surprising that after the paragraph on the artistic perception is a story about how the first
time year-old son of the author watches TV, and what thoughts these things prompted a young
83
father and as a young writer. Do not surprise you, and "joint", say parodic descriptions of the
chess scene, scene detection and evaluation Fellini’s interview. … Demin writes as thinks. Literary
style matches the mood of the book. Victor Demin simultaneously captured his plan, as if
surprised that he himself made discoveries, the reader wants to inspire his passion and a little
ironic to himself" (Weissfeld, 1967: 30).
And then I. Weissfeld began the debate about drama and directing the search, breaking the
aesthetic canons in the film (Weissfeld, 1967: 31-33). The conclusion of I. Weissfeld was buoyant and
perceptive: "An interesting and largely controversial book ‘Film without intrigue’ announced to us
about the appearance of one more temperamental, promising researcher" (Weissfeld, 1967: 33).
E. Levin, in his theoretical article virtually echoed I. Weissfeld, arguing that "film-plots
theory today is perhaps the most dramatic area of film studies. … Much of this is determined, not
yet having had time to install, and is changing, undefined"(Levine, 1967: 33).
Then critic moved on to Demin’s article Riot details (Demin, 1965), which, in fact, then went
into the book Film without intrigue.
And here V. Levin entered to more acute dispute: "V. Demin wrong, considering the exposure
of drama static and inactive… Exposure is also a kind of an event of its composition, its plot and
storyline. ... Demin understand the effectiveness of the event too poor, narrowly event treats
unilaterally" (Levine, 1967: 38, 40).
This debate on the pages of the magazine was a clear refutation of E. Weizmann’s opinion
that in the Soviet film studies of the 1960s there were few "such articles about the movie that
would become an event, which would be discussed, debated, which would soon read" (Weitzman,
1967: 55).
However, when further E. Weitzman argued that "the core of Marxist criticism with all its
variety of genres and with a high ability to open all aspects and features of the product should be
a sociological approach, that is, the establishment of causal links artistic discoveries with life, the
rational cognition through the work of art of the dialectic of the individual and society"
(Weitzman, 1967: 56), it became clear that his proposed ideological templates to create articles,
events virtually impossible.
Against the background of such Weitzman’s instruction even the arguments of one of the
main ideologists of the Soviet film criticism – V. Baskakov seem quite reasonable: "Fortunately,
goes into oblivion, this approach to film studies, when it is viewed as designed to serve the
filmmakers. Serve and ask at the same time: Do not disturb is this customer? And if you are
concerned, then the customer will be dissatisfied and say: "Bad art, I did not understand this,
who wrote not appreciated as it should be." And "Who dares to criticize me? Who but the artist
can evaluate the phenomenon of art? Is it the film critic knows how to put movies like?".
Yes, these cries, which we often hear in the past, now it is less common" (Baskakov, 1967: 30).
Actually, is not it? True, as amended: today is not the directors and screenwriters, but producers
are forced (using, of course, not ideological, but financial arguments / subsidies) other Russian
critics "serve" them. But the crowd (including Internet) still hear the same phrases...
Film Discussions
On the decline of the "thaw" Cinema Art was still possible to publish polemical column, and
even through "the communist party" film Conscience (1965), telling of a good party secretary, could
write that there are "people turned into shadows standards" (Pajitnov, Shragin, 1967: 73). The film
critics ironically show in a dispute with the author of On Love book V. Chertkov how many sexual
taboos loaded Soviet cinema (Pajitnov, Shragin, 1967: 73).
I think, the readers must have been difficult to agree with the opinion of V. Chertkov, who
tried answer to his opponents by the communist rules: "In my book, I interpret love in terms of
contradictory unity of biological and social, personal and public, universal and class, in terms of
conflicting mind-feelings, chance and necessity. Critics did not even notice it, and so will
inevitably interpret love only in terms of sex. ... These authors deny the debt, without which never
was morality, and there can be no communist morality"(Chertkov, 1967: 99).
Polemically pearl of Cinema Art-1967, in my opinion, was V. Demin’s article Around the
mediocre film. There he convincingly argued that "the mediocre film ineradicable. And it should
not be eradicated. On the contrary, it is necessary grooming, undead the mediocre film. ...
It turns out that we do not know the concept of good mediocre film. But mediocre film can imitate
(with modern cinematic technology) the underfulfilled masterpiece: a little bit of philosophy from
84
scratch, a little moral and ethical abstractions but more tricks from the arsenal of "modern
cinema": still images, flashbacks, "ragged" story ... This sort of mediocre film gives the many
problems for box-office"(Demin, 1967: 80-81).
God, how relevant these lines for the Russian cinema today!
Film sociology
In the 1970s the numbers of Soviet films’ box-office moved in the neck "for official use only."
But in 1967 it was still possible to publish box office data. Here is a table with the number of
viewers for the first year of showing Soviet films in cinemas, published in the first issue of Cinema
Art, 1967 (For success!, 1967: 1)
Table 1. Box office of Soviet feature films mid 1960s
№ Movie Title Number of viewers (in millions)

1 Believe Me, People 40,3
2 State Criminal 39,5
3 Chairman (series 1 and 2) 33,0 – 32,2
4 Don Story 31,8
5 To Me, Mukhtar! 29,6
6 That Guy Lives 27,0
7 Daughter of Stration 26,7
8 People do not Know All 21,1
9 Hamlet (series 1 and 2) 21,1 – 20,7
10 Army 'Wagtail' 18,7
11 Letters to Live 18,2
12 Unexpected Love 17,7
13 They Walked to East (series 1 and 2) 17,1 – 16,5
14 Moscow - Genoa 16,3
15 The Secretary of the Regional Committee 15,4
16 Where is Ahmed? 14,6
17 Wait for Us at Daybreak 14,3
18 Mandate 14,2
19 Charity Train 14,2
20 Welcome, or No Trespassing 13,4
21 Young from the Schooner "Columbus" 13,2
22 Eternal Flame (series 1 and 2) 12,1 – 12,0
23 Square Foot of Land 11,9
24 Large Ore 11,8
25 General and Daisies 11,8
26 Green House 11,3
27 Russian Forest (Series 1 and 2) 11,0 – 10,6
28 Three Sisters 9,8
29 Blue Notebook 9,1
30 I'm Twenty Years Old (Series 1 and 2) 8,8
31 Ask your heart 8,6
32 Above the Desert Sky 8,3
33 Now, Let Him Out 7,7
34 Our Honest Bread 7,2
35 Story about Ptashkin 7,1
36 Who Saddle Horse 6,6
37 Match 5,7
38 Little Knights 5,4
39 I am Cuba (1 and 2 series) 5,4 – 5,3
40 House in the Dunes 3,5
85
What surprises in this list today?

First of all this is unexplained in terms of contemporary logic high places (7, 8, 14-17),
completely neglected the mediocre movies Daughter of Stration, People do not Know All, Moscow-
Genoa, The Secretary of the Regional Committee, Where is Ahmed?, Wait for Us at Daybreak,
Mandate, Charity Train. These films outstripped not only recognized movie I'm Twenty Years by
M. Khutsiev and I am Cuba by M. Kalatozov, but wonderful a satirical comedy Welcome, or No
Trespassing, which still show almost all TV Russian channels.
Boring, ideological backhand The Secretary… The Secretary received 15,4 million viewers
and funny comedy Welcome, or No Trespassing – only 13.4 millions… I can only suggest that the
deft film distributors have attributed The Secretary desired by the authorities millions from box-
office of foreign hits. But it is very difficult to explain the fact that 14.6 millions were attributed to
primitive comedy Where is Ahmed... Surely God works have mysterious ways...
Sociological theme was continued in the article of H. Khersonsky on the Film Club and film
education (Khersonsky, 1967: 72-80). After describing the turbulent film club’s discussions, the
patriarch of Soviet film criticism cited the results of a the survey of film club’s audience (people
median age was 26 years), (Khersonsky, 1967: 79) (Table 2).
Table 2. Results of a survey of participants of the Moscow Film Club (1967)
1. What are you most attracted to the cinema? Number of responses

(in%)
1.1. The desire to get aesthetic pleasure 45,5
1.2. The desire to learn more about the life 44,4
1.3. The desire to watch the favorite actors 41,0
1.4. The desire to relax 34,4
1.5. To develop the aesthetic taste 33,7
1.6. Find out how other people live 21,5
1.7. Escape from everyday worries 19,8
1.8. Have fun 19,4
1.9. To see and experience something that is not seen or 19,0
experienced in his own life
1.10 Spend the leisure time 14,4
1.11 Learning how to behave in life 6,6
2. What movie genre do you prefer to watch?
2.1. Psychological drama 72,5
2.2 Comedy 61,5
2.3 Animation 44,4
2.4 Musical 38,9
2.5 Adventure 29,0
2.6 Tragedy 25,0
2.7 Documentaries 21,0
2.8 Sci-fi 19,7
2.9. Historical-revolutionary 17,2
2.10 Epic of national life 17,0
2.11 Movies-tale 16,5
2.12 Popular science 15,5
2.13 Cinema-play 6,4
Unfortunately, the article of H. Khersonsky were not given very important for any
sociological survey data: the total number of respondents and their gender identity.
For Table 2, you can also make claims for terms of language correctness. For example, very
similar within the meaning of answers 1.4. (The desire to relax), 1.7. (Escape from everyday
worries) and 1.8. (Have fun). Rather, it is better to be combined into a single paragraph.
86
The answer to the second question are mixed in a bunch of genres, themes and even the types of
film (cartoons, as well as plays, there are in fact can to be in many different genres)...
But in general, the data in Table 2 may be the basis for certain conclusions about the Moscow
film club audience in 1967.
One of these findings (and quite bold at the time) made himself H. Khersonsky: "What
caused relatively little interest in the historical-revolutionary films? I am deeply convinced that
the blame for this the authors of a series of recent movies, who did not like the audience because
of the stamps, clichés, the absence of a truly in-depth and, most importantly, a careful study of
the life, forgetting the laws of art" (Khersonsky, 1967: 80).
The film club specific (because film club audience is, certainly, not a mass audience)
to indicate, for example, that, according to Table 2, the psychological drama (72.5%) had the first
line had while, the mass audience 1960s, preferred comedy (Prisoner of the Caucasus and others.),
science fiction (Amphibian Man and others.), adventures (Elusive Avengers and others.). On the
basis of the same specificity (film club audience usually seriously interested in film as art),
aesthetic factor (45.5 %) had the first place in attraction causes, but not entertaining, dominant in
the mass audience.
It is worth noting that the sociology of the cinema was important in the 1960s. This is
evidenced by the proposal N. Kiyashchenko: to create a sociological department in planning the
building Cinema Center (Kiyashchenko, 1967: 49). Moreover, N. Kiyashchenko in their arguments
on the problem of film and media education, believing that the future "Cinema Center must first be
engaged in preparation of an elementary textbook on film, designed for school, create film
education courses for teacher training" (Kiyashchenko, 1967: 49).
Film critics N. Kleiman and L. Kozlov agreed with him, and believed that the Cinema Center
must include the museum of cinema, film lecture hall, film history, sociological and publishing
departments and Higher film criticism and film history courses (Kleiman, Kozlov, 1967: 102-112).
Other panelists were more cautious in their proposals and worried more about the safety of the
existing structures of film studies (Jakubowicz, 1967: 45-46; Markulan, 1967: 46-47; Nazarian,
1967: 48).
The only pity that Cinema Center that built during the second half of the 1980s, turned into a
regular multiplex in the XXI century, and the Museum of Cinema was driven out...
Book Reviews
Reviews of film critics’ book, alas, almost forgotten genre in modern Russia. But Cinema Art
of 1960s tried not to miss any significant works of film criticism. For example, the review about the
book Yes and No by M. Turoskaya (Turovskaya, 1966) noted with delight that the text preserved
"the unique atmosphere of the Turovskaya’s articles, that rich intellectual atmosphere, which can
easily be discharged and continuously discharged bursts of mind and style. ... M. Turovskaya’s
articles about cinema destined to live long. They have ice and fire, intelligence and passion, style
and popularity. In them there is beauty and truth" (Sanin, 1967: 87-88).
But the book Film of a lifetime (Martynenko, 1966) came under sharp blow of Y. Bogomolov:
"Y. Martynenko sees in each subject only two sides: the art of any person or it degrades.
Addressing the complex and multifaceted phenomenon of art, the author argues, as if not in this
world flatter and elementary things" (Bogomolov, 1967: 95).
Early deceased film critic Yuri Martynenko was my university professor, and I remember him
well informative lectures, straightness has never been characterized by... However, it is no secret
that reviewers often try to exaggerate its conclusions for the sparkling effect...
Other Categories
Other journal’s heading about Soviet cinema (On set, Among the actors, etc.), as a rule, was
not in polemical style (Rybak, 1967; Freilich, 1967; Shiryaev, 1967). For example, L. Rybak
published a long article, written with great respect for the creative filmmaking process, produced a
true and accurate approach to the "portrayed" film director: "Work of the artist, the principles and
techniques of his artistic activities often appear in a fantastic independence from his personality.
When I was watching the day-to-day job of film director Y. Raisman, I imbued with the
conviction: it is necessary to talk about the complex skill of the master" (Rybak, 1967: 55).
87
4. Conclusion
Thus, the analysis of the articles of magazine Cinema Art – 1967 identified the following key
film criticism trends:
- Despite the folding thaw effects, the magazine tried to keep the ideological position of the
late 1950s - early 1960s;
- The authors of the magazine tried to analyze the most notable works of the Soviet cinema,
even criticized certain shortcomings in the films of famous and influential at that time masters of
the screen;
- Paying tribute to the inevitable Soviet propaganda rhetoric, the magazine could afford to
publish informative theoretical and sociological discussion, and the texts of outstanding script;
- However, in some cases, the magazine could (perhaps by order "from above") cause painful
a critical blow to the talented work screen.
In general, the Cinema Art (1967) was a kind of typical model of the Soviet humanities
journals (with the entire obligatory bow to censorship) that try to stay in the position of "socialism
with a human face."
5. Acknowledgements
and Economics.
References
Abramov, 1967 – Abramov, N. (1967). Genuine innovation Source. Cinema Art. № 7, 17-27.
Alenina, 1967 – Alenina, N. (1967). ... Not without good people. Cinema Art. № 10, 48-49.
Baskakov, 1967 – Baskakov, V.E. (1967). Polemic notes. Cinema Art № 9, 30-38.
Bleyman, 1967 – Bleyman, M.Y. (1967). About the Hero of Our Time. Cinema Art. № 5, 46-52.
Bogomolov, 1967 – Bogomolov, Y.A. (1967). The book is 208 pages in length and 65
illustrations. Cinema Art . № 6, 91-95.
Bogomolov, 1967 – Bogomolov, Y.A. (1967). What comes first? Cinema Art. № 8, 67-70.
Bremener, 1967 – Bremener, M. (1967). Reasonable, good, eternal ... Cinema Art. № 3, 29-30.
Chertkov, 1965 – Chertkov, V.P. (1965). About love. Moscow: Moscow Worker.
Chertkov, 1967 – Chertkov, V.P. (1967). When ignoring the social question. Cinema Art.
№ 9, 98-100.
Gurov, 1967 – Gurov, L. (1967). Through time. Cinema Art. № 8, 62-66.
Demin, 1966 – Demin, V.P. (1966). The film without intrigue. Moscow: Art.
Demin, 1965 – Demin, V.P. (1965). Riot details. Questions of drama. № 5.
Demin, 1967 – Demin, V.P. (1967). Around the mediocre film. Cinema Art. № 12, 80-84.
For success!, 1967 – For success! (1967). Cinema Art. № 2, 1-2.
Freilich, 1967 – Freilich, S.I. (1967). Little big role of the actor. Cinema Art. № 8, 85-89.
Freilich, 1967 – Freilich, S.I. (1967). Way pioneers. Cinema Art. № 11, 35-45.
Ignatieva, 1967 – Ignatieva, N.A. (1967). Pushing the boundaries of the genre. Cinema Art.
№ 3, 31-34.
Kara, 1967 – Kara, S. (1967). Simple truths and questionable judgments. Cinema Art. № 4,
59-67.
Karaganov, 1967 – Karaganov, A.V. (1967). October and world cinema. Cinema Art. № 11,
31-34. № 12, 23-38.
Khanutin, 1967 – Khanutin, Y.M. (1967). For Failed. Cinema Art. № 8, 59-62.
Khersonsky, 1967 – Khersonsky, H.N. (1967). Aesthetics in action. Cinema Art. № 9, 72-80.
Khloplyankina, 1967 – Khloplyankina, T.M. (1967).Well shoot - so think good // Art of
Cinema. № 4, 47-51.
Kisunko, 1967 – Kisunko, V.G. (1967). Life Devoted to the Revolution. Cinema Art № 4, 27-34.
Kiyashchenko, 1967 – Kiyashchenko, N.I. (1967). Learn the spectator. Cinema Art. № 8, 49.
Klado, 1967 – Klado, N.N. (1967). Morality and declarations. Cinema Art. № 12, 69-76.
Kleiman, Kozlov, 1967 – Kleiman, N.I., Kozlov, L.K. (1967). Our project. Cinema Art. № 7,
102-112.
88
Koval, 1967 – Koval, Y. (1967). From the old arsenal. Cinema Art. № 5, 53-55.
Kovarsky, 1967 – Kovarsky, N.A. (1967). Happy days of Rasplyuev. Cinema Art. № 2, 20-23.
Kushnirov, 1967 – Kushnirov, M.A. (1967). Battle Movie Collection ... Cinema Art. № 2, 15-17.
Levin, 1967 – Levin, E.S. (1967). The plot revolves around the protection. Cinema Art. № 5,
33-42.
Lvov, 1967 – Lvov, B. (1967). "At the far, the civil ...". Cinema Art. № 12, 64-69.
Markulan, 1967 – Markulan, J.K. (1967). Of course, we are for ... Cinema Art. № 8, 46-47.
Martynenko, 1966 – Martynenko, Y.Y. (1966). Film of a lifetime. Moscow: Young Guard.
Medvedev, 2011 – Medvedev, A.N. (2011). This magazine gave not the Soviet cinema relax.
Cinema Art. № 4.
Mikhailova, 1967 – Mikhailova, S. (1967). And there union. Cinema Art. № 7, 97-101.
Nazarian, 1967 – Nazarian, N. (1967). Success business people decide. Cinema Art. № 8, 48-49.
Pajitnov, Shragin, 1967 – Pajitnov, L., Shragin, B. (1967). Whom to love? Cinema Art. № 3,
70-83.
Paperny, 1967 – Paperny, Z.S. (1967). Arrow Arts. Cinema Art. № 6, 61-64.
Pitlyar, 1967 – Pitlyar, I. (1967). Dostoevsky Entertainment. Cinema Art. № 5, 43-45.
Pogozheva, 1967 – Pogozheva, L.P. (1967). Through the years. Cinema Art. № 12, 39-53.
Rybak, 1967 – Rybak, L.A. (1967). 500 hours with July Raizman. Cinema Art. № 1, 55-66. №
2, 38-50. № 5, 72-83. № 10, 59-67. № 11, 77-85.
Sanin, 1967 – Sanin, M. (1967). Beauty and truth. Cinema Art. № 3, 86-88.
Sarnov, 1967 – Sarnov, B.M. (1967). The Good Person of Szechwan, and the good doctor
Aibolit. Cinema Art. № 3, 18-22.
Seyidbeyli, 1967 – Seyidbeyli, G. (1967). Immortality meet. Cinema Art. № 7, 79-82.
Shakh-Azizova, 1967 – Shakh-Azizova, T.K. (1967). Variations based on ... Cinema Art. № 2,
53-56.
Shcherbakov, 1967 – Shcherbakov, K.A. (1967). Return genre. Cinema Art. № 6, 59-61.
Shiryaev, 1967 – Shiryaev, Y. (1967). Actor, which we "passed". Cinema Art. № 10, 77-81.
Svobodin, 1967 – Svobodin, A.P. (1967). The benchmark. Cinema Art. № 3, 34-41.
Sulkin, 2000 – Sulkin, M.S. (2000). About Warsawsky. Cinema Art. № 7.
Sulkin, 1967 – Sulkin, M.S. (1967). The path to the homeland. Cinema Art. № 7, 77-79.
Surkov, 1967 – Surkov, E.D. (1967). Replica for Boris Balter. Cinema Art. № 6, 73-76.
Turovskaya, 1966 – Turovskaya, M.I. (1966). Yes and No. Moscow: Art.
Vartanov, 1967 – Vartanov, A.S. (1967). Circle of Life. Cinema Art. № 9, 41-44.
Warsawsky, 1967 – Warsawsky, Y.L. (1967). Old issue of the magazine. Cinema Art. № 1, 4-6.
Weissfeld, 1967 – Weissfeld, I.V. (1967). National and international cinema art. Cinema Art.
№ 9, 19-29.
Weissfeld, 1967 – Weissfeld, I.V. (1967). Without repeating traveled. Cinema Art. № 5, 30-33.
Weizmann, 1967 – Weizmann, E.M. (1967). On the sociological side of criticism. Cinema Art.
№ 12, 54-62.
Yakubovich, 1967 – Yakubovich, O.V. (1967). This is our long-cherished dream. Cinema Art.
№ 8, 45-46.
Year 1967 – Year 1967. Cinema Art. № 1, 1-3.
Yurenev, 1967 – Yurenev, R.N. (1967). The Great October Revolution and the revolutionary
innovation of Soviet cinema. Cinema Art. № 10, 1-8.
Zak, 1967 – Zak, M.E. (1967). Prose notes on a poetic film. Cinema Art. № 1, 25-28.
Zak, 1967 – Zak, M.E. (1967). We can do without Toastmasters. Cinema Art № 7, 82-85.
Zakrzewska, 1967 – Zakrzewska, L.F. (1967). Wisdom tales. Cinema Art. № 3, 27-28.
89

Media Culture Directions, goals, tasks, author's

concepts of audiovisual media interpretations
of the topic of the school an....
Article in SSRN Electronic Journal · December 2017

DOI: 10.2139/ssrn.3067010
CITATIONS READS
2 111

Elena Huston
University of Southern Queensland
SEE PROFILE

All content following this page was uploaded by Alexander Fedorov on 06 November 2017.

Fedorov, A., Levitskaya, A., Gorbatkova, O., Huston, E. (2017).
Directions, goals, tasks, author's concepts of audiovisual media
interpretations of the topic of the school and university in the Russian
cinema (1992-2017). Media Education. N 4.
Media Culture
Directions, goals, tasks, author's concepts of audiovisual media interpretations of the topic of
the school and university in the Russian cinema (1992-2017) *

1954alex@mail.ru

tina5@rambler.ru
Dr. Olga Gorbatkova

PhD Candidate Elena Huston

The University of Southern Queensland, Australia
West Street, Toowoomba, QLD 4350, Australia
w0066369@umail.usq.edu.au
Abstract. Analysis of Russian films in 1992-2017 on the school-university topis shows that:
- the educational / educational process left in the past the Soviet framework of communist orientations and anti-religious
orientation;
- the number of entertaining interpretations has sharply increased;
- the stories are not directly related to key international political events, although they are to some extent dependent on
domestic political attitudes;
- the main conflicts are built on the confrontation of extraordinary teachers and students with stagnation, bureaucracy,
the grayness of the bosses / colleagues / team; very often the focus is on problem zones (crisis, disappointment and
fatigue, professional "burnout" of teachers, bureaucracy, corruption, pragmatic cynicism of students, teenage cruelty,
etc.);
- Among the characters distinctly manifested materialistic differentiation;
- the pupil characters are mainly divided into the following categories: optimistic and vital perspectives (often
associated with material status and hedonism), or in a state of depression and hopelessness;
- activity of students is more directed towards entertainment, sex and material gain;
- the attitude of teachers and students has lost the barriers of subordination, largely because the prestige of the
pedagogical profession in the eyes of students and the public continued to fall;
- in the pedagogical collectives, the images of female teachers, often lonely and unsettled, still come to the fore;
- the appearance of students and teachers has become even more "free", vividly denoting female sex appeal;
- film stories about students, in contrast to a number of Soviet counterparts, are virtually devoid of intellectual disputes,
but are densely immersed in the genre element of melodrama and / or comedy; and in general, the theme of love in the
cinema on the school-university theme is for the most part given accented comedic and / or melodramatic.
Keywords: audiovisual text, film, Russia, school, students, pupils, teacher, cinematography, cinema.
the Rostov State University of Economics. Project theme: "School and university in the mirror of Soviet, Russian
and Western audiovisual media texts". Head of the project is professor A.V. Fedorov.
Introduction
In this article we address the goals, objectives, author's concepts of audiovisual media
interpretations of the theme of school and university in Russian cinema (1992-2017). Here, as in our
previous work [Fedorov, Levitskaya, Gorbatkova, 2017], we, relying on technologies developed by
Bazalgette [1995], A. Silverblatt [Silverblatt, 2001, pp. 80-81], W.J. Potter [Potter, 2001] and U.
Eco [Eco, 1998; 2005], on the theoretical approaches of O.V. Aronson [Aronson, 2003] and N.A.
Khrenov [Khrenov, 2006; 2008], we make a generalized hermeneutic analysis of media texts of
Soviet features films of this era on the theme of school and university, taking into account such key
concepts of media education as media agencies, media / media text categories, media technologies,
media languages, media representations and media audiences.

The materials of our research were audiovisual media texts on the school and university
topic. The main method is the comparative hermeneutic analysis of the films, concerning this
subject (including the analysis of stereotypes, ideological analysis, identification analysis,
iconographic analysis, plot analysis, and character analysis). We also analyze books and articles
devoted to school and university in films.
Discussion
We agree that "only the most inconsiderate, uninviting and conservative Russian viewer can
now state that in our country there is no children's and teenage cinema. A revolution has been
taking place on this front for a long time, both bold debutants and venerable pros work here, large
budgets are purposefully allocated for this purpose, and the popularity of any finished products
among its audience acquires" [Ukhov, 2017]. It's another matter, what is the quality of this film /
television product on the school and university topic, and what are the trends in it.
Deprived of the ideological and moral guidelines of the socialist era, Russian films on the
school and university theme, taken after the collapse of the USSR, underwent a number of
quantitative and genre transformations:
- after the dramatic rise in the number of such tapes during the perestroika period in the
Russian "low-picture era" of the 1990s, there was an equally sharp decline, provoked by the almost
total displacement of domestic products from cinemas by Western films and the difficult economic
situation in the country that caused a reduction in film production in general;
- in the 21st century, along with the revival of the Russian film production, a kind of
reformatting of the tapes about the school and university from the cinematic to the television show
happened: modern multiplexes began to focus on spectacular action movies and full-length
animated pictures (shot mostly in 3D), so the producers preferred to switch stories about
schoolchildren , students and teachers on the television audience;
- the dominant of the dramatic genre, customary for the cinema of the Soviet school and
university, replaced the realm of comedy in the 21st century (mostly "long-running" series).
There have also been changes in the casting: if in the Soviet times the roles of
schoolchildren was basically performed by the schoolchildren themselves (Welcome, or No entry,
By the windows go trains, Call, open the door, Transitional age, The woodpecker’s head doesn’t
hurt, Scarecrow, etc.), then in the Russian TV series of the XXI century almost became the norm,
when professional actors from twenty to thirty years play the roles of schoolchildren. Apparently,
producers and directors believe that 1) many months (and many serials are shot for several years)
shooting with a tough, exhausting work schedule is too much for real schoolchildren; 2) in
connection with the rather slippery plot situations of a sexual and lexical nature, laid down in the
script of modern films about the school, try to hedge, in order to avoid accusations of "corrupting"
the under-age performers on the set.
Comedy
Of the seven Russian films about the school and university, filmed in the 1990s, three relate
to the comedy genre. And the short films of S. Bagirov Equality (1993) and Rypkin’s Love (1993),
rather, resembled the good old Patchwork, however, with grotesquely negative images of teachers
(especially vulgar and insignificant in Rypkin's Love). But the series ABCD Ltd (1992-1994) already
affected the capitalist tendencies, which replaced the "developed socialism". Perhaps it was a kind
of reaction to gloomy perestroika films, where boarding school life often resembled a prison ... It
should also be noted that the post-Soviet issues of Patchwork also quickly mastered the attributes
of the bourgeois world, turning in one of the issues an English teacher into ... a stripper .
The comedy continued to be the main genre of Russian cinema about the school and
university theme and in the 21st century: of the 86 films on this subject, 35 were shot in a comedic
manner.
It all began with a simple situational comedy Dormitory (2001), built according to
American standards, which became a sketch for the comedies about student life that followed:
Theater Academy (2002), Merry Company (2003), Students (2005), Touched (2005), Students-2
(2006), Students International (2006), Univer (2008-2011), Univer: Open Doors" (2013), "Univer:
New Dormitory (2011-2016), Philological Faculty (2017). By the way, never before the student
topics did occupy such a prominent place in the Soviet and Russian cinema / television repertoire.
By rejecting the gloomy interpretations of the educational process that prevailed in perestroika
years, Russian TV series competed with each other in terms of sexually and funny scenes, mockery
of teachers' corruption and general old-age mockery. For example, in the Touched (2005) student
jokingly at first imitated his "self-immolation", and then with the same enchanting success engaged
in fake urination in front of a shocked university professor.
All these student comedy series are built in the spirit of the well-known to everybody phrase
"from session to session the students live cheerfully": the university itself is given a minimum of
screen time, but in detail and with enthusiasm it is told about student rallies, parties, love adventures
and other amusements.
Naturally, among the entertaining students there must be a certain "botanist", that is,
contrary to the story, a student immersed in studies, whom his friends (neighbours in the dormitory)
are trying to convert into their hedonistic faith. Likewise, images of female students are arranged:
among the smart and flirtatious intriguing beauties (one of which is a stereotypically stupid blonde),
there often appears the figure of an honest and modest girl ("blue stocking", "gray mouse").
Sometimes (for example, in Students International) on the screen appear students-foreigners (from
Africa, China, etc.). Teachers in such serials are given a secondary role of retrogrades, bribe-takers /
schemers or objects of love of cute female students. Humour in these films, as a rule, unpretentious
and flat, and vocabulary every year becomes more coarser and vulgar. The music in these series is
often associated with a specific year of release of the series on the screen, since it includes hits of
fashionable pop bands during the relevant time period. In order not to contact young and
inexperienced debutants, the creators of serials often invite to the role of students actors (especially
men) older than thirty years. Artistic bar of this kind of works, as a rule, is lowered already at the
level of design, after all it is not about "piece goods" intended for cinemas and / or festivals, but
about daily displays of multi-series television production.
Many serials on the topic of school and university are free adaptation or direct versions of
foreign television production. For example, one can notice similarity of the concept Philological
Faculty (2017) with the American Big Bang Theory: the authors "copy and bring to maximalist
extremes both storylines and characters and the output is extremely exaggerated Big Bang Theory.
The creators are well aware and similarities ... , therefore already in the pilot series they protect
themselves from all attacks by a single phrase from those of Philology Faculty: "This all reminds
me of the Big Bang Theory." However, the recognition of plagiarism is far from a reason to forgive
him "[Golubev, 2017].We completely agree with the fact that "from the same Univer of the sample
of the first season, Philological Faculty if different, then purely cosmetic. Yes, the scenery is no
longer three cardboard walls, yes, the picture is richer and, yes, the soundtrack is more fashionable,
but in general the circuits of the series are similar – and Lena ... not too far away from Allochka
"Pipets" from Univer. Guys without a special fantasy, but effectively disintegrated according to
archetypes: one is a self-assured "Kazanova" – a failure, the second does not get out of online
games and in our reality is oriented with variable success, the third is a typical "main character",
that is, neither meat, nor fish" [Khokhlov, 2017]. Against this background, are shown in bold
strokes played ironic swearing person (taboo language in Philological Faculty , is however, bleeped
out) Prof. Gudkov and his ex-wife, who is also a educator in this university.
D. Golubev reasonably concludes that "Russian television in development has been stalled
for some time – the viewer is not trying to lure something new and unusual, he is being fed again
and again exactly what is being hijacked, and no matter with which grimace these products are
absorbed ... Philological Faculty just serves as a confirmation of this opinion: the TV channel
simply rolled out to us a slightly modernized, rejuvenated and changed version of the Univer
[Golubev, 2017].
Comedy on a student theme, shot for cinemas, were made, of course, a bit more quality
television series. So Freshman (2002) tells the story of bored student flirting with masturbating at
night assistant professor, not wanting to put her top three in the exam...
In any case, all these comedies are unlikely to target intellectual students and an educated
adult audience. Rather, their authors want to make them laugh at schoolchildren (from those who
have not fully gone online) and the older audience, but with a low threshold of media inquiries...
Comedy (mainly – also television) about the school life was also a lot: a series of
anecdotes about the ten-year mischief (Vovochka, 2000-2004), unpretentious stories about high
school students (Lessons for Security of Life, 2000-2005; Potapov, to the board!, 2007), diligently
imitating not the best Soviet films of the Soviet Children's and Youth Films Studio.
Not any higher in terms of artistic quality, in our opinion, turned out to be built according to
the standards of American sitcoms for children Fun during the break (2007-2008) –33 series of 5
minutes. Rating success with the audience was Ranetki (2008-2010) – a simple musical comedy
about high school students performing in a rock band.
How did these comedies try to make the audience laugh? Here are two typical examples.
The series Lessons for Security of Life (2000-2005) shows a lesson in biology on "Fertilization".
Schoolgirls first perceive this material with embarrassment, but after a conversation with a
psychologist they dress in miniskirts, do their make-up and with dashing coquetry brilliantly answer
the lesson, this time embarrassing the shy teacher ... In the dramatic comedy School No. 1 (2007)
the problem of mutual relations comes to the fore with high school students from rich and ordinary
families, true, with an emphasis on parties, shopping, sex, etc. Senior students, as is customary in
most Russian TV series of the XXI century, were played by actors aged 21 to 30 years, which also
did not add credibility to the plot.
The film by V. Menshov The Practical Joke (1976) was watched in the first year of the rent
by 34 million viewers. However, his remake of the same name, made for television in 2008, did not
receive a special resonance, perhaps because of the fact that in 1976 Menshov's schoolchildren
"answered ethical questions with varying degrees of complexity and timelessness (is it permissible
for the sake of general goals to sacrifice the principles? and should the students earn by playing a
game at weddings?) and generally decide how to live on. In Kudinenko’s in 2008 ... in general,
nothing is decided." [Lyashchenko, 2008]. Money, sex, domination in one's peer circle ... In the The
Practical Joke (2008) "the girls painted in gloss and the hanging out guys do not cause the slightest
feeling that they need something more from life" [Derenkovskaya, 2008].
Perhaps the most dashing Russian comedy from school life was the series Physical
Education Teacher (2014-2017), where D. Nagiyev with a cynical foul played a bandit dismissed
by the "underworld boss" named Foma, who tries to enter the confidence of the boss's child in the
guise of a physical education teacher with his help to return to the "business".
Of course, Physical Education Teacher is "a fairly standard by the form of a through net. ...
a large part of it is based on references to Western comedies – to Freaks and Nuts, to Bachelor
Party in Vegas, to Rock School and so on" [Sobolev, 2014] and, by and large, is an inverted plot of
the legendary comedy Gentlemen of Fortune (1971), where, the director of a kindergarten by the
will of fate is compelled to pretend to be a bandit...
Foma on the screen is natural bull "straight from the 1990's, communicating exclusively in
"thieves’ slang" and used to solve problems by breaking doors and breaking skulls. This is witty,
funny and accurate already in itself, but Nagiyev goes further and gradually turns a funny caricature
into a voluminous portrait of a difficult and certainly charming man. The way Foma is extinguished,
faced with the problems of children, with the need to seek a common language with a girl who
intellectually looks down on him, and generally with life outside the "big business", is played really
brilliantly - in semitones, supposedly random sights, nervous grins" [Khokhlov, 2014].
However, the ardent supporters of this series go even further, arguing that "from something
as crude as the material on which Physical Education Teacher is based, there has never grown
something so native to all, without exception, the inhabitants of one eighth of the land. ... Physical
Education Teacher is not just a native thing, but also beyond incredible cleverness, subtle,
fascinating and sincerely touching the soul. A classic two-sided novel of upbringing, in which those
who according to all the usual laws of the genre had to be re-educated, eventually become re-
educated not completely, but remain hostages simultaneously of their own stupidity and hopeless
domestic problems"[Sobolev, 2014].
On the other hand, the situation in itself, when an arrogant bandit, who by fate has become a
school teacher by fake documents, becomes a positive character against the background of "sucker"
teachers and their corrupt district headmistress, is, in our view, a rather sad phenomenon, although
symptomatic for modern Russian television, in the pursuit of ratings for a quarter of a century, fond
of stories about bandits, thieves and other evil spirits...
To some extent, we can also say that the authors of Physical Education Teacher learned
well the lessons of the cheeky comedy Bitter! (2013). A. Dolin believes that the film Bitter! (2013)
"opened some secret door in the minds of the public, legalizing the most shameful – and at the same
time having allowed to laugh at it or be proud of it, depending on someone’s tastes. Achieving such
a level of frankness and screen truth in combination with the reckless humour has shocked many.
Bitter! in a purely Russian spirit, combined touching with the disgusting, and terrible – with the
most native. He also patented the genre of the "holiday film", a ritual action where the plot recedes
in front of the pure alcoholic euphoria of unity – the transformation of a number of frustrated
individuals into a community, which with some caution can even be called people"[Dolin, 2014].
And here is the comedy Graduation Party (2014), where eighteen-year-old schoolchildren
are played by actors who are already over twenty, went even further: thanks to the recklessness of
the plot about the graduation party in the provincial school, "sterile New Russian comedies with
their obsessive "kindness" they lost their innocence ... Well, humour cannot and should not be
extremely kind. ... With sexual content – the lack of it was always the weak point of the generally
powerful Soviet cinema tradition about high school students – in Graduation Party everything is all
right"[Dolin, 2014].
On May 5, 2014, amendments and additions were introduced to Federal Law No. 53 of the
Russian Federation "On the State Language of the Russian Federation" (dated June 1, 2005).
[Changes ..., 2014], according to which, from July 1, 2014, the film "containing obscene language"
ceased to be issued a rental certificate, and when television showed films of past post-Soviet
decades containing obscene language, such words started to "bleep out". The comedy Graduation
was released on October 9, 2014 and became one of the first Russian films, which took into account
the changes in the legislation of May 5, 2014: despite all the general rudeness of the lexicon in the
film, there is not one real swear word. As a result, it turned out to be an "easy movie, with a terrible
force lacquering reality. Of course, real high school students with their brains boiling from
hormones and burst outs, one must think who mostly swear and live inside their rather tough
showdowns. But this is not the School of Valeria Gai Germanika, it is a film of the kings of TNT, a
channel not scandalous (as it seems to the elderly and fierce zealots of morality), but simply serving
the petty bourgeoisie to laugh at it" [Korsakov, 2014].
Of course, "the sophisticated viewer will see in the film" ears "of various films – here is the
unforgettable Soviet classics You never dreamed (its authors in Graduation Party quoted right up to
the jump in the window!), And the Hollywood comedy I can not wait (From which a trio of juvenile
rappers with Seth Grin at the head is borrowed), and a little John Hughes (the final phrase of the
protagonist Demian is distinctly given by Bender from the Breakfast Club), and, of course, the
Project X with the school's rampant get-togethers. It is interesting that these things are not perceived
as impudent borrowing, but rather give an additional charge of positivism because of the joy of
recognition"[Khokhlov, 2014].
For all that, the opinions of the critics about Graduation were polarized. Some thought that
"the eternal theme of doublethink and hypocrisy with which adolescents enter into a spontaneous
conflict in the Graduation Party was solved extremely successfully [Dolin, 2014], but "in the
dialogues there are a lot of good jokes ... in general Graduation is a head above all that we shot in
the genre of youth comedy over the past twenty years – and, most of all, despite the tough age
rating, it remains a film quite "right" and useful for young people. Yes, in the finals high school
students will arrange a rowdy, but this is the most strained part of the film. Because Generally
Graduation Party is not exactly about this, but about responsibility, about entering into adulthood,
about how to find a common language with those who cannot be understood as it seems. And about
that childhood passes, but remains with us forever" [Khokhlov, 2014]. Others were sure that this is
"an ideal picture for people who do not like to think about cinema. After viewing the head is clean,
clear and does not contain a single question to the creators or the surrounding reality. ... Wherever it
was possible to bend the stick, the creators of the Graduation Party bent it. Yes, in schools, what
does not happen only, and graduation parties are celebrated with modern 11-grades in a way that
many of us did not dream about, but you do not need to paint them all with the same brush. ... One
can feel for a mile that Graduation Party is the desire to earn as quickly as possible on a gullible
spectator. ... A clumsy comedy about 11-graders, full of platitudes and clichés"[Loshakova, 2014].
No doubt, Graduation Party is filled with stereotypes in the spirit of Univer, but there are
newfangled (for Russian cinema, of course) politically correct trends. For example, one of the
graduates to get away from a trip to study in Holland, admits (deceitfully) to his father in his
unconventional sexual orientation ... And the father responds in the same manner.
However, for all its frivolity Graduation Party, in our opinion, is far from audiovisual ease
of the comedy series After School (2012). Judging by the name of this film, its authors "with their
intellectual fiction and irony, modern speech, love for pop and genre games, were to stylistically
oppose Germanika (the director of the acclaimed series School, 2010 – authors), exploiting
documentary style and life-likelihood. ... Of course, the series is primarily addressed to young
people: for them there are music, clips, dialogues, jokes, sports, constant connection of the story
with social networks and videos on YouTube. But still the film is for families. For a simple reason:
the parents of heroes are 35-40 years old, for them it is all the same integral part of life"
[Lubarskaya, 2012].
From the very first shots the series After school carries with its intricate clip-type visual
series, stop frames, solarization, styling under TV interview, parody, funny letters of the character-
schoolboy to the actor and director Nikita Mikhalkov, the atmosphere of an endless carnival. It is
clearly seen that although "the authors have studied not only the range of interests of Russian high
school students, but also the recipes for the success of American consumer goods" [Bednov, 2012],
the theme touched by the series is not at all empty – "this is the place of man under the sun,
regardless of age, and his mentality, and the relationship of husband-wife-child, and the creation of
idols, and friendship is not friendship, and even the eternal dilemma of "being or seeming"
[Kuzmina, 2012, p. 5].
Is it shown (in orientation to the audience of "hipsters"?) On the first channel at midnight,
the series After school caused the expected polemic in the press [Bednov, 2012; Kuzmina, 2012;
Lisitsyna, 2012; Lyubarskaya, 2012; Narinskaya, 2012, etc.], but because of its original "elitism"
did not cause such an outbreak of spectator passions as V. Gai-Germanika's School.
In the second half of the tenth years of the 21st century, another characteristic tendency of
the comic genre on the school theme was clearly identified: stylization for the best examples of
Soviet cinema about children and adolescents of the 1960s and 1970s.
So A. Karpilovsky made a trilogy called Private Pioneers’ (2012-2017), initiated by the
stories written in post-Soviet times by M. Seslavinsky. However, this "is not a parody, no banter,
and certainly not agitation. It's just a memory of something very naive and very light" [Alenushkina,
2013]. The first two films of the trilogy take place in the Soviet province of the second half of the
1970s. Unlike the "film standards" of the XXI century, the role of schoolchildren here played real
schoolchildren, not cinema faculty students. Brilliantly chosen by the director, the young
performers of the leading roles, thank God, "do not possess modern cine-puppet beauty and ideal
diction, they are real and alive, and therefore organically fit into the space of the film, provoking
sincere sympathy and a desire to empathize. Not for example, the chairman of the school council –
the sleek upstart Bykov – is caricatured as serious, he is an intermediate link between the warm,
sincere child's soul and the stiffened heart of an adult, the allegory of that transitional state that
turns an open child into a blindly devoted builder of communism"[Kotov, 2015].
In the first part on the screen is a touching story about how the boys save a dog from death,
in the second no less typical for a teenage movie the story of the first love. And with the exception
of some minor details (for example, in the second series one of the schoolchildren from pranks
makes the bust of Lenin look like a dashing Indian), it's easy to imagine these stories on Soviet
screens of the 100 Days After Childhood (1975).
Actually, this is precisely what "strains critics, and all this is liked by the audience who gave
the film the prize of their sympathies. Such two sides of the barricades are in the cinema and in the
whole society. Some people feel sick at the very thought that there was something good in the
USSR, others remember this well as if they were coming to a clean source. The film falls into the
very heart of the split. You look at it and suddenly you find yourself in a world where there are
clear coordinates: what is good, and what is bad. What is commendable and what is embarrassing.
Children do not hang around yards with a cigarette, but something is rehearsed, something is
discussed. They argue. Sincerely they want to be useful to the country, and Gaidar with his
Timurovites marches ahead. Critics of the movie consider this action as stupefying, his fans –
upbringing. Critics say: it's all lies. Fans: that's how it was. All according to the proverb: you want
to be happy – be it. And really: how else could a country where there is nothing good, write good
books, write talented music, win in a big war and first go out into space? Yes, the film shows a
world where people have a purpose in life – self-improvement. And then the comparison comes by
itself: what is the best way: to grab the cash and run away? And there comes nostalgia for
something more real. As the eternally oppositional author wrote in polemical fervour: "We had a
great epoch" [Kichin, 2013].
As a result of all this a tactful and intelligent "timeless story of friendship, honour and
mutual assistance, relevant for young people of any generation, has turned out. The destructive anti-
capitalist battles and selfless struggle with the bourgeoisie take place here only in the amateur
scenes of the play, played by the sixth "B" [Kotov, 2015].
Another successful stylization for Soviet school movies was the comedy Good Boy (2016),
which became the winner of the film festival "Kinotavr". As M. Trofimenkov rightly noted, "the
good and harmful children who meet melodramatic relationships in adults are the same typical
heroes of the Soviet "new wave": from Vitaly Melnikov's Mom got Married (1969) to Children as
Children (1978) by Ayan Shahmaliyeva. If you recall the later, still soft versions, but already
versions of the youth riot, then in the memory emerges Courier (1986) by Karen Shakhnazarov.
The fact that Oksana Karas's film evokes such associations makes him an honour" [Trofimenkov,
2016].
Of course, even here the strict voices of critics immediately came to the conclusion that the
Good Boy is "essentially a collection of jokes that are not even discussed and sometimes even
conflicting with one another, which are not reduced to nothing but a general optimistic message"
[Korsakov, 2016].
But we fully agree with V. Khlebnikova that in genre determinism, light jokes and the lack
of didactics of the Good Boy "read the desire to entertain the viewer, provide the mass audience
with that comfort zone that the intellectuals regularly, although not quite at the right place, call to
leave. Good boy achieves this goal with the help of the stylization of Soviet children's cinema in the
mid-1970s and early 1980s, who either forcedly or voluntarily "did not notice" reality and its
mismatch with propaganda and embodied the utopian ideal of a carefree and prosperous existence
for several generations of compatriots, often identified with the norm. The model of ideological
quarantine, a sterile zone free from subtexts, hints, social and political topicality, is being modelled.
The space thus cleared is given in the Good Boy chamber, alien to the vivid artistic effects and, as a
rule, the confirmation of the basic norms of behaviour. In the Good Boy, as the norm, not the most
popular in the country emancipation of personal choice from the influences of the family and the
community is claimed, personal responsibility for actions of their own, and not of the neighbour or
the organization, and thus the mirror emancipation of other people from oneself. Moscow is
immersed in an eternal golden age in the Good Boy. There are no vulgar signs of the sociological
context of 2010-2016. This Moscow takes sunbaths, basking in the light of an artificial day, which
replaces the artificial night of cinematography of zero. Here they live by the river, as if on the sea,
do not know the transport collapses and costs of sleeping urbanization, the interiors with antique
furniture are spacious and light, windows – greens, spires and vistas, the eternal and prosperous
noon of the world. ... Students are not drug addicts, not Nazis or hipsters, participate in dance
battles, but can also polka, independently learn Chinese ... Authors of Good Boy pragmatically stop
the time so that its annoying features and radical physiognomy do not distort the classic plot of the
personality formation, they didn’t imposed on him the character of youth revolt and the world
denial. About that and speech, that a mature person assumes reality not because he cannot change it,
but because his transformational efforts are directed mainly at oneself "[Khlebnikova, 2016].
But then V. Khlebnikova clearly does not pay attention to the fact that, unlike the Private
Pioneers’, there are a lot of scenes in the Good Boy that are absolutely impossible in the Soviet
cinema of the 1970s: the teacher of English watches with her student Nine ½ Weeks (1985),
balancing on the brink of erotic contact with a young character; director of the school leads all the
same "good boy" in an underground casino, and a maniac-exhibitionist, adoring publicly to
perform a small need, runs around the district.
However, despite all these "innovations", the Good Boy is on the territory "between the
movie of good mood and the problem teenage drama about the school", here "a surprisingly lively
and nice atmosphere, although the action under the scenario takes place in an ordinary Moscow
school, where one immediately wants to be admitted and spend there all the time. Teachers, even
the head teachers and the director himself-in the performance of the inevitably charming Mikhail
Efremov – are strikingly liberal: there is no depressing or ideological obligation among the subjects.
And growing up children think more about the knowledge of the world and, worst of all, about
sexual education: for example, the main character hesitates between a pretty girl and a young
teacher, and the film will never fall down beyond a dangerous border, with all its atmosphere of
unobtrusive flirting. In short, a cute movie that has nothing to do with life and reality is absolutely
irrelevant: really good and not even fake – just blissful" [Dolin, 2016].
At sunset of thaw, a fantastic comedy Wake of Mukhin! (1967) appeared on screens, where
the main hero from the USSR of the late sixties was transferred to the year 1837 to protect
Alexander Pushkin from the fateful duel. Authors of the fantastic comedy To Save Pushkin (2017),
on the contrary, send Alexander Sergeevich Pushkin from 1837 to Moscow 2017, but the
schoolchildren are also trying to dissuade the great poet from a duel with Dantes. Despite a number
of critics noted [Arkhangelsky, 2017; Potapova, 2017; Ukhov, 2017] of merits (lightness, sincerity,
humour, interesting and topical detective and satirical plot, dynamics and intrigue, unexpected,
witty finale), the film failed at the box office, unable to withstand competition with Western
blockbusters. Probably, its appearance in the TV format would be more appropriate, and then the
target audience would have a much greater chance of understanding that "our everything" here is
not a figurative but an aesthetic value. A guest from the past the authors show the invariance of the
meanings of words honour, duty, respect, responsibility, truth, politeness, tact. Of course, these
concepts have been polished for two hundred years, but their inner strength has remained the same,
and it is important to understand it at a young age" [Ukhov, 2017]. In addition, in To Save Pushkin
ridiculed "thirst for glory and ubiquitous media, when any news is immediately on the screen to
confirm or debunk, and every second student gets the opportunity to run his own video blog using
improvised means" [Potapova, 2017].
Much greater public success fell to the share created by the American recipes of the
fantastic comedy Ghost (2015), where a ghost in the bright performance of Fedor Bondarchuk gives
lessons on the male education for a schoolboy played by the star of Private Pioneers’ and Good
Boy Semion Treskunov.
Dramas
The post-Soviet period dramas narrated about school life in three ways.
Firstly, these were the pictures that largely inherited the traditions of socially and critically
biased "perestroika" films of the second half of the 1980s.
The closest to "perestroika" motives was Teacher in law (2007). Here, the "thief in law",
having learned that he has a cancer, and little of life is left, decides to do at least something good
and ... is getting a job as a literature teacher in a provincial school. The story line resembles the
Teacher of Physical Education string, but it's not a comedy, it's a drama: there's a whole heap of
gloomy genre going on, as there is a whole gang of high school students-drug dealers with whom
the reformed thief enters into a deadly duel ... Despite the topical theme of drugs in educational
institutions, the level of reliability in this drama is clearly underestimated, and impudent
schoolchildren, who are engaged in "drug", are depicted too grotesquely to be psychologically
convincing.
Sexual (however, submitted very gently) motifs of "perestroika" movies were played in the
drama Let's Make Love (2002), where with a noticeable amount of irony was told the story of a
student trying to part with his protracted virginity.
In P. Todorovsky's drama What a wonderful game (1995) socio-political motives came to
the fore. The film unfolded in the cold winter of 1951, when students of one of the Moscow
universities decided to play a joke on their neighbours in a hostel: they secretly connected the
microphone to the radio receiver and on behalf of the Kremlin they transmitted a message about the
abolition of censorship and residential registration, a fivefold fall in prices and many other joyous
events. The payoff did not take long to wait: the "instigators" were arrested and shot in the cellars of
the Ministry of State Security... As in the previous films of the director (Military Field Love and
Encore, more Encore), it was again a retro-style drama with impregnations of comedy. It is a pity
only that this time the script did not have the bulk of the characters and the original plot moves.
Throughout the action of the film students play jokes, make love, make noise, drink vodka, etc. etc.,
but after the end of the session, you can hardly recall what exactly one student is different from the
other: except that he was a shy person with glasses, and the other was a giggly fat man. The
characters at the level of the Military Field Love in the Game ..., alas, there is no trace, although
good actors do everything possible to give their characters at least some kind of personality... And
the very situation with the draw on political theme looks more like from the times of the Nikita
Khrushchev’ thaw than from the harsh Stalinist times, when people sometimes were afraid to
publicly tell even quite harmless jokes. Still, the fear of 1951 was significantly different from the
fear of 1957 or 1959 – the times of so-called "good hopes"...
Much more successful turned out another retro tape – Tender Age (2000). Its director, Sergei
Soloviev, used his "perestroika achievements", making a kind of cocktail of poetic style of the 100
Days After Childhood (1975) with the ironical drive of Black Rose ... (1989) and The House under
the Starry Sky (1991). Talking about the school life of the first half of the 1980s, S. Soloviev, not
trusting in the "seriousness and drama of the story told, largely based on the true facts from the life
of fellow practitioners and his son's friends, as if afraid to look boring, saturates the action with
repeated divertissements (sometimes sinful on the part of taste)" [Kudryavtsev, 2007]. But in
general, all the shocking "late perestroika" scenes (well, perhaps, more "advanced") were in place:
the teacher cursing American expansion, smashed his head with a brick because of the loss of the
USSR of the Cold War. Schoolchildren smoked and looked at photos in the porn magazine. The
chemistry teacher fainted at the sight of the student, who appeared in the nude at the height of her
lesson. A little later, there was a bold scene of sex pioneer and the same "chemist" (ironic greetings
to Doll in 1988). And (oh, God!), The naked pioneers had sex in the pool...
But here's what is typical: in 2001, having received the main prize of festival "Kinotavr",
Tender Age for all its shocking reality did not provoke any outrage of the public. The main reason
for this was the fact that the film was actually ignored by mass rent, filled with American
entertainment pictures. But there were also reasons for another property: Russia only recently began
to recover from the economic shock of 1998 and was still in the field of the officially oriented to the
West (cultural) policy of "permissiveness".
A softer retro variant (this time the life of Soviet students in the 1970s) was presented in the
drama The Vanished Empire (2007) by K. Shahnazarov. Along with criticism of the Soviet system,
notes of restrained nostalgia were felt here: "The Soviet empire was taken from Shakhnazarov at
flight, in thinning, in half-decay – in the most attractive form, when its vices were not so obvious;
when she softened, slowed down, passed into oblivion, when everyone was already hypocritical and
lied. But there was movement in it, perhaps it was growing up, there were concepts of good and evil
– and in the ensuing timelessness everything was levelled off" [Bykov, 2007].
Secondly, these were films about the present, but close in style to the Soviet cinema of the
1970s. For example, a series about the school life Simple Truths (1999-2003), the action of which
unfolded in one of the Moscow's schools. Contrary to perestroika gloomy genre, there were a lot of
good high school students and teachers in the Simple Truths, there were almost no scabs and bed
scenes with "nudity". In a similar vein, but this time with a focus on the ecological theme (a biology
teacher with her students struggling with the pollution of nature) was posed The Adult Life of a Girl
Polina Subbotina (2008). The Village Teacher (2015) also fits in well in this row. In this "socialist
realistic" drama, an astonishingly similar (and outwardly and character traits) to the charming
Shurik from the famous Soviet comedies of Leonid Gaidai, a graduate student of the pedagogical
faculty and a history teacher, Lev Sergeevich comes into conflict with the retrograde of the director
and sent to teach in a rural school. And there he soon won the respect of high school students, and
the love of the local beauty.
Thirdly, these were films about the school and university, taken from the new Russian moral
paradigm of the 21st century, that is, instead of the strict moral guidelines of Soviet "developed"
socialist realism and the "perestroika" (and continuing "perestroika") social criticism, the films with
characters without humanistic ideals, living in a world of money, violence, sex and entertainment,
to which the authors are emphatically neutral, treating them as guinea pigs, came out on the first
plan.
The most revealing of such films types was the drama Everyone will die, but I'll stay (2008).
The characters of this film live "according to the laws of pride: the strong dominate, the weak are
humiliated and thrown out of the habitual circle. Emotions are polar" – either rapture or malicious
anger. Nobody, for example, has seen the mink surmise, philosophize, fall into a reflection. What
can we say about a simple high school student? The nymphs of Germanika are cracking down on
rivals with instinctive cruelty, and a jar of alcohol is rejoicing in the same way as the Whiskers who
found a delicious worm found under the stone. The animals eat grass, the children smoke it"
[Belokurov, 2009].
The director of the film, Valeria Gai Germanika, clearly wanted to prove to the whole world
that she would finally say "the whole truth about the modern school". So in her tough tape, ninth-
graders smoke, drink wine, have sex, adore obscene gestures and slang vocabulary ("shorter",
"damn", etc.), swear (in fact, without "bleeping out”: tape removed for six years before the strict
amendments to Federal Law No. 53 "On the state language of the Russian Federation" adopted in
2014 [Changes ..., 2014]), attempt suicide and then go to a disco.
Here are just a few characteristic phrases, which are pronounced in the film by 15-16-year-
old schoolgirls:
- It would be nice if all adults died!
- Lucky – she was fucked by a whole company of soldiers!
- Let there be a disco, and I will have a boyfriend!
You can probably agree with the fact that Gai Germanika – "a real evil demiurge, who pulls
the thread. And at the bottom of the handle stupid, ridiculous and pathetic, in general, a creature
called a "teenager", torn by galactic dimensions of narcissism and a huge desire to squeeze the brain
with a juicy pimple. Alas, these strings pointlessly point to young creatures who do not yet know
that everyone will die without a trace, and put on their t-shirts "Parents, fuck you!" [Kulikov, 2008].
And here it is difficult to agree that the tape, thanks to the "flying camera" of the operator,
"included the very same air and light, without which the film could only pass through the category
of "youth gloomy". Because, in fact, after deducting this air and this light, we would be offered
several important and, most importantly, fresh news: there is no love, there is no hope, there is no
faith; adults – goats, children – bitches; everyone will die, but I'll stay" [Fanailova, 2009]. In our
opinion, Everyone will die ... returns precisely to “perestroika” gloomy, but without the
characteristic humanistic pathos, replacing it with cynical naturalism.
However, even this naturalism is very specific. Is it possible to take seriously the film
Everybody will die and I’ll stay as the most truthful post-Soviet film text about a modern school and
schoolchildren, if 15-16-year-old characters are played by experienced actors from 22 to 28 years
old?
So we are not inclined to share the enthusiasm of the researchers of the creative work of V.
Gai Germanika who say that "we have a director who does not doubt the reality, does not submit to
it, does not load it with reflections, does not blunder it, says that in this reality it is possible to live
and, consequently, to shoot about her non-abstract, clear cinema" [Gusyatinsky, 2009], answering
the "important question" [Volobuev, 2008].
About the film Everyone will die, but I'll stay (2008) argued mostly professionals – film
critics and culturologists, it had no wide rental. But about the television series of V. Gai Germanika
School (2010), shown in prime time on the Russian first channel, argued already "the whole
country". In fact, it was a lighter version of the previous film directed by the producer, deployed for
several dozen episodes: "In fact, the series School is quite vegetarian. Nothing in the ideological
sense is extraordinary in it, no radicalism, protest moods. In comparison with the programs-
mischief’s channel NTV (Pure confession, Especially dangerous! or Emergency), "pearls" of
Sunday prime, the series School is just a pioneer morning performance. Except for an informal
visual and behavioural context" [Dondurei, 2010]. In fact, this is a series is "a one-to-three version
of Everyone dies..., but without a filthy language, tits and an director of the photography is worse...
Even the inevitable game of give-away with the TV audience, very cleverly framed. Each time they
go playfully to the point at which something very indecent should begin, and when the spectator
begins to get an epileptic fit from surprise, they also play back playfully: a collision with a teacher
who has fallen on a girl is brewing, and then the teacher takes up the pedophile, the potential gay
line looms (very timidly) and then, no, sorry, it seemed to you. In the first series there is a charming
moment, this method is illustrative: the girl writes a word on the glass ... and as soon as she writes
the a swear word, but the grandfather enters at the beginning of this act"[Volobuev, 2010].
Again, obscene gestures, rough slang vocabulary (but already due to evening TV shows
without foul rough language), sex and suicide of schoolchildren. Plus exposing teachers who are
bribe takers and retrogrades.
Here are just some of the characteristic, humiliating human dignity of students, teachers'
phrases from the School:
- You are not a person, but a nonentity.
- Why are you so stupid?"
And again, despite the mobile camera, which removes "under the document", the
disagreement with the age of the performers of the roles of ninth-graders: only one of the actors at
the time of filming (2009) was 18 years old, the rest from twenty-one to twenty-four. And they play
15-16-year-olds... However, other analysts saw their advantages here: "It's embarrassing that the
ninth-graders play huge foreheads for 22 years, but, firstly, you quickly get used to it (in Beverly
Hills 90210, for example, the actors were almost thirty, and that’s OK), and secondly, they play in a
naturalistic way: their young heroes are dull, limited, inhibited, close, nervous. And delightfully
tongue-tied!" [Gordeev, 2010].
The authors of the School, relying on previous developments, refer to "spontaneous,
idolatrous worldview, offer undiluted, concentrated being", promise "recipients a shelter from the
painted in local colours heroes" cardboard "TV installations – youth soap operas, solved in the
genres of the romantic comedies and sitcoms" [Sputnitskaya, 2016, p. 24], although for all this V.
Gai Germanika "one cannot avoid the monotony, inevitable for the format of tightening, savouring
the same type of conflicts, dotted manner of filing images. Often, getting carried away with the
technique of shooting, perspective interpretation of the character, she jumps into tedious ordinary
life description [Sputnitskaya, 2016, p. 25].
Y.A. Bogomolov wrote about the School very accurately: "The art in this series is just so
much that the viewer could imbue with the drama of the situation – and not just in the school
environment. Simply for many, including for aesthetically advanced viewers, the language of this
artistic expression is unaccustomed. Not because it is so new in principle. He is unaccustomed in
the format of the so-called "serial product". The mobile camera is not used. It's like a movie from a
mobile phone. Not in the rules of the format – the super size of plans, exacerbating the subjectivity
of the view of what is happening, the rapid patter of dialogues, kaleidoscopes and the compactness
of the plot motifs. ... The level of authenticity taken in the framework of the frame of reality is also
unaccustomed, which, however, is not simply mechanically transferred to the screen, but
impressively, figuratively processed and submitted. At the same time the intervention of the
director, operator, artist in the "picture" is minimal. That is why the illusion of improvisation of the
current of the spied life arises. ... an acquaintance with the wrong side of the average school
shocking: the exclusion of students, the helplessness of teachers, the smoking of drugs, the
hormonal problems of young children and adolescents, etc. ... They say that the Germanika series is
a crooked mirror. Maybe. But let me note that the crooked mirror not only distorts the beautiful
features of beautiful phenomena, it sticks out defects, flaws of what is not very fine, and especially
that which is very ugly. This is exactly what the School did, both in relation to the school itself and
in relation to today's social order" [Bogomolov, 2010].
For all that, one cannot but admit that "this series does not reveal anything new on the
material. Germanika shoots a movie about what she knows well, even the school and the interiors
are the same as in her first film Everyone Dies and I’ll Stay [Karakhan, 2010]. School did not
become an opening for a sophisticated audience in media culture. But for the audience of the mass,
not familiar with the previous tapes of Gai Germanika, nor with many other Russian and foreign
films about the school and schoolchildren (among which were very sharp, we recall, for example,
Tender Age), the television show School kind of revelation, shock. But there are two more reasons
for the noisy reaction of the public: "First, the entertainment specifics of our television have been
disrupted. This work is not only in its artistic level several orders of magnitude higher than
traditional serial production, but also quite different in its aesthetics. The second is the violation of
the taboo of the genre resolution of various conflicts on the television screen" [Razlogov, 2010].
Many spectators "were struck and indignant at the fact that the show goes on prime time on
the main TV channel of the country. Many interpreted this move as an official statement of the
state. ... Summing up, all opinions can be divided into four groups: a) the demonstration of children
who drink and smoke propagates such behaviour among pupils, making it normal, legitimate,
corresponding to the "spirit of the times"; b) there is a corruption of the younger generation, its
zombification, since it is so much easier for the government to subordinate it, but it does not seem
to be against it; c) the series is an attempt to draw attention to the problems of the school, albeit not
in the most reasonable ways; d) all these are intrigues of the First Channel, which, like air, needs
high ratings" [Paisova, Dementieva, 2010]. Moreover, the head of the Moscow department of
education O. Larionova spoke against the show School on the First Channel, stating that "on the
Internet there were sharply negative reviews of teachers and parents and students for this program,"
created in the year of the teacher in Russia [The series ..., 2010].
We believe that critics of the School managed to feel the main feature of the author's
position in the series: moral relativism, which was clearly recorded by the sociologist D.B.
Dondurey (1947-2017). He noted that the minuses of the School "are obvious and already fixed:
tendentiousness in the selection of material, no one teaches anything, the lack of minimal
intellectual requests from heroes, flat-footed drama" [Dondurei, 2010].
But against this background, D.B. Dondurei was able to distinguish the most, perhaps, the
most important: “School is a sample of producer's creativity in all its components. ... The main thing
in this project is an experiment with the accumulated, but not yet realized, feeling of long-resolved
freedom with its borders, corridors, horizons and also with the latest, though not obvious,
technologies for promoting modern virtual products. School probes the soil of impending or, rather,
ripening content changes, not so much foreseeing how many are exploring here possible ideological
twists and turns. The series diagnoses and fills the emptiness formed in recent years in the "picture
of the world" that has settled on TV, shakes the habitual grid of the serial chewing gum and status
(regardless of the outcome and claims) screenings. He touches on the problems and those realities
of our life, which recently could not be touched. Or did it only seem to us? Who could have
imagined that the sixteen-year-old heroine would curiously unwrap, feel the condom received from
her mother as a gift twice a day at the main point of distributing the "meanings of life", under the
supervision of grandmothers and junior students? This is a slap in the face of Russian public taste.
To look at numerous murders, at dismemberment it is possible, and at a condom – you will go
blind. Who could imagine that a bribe to the teacher, the seduction of a young teacher or teenage
cooperation with pornographic sites will be imposed on the proscenium of a multimillion-dollar
tele-forum? Is it decent to include such weekdays in the domestic series or only – and more abruptly
– in the program Let them say or Maximum?” [Dondurei, 2010].
Another lighter version of the film Everyone dies, and I'll stay was drama The Roof (2009):
pupils sell drugs, smoke and fight in the toilet, teenage girls look at pictures of the Kama Sutra, and
the director writes with a felt-tip pen on the student's forehead "I'm a freak." The main characters of
the The Roof are three girlfriends: "learn in school, fall in love with a newcomer, smoke quietly,
sing songs on the roof and from this very roof are going to jump. Parents of girls, who do what they
can, work, change each other, and think little about their daughters"[Khrustaleva, 2009]. In The
Roof there is no swear words, but there is a moral of the social order: "Parents! Do you know what
your children are doing?"
Released on the screen four years after school, Class correction (2014) appealed not just to
the fate of ordinary pupils, but pupils with disabilities. Like in films of Gai Germanika, the
schoolchildren were played here by actors from twenty to twenty-five years old, which again can be
explained by the fact that there are very risky scenes in this drama: for example, when violent
classmates rape the main character – a disabled schoolgirl. For all that "there is not a single obscene
word from the screen, and not because the prohibiting law appeared recently. The author
consciously set himself a rigid framework: not to "play Germanika", not to try to confirm the
authenticity of what is happening with dirty vocabulary"[Lyubarskaya, 2014].
In the professional environment, the Correction Class (2014) was met ambiguously, in fact,
two opposite interpretations were proposed: 1) "This is the flagship of the "new wave", a
masterpiece of realism (all as in life!), a sob of teenage despair and "Scarecrow XXI century"; 2)
This elegant postmodern trick, grotesque, own universe, glowing giraffe and the output of a young
talented provocateur into the territory of Balabanov and Trier” [Kuvshinova, 2014].
The hot supporters of the film considered that the Correction Class is, of course, gloomy,
but "far from full immersion in decay and despair. Most of the picture the viewer looks with pain,
with fear, with experience, but also with hope. With a light feeling, with a sense of some higher
justice, even if expressed in the fact that boys and girls with physical defects are also happy in their
own way. ... love, hatred, stupidity, betrayal, rage and fear are shown by bare nerves. The disabled
are as vulnerable as the outside world, they are so vulnerable in the inner world" [Ukhov, 2014],
and here "you begin to think about the insecurity of each and every one, in the order of self-defence
giving birth to aggression ... about the total depressiveness into which any business has fallen, and
before all school" [Kichin, 2014]; and "the Correction Class is not strong just with cinephiles, but a
phenomenal ability to find a common language with the audience, making it laugh and touching it
in earnest"[Dolin, 2014].
Opponents were sure that the Correction Class is a brilliant trickery, a story that was not
told, but they wailed through the voice of beggars in the subway. Everything is conditional there, as
in folklore crying ... Tverdovsky entered the world of cinema context on a limousine with a
convertible (but wheels from a wheelchair) and confidently rushes forward under the whistling and
wooing of others" [Shakina, 2014]. Moreover, M. Kuvshinova is convinced that "Tverdovsky from
ignorance of the chosen subject, from misunderstanding, what is provocation, brutality, betrayal, a
miracle, but from the desire to show all this as if he raises before the viewer the signs Provocation!,
Revitalization!, Betrayal!, Miracle!, And when it comes to the notice Author!, he demonstrates in
the TV fragment of his own short film Dog’s joy and puts into the mouth of one of the heroines a
remark:Why shoot like children strangle themselves?” [Kuvshinova, 2014].
It seems to us that the film is an artificially constructed anthropological sketch "based on"
the "black series" of “perestroika” films about the school and the first films of Germanika, where
the story of the collective rape of a schoolgirl by her classmates remains completely unpunished,
where the brutalized mothers fiercely fight in the director's office high school students, where the
natural intonations of the dialogues, inconsistent speech of the characters creates the illusion of
"truth."
Equally polar opinions were sparked by another drama on the school topic – Geographer
Burned the Globe (2013), the authors of which transferred the story of the novel of the same title,
written in 1995, to the 21st century. The plot of the film is simple: a heavily drinking provincial
middle-aged biologist from desperation settles in school to teach geography and, confronted with a
difficult class, tries to earn schoolchildren authority. At the same time, "everything that happens in
the film is categorically wrong. The teacher, who should set an example, drinks, directly tells
everything to children what he thinks about them. He even risks their lives, for which he faces a
criminal punishment. And at his home everything is also wrong: he allows his wife to love a friend,
seeking consolation from a colleague-teacher, secretly loves a student. And the students in the
school are wrong: they are brave, they dare, and, it seems, they do not learn anything"[Kichin,
2013].
Arguments in favour of the film: “the conscious adherence to the Russian literary and
cinematic tradition”, “empathy”, “spiritual enlightenment”, “liveliness and amusement”, “vitality”,
“a call for love for one's neighbour”, etc.
Examples:
1) "Whatever one may say, Veledinsky's film is flesh from flesh and school dramas like
We'll Live To Monday or Dear Elena Sergeevna, and the tragedy of unfulfilled lives, the first of
which comes to mind Autumn Marathon. The image of teacher Sluzhkin is imbued with that very
favourite "once-intelligentsia" with erudition, a romantic attitude, the ability to subtly joke, it is
difficult to curse and beautifully deny women. It's strange, but with all the repulsive components,
Sluzhkin is sympathetic, it's easy for him to empathize, his uneasy position forces him to scroll
through his own actions, and it's always difficult to create such a screen character that almost any
viewer can try on himself "[Ukhov, 2013 ];
2) "But most of all, he attracts non-petty character in the way he relates to our literary and
cinematic tradition going from Onegin and Pechorin to Ivanov and Treplev and then to the heroes of
Duck Hunt, Flight in Dream and in Reality, Autumn Marathon and other "superfluous people for
rendezvous", with which he was immediately compared, noting mainly their undoubted similarity,
although, the difference is no less significant. All the listed persons in one way or another had a
romantic aura – in the largest Pechorin, in the least – Buzykin from the Autumn Marathon.
Sluzhkin, on the other hand, is essentially unromantic and not even tragicomic, but rather a comic
hero, but not in the usual sense of the word, but in the way Chekhov used it with his plays"
[Matizen, 2013];
3) "Alas, the profession of the teacher is considered a dead end. What the main character
himself admits. A story about a real man? Of course not. The edification of youth – do not be like
him? Also not. Or maybe a new upbringing novel? In which pupils are brought up by teachers. Yes
there is simply life. Clamped in the confusion of human prejudices and unfulfilled desires ... But –
albeit not always, but still – bursting loose, triumphantly throwing up arms and saying: but still we
have something to live for. Let’s for a moment. For the sake of such moments and live. And this life
– in most situations ridiculous, ridiculous, not exemplary and unlucky – but leaving hope for
spiritual enlightenment"[Govorushko, 2013];
4) " Geographer Burned the Globe is a surprisingly lively and funny film in which even
imperfections and roughness go in plus. After all, this is, in the final analysis, a love story, with
which deviations from the canons of beauty and truth are only beneficial. And this is a test for
modern Russian viewers on the ability to enjoy the normal everyday cinema about real people like
you and me "[Dolin, 2013].
5) The Geographer... managed to glorify the one who lives here, these days, and does
nothing at all. It turns out that "nothing" in the end turns out to be the only possible strategy – but
only for those who want to love the whole world, not to be a pledge of happiness to anyone, and to
continue to hope that the world will love it in return"[Kuvshinova, 2013].
Arguments against the film: "turbidity," "lifelessness," "fiction," "no movie," "a cake with
cream," "indecent sensitivity and fearfulness of the authors," "blunders," "ashamed to look," etc.
Examples:
1) "Forgive me for a ridiculous verbal allusion, but I need to despair to give out an
ambitious turbid melodrama for a revelation, and so taken so lifeless that it was necessary to release
immediately on TV" [Hoffmann, 2013].
2) "Director Veledinsky climbs out of the skin to make his film appealing to the simplest
viewer: he sends to the Soviet classics about men searching for the meaning of life, cleans the
source from all painful monologues, leaving only jokes with jokes, tensely peers into the eyes of a
good artist Khabensky . But his Sluzhkin remains a fiction, a non-existent representative of a non-
existent generation, which does not develop at all, does not grow, which really does not need
anything. The movie turns out the same. That is, nonentity" [Ruzaev, 2013];
3) "The whole movie looks like a cake with cream. ... There is a feeling that the creators of
the Geographer – people with quite a decent creative reputation, who ten years ago were a
vigorous and brave front flank of Russian cinema – just grew old and became indecently sensitive
and timid. The formula of Gogol: "love us black," which always worked in our art, it seems to them
too risky, it is much safer to shoot another fairy tale for adults – even if it's a sin against the truth"
[Zaretskaya, 2013];
4) "There is no portrait of the "hero of our time", because there is no hero, and there is no
time as such: all his signs to the middle of the film because of the critical mass of various blunders
simply become dead scenery. There is no drama, and there is not even a tragicomedy, because
laughing at how a teacher gets drunk with the main school bully and reads rap becomes
inappropriate and boring. And what is there? Never mind. There is a film that almost from the very
beginning (Sluzhkin fights in the train with a policeman to the song "I'm free") is a shame to watch.
In addition to the first episode, please, just a nonsense, a couple of shameful ones: the moment with
the decantation of birch juice in a bottle of brandy, and the scene in the bathhouse – a schoolgirl in
love with the teacher groans naked at the stove (for some reason one feels more awkward for the
young actress), the teacher lashes himself with bath brooms until the blood – apparently, expelling
the lustful demons” [Artamonova, 2013].
In our opinion, the Geographer like the Correction Class, looks like a secondary product,
nothing new to add to either the development of the "school theme" or the tradition of stories about
"unnecessary people"...
In the phantasmagoric drama The Clinch (2015) the teacher of the Russian language and
literature "cautiously, clasps the shoulders with a cheap jacket, strives to slip unnoticed. ... He is not
attracted to a long-time unloved wife ... neither an 18-year-old son who clearly lost any respect for
his unsuccessful father ... nor a standing apartment waiting for repairs, torn to the bare concrete
walls" [Lyubarskaya, 2015]. But he is not some romantic from "sixties": he sees in the window how
"the older students beat the younger one, but he will not rush to save anyone. In the booth of the
service toilet, a prelude to a sexual act is performed, and the teacher will not do anything either, he
slams the door, shouting in his heart: "Was there no other place?" ... school – the ideal topic for
demonstrating hypocrisy, deceit, falsity, boredom of life and hopelessness of existence. The school
is, apparently, a serious mental shock for future filmmakers and subsequently serves as a source of
"black inspiration," the forge of a nightmare" [Argangelsky, 2015]. True, further the plot of The
Clinch goes away from the school in the direction of surrealism and absurdism, and, consequently,
from the subjects of our research.
But in Teacher (2015), almost all the action of the film takes place in the school class. At
first, it seems that we are dealing with serious dramatic problems: "here are the eternal relationships
of the older and younger generations, the trampling of moral standards, the degradation of society
and youth, the large-scale problems in Russian education, and the social stratification of society"
[Nikolaev, 2015], "all relevant topics of the man in the street connected with the school, here and
Ukraine with the US, here and culture with education, there are bandits with guards", but soon the
Teacher turns into a farce. ... turns into some kind of skits" [Ukhov, 2015].
Studied by the life, a story of an elderly the wonderful actress Irina Kupchenko, who played
once the most important pedagogical images in the Soviet cinema (Aliens Letters, 1975), plays here.
However, in the Teacher the authors of the film put it in the same uncomfortable and false position
that was in another talented actress – Marina Neelova in the perestroika film Dear Elena Sergeevna:
an elderly and seemingly experienced teacher behaves with schoolboys the way as if for the first
time in her life she was in the classroom and knew practically nothing about the intellectual level
and morals of modern students. And in this class, the authors managed to collect amazing characters
- "boors, loafers and hippies. Even excellent pupils and good guys under the influence of an unusual
situation begin to demonstrate their exceptional egoism and anger. However, to perceive all this for
some reason should be something natural and easily transformed into something healthy with the
help of a wave of a magic bar. The amazing thing: just a few tens of minutes of communication
abounding with mutual threats and insults – and such a universal Stockholm syndrome reigns that
the viewer becomes uncomfortable" [Sosnovsky, 2015].
A similar exaggerated falsity, supplemented by the cost of replacing the German play into
the Russian film, also appears in the much more professionally made Pupil (2016). This drama
shows the "breakdown of the veils with the overwhelming Russian citizen of despair hilariously
competing in aggressiveness with anti-clericalism. Here, in the office of the headmistress, a Russian
flag must necessarily stand – in order to demonstrate the pseudo patriotism that pervades
everything. And certainly – inverted, stressing: for this all, nothing but sycophantic behaviour, not
worth it. If the school has a priest, then his watch will occupy about a third of the screen, and
speech and habits will to testify the criminal past, and not so recent. The director, the head teachers,
the "teachers" are nasty, screaming aunts (and the dull teacher of the physical culture, yes), in the
classroom they tell about the positive aspects of Stalinism, and in the evenings, at the bottle, they
howl awful low-grade songs. Brainless cops and guards are ready, having used all the swear words
with all their heart, to cross themselves at anything that resembles a cross ... "The pupil" does not
invite to reflect on the problems of the current Russian society, as claimed by its author. Instead, the
viewer is given the opportunity to inflame his anger" [Sosnovsky, 2016].
This story about a high school student who uses religious extremism as a tool for rebellion,
then and again, the cues and plot details that betray the western origin of the original slip through. ...
The main misfortune of the Pupil in the other is that it is a warning film, not a film-study. The
picture does not analyze the soul world of a guy who becomes a religious fanatic, does not show his
inner struggle, does not give him the right to doubt and hesitate" [Ivanov, 2016].
M. Trofimenkov rightly writes also about the secondary nature of the Pupil: "Something
like this the world has already seen half a century ago. In dozens of other films, other teenagers –
from English and Polish to Japanese – also demonstrated their genitals. They also smashed their
too-bourgeois sleeping-rooms and beat the adult overseers on the spot with paradoxical aphorisms.
They brought condoms to school and dreamed of automatic bursts from the abdomen to cleanse the
land of adult totalitarian pigs and peer conformists. Then it was called a youth riot against
triumphant hypocrisy: teenage hooliganism should be admired" [Trofimenkov, 2016].
On the other hand, one should probably listen to A. Dolin's opinion: "The film is
straightforward and even didactic, it is a kind of visual (even too much) demonstration of all the
dangers of religion, private or organized. However, the artistic merit is much stronger than the rare
shortcomings. Pupil – the film primarily about fanaticism and "insulting the feelings of believers",
but is also about the modern education system, anti-Semitism, homosexuality, hypocrisy, all forms
of totalitarianism. In this sense, the Pupil is absolutely a political picture, and the second such in
Russia for all the recent time was never ever shot before" [Dolin, 2016].
Films by V. Gai Germanika, dramas Geographer Burned the Globe (2013), Teacher (2015)
and Pupil (2016) told about ordinary schoolchildren from ordinary schools, choosing from them for
the most part the least socially protected. But the authors of the series Barvikha (2009) and Golden
(Barvikha-2) (2011), which were shot according to American recipes, turned to the existence of an
elite school where senior high school students usually learn. Like Gai Germanika, the role of
schoolchildren was performed by professional actors. In Barvikha they were shot at the age of 20 to
29 years, and in Golden – even older. Having redesigned the American TV series Veronica Mars
(2004-2007) and Gossip Girl (2007-2012), the authors of Barvikha designed stereotypes for the
films about the "golden youth" of characters: Lovelace and his rustic friend, "Cinderella", trying to
deceive into "higher society", the queen of the class and her retinue, and, of course, a charming and
honest guy who, though rich, is responsive. The plot of the series revolves around such key
concepts as friendship, love, envy, jealousy, sex, booze, deception and meanness. All this is filed
with the same steady moral relativism as Gai Germanika, only softly, glamorous and without claims
to the author's statement.
Approximately in the same spirit, however, without the exaggerated glamour of Barvikha
and pedalized sexuality (including homosexuality) of the series Physics or Chemistry (2011), the
series High School Students (2006-2010) was made.
Melodramas
In the 1990s, a lot of films were filmed, retrospectively comprehending the relatively recent
past. Among them was the melodrama American (1997) by D. Meskhiev. Earlier, Dmitry Meskhiev
(Cynics, Over Dark Water) was considered a skilled stylist and one of the leaders of the new
director's generation. However, American has caused his image considerable damage. And all
because Meskhiyev has lost, as they say, in his field. Instead of a nostalgic retro-melodrama about
the love affairs and everyday affairs of Russian teenagers of the early 1970s, in our opinion, a
carelessly cut and poorly crafted hand-crafted piece was produced. Of course, the authors of the
film did not forget to dress their young heroes in their trousers and flap them with Beatles' styled
hair. But for more they were not quite ready. The atmosphere of the 1970s in the American does not
exist. It seems that the director, without a long thought, simply copied (primitively and without
inspiration) the older generation's film memories of his post-war childhood. But, alas, what was
admired in Dudes (1977) or in Freeze-Die-Resurrect (1989) in the interpretation of Meskhiev
looked like a dull stamp.
By "average" patterns, many other "school-university" melodramas are also cut. It is clear
that at the heart of melodramatic stories on the school material – love affairs, sometimes quite risky.
Hence the even greater caution of the film-makers in relation to the age of the performers. So in the
Beloved Teacher (2016) the eleventh-grader falls in love with the recent graduate of the pedagogical
college, who came to teach at his school. For the reasons mentioned above, the actor was chosen as
the amateur schoolboy of 22 years, which put the authors of the series before the choice: to invite a
girl of the age corresponding to the graduate of the university (23-24 years) to the role of teacher,
or, in order to avoid equalizing the age parameters of the actors, take an older actress. We stopped
at the second option: the performer of the role of the young teacher in the year the serial was
released on the screen was 33 years old.
It is clear that this kind of age casting from the very first shots destroyed the credibility of
the plot of the series, especially since further it did not give special reasons for serious reflections
(what is worth one scene of an attempt to rape the teacher at the graduation party by one of the
friends of the main character). By the way, on the scene of rape (this time one of the graduates of
the school), and the plot of the nondescript series And the balloon will return (2013) is also
constructed.
In a boring melodramatic vein on the screen incarnated love stories of older characters: in
The Price of Love (2013), a married university teacher falls in love with a twenty-year-old boy, in
Work on Mistakes (2015), a schoolteacher meets after many years with a man who once abandoned
her; in the White Crow (2011) a provincial from the pedagogical school becomes a victim of the
machinations of his treacherous mother-in-law; in the Children under 16 ... (2010) there was a
poorly supported scenario-based student love triangle, rightly received negative reviews of criticism
[Nefedov, 2010; Favorov, 2010], since "the viewer sees instead of beauty the mannerisms of
performance, glossy pretentiousness and blatant vulgarity" [Yushchenko, 2010].
In the melodramatic series Teachers (2014), the well-known TV talk show We chat quarrels
with the leadership of the channel, loses work and ... gets a job at the provincial school as a teacher
of literature (oh, this does not give a rest to the filmmakers on the school topic stories about the
drastic change in the status of their characters, for the time being, it had nothing to do with
pedagogy: let us recall at least Teacher in Law and Teacher of Physical Culture. It's clear, at school,
a recent TV star meets a modest beauty-teacher. But not only her: the glamorous English teacher
has already put her eye on him, and two smart high school students are arguing which one of them
will seduce him (why one of them reads A. Kuprin's Sulamith and rushes to the teacher with kisses,
and the other tattooed on her breast and undress in front of him in the school room: do not worry,
the roles of these schoolgirls were performed by twenty-year-old actresses). Against this
background, everything in the classroom is like that of modern filmmakers: schoolchildren drink,
smoke, have sex (see Barvikha, Golden, etc.).
In the melodrama Freshman (2016), too, a reception with a character turned upside down: a
pretty young mother easily passes the entrance exams to the Institute of International Relations
instead of her 18-year-old daughter and soon falls in love with an impressive assistant professor.
The advantage of this film, in our opinion, is that it does not pretend to be a presentation of the "life
of the university", but plays the romantic feelings unassumingly.
Among the melodramas about students and schoolchildren the greatest resonance was
caused by the film 14+ (2015). Contrary to the unspoken film rules of recent decades, the young
actors of this picture are not 20-25, but actually fifteen. And the value of the film is "not in dramatic
conflicts. This is a very simple film about love, from which it is impossible to come off and which
then is difficult to forget. Just in it (a rare case, especially in Russian cinema), absolutely everything
is done right. The main thing in 14+ is a surprisingly light and natural intonation, with which the
story is told. If you look for roughly similar films about teenagers, perhaps the A Swedish love story
by Roy Andersson or even Truffaut's Les quatre cents coups, released in 1970 and 1959, may come
to mind, respectively. Teenagers, can, and vary depending on epoch and the countries – the genuine
tenderness with which they are looked at by directors does not change. The whole film sounds
lively human speech – and after that dialogues in a lot of other Russian paintings and serials begin
especially painfully to cut the hearing"[Korsakov, 2015].
In fact, in 14+ there are "dialogues" "torn from the language", precise reactions-wins, an
elastic rhythm, many funny moments. The vitality of young performers, their non-professionalism
(adolescents play teenagers) is relevant ... The girls here are absolutely adults (gin and tonic, dates,
risky outfit, innocence and vice in one young body); boys are very kids (bolts, Lego, clockwork
robots, T-shirts with the Simpsons, and they do not sell beer in the store). Incomplete-inexpensive
rips over the topic of the lesson – "monomials", pray to the image of brother Danila Bagrov and in
battles with hooligans imagine themselves as Supermen and Spider-Man. Ordinary children at the
age of adulthood"[Malukova, 2015].
On the other hand, while watching, our "consciousness sinks at a time when adults with
their problems were stupid and incomprehensible, and their own problems were the only important
ones, when nothing further from tomorrow existed, and the heart beat more strongly from love
experiences than from fear of being beaten. It is likely that such a metamorphosis will not happen to
everyone. Someone 14+ just seems implausible and tense. But even it does get into resonance with
the frequency of mental vibrations, this does not at all promise a positive effect. Imagine if you
were immersed with a head to where it's warm and good, and then dragged back into the hostile
environment by the scruff. Imagine that someone rudely and unceremoniously dug into your
intimate experiences and put them on public display. Sensation is not pleasant, leaving behind a
very strange feeling, a mixture of nostalgia and devastation" [Litovchenko, 2015].
It would seem, "this is exactly what you can only dream about: that Russian cinema, steeped
either in arthouse snobbery, or in commerce" below the plinth, "turned its face to the audience, to
the viewer, to real life. And he learned to dissect this life in modern artistic rhythms and
intonations" [Plakhov, 2015].
And so, despite all this, the 14+ became the source of an action of angry protest: the
authors of the melodrama accused the authors of propaganda for alcoholic beverages, teenage sex
and paedophilia and in the corruption of minors. On the site change.org, a petition titled "Banning
the film 14+" in 2015 collected about two thousand signatures [Petition ..., 2015]. Here are just
some of the comments posted on this site: "I urge you to ban the movie" 14+ "at the box office and
to bring its creators to account for promoting the early onset of sexual activity, corrupting children.
The people who allowed the Ministry of Culture to sponsor this film must be punished" (G.
Rebenchuk, Kazakhstan); "We need films that call for children to strive for chastity, virtue, moral
conduct! And this film simply cannot be watched by teenagers!!!" (I. Kolobova, Russia) [Petition
..., 2015].
Such storms did not cause either Tender Age or Everyone will die, but I’ll stay, and this
despite the fact that in 14+ there is neither a swear language, nor explicit sexual scenes, nor cruel
episodes of violence. And the film was shot "already in a fundamentally different era than Gai
Germanika. Much has been banned, and almost all bans are met: ... a night meeting of lovers is
shown with chastity, worthy of the Soviet standards. But surprisingly, 14+ is a rare film in which
falseness and conventionality are not felt in depicting the life of adolescents, and piercing it,
especially closer to the finale, warmth and kindness do not turn into treacle. ... It is hardly the first
time in our cinema that the film convincingly showed that, whether we like it or not, today the
teenager's adult life begins on the Internet. However, another thing is shown: the virtual world does
not give either real detente or experience: sooner or later you have to prove yourself "in real life"
[Plakhov, 2015].
So why are not cheeky TV series about schoolchildren, filled with sex (one Physics or
Chemistry is worth), namely, the modest melodrama 14+ caused such a storm of anger of the
"working masses"? The answer to this difficult question is found in A.S. Plakhov’s article: "Indeed,
from the standpoint of radical art, the" 14+ "style is traditional, if not conservative – and this is
absolutely justified by the goals and objectives of the picture. If she were more avant-garde, she
would not have had a rent or scandal at all, nobody would have known about her except for a group
of film critics. But the hysteria that has unfolded around this particular film allows us to make
broader conclusions about culture and society as a whole. Even six months or a year ago we were
on another level of rapid fall into the pool of the collective unconscious. Then it seemed that the
main enemies of free creativity are in power institutions and institutions: it was there that the
initiatives of absurd prohibitions were developed and from there. Today, after the prohibitive genie
was released from the bottle, we fell even deeper: initiatives come from below – and this is
evidence of a new stage of cultural democracy in Russian" [Plakhov, 2015].
Thrillers
Unlike the detective, the thriller belonged to genres practically forbidden in Soviet cinema
(especially in school-themed films). Therefore, the appearance in the post-Soviet space of the
thriller Serpent Spring (1997) was unexpected for those times.
... In a small provincial town appeared serial maniac. His victims are young women, so that
there is every reason to worry about the fate of a beautiful trainee who came to the local school ...
Director Nikolai Lebedev in the debut film proved to be a diligent admirer of the work of Alfred
Hitchcock. He was not at all interested in the realities of the Russian provincial and school life of
the 1990s. The screen world of the Serpent Spring is a kind of action-packed chess game with
masked figures, where the nervous tension of the spectators is confidently pumped from episode to
episode. The director demonstrated a good mastery of the profession, using the well-known actors
E. Mironov and O. Ostroumova in an unusual role. Almost all the characters in the film are flip-
flops, hiding some secrets and vices.
About ten years later A. Strizhenov made the mystical thriller Yulenka (2008), where the
teacher of literature fell into the gothic atmosphere of the gymnasium, where strange and terrible
things happened. Of course, not only the history of the unlucky teacher, first of all, it is "the story of
a very smart girl who said the first word at two months, learned to read at a year and a half and at
ten does not know what to do yet, and because it falls under several articles of the Criminal Code"
[Maslova, 2009].
In the film there are obvious hints at the story of the myth about Orpheus, tales of the Snow
Queen and Suspiria by D. Argento. However, "despite the obvious similarity of history with
Suspiria, Yulenka "is not a Russian copy of Dario Argento. This is Jesse Franco, only faster and
ironic and with three layers of gloss. Rich Carroll texture – pigtails, golf clubs, T-shirts, the girl
strangles the squirrel – politically corrected by distracting scenes of a healthy heterosexual
character” [Koretsky, 2009].
The western story lining is most evident in the mystery series Closed School (2011-2012),
the remake of the Spanish Black Lagoon (2007-2010), the events of which take place in an elite
boarding school. As in most other Russian TV series, the tenth grade is played by actors between
the ages of 24 and 30. Closed School was submitted to the media "as the first mystical series about
teenagers in Russia. But despite her success with the Russian TV audience, the creators of the series
did not take into account the important options for copying. It has a melodramatic canon, but there
is no expression of the original source. Authors ... choose advertising-optimistic intonation, tend to
purism ... Despite the relishing of skulls, episodes of a mysterious stay in the world of the dead do
not cause fear. Really terrible moments at copying lose sharpness. But the reasons for the popularity
of the Closed School – just in its usual, predictable, unpretentious manner» [Sputnitskaya, 2016, p.
60].
Fantasy
In fantasy films, the theme of the school and the university naturally falls into the
background. Well, only with the exception of some school episodes, where the main characters in
Ghost (2015), where the teenager, thanks to his communication, gets a man's education with a
ghost? Even less school is in the Attraction (2017), where the students of high school are trying to
help out poor aliens from the misfortune. Dolly the sheep was angry and died early (2014) – a story
about a student who came from Russia in the 21st century in the Soviet 1980s – also not about the
university, but about love and about the fact that the student "destroys the past in order that he
realized that his father was a world man and that he realized how strong and cheerful was friendship
at a time when young people did not live in computers and cell phones. ... "The image of the 1980s
is imbued with ironic nostalgia. The director with delight and humour recalls Komsomol discos,
vodka with soda, exams on scientific communism, trips by big companies on small cars, marching
songs to guitar, crosses in gas masks, fights of "urban" and "village", queue for sausage" [Ivanov,
2014].
And quite a rare genre bird in the post-Soviet school-student subjects was a musical, which,
however, does not detract from the merits of the brilliantly stylized V. Todorovsky Hipsters (2008).
Results of the study

Russian films of 1992-2017 on the theme of school and university
The place of action, historical, socio-cultural, political, ideological, context
Historical context (dominant concepts: "media agencies", "media / media categories",
"media representations" and "media audiences").
Features of the historical period of creation of media texts, market conditions that
contributed to the idea, the process of creating media texts, the degree of influence of events of that
time on media texts.
The time frame of this historical period has been defined by us since 1992, that is, from the
time when the Russian cinematographic production arose after the collapse of the USSR.
The main political, economic, cultural, educational characteristics of this historical period
are presented in Table 1.
Table 1. Key dates and events in Russia and the world in the period 1992-2017: politics, economics,
culture, education (compiled by A.V. Fedorov)
Key dates and events in Russia and the world in the period 1992-2017: politics, economics, culture
1992 The beginning of economic reforms (in particular - the abolition of state regulation of prices in Russia,
privatization (voucher) state property) of the new Russian government, which led to a sharp fall in the
rouble rate with the shortage of products and goods for the first time (this year a large number of Russian
citizens only the operations of purchase and sale of imported goods have made millions of capitals, some
of them for reasons of prestige, friendly ties, but most importantly - to "wash" the shadow funds,
investments were made in the movie business).
Freedom and expansion of the scale of religious activity.
A sharp increase in the flow of emigration of Russians to the West.
Visits of the Russian President Boris Yeltsin to the United States: February, June,
External harmony of political relations between the US and Russia.
The adoption of the US by the pro-Russian "Act for Freedom Support" (Freedom for Russia and Emerging
Eurasian Democracies and Open Markets), which created the basis for economic assistance by the
weakened crisis of the Russian economy.
Adoption of the Law "On Education": July 10.
Law of the Russian Federation No. 3612-I "Fundamentals of the Legislation of the Russian Federation on
Culture": October 9.
The Minister of Education of the Russian Federation at first remains appointed in 1991 E.D. Dneprov
(1936-2015): until the 4th of December.
E.D. Dneprov was the organizer and head of the school reform, based on the principles of the 1988
concept, which was aimed at de-ideologizing, democratizing and updating the national education.
Under his leadership, the law "On Education" was prepared, private educational institutions began to open.
The new Minister of Education of the Russian Federation was appointed Tkachenko: since December 23.
As well as E.D. Dneprov, E.V. Tkachenko showed himself as an adherent of humanization and
democratization of education, advocated a differentiated education.
1993 Bill Clinton becomes the US President: January 20.
Meeting B.N. Yeltsin and B. Clinton in Canada: April 3-4.
The Moscow International Film Festival (1993, July), perhaps for the first time in its history, experienced a
shortage of viewers: crowds of thirsty "extra tickets" in dozens of metropolitan cinema halls are a thing of
the past. Satisfied with tasty and forbidden in the old days Western films, the mass audience preferred
to watch movies on TV and video (already at home, and not in the video rooms that had survived the last
few days), not being tempted by the amazing colour reproduction of the festival "kodak" or the loud
names of the filmmakers.
The publication of President BN. Yeltsin decree No. 1400 on the dissolution of the Congress of People's
Deputies and the Supreme Council of Russia: September 21.
The breakthrough of the cordon around the House of Soviets of the Russian Federation, the seizure by the
group of armed supporters of the Supreme Council of the building of the Moscow mayor's office and the
attempted armed seizure of the television center Ostankino: October 3.
The dispersal of the rebels with the help of troops entered into the center of Moscow: October 4.
A live broadcast of the rebellious White House (the building of the Supreme Council) in Moscow by the
American television company CNN, undertaken by Russian special forces units and tanks: October 4.
1994 US President Bill Clinton's visit to Russia: January 12-15.
The first joint Russian-American space shuttle program.
The withdrawal of Russian troops from Germany: from September 1.
Visit of the President of Russia B.N. Yeltsin in the US: September 27-29
The beginning of the first war in Chechnya: December 11-31.
Beginning of a sharp drop (roughly halved compared to 1992) of Russian film production, caused by the
fact that private investors stopped using cinema as a tool for money laundering, and the state had no financial
means to support the film industry in the midst of the economic crisis.
1995 Meeting of US and Russian political leaders in Moscow, which adopted six joint statements,
including the irreversibility of the process of reducing nuclear weapons: May 10.
Meeting Boris Yeltsin and Bill Clinton in Canada: June 16.
Capture of hostages by Chechen terrorists in Budennovsk hospital: June 14-19.
Meeting B.N. Yeltsin and B. Clinton in the US: October 23.
The opening in Moscow of the first in Russia cinema with real multi-channel sound Dolby –
"Kodak-Kinomir" (by the beginning of the XXI century in the capital there will be about fifty of them,
and halls with new equipment will appear in all large and medium-sized Russian cities).
1996 Meeting of B.N. Yeltsin and B. Clinton in Moscow: April 21.
Presidential elections in Russia, where B.N. Yeltsin in two rounds with great difficulty defeated the
leader of the Communists G.A. Zyuganov: June 16 - July 3.
Minister of Education of the Russian Federation appointed V.G. Kinalev: August 14th.
At his post, V.G. Kinelev paid special attention to the introduction of information technologies in the
education system.
Beginning of the introduction of Bachelor's and Master's programs in Russia: since August 22.
Federal Law No. 126-FZ "On State Support for the Cinematography of the Russian Federation": August 22.
The end of the first war in Chechnya - Russia and Chechnya - sign a peace agreement. The withdrawal
of Russian troops from Chechnya begins: August 31.
1997 President of Russia B.N. Yeltsin, NATO Secretary General, NATO Heads of State and Government
sign the "Founding Act on Mutual Relations, Cooperation and Security between NATO and the Russian
Federation" in Paris: May 27.
The production of Russian films, intended for rental in cinemas, reached the post-Soviet minimum - 43's.
Gradual growth of film production will begin in Russia only since 2001.
1998 Minister of Education of the Russian Federation appointed A.N. Tikhonov (1947-2016): February.
Meeting B.N. Yeltsin and B. Clinton in Birmingham: May 17.
Sharp collapse of the rouble in relation to world currencies, default: August 17.
US President Bill Clinton's visit to Russia: September 1-3.
Minister of Education of the Russian Federation appointed V.M. Philippov: September 30th.
During his leadership, the program "Modernization of Russian education for the period until 2010" was
developed (and later approved by the Government of the Russian Federation, which included the
development of new standards for general secondary education, primary, secondary and higher vocational
education, the introduction of a multi-talent system for assessing students' knowledge, support for the
Bologna Convention by education, the introduction of the Unified State Exam.
US air strikes against Iraq: December 16-19.
1999 The gradual increase in world energy prices, which triggered the growth of the Russian economy,
continued until August 2008.
The conduct of the US and NATO military operation in Yugoslavia, aimed at protecting the Albanian
enclave in Kosovo.
The beginning of the second war in Chechnya: September 30.
Meeting B.N. Yeltsin and B. Clinton in Istanbul: November 18.
B.N's resignation. Yeltsin from the post of President of Russia: December 31.
2000 Election of the official receiver of Boris B.N. Yeltsyn - V.V. Putin: March 26th.
B. Clinton's visit to Russia: June 3-5.
The death of the Kursk submarine: August 12.
Meeting V.V. Putin and B. Clinton in the United States. Adoption of the Joint Statement "Initiative for
Cooperation in the Sphere of Strategic Stability": September 6.
The beginning of a gradual increase in film production in Russia.
2001 US President becomes George Bush Jr.: January 20.
The first meeting (Ljubljana) of the US President George W. Bush. and the President of Russia
V.V. Putin: June 16th.
Aviation attacks in New York and Washington: September 11.
The US starts the war in Afghanistan: October 7.
Visit of V.V. Putin in the US: November.
The concept "Modernization of Russian education for the period until 2010": December 29.
The tangible growth in production of Russian television series and television films began (from fifty in 2001
to three hundred by the beginning of the second decade of the 21st century).
Thanks to the financial support of the state, the number of films gradually increased (although many
of them practically did not go to the rental because of their low commercial potential and / or quality),
made for cinemas. As a result, since the beginning of the 21st century, film production has grown about
three times compared to 2000.
2002 Visit of US President George W. Bush. to Russia: May 23-26.
Creation of the NATO-Russia Council: May 28.
Denunciation of the US treaty on the limitation of anti-missile defense: June 13.
Capture of hostages by Chechen terrorists in the House of Culture during the musical performance
"Nord-Ost" in Moscow: October 23-26.
Visit of US President George W. Bush. to Russia: November.
2003 The US starts the war in Iraq: March 20.
Visit of US President George W. Bush to Russia: May 31 - June 1.
The signing of the Bologna Convention on Education by Russia: September.
The meeting of George W. Bush. and V.V. Putin in the US: September 26-27.
2004 The Minister of Education and Science of the Russian Federation appointed A.A. Fursenko: 9 March.
During his leadership, the development of new standards for general secondary education, primary,
secondary and higher professional education, support for the Bologna Convention on Education and the
Unified State Examination (USE) was continued.
Capture of hostages by Chechen terrorists to the school in Beslan: September 1-3.
The first official visit of Russian President V.V. Putin in the US: November 13-16.
The victory of the "Orange Revolution" in Ukraine: November-December.
Election of the pro-American V.A. Yushchenko: December 26.
2005 Meeting Presidents George W. Bush. and V.V. Putin in Bratislava: February 24.
Terror acts in the London Underground: July 7.
Iran's resumption of the uranium enrichment program and the rejection of negotiations with the EU.
The beginning of the "Iran crisis": August 8.
Meeting Presidents George W. Bush. and V.V. Putin in the United States: September 16.
Resolution of the Government of the Russian Federation No. 803 "On the Federal Targeted Program
for the Development of Education for 2006-2010": December 23.
2006 "Gas crisis" between Russia and Ukraine: January 1-4.
Statement of the President of Russia V.V. Putin on the end of the counter-terrorist operation in Chechnya:
January.
US Vice President R. Cheney in his speech accuses Russia of using its natural resources as a foreign-policy
weapon of pressure, of Russia's violation of human rights and of its destructive actions in the international
arena: on May 4.
The G8 summit in St. Petersburg: July 14-17.
Federal Law "On Information, Information Technologies and Information Protection" No. 149-FZ: July 27.
2007 Political conflict between the US and Russia over the US intention to deploy a missile defense system in
Poland and the Czech Republic.
Statement by US Secretary of Defense Robert Gates that the US "should have been prepared for a possible
armed conflict with Russia": February 8.
Speech V.V. Putin at the Conference on World Security in Munich, sharply criticizing US foreign policy:
February 10.
Signature of V.V. Putin's decree "On the suspension by the Russian Federation of the Treaty on
Conventional Arms in Europe: July 14.
2008 Dmitry Medvedev was elected President of Russia: March 2.
The meeting of George W. Bush. and V.V. Putin in Sochi: April 5-6.
World oil prices reach a new peak - over 140 dollars per barrel: July.
Armed conflict between Georgia and Russia, connected with South Ossetia and Abkhazia: August 8-16.
The fall of world oil prices (4.6 times, first to $ 100 per barrel, and then lower - to $ 30), the collapse of
the key credit and banking consortiums of the United States as the beginning of the worst economic crisis
since the 1930s, especially tangible in the dependent on oil exports to the Russian economy:
August-December.
A sharp fall in the rouble's exchange rate against world currencies: August-December.
2009 US President becomes B. Obama, the beginning of a "reset" of US-Russian relations: January 20.
Another "gas crisis" between Russia and Ukraine: January.
World oil prices rise to $ 70 per barrel: June.
The first visit of US President Barack Obama to Moscow, his meeting with Russian President Dmitry
Medvedev. Medvedev and Prime Minister V.V. By Putin: July 6-7.
US President Barack Obama announces the cancellation of the US decision to deploy anti-missile defense
systems in Poland and the Czech Republic: September.
2010 The President of Ukraine was V.F. Yanukovych: February 25th.
The signing by President of the United States of America B. Obama and President of the Russian
Federation D.A. Medvedev treaty on the limitation of nuclear weapons: April 8.
2011 Turns and uprisings in the Middle East and North Africa (Egypt, Tunisia, Libya).
Resolution of the Government of the Russian Federation No. 61 "On the Federal Targeted Program for the
Development of Education for 2011-2015": February 7.
The beginning of the first mass protest actions of the Russian opposition: from December 4.
Federal Law of the Russian Federation No. 436-FZ "On protecting children from information that is harmful
to their health and development": December 29 (entered into force on September 1, 2012).
2012 President V.V. Putin: May 7th.
The Prime Minister appointed D.A. Medvedev.
Minister of Education and Science of the Russian Federation appointed D.V. Livanov: May 21st.
In his post, D.V. Livanov (through the introduction of annual monitoring of HEIs) carried out a broad
company of reducing the number of higher education institutions in Russia, tried to combat plagiarism in the
scientific sphere and advocated the introduction of scientometric indicators of the activity of university
teachers and researchers. With him continued a permanent change in university standards.
Federal Law No. 139-FZ "On Amending the Federal Law" On Protection of Children from Information
Harmful to their Health and Development "and Certain Legislative Acts of the Russian Federation on the
Limitation of Access to Illegal Information on the Internet": July 28.
2013 Renunciation of Pope Benedict XVI from the throne: February.
The beginning of broadcasting of Public TV of Russia: since May, 19th.
The beginning of street protests and armed clashes in Kiev: from November 21.
2014 Winter Olympic Games in Sochi: February 7-23.
The actual removal from power of Ukrainian President Viktor Yanukovych: February 22.
Accession of the Crimea to Russia: March 1.
The inauguration of the President of Ukraine P.A. Poroshenko: June 7th.
The beginning of the military conflict in the Donbass: since April.
The beginning of the sanctions of the West (in response to the events in the Crimea and the East of Ukraine)
against the Russian Federation: since March.
The beginning of Russia's response to the West: March 20.
Amendments and additions to Federal Law No. 53 "On the State Language of the Russian Federation"
(of June 1, 2005): May 5 (the introduction of amendments and additions to the force from July 1).
The beginning of Russia's response food sanctions against the West: August 6.
2015 Establishment of the Eurasian Economic Union: January 1.
Resolution of the Government of the Russian Federation No. 497 "On the Federal Target Program
for the Development of Education for 2016-2020": May 23.
The beginning of the Russian military operation in Syria: September 30.
Crisis of relations between Russia and Turkey over the shot down of Russian military aircraft Su-24 on the
border of Syria and Turkey: from November 24.
2016 Results of the referendum in the UK: the British voted for the country's withdrawal from the EU (Brexit):
June 23.
Attempt of military coup in Turkey: July 15-16.
The Minister of Education and Science of the Russian Federation appointed O.Y. Vasylieva: on August, 19.
D. Trump election as US President: November 8.
2017 The official entry into office of US President D. Trump: January 20.
The signing of D. Trump of the law, providing for the imposition of additional sanctions against Russia:
August 2.
Russian audiovisual texts of 1992-2017 on the subject of the school and university, unlike
Soviet times, were no longer controlled by the state, and therefore could not coincide in their tasks
with the main lines of state policy in the educational sphere, which officially supported:
- combination of private and public property of educational institutions;
- modernization of the education system, introduction of new information technologies,
distance education;
- development and implementation of new standards for all educational levels;
- introduction of a multi-point system for assessing students' knowledge;
- development of normative per capita financing for general secondary education;
- The Bologna Convention on Education,
- Unified state examination in schools;
- reducing the number of "inefficient" universities;
- the fight against plagiarism and poor scientific research;
- fighting corruption in educational institutions;
- Introduction scientometric indicators of the activity of university teachers and researchers.
The degree of influence of these official trends on films about the school and university, as
reality showed, was indirect. Certainly, in a number of cinematographs, the activity of private
schools was shown, on the screens (especially in the tapes of the 21st century), modern computers
appeared in the classrooms, sometimes in the dialogue of films there could be talk about the Unified
State Exam and plagiarism. From time to time there were film episodes related to pedagogical
corruption. However, in general, films about the school and university were not concentrated on the
educational process, but on the interpersonal and love relationships of the main characters.
How does the knowledge of real historical events of a particular period help to understand
the given media texts, examples of historical references in these media texts?
Of course, the knowledge of historical events helps to understand post-Soviet films on the
topic of school and university. For example, the analysis of the political and socio-cultural situation
of the last years of the Stalinist regime allows for a better understanding of the author's concept and
the plot of the drama What a wonderful game (1995), and the knowledge of the historical events of
the 1980s-1990s gives the key to understanding the film by S. Soloviev Tender Age"(2000). A lot of
historical references are contained in such films as The Disappeared Empire (2007); Hipsters
(2008); The Institute of Noble Maidens (2010-2011); Private Pioneers’ (2012); Dolly Sheep was
angry and died early (2014), I am a teacher (2015), and others.
2. Socio-cultural, ideological, ideological, religious context (dominant concepts: media
agencies, media / media categories, media representations and media audience).
Ideology, directions, goals, objectives, world outlook, the concepts of the authors of these
media texts in the socio-cultural context; ideology, culture of the world, depicted in media texts.
In the post-Soviet era, communist ideology (including anti-capitalist theory of socialist
realism) and atheism in Russia lost their dominant positions (although the communist faction
throughout the post-Soviet years occupied dozens of seats in the State Duma), and cinematography
was deprived of censorship. Therefore (especially before the entry into force in 2012 of the Federal
Law No. 139-FZ "On Amending the Federal Law "On the Protection of Children from Information
Harmful to their Health and Development" and certain legislative acts of the Russian Federation on
the issue of restricting access to unlawful information in the Internet "and changes and amendments
to Federal Law No. 53" On the State Language of the Russian Federation"(2005) – from July 1,
2014) in films on the school-student topic, one could find an abundance of sexual scenes (Physics
or Chemistry, 2011), and obscene vocabulary (Everyone will die, but I’ll stay, 2008). The world
view of the authors of many media texts about the school and university was extremely tolerant of
such factors perceived in the Soviet negatively as egoism, snobbery, greed, lies, domination based
on threats, physical violence, teenage sexual relations, smoking, drinking (and in some cases – even
light drugs (see, for example, the series Physics or Chemistry), etc. Wealth, sexual pleasure and
entertainment largely determined the culture of the world depicted in Russian media texts about
shool and the university of the XXI century (School number 1, 2007; Barvikha, 2009; Golden,
2011; Physics or Chemistry, 2011; Teacher of Physical Education, 2014-2017; Philological
Faculty, 2017 and others.).
The world view of the characters of the "school world", depicted in media texts
In general, the world view of the characters of audiovisual media texts on the theme of the
post-Soviet school and university was optimistic (although in many cases directed to the world of
entertainment and sex), however, pessimism often arose due to feelings of loneliness, poverty,
hopelessness and hopelessness of life, professional " (Teacher in Law, 2007; Everyone Dies and I’ll
Stay, 2008; The Roof, 2009; School, 2010; Physics or Chemistry, 2011; Teacher's Day, 2012;
Geographer Burned the Globe, 2013; And the balloon will return, 2013; Correction Class, 2014, I
will not return, 2014; Clinch, 2015; Teacher, 2015, Pupil, 2016, etc.). Among the characters
(schoolchildren, students and teachers), bright personalities still stood out, but they were much less
inclined to meditation and doubt, but were ready for active actions on the "love front" (Hipsters,
2008; Barvikha, 2009; Golden, 2011; Physics or Chemistry, 2011; Teachers, 2014; Beloved
Teacher, 2016; Freshman, 2016, etc.
At the same time, a small number of films were filmed on the school and university topic,
which largely inherited the traditions of Soviet cinema, where the "old-fashioned" hierarchy of
values dominated (diligence, honesty, willingness to help good or backsliding people): Simple Trues
(1999-2003); The Disappeared Empire (2007); The Adult Life of the Girl by Polina Subbotina
(2008), Private Pioneers’ (2012); The Mother's Diary of the First-grader (2014); Dolly Sheep was
angry and died early (2014); Village Teacher (2015), Ghost (2015); Good Boy (2016); To Save
Pushkin (2017), etc.
Structure and methods of narration in these media texts (dominant concepts: media / media
categories, media technologies, media languages, media representations)
Schematically structure, plot, representativeness, ethics, features of genre modification,
iconography, character characters of audiovisual media texts of school and university subjects of the
post-Soviet era can be represented as follows:
- the place and time of the action of media texts. The main place of action: classes,
auditoriums, corridors, yards, apartments, private mansions; The duration of the action is mostly (if
not retro) the year of filming of a particular film;
- the environment, everyday objects typical for these media: the furnishings and objects of
everyday life of films sometimes remain, as in the Soviet times, modest, but more and more often
elitist educational institutions, apartments and houses of the provided layers of society are shown
(Barvikha, 2009; Golden, 2011; Physics or Chemistry, 2011; Closed School, 2011-2012; Teachers,
2014, etc.);
- genre modifications of school and university subjects: comedy, drama, melodrama;
- (stereotypical) methods of depicting reality: positive characters rarely show up in an
idealized version, and negative ones too, as a rule, are presented ambiguously, although there are
relapses from times of socialist realism.
Typology of characters (character traits, clothing, physique, vocabulary, facial expressions,
character gestures, the presence or absence of a stereotypical manner of representing the
characters in these media texts):
- the age of the characters: the age of schoolchildren is in the range of 7-17 years, however,
there are more frequent characters-senior pupils; the age of students is generally in the range of 18
to 25 years; the age of the remaining characters (teachers, teachers, parents, grandparents, etc.) can
be any, but adults up to the age of 60 prevail;
- level of education: for schoolchildren and students corresponds to the class and course of
study, teachers presumably graduated from universities, the formation of other characters can be of
any level;
- social status, profession: the financial situation of students is highly differentiated, they
can be both from poor families, from families of businessmen, rich officials. The professions of
their parents are in a fairly diverse range.
- the marital status of the characters: schoolchildren, naturally, are not bound by marriage;
students in general are also not in a hurry to get married; adult characters are mostly married; but
teachers, on the contrary, are lonely (the latter is increasingly becoming an occasion for plot twists
connected with the loving relationships of teachers / teachers with students);
- appearance, clothes, physique of characters, features of their characters, vocabulary: the
appearance of the characters of schoolchildren and students in the films of the post-Soviet period is
beyond the strict framework. This can be a form of elite private educational institution, and free
clothing.
A shot from the film School (2010) gives an idea of the appearance, clothes, and physique
of post-Soviet schoolchildren.
School (2010)
Schoolchildren and students in the Russian films of 1992-2017, unlike similar characters of
Soviet films, speak with the help of rough slang, sometimes even obscene vocabulary, although, of
course, there are films where it does not exist, or almost none (for example, Private pioneers’,
2012).
Teachers from the films of the post-Soviet era, as a rule, are no longer intellectuals; the
respectful distance between them and the students is practically broken (this was especially evident
in such films as School (2010); Physics or Chemistry (2011); Geographer Burned the Globe, 2013;
Teachers (2014); Clinch (2015); Teacher (2015); Beloved Teacher (2016); Teacher of physical
education (2014-2017); Good Boy (2016), etc. But now they can already afford many (free)
liberties in their clothes.
A shot from the film Physics or Chemistry (2011) reflects the appearance, clothes, physique
of the characters-educators of the post-Soviet years.
Physics or Chemistry (2011)
A significant change in the life of media characters and the problem that has arisen (a
violation of the usual life):
Option number 1: among the characters, schoolchildren / students living a normal life, are
those who for some reason do not fit into the standard framework of interpersonal communication
and learning process, that is:
- try to dominate, subordinate students to themselves, while acting with cruel methods
(Teacher in Law, 2007; Barvikha, 2009; Golden, 2011; Physics or Chemistry, 2011, etc.);
- stand out among other students with their eccentricity (both with a plus sign and with a
minus sign) and because of what they come into conflict with the class and / or teachers (School,
2010; Physics or Chemistry, 2011; Correction Class, 2014; Pupil, 2016, etc.);
- fall in love (Rypkina's Love, 1993; Let’s Make love, 2002; The Disappeared Empire,
2007; School No. 1, 2007; Hipsters, 2008; Barvikha, 2009; Children under 16 ... (2010); Golden,
2011; Physics or Chemistry, 2011; Private Pioneers’, 2012; Geographer Burned the Globe, 2013;
Dolly the Sheep was angry and died early; 14+, 2015; Beloved teacher, 2016; Philological Faculty,
2017, etc.);
Option number 2: among ordinary characters-teachers, there are non-ordinary – those who
also do not fit into the standard school framework, that is, they try:
- to resist outdated and / or, from their point of view, incorrect methods of the director and /
or teaching staff and come into conflict with him / them (Physics or Chemistry, 2011; Teacher of
Physical Education, 2014-2017; Village teacher, 2015 and other);
- Establish a particularly trusting relationship with students, although sometimes it is very
difficult (Simple Truths, 1999-2003; Teacher in Law, 2007; The Adult Life of the Girl by Polina
Subbotina, 2008; School, 2010; Physics or chemistry, 2011; Geographer Burned the globe , 2013;
Teachers, 2014; Teacher of Physical Education, 2014-2017; Village teacher, 2015; Teacher,
2015; Beloved Teacher, 2016; Pupil, 2016; Good Boy , 2016; To Save Pushkin, 2017, etc.).
Solution of the problem:
Option number 1 (student):
- "correct" characters (schoolchildren, students, teachers, teachers, parents, adult
acquaintances) return individual and / or loving students to ordinary life by individual and joint
efforts (Teacher in Law, 2007; Teacher, 2015, etc.);
- non-standard students remain with their beliefs, because they do not succumb to
pedagogical / parental influences (Touched, 2005; Everyone will die and I’ll stay, 2008; Hipsters,
2008; Yulenka, 2008; Barvikha, 2009; School, 2010; Golden, 2011; Physics or Chemistry, 2011;
Correction Class, 2014; Pupil, 2016, etc.);
Option number 2 (pedagogical):
- Unconventional teachers gain a victory (Teacher in Law, 2007; The Adult Life of the Girl
by Polina Subbotina, 2008; Teachers, 2014; Village Teacher, 2015, etc.);
- the result of the relationship of teachers with students is ambiguous ... (School, 2010;
Physics or Chemistry, 2011, Geographer Burned the Globe, 2013; Teacher of Physical Education,
2014, Teacher, 2015; Student, 2016; Good Boy, 2016, etc.).
As for the gender aspect of the school-university theme, but like the last decades of the
USSR, in the Russian cinematography among the teachers / teachers the dominant are women,
increasingly single and / or uncomfortable (School, 2010; Physics or Chemistry, 2011; Teacher,
2015; Pupil, 2016; Good Boy, 2016, etc.).
Conclusions
Most of the films about the school and university of the post-Soviet period were based on
stereotypes that largely reflected the significant changes that occurred after the collapse of the
USSR and the transition of Russia to the capitalist path of development. In general, the images of
teachers and students have undergone a strong transformation. For example, many characters-
students of Russian school-student films of the XXI century can be characterized by the old Russian
word "mob": they (almost) lack intellect, they do not have positive life perspectives and interests,
and "those who are not used to picking up every day and to fall asleep in an embrace with a bottle,
in this not tragic, but hopeless world there is only one. First you need to trample in a disco ... then
you need to kiss in the entranceway against indecent inscriptions, then you can ride around the area
on a motor scooter, and in the finale ... Well, you know yourself. Probably not small!" [Ivanov,
2015]. Another (smaller) part of the characters is the so-called "majors", the children of wealthy
parents whose interests are also mostly sexually entertaining, but there is a clear life hedonistic
perspective. The third group (very few) consists of aggressive individuals striving for total
domination: "The class, as a community, in a state of chaos, begins to spontaneously establish its
own understanding of the order, almost always reproducing the signs of archaic societies that
gravitate towards" shadow "(mafia) or criminal structures. Relations are built and governed by the
right of the strong. In relations between pupils, blackmail and bribery are widely used, "scapegoat"
is chosen, rigid differentiation is established for the dominant and subordinate, almost permanently
in a state of liminality (humiliation and deprivation of rights, lack of personal significance). Most
often, power is captured by an informal leader, endowed with psychotypical signs of a charismatic,
skillfully manipulating his adepts. It is such a leader that begins to confront the authority of the
teacher, and between them a duel unfolds, the outcome of which is always unpredictable"
[Kruglova, 2016, p.103]. And, finally, the fourth group (also small) of school-student characters is
the heirs of the good old Soviet cinema: smart, honest, purposeful, friendly and principled.
As for the images of educators, in recent years there has been an increasing number of
lonely, beggars, lost vital signs and, by and large, interest in the profession (which has a very low
social status), teachers and teachers who are not respected by students; "The authority of the teacher
is extremely low and is not supported even at the level of formal adherence to the rules. The
resource for managing the process of mastering knowledge appears either as exhausted or as
unreliable. Teachers are not actually representatives of the authorities, they are translators of
officially accepted cultural and social norms, but this function united the classical school at all
stages of its history - from the beginning of the New Time to the end of the industrial society"
[Kruglova, 2016, p. 103]. In such a context, such degrading images of a teacher and a pedagogical
university sound like "uchilka", "sludge", “prepod” in the jargon of which such words as
"unsuccessful", "beggar", "absurd", "boring", "loser", "hopelessly behind the modern life".
In contrast to them, there are images of authoritarian teacher-managers who occupy the
administrative chairs of the director, the head teacher, the dean, etc. And only a small group of film
characters are talented and creative teachers dedicated to their work.
In the 21st century, the priority of the series in school-student subjects was clearly
indicated. Of course, first of all, this was due to the fact that it was practically impossible to make
money on film distribution of films about the school and university, and the television series (even
artistically insignificant ones) brought substantial profits from advertising revenues. But on the
other hand, the ideological factor is also important, because "ideology explains, but the series
explains. Ideology leads, but the series forces, only makes it more subtle. The ideology is abstract,
the series is concrete. But the most important thing in the other: ideology acts on the mind, the
series - on the heart. Therefore, the process of influence of ideology is noticeable, the process of
exposure of the series is hidden. ... If the news does it directly, then the series is in a soft form. It
stands between the poles of the Order and the Request. The series justifies the world, explaining the
logic of even wrong actions" [Pocheptsov, 2017]. Hence the triumph of the author's tolerant (as it
were neutral) attitude toward meanness, aggressive psychological dominance and lies (and even
easy drugs) in such series as School, Golden, Physics or Chemistry, etc. Thus, serial versions of
school-student reality, in our opinion, to some extent affect the reality of this.
So, the analysis of Russian films of 1992-2017 on the school-university theme shows that:
- the educational / educational process left in the past the Soviet framework of communist
orientations and anti-religious orientation;
- the number of entertaining interpretations has sharply increased;
- the stories are not directly related to key international political events, although they are to
some extent dependent on domestic political attitudes;
- the main conflicts are built on the confrontation of extraordinary teachers and students with
stagnation, bureaucracy, the grayness of the bosses / colleagues / team; very often the focus is on
problem areas (crisis, disappointment and fatigue, professional "burnout" of teachers, bureaucracy,
corruption, pragmatic cynicism of students, teenage cruelty, etc.);
- among the characters distinctly manifested property differentiation;
- the pupil characters are basically divided into the following categories: optimistic and vital
perspectives (often associated with material status and hedonism), or in a state of depression and
hopelessness;
- activity of students is more directed towards entertainment, sex and material gain;
- the attitude of teachers and students has lost the barriers of subordination, largely because
the prestige of the pedagogical profession in the eyes of students and the public continued to fall;
- in the pedagogical collectives, the images of female teachers, often lonely and unsettled,
still come to the fore;
- the appearance of students and teachers has become even more "free", vividly denoting
female sex appeal;
- film stories about students, in contrast to a number of Soviet counterparts, are virtually
devoid of intellectual disputes, but are densely immersed in the genre element of melodrama and /
or comedy; and in general, the theme of love in the cinema on the school-university theme is for the
most part given accented comedic and / or melodramatic aspect.
References
Alenushkina, V. (2013). Mom, I want to be a pioneer! Ovideo.ru. September, 15.

http://www.ovideo.ru/review/42769#ixzz4nyWXaXFX
Arkhangelsky, A. (2015). We are an uplifting nightmare. Ogonek. 2015. August, 17.
Https://www.kommersant.ru/doc/2785973
Arkhangelsky, A. (2017). The poet did not die. Ogonek. May, 1. https://www.kommersant.ru/doc/3281128
Aronson, O.V. (2003). Meta Cinema. Moscow: Ad Marginem.
Artamonova, A. (2013). School for Fools. New Kaliningrad. 2013.
https://www.newkaliningrad.ru/afisha/cinema/reviews/2814963-shkola-dlya-durakov.html
Bednov, S. (2012). Sleepless after school. Trud. No. 173. November 27.
Belokurov, B. (2009). The novel about the girls. Tomorrow. № 16 (804). April, 15.
Bogomolov, Y. Love them with black ones. Cinema Art. 2010. № 1. http://kinoart.ru/archive/2010/01/n1-article25
Bykov, D. (2007). Eastern syndrome. Seance. № 37-38. http://seance.ru/n/37-38/movies-37-38/lostempire/vostochnyiy-
sindrom/
Changes and amendments to the Federal Law of May 5, 2014 to Federal Law No. 53 On the State Language of the
Russian Federation (dated June 1, 2005). http://base.garant.ru/12140387/#friends#ixzz4p3qU4Uo0
Derenkovskaya, E. (2008). People with disabilities. http://kg-portal.ru/movies/rozygrysh/reviews/3887/
Dolin, A. (2013). The Geographer Burned the Globe - everyday cinema about real people. November, 7.
http://radiovesti.ru/brand/61178/episode/1410641/
Dolin, A. (2014). Debut was a success: why it is worth looking at Class correction by Ivan Tverdovsky. September, 25.
http://radiovesti.ru/brand/61178/episode/1418754/
Dolin, A. (2014). Graduation: our American Pie. Afisha. October, 14.
Https://daily.afisha.ru/archive/vozduh/cinema/vypusknoy-nash-amerikanskiy-pirog/
Dolin, A. (2016). A good boy. Vesti FM. November, 11. http://radiovesti.ru/brand/61178/episode/1432282/
Dolin, A. (2016). Student of Serebrennikov and Listening to Beethoven of Harry Bardin: the Russians in Cannes.
Afisha. May, 13. https://daily.afisha.ru/cinema/1507-uchenik-serebrennikova-i-slushaya-bethovena-garri-bardina-
russkie-v-kannah/
Dondurei, D.B. PR-content, content-PR. School as an example of producer's work. Cinema Art. 2010. № 1.
http://kinoart.ru/archive/2010/01/n1-article2
Eco, U. (1998). Lack of Structure. Introduction to Semiology. St. Petersburg: Petropolis, 432 p.
Eco, U. (2005). The Role of the Reader. Studies on the Semiotics of the Text. St. Petersburg: Symposium, 502 p.
Fanaylova, E. (2009). None of us will get out of here alive. Seance. № 37-38. Http://seance.ru/n/37-38/movies-37-
38/vseumrut/nikto-iz-nas-ne-vyiydet-otsyuda-zhivyim/
Fedorov, A.V., Levitskaya, A.A., Gorbatkova, O.I. (2017). School and university in the mirror of audiovisual media
texts: basic approaches to the research problem. Media education, № 2.
Gladilchikov, Y. (2013). Dreams about Russia. Dream 1-st: Geographer. Moscow News. October, 31.
Golubev, D. (2017). Philological Faculty: Quiet humanitarian horror. New view.
Gordeev, V. (2010). School. Screen.ru. October, 12. http://www.ekranka.ru/film/2385/
Govorushko, U. (2013). The Geographer Burned the Globe. 25th frame. 2013. http://25-k.com/page.php?id=3337
Gusyatinsky, E. (2009). Pure specifically. Seance. № 37-38. http://seance.ru/n/37-38/movies-37-38/vseumrut/nikto-iz-
nas-ne-vyiydet-otsyuda-zhivyim/
Hoffman, A. (2013). The Geographer Burned the Globe. 25th frame. http://25-k.com/page.php?id=3337
Ivanov, B. (2014). School years are horrible. Film.ru. https://www.film.ru/articles/shkolnye-gody-uzhasnye
Ivanov, B. (2015). A friend from the future. Film.ru. 2015. February, 18. https://www.film.ru/articles/drug-iz-
buduschego
Ivanov, B. (2015). Little Vika. Film.ru. October, 2. https://www.film.ru/articles/malenkaya-vika
Ivanov, B. (2016). Stupid of the Heavenly King. Film.ru. October, 25. https://www.film.ru/articles/oluh-carya-
nebesnogo
Karakhan, L. School. Snob. 2010. January, 15. https://snob.ru/selected/entry/11457#comment_47410
Khlebnikova, V. (2016). On the fence painted boy. Cinema Art. № 6. http://www.kinoart.ru/archive/2016/06/na-zabore-
narisovan-malchik-khoroshij-malchik-rezhisser-oksana-karas
Khokhlov, B. (2014). Exercises in the beautiful. Film.ru. 2014. May, 15. https://www.film.ru/articles/uprazhneniya-v-
prekrasnom
Khokhlov, B. (2014). The main thing is not to get lost. Afisha. https://www.film.ru/articles/glavnoe-ne-zapalitsya
Khokhlov, B. (2017). Real botanists. Film.ru. https://www.film.ru/articles/realnye-botany
Khrenov, N.A. (2006). Cinema - rehabilitation of archetypal reality. Moscow: Agraf, 704 p.
Khrenov, N.A. (2008). Images of the "Great Gap". Cinema in the context of changing cultural cycles. Moscow:
Progress-tradition, 536 p,
Khrustalev, V. (2009). Grachevsky filmed his film, but without blackjack and whores: The Roof.
http://www.obzorkino.tv/2009/11/04/krysha/
Kichin, V. (2013). I give a private pioneer. Cinema as a way to reconcile the era. Rossiyskaya Gazeta. No. 6187 (211).
https://rg.ru/2013/09/18/kino-site.html
Kichin, V. (2013). The place of punishment is the school. Rossiyskaya Gazeta. No. 6212 (236). October, 21.
Kichin, V. (2014). The Tunnel at the End of the World. Rossiyskaya Gazeta. No. 6486 (214). September, 12.
Koretsky, V. (2009). Yulenka. Timeout.ru. http://www.timeout.ru/msk/artwork/142480/review
Korsakov, D. (2014). Jubilant Students. Vedomosti. No. 3699, October, 20.
https://www.vedomosti.ru/lifestyle/articles/2014/10/20/likuyuschaya-shkolota
Korsakov, D. (2014). The orphan was on the highway. Vedomosti. No. 3612. June, 19.
https://www.vedomosti.ru/newspaper/articles/2014/06/19/shla-sirotka-po-shosse
Korsakov, D. (2015). Romeo will live long time. Vedomosti. No. 3933. October, 6.
https://www.vedomosti.ru/lifestyle/articles/2015/10/07/611719-film-14-odin-luchshih-otechestvennih-filmov-goda
Korsakov, D. (2016). New Eralash. Vedomosti. No. 4201. November, 10.
https://www.vedomosti.ru/lifestyle/articles/2016/11/11/664443-horoshii-malchik-anekdotov
Kotov, D. (2015). Take care of the honor from the youth. PostCriticism. October, 9. http://postcriticism.ru/chastnoe-
pionerskoe/
Kruglova, T.A. (2016). Stockholm syndrome in the Russian school: film Uchilka. Philological class. No. 1 (43), pp.
102-107.
Kudryavtsev, S.V. (2007). A tender age. http://kinanet.livejournal.com/573761.html
Kulikov, I. (2008). About life. Film.ru. October, 24. https://www.film.ru/articles/pro-zhyzn
Kuvshinova, M. (2013). The shadow of the teacher. Seance. November, 7.
Http://seance.ru/blog/reviews/georgraph_kuvshinova/
Kuzmina, O. (2012). TV series After school: inedible TV set. Evening Moscow. No. 215, p. 5.
Lisitsyna, A. (2012). School of Skolkovo coffee makers. Gazeta.ru. November, 16.
https://www.gazeta.ru/culture/2012/11/16/a_4856413.shtml
Litovchenko, A. (2015). The cruel beauty is far away. Rossiyskaya Gazeta. October, 7.
Https://rg.ru/2015/10/07/odinchetyre-site.html
Loshakova, D. (2014). Graduation: when we leave the schoolyard ... Weburg. http://weburg.net/news/51079
Lyashchenko, V. (2008). Joke. Afisha. May, 28. Https://www.afisha.ru/movie/186559/review/224041/
Lyubarskaya, I. (2012). And once again study. Results. № 47
Lyubarskaya, I. (2014). Class of correction. The Hollywood Reporter. September, 23. http://thr.ru/cinema/recenzia-
klass-korrekcii/
Lyubarskaya, I. (2015). Clinch. The Hollywood Reporter. October, 23. http://thr.ru/cinema/recenzia-klinc-sergea-
puskepalisa/
Machenin, A.A. (2016). The Collective Image of the School Teacher in Reflection of the Tele / Film / Internet Media
Space. Media Education. No. 3. C. 23-48.
Malyukova, L. (2015). "Beat the muzzles ... better with your feet". Novaya Gazeta. October, 5.
Https://www.novayagazeta.ru/articles/2015/10/05/65877-171-bit-mordy-8230-luchshe-nogami-187
Maslova, L. (2009). Psychology of Invertebrates. Kommersant. February, 20.
Maslova, L. (2014). The Tale of the Hitchhiking. Kommersant. June, 18. https://www.kommersant.ru/doc/2492979
Matizen, V. (2013). What the geographer did not drink. New Izvestia. November, 13. https://newizv.ru/news/culture/13-
11-2013/192321-chego-ne-propil-geograf
Narinskaya, A. (2012). After school - without form. Kommersant. November, 20.
Nefedov, E. (2009). Yulenka. World-art. February, 21. http://www.world-art.ru/cinema/cinema.php?id=21667
Nefedov, E. (2010). Children under 16... World Art. September, 29. http://www.world-
art.ru/cinema/cinema.php?id=26443
Nikolaev, I. (2015). Uchilka will teach the life of both junior and senior. Evening Moscow. November, 27.
Http://vm.ru/news/2015/11/27/uchilka-nauchit-zhizni-i-mladshih-i-starshih-304403.html
Paisova, E., Dementieva, A. (2010). Hamsters protest, and this is good. Cinema Art. № 1.
Http://kinoart.ru/archive/2010/01/n1-article4
Petition: ban for the film 14+. (2015).
https://www.change.org/p/%D1%87%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%83-%D0%
B7% D0% B0% D0% BF% D1% 80% D0% B5% D1% 82% D0% B8% D1% 82% D1% 8C-% D1% 84% D0% B8%
D0% BB% D1% 8C % D0% BC-14
Plakhov, A. (2015). Jinn from a bottle of liquor. Kommersant. October, 12. https://www.kommersant.ru/doc/2831039
Pocheptsov, G.G. (2017). Democracy and serials: they are constructed in the same way for single purposes. Khvilya.
August, 6. http://hvylya.net/analytics/society/demokratiya-i-serialyi-oni-postroenyi-odinakovo-i-dlya-edinyih-
tseley.html
Potapova, G. (2017). Poet in Russia is not sold until he was killed. Movie poster. April, 27.
Https://www.kinoafisha.info/reviews/8326845/
Raikhlina, E.L., Yurchik, N.N . (2016). The image of a teacher in Russian cinema. Young scientist. № 13.2, pp. 60-62.
Razlogov, K. (2010). School. Snob. January, 15. https://snob.ru/selected/entry/11457#comment_47410
Ruzaev, D. (2013). The Geographer Burned the Globe. Time Out. http://www.timeout.ru/msk/artwork/291256/review
Ruzaev, D. (2014). I will not return. Time Out. http://www.timeout.ru/msk/artwork/42854#review
Ruzaev, D. (2015). Love on the Mikrazh. Time Out. October, 8. Http://www.timeout.ru/msk/artwork/356139
Sazonov, A. (2010). Children under 16... Time Out. http://www.timeout.ru/msk/artwork/180909/review
Shakina, O. (2014). All conditionally, as in folklore crying. Colta.ru. September, 25.
Http://www.colta.ru/articles/cinema/4778
Shipulina, N.B. (2010). The image of a teacher in Soviet and modern Russian cinema. Izvestiya VSPU. № 8 (52), pp. 4-
16.
Silverblatt, A. (2001). Media Literacy. Westport, Connecticut – London: Praeger, 449 p.
Sobolev, O. (2014). And laughter, and sin: the series Physical education teacher. May, 6.
http://www.interviewrussia.ru/movie/i-smeh-i-greh-serial-fizruk
Sosnovsky, D. (2015). History of the story was stolen. Rossiyskaya Gazeta. November, 26.
Https://rg.ru/2015/11/26/uchilka-site.html
Sosnovsky, D. (2016). I do not want to study, I want to pray. Rossiyskaya Gazeta. October, 15.
https://rg.ru/2016/10/15/uchenik-chackij-v-iubke-protiv-mraka-i-bezyshodnosti-etoj-strany.html
Sputnitskaya, N.Y. (2016). The problem of gender in contemporary Russian cinema and serials: a critical introduction.
Moscow: Academy of Media Industry, 126 p.
The series School angered Moscow officials (2010). https://lenta.ru/news/2010/01/12/schule/
Trofimenkov, M. (2016). The eternal youth of adults. Kommersant. November, 12.
Trofimenkov, M. (2016). Vaudevillel on the downed pants. Kommersant. October 15.
Ukhov, E. (2013). Vitya Sluzhkin at school and at home. Film.ru. October, 27. https://www.film.ru/articles/vitya-
sluzhkin-v-shkole-i-doma
Ukhov, E. (2014). Stand up and go. Film.ru. September, 11. Https://www.film.ru/articles/vstan-i-idi
Ukhov, E. (2015). Class 2015. Film.ru. November, 29. https://www.film.ru/articles/klass-2015
Ukhov, E. (2015). The Hostage. Film.ru. October, 18. https://www.film.ru/articles/zalozhnica
Ukhov, E. (2017). A wonderful moment of the past future. Film.ru. April, 29. https://www.film.ru/articles/chudnoe-
mgnovenie-minuvshego-buduschego
Vilenkin, D. (2014). Redemption by brooms. Postcriticism.ru. 2014. May, 8. http://postcriticism.ru/iskuplenie-
venikami/
Volobuev, R. (2008). Cannes laureate, an authentic film about high school students. Afisha. 2008. October, 8.
https://www.afisha.ru/movie/188389/review/247240/
Volobuev, R. (2010). Lovely Bones. Afisha. January, 19. https://www.afisha.ru/blogcomments/6037/
Yushchenko, A. (2010). Rules of sex. Filmz.ru. September, 20. Http://www.filmz.ru/pub/7/20584_1.htm
Zaretskaya, J. (2013). Love the Khabensky whitish. Fontanka.ru. November, 7.
http://calendar.fontanka.ru/articles/1127/

The series Physics or Chemistry: hermeneutic

analysis of media text
Article · December 2017
CITATIONS READS
2 136
2 authors:
Alexander Fedorov Elena Huston

Anton Chekhov Taganrog Institute, Russia University of Southern Queensland
All content following this page was uploaded by Alexander Fedorov on 16 August 2017.

First published in the journal "Media Education":
Fedorov A., Huston, E. (2017). The series "Physics or Chemistry": hermeneutic analysis of
media text. Media education. 2017. No. 4.
Media Culture
The series Physics or Chemistry: hermeneutic analysis of media text *

Elena Huston,
PhD Candidate, MBA, BA(Edu),
The University of Southern Queensland, Australia
West Street, Toowoomba, QLD 4350, Australia
w0066369@umail.usq.edu.au
Abstract. Tolerant "European format" of the Russian TV series on the school topic Physics or Chemistry
(2011) has got into the already prepared ground, and, unlike the harsh films of Valeria Gay Germanika Everyone dies
and I stay (2008) and School (2010), did not become the epicenter of protracted media discussions of professionals. At
the same time, this series had clearly and unambiguously pro-Western orientation of approaches to the school theme:
- benevolent attitude to the relaxed behavior and sexual relations (including homosexual) between students of 16-17
years (and even between a teacher and a student);
- indulgence to use by students and teachers of light drugs, dirty slang expressions, etc.;
- the authors' ambivalent attitude to almost all the characters, even to those who, a few years ago, would be considered
negative on all media canons;
- the main ideas of the characters about success are their love and other (including professional) self-realization, and
characters are rewarded in this world who are not afraid to tell others about their love connections (even if they are the
liaisons of the teacher and the seventeen-year-old student), about the non-traditional orientation and addiction to light
drugs.
The article concludes that the TV series "Physics or Chemistry" has become a clear evidence of a significant change in
social and media concepts about the school, students and teachers that occurred in Russia in the 21st century.
Keywords: hermeneutic analysis, media text, TV series, film, school, students, teachers, gender.
and Western audiovisual media texts". Head of the project is professor A. Fedorov.
Introduction
Hermeneutic Analysis of Cultural Context – a study of the process of interpreting media
texts, cultural, historical factors that influence the view of the agency / author and the viewpoint of
the audience. The hermeneutical analysis suggests comprehension of the media text through
comparison of the cultural tradition and reality; penetration into the logic of media text; analysis of
media text through the juxtaposition of artistic images in the historical and cultural context, when
the subject of analysis is the media system and its functioning in society, interaction with the
individual, the language of the media and its use. According to U. Eco, “any study of the structures
of a work becomes ipso facto the development of certain historical and sociological hypotheses -
even if the researcher himself does not realize or does not want to be aware of it. ... If you
understand these basic principles of the research method, then the description of the structure of the
work is one of the most advantageous ways to identify the links between the work and its social and
historical context” [Eco, 2005, p. 208].

As a material for the hermeneutic analysis of media text, we use the Russian TV series
Physics or Chemistry (2011). Following the methodology developed by U. Eco [Eco, 2005, p. 209]
and A. Silverbelt [Silverblatt, 2001, pp. 80-81], we distinguish three "parts" or "systems" that are
significant in the work: the author's ideology; market conditions that defined the intention; narrative
techniques. This kind of approach, in our opinion, fully correlates with the technology of analysis
of media texts [Bazalgette, 1995; Potter, 2016] – based on media education key words such as
media agencies, media / media text categories, media technologies, media languages, media
representations and media audiences, since all these concepts are directly related to the ideological,
market and structural-content aspects of the analysis of media works.
Discussion and research results

Ideology of authors in the socio-cultural context (dominant concepts: media agencies, media
representations, media audiences)
The main authors of any cinematic text are directors and screenwriters. However, in the
case of the Russian series on the school topic Physics or Chemistry (2011), they were not
independent creators of media texts, since this work was a remake of the same successful Spanish
series Physics or Chemistry (Física o química, 2008-2011). The spirit of tolerance and political
correctness of the media culture of the European Union of the 21st century, that is, a benevolent
attitude toward uninhibited behavior and sexual relations (including homosexual) between
schoolchildren of 16-17 years of age, condescension to use by minors, students and teachers of light
drugs, etc. A special emphasis was placed on the friendly interpretation of sexual relations between
a teacher and a high school student who had reached the age of sexual consent. Let us not forget
that as of August 2017 the age of sexual consent in Germany and Italy came from 14 years, in
France – from 15 years, in Spain – from 16 years. However, at the time of the release of the Spanish
series Physics or Chemistry / Física o química (2008-2011), there was still the most liberal
approach in Europe to the age of sexual consent – from the age of 13 (in July 2015 it was raised to
16 years) [Age ..., 2017]. In Russia, "the age of sexual consent" comes from age 16 [Age ..., 2017],
but apparently wanting to avoid attacks of retrogrades, the creators of the series Physics or
Chemistry insured: all the roles of high school students were performed by actors who in 2011
were from 21 years to 25 years.
In connection with the armed conflict in Ukraine, which began in 2014, the official Russian
ideology of 2014-2017 is in many respects in conflict with the ideological vector of the European
Union. However, at the time of filming (2010-2011) and the release of the television version
(August-September 2011) of the Russian version of the series Physics or Chemistry Russia, in spite
of the South Ossetian conflict with Georgia in 2008, could to some extent be considered inertial
(especially with regard to the western-oriented education system) within the framework of
adherence to "European values”.
Market conditions that contributed to the concept, the process of creating media text
(dominant concepts: "media agencies", "media / media categories", "media technologies", "media
audience"
Since the early 1990s, the Russian media culture has experienced significant influences from
Western standards. For example, on TV, formats such as talk shows and sitcoms have become
common. A dramatic increase in the number of tangible commercials in the 21st century has caused
TV producers to understandably wish to produce remakes, that is, transplant successful Western
series on Russian soil, including the Spanish Physics or Chemistry / Física o química (2008-2011).
Structure and methods of narration in the media text (dominant concepts: "media / media
categories", "media technologies", "media languages", "media representations")
Schematically structure, plot, representativeness, ethics, features of genre modification,
iconography, character characters can be represented as follows:
Historical period, the scene: Moscow 2010 - 2011.
Conditions, household items: school classes, gymnasium, library, swimming pool, corridors,
director's office, city streets, living rooms. The school (and its equipment), the characters'
apartments look very modern. All teachers and schoolchildren have mobile phones.
Methods of depicting the reality: ambivalent attitude in relation to almost all the characters,
without a rigid division into "positive" and "negative." In the series, almost every more or less
significant character has his own storyline. The visual and sound series are constructed without any
creative frills, which is typical for the vast majority of serials.
Characters, their values, ideas, clothing, physique, vocabulary, facial expressions, gestures:
Characters dressed in 2010-2011 fashion – bright, bold: no school uniforms and strict suits.
Teachers can afford deep neckline and free hairstyles. Students – tattoos, active facial expressions,
gestures and abusive vocabulary (however, never turning to obscene expressions: the series on the
channel STS was in prime time). The head teacher together with another teacher smokes in the
toilet. One of the teachers (though outside the school) uses light drugs and is not going to give it up.
10th grade students are also indulging in drugs: “The relations of parents and pupils in the first
series are boldly presented: the mother recommends that her son carefully check the pockets of his
trousers before washing, so that he does not accidentally wash the dope-grass lying there”
[Sputnitskaya, 2016, p. 64]. In the classroom, teachers and schoolchildren willingly discuss topics
of sex, same-sex love, pedophilia, drugs, and suicide. One of the characters-schoolchildren
constantly allows himself in the classroom dirty jokes and racist remarks about the Chinese
classmate. Almost all the characters (adults and schoolchildren) are active users of media
technology: “space for mastering the lessons of Physics or Chemistry – the Internet, pages in ...
social networks, virtual diaries that have become a continuation of the genre of school chronicles,
songbooks, exercise books” [Sputnitskaya, 2011]. We remember that in one of the relatively recent
French films about the school the main conflict of the plot flared up around the erotic photo of the
teacher sent to the director. In the Russian TV series Physics or Chemistry, the tenth-graders who
mastered the media equipment send photomontages to all their teachers, where they appear in the
nude, but this only causes good understanding smiles and comments from the teaching staff and has
no influence on the development of the subsequent plot of the series.
A significant change in the life of the characters: each of the characters has a key change in
his life (among teachers: the difficulties of professional adaptation in school, the betrayal of his
wife, the fight, sexual intercourse with a minor, accusation of pedophilia, etc., in the tenth grade: a
sexual relationship with the teacher, death of parents, drug overdose, suicide, racist insult, open
confession in their unconventional sexual orientation, etc.).
The problem that arose: the choice of a strategy for later life, love experiences.
The search for a solution to the problem: an attempt to defend your life choices, struggle for
your love.
Solving the problem: due to the fact that the series was planned to be continued, the plot
lines of the characters are not fully completed, although many conflicts are being resolved (in
particular, conflicts based on racism, drug addiction, intimate communication between the teacher
and the tenth grade student, etc.).
Historical Context. What media text tells us about the period of its creation?
When was the premiere of this media text? How did the events of that time affect the media
text? The premiere of the series Chemistry or Physics was held on the channel STS in August-
September 2011. The film was shot shortly before the Russian-Western sanctions conflict over
Ukraine (which began in 2014), when certain pro-Western tendencies were still felt at the official
level (including the organization of the educational process). The strongest influence on the series
Physics or Chemistry was the original plot of the Spanish TV series Física o química (2008-2011)
with the same name [Cappelletto, 2017; Guarinos, 2009].
How does the media text comment on the events of the day? Does knowledge of historical
events help understand the media text? How does understanding these events enrich our
understanding of media text? The series Physics or Chemistry (perhaps due to excessive adherence
to the Spanish original) is far from commenting on Russia's political and economic problems of the
21st century. There are also many hotly debated school problems here (excessive bureaucratization
of the management and reporting apparatus, overload of teachers, corruption, etc.). Focused
primarily on the love story lines, the series in the course of the case touches on such acute for the
society (including the school) topics like teenage suicide, drug addiction, racism, sexual relations,
homosexuality and homophobia.
Cultural context. How the media text reflects, strengthens, inspires, or shapes cultural
attitudes, values, behavior, concerns, myths. The series Physics or Chemistry clearly seeks to
reflect, strengthen, form the Western cultural values that are peculiar to the media culture of the
countries of the European Union: free, sometimes very free (including sexual) relations between
people (including teachers and high school students), tolerance towards people of other races and
sexual orientation [Ramírez Alvarado & Cobo Durán, 2013], tolerance towards extravagant
behavior.
World view. What kind of world is depicted in the media text? What is the culture of this
world? What do we know about the people of this world? Are the characters represented in a
stereotyped manner? What does this representation tell us about the cultural stereotype of this
group? The series Physics or Chemistry depicts a world intentionally isolated by the authors from
real political and economic life, but completely immersed in the world of love and other
interpersonal relations (the themes of racism, suicide, homosexuality are also touched upon). People
inhabiting this world are represented in a dualistic manner: in one or another proportion, positive
and negative traits are mixed in them. No one character, even the most sneaky at first glance, is not
built in a stereotypically negative way, “Nevertheless, the assortment of the stories of the youth
series as such have been stabilized for the time being, and the generation of new units is possible
within the existing material: each story is also quite original (Has a wide range of variability, gives
space for repeated creativity), and is predictable” [Sputnitskaya, 2011].
What worldview represents this world - optimistic or pessimistic? Are the characters of this
media text happy? Do the characters of this media text have a chance to be happy? Are the
characters able to control their own destinies? Despite numerous acute interpersonal conflicts, the
world of Physics or Chemistry is rather optimistic. Characters want to be (each in their own way)
happy, although not all of them are able to control their own destiny.
What is the hierarchy of values according to this worldview? What values can be found in
the media text? What values are embodied in the characters? The main values of the characters of
the film: love, tolerance, friendship. However, each of the characters interprets these values in their
own interests. For example, for the tenth grade Igor (partly copied from the main negative character
Dear Elena Sergeevna by E. Ryazanov), love and friendship are a domination linked with the joint
use of drugs, the organization of sexual orgies, etc. By the way, he is also a racist! And all this does
not stop the authors from being tolerant to him and from time to time make him a little bit positive.
What does it mean to have success in this world? How does a person succeed in this world?
What behavior is rewarded in this in the world? In Physics or Chemistry we are talking about the
values of material (for example, Rita's tenth grade student after the death of her parents gets a rich
inheritance), but the main understanding of the characters about success is their love and other
(including professional) self-realization. In this world those characters are rewarded who are not
afraid to tell others about their love affairs (even if they are the liaisons of a teacher and a
seventeen-year-old student), about non-traditional orientation and commitment to light drugs.
Conclusion
At one time, the appearance of a very modest sex scene in V. Pichul's youth drama Little
Vera (1988) caused a storm of indignation from the cinematography and the conservative part of the
audience, the film was hotly debated by professional criticism and became a real event of the year.
However, in Physics or Chemistry (2011) neither the authorities nor the spectators were particularly
shocked, although there were more bold scenes (including the orgy of high school students and
homosexuality). Professional film criticism on Physics or Chemistry reacted sluggishly. In fact, in
addition to one review in the magazine Cinema Art [Sputnitskaya, 2011], there were no other
serious professional debates.
Thus, the tolerant "European format" of the series Physics or Chemistry was planted in
already prepared soil, and, unlike the harsh films of Valeria Gay Germanika Everyone Dies and I
Stay and School (2010), it did not become the focus of protracted media discussions. At the same
time, the TV series Physics or Chemistry clearly and unequivocally marked the pro-Western
orientation of approaches to the school theme:
- a benevolent attitude towards the relaxed behavior and sexual relations (including homosexual)
between schoolchildren aged 16-17 (and even between the teacher and the student);
- leniency towards consumption by under-age students and teachers of light drugs, etc .;
- the authors' ambivalent attitude to almost all the characters, even to those who, a few years ago,
would be considered negative in all canons;
- the main perceptions of the characters about success are their love and other (including
professional) self-realization, and characters are rewarded in this world who are not afraid to tell
others about their love relationships (even if they are the affairs of the teacher and the seventeen-
year-old student), non-traditional orientation and addiction to light drugs.
In general, the series Physics or Chemistry became a vivid evidence of significant changes
in social and media ideas about the school, schoolchildren and teachers that occurred in Russia in
the 21st century.
Filmography
Physics or chemistry. Russia, 2011. Director Ramil Sabitov. Script writer Vasily Pavlov. Actors: Lyubov Germanova,
Alexander Smirnov, Victoria Poltorak, Maria Viktorova, Anna Nevskaya and others.
Physics or Chemistry / Física o química. Spain, 2008-2011. Directed by: Javier Quintas, Juan Manuel Rodríguez
Pachón, Carlos Navarro Ballesteros. Writers: Carlos Montero, Jaime Vaca, Carlos Ruano, Félix Jiménez Velando,
Alberto Manzano. Actors: Nuria González, Ana Milán, Gonzalo Ramos, Andrea Duro and others.
References
Age of sexual consent in Europe. 08/23/2017. Https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%BE%D0%B7%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%82_%D1%81%D0%B5%D0 % BA% D1% 81%

D1% 83% D0% B0% D0% BB% D1% 8C% D0% BD% D0% BE% D0% B3% D0% BE_% D1% 81% D0% BE% D0% B3 % D0% BB% D0% B0% D1% 81% D0% B8% D1% 8F_% D0% B2_% D0% 95% D0% B2% D1% 80% D0%
BE% D0% BF% D0% B5
Cappelletto, G. (2017). Análisis del doblaje de la serie de televiseón “Física o Química”. Tesi di Laurea. Padova:
Università degli Studi di Padova, 146 p. http://tesi.cab.unipd.it/54793/1/GIULIO_CAPPELLETTO_2017.pdf
Eco, U. (2005). The Role of the Reader. Studies on the Semiotics of the Text. St. Petersburg: Symposium, 502 p.
Guarinos, V. (2009). Fenómenos televisivos «teenagers»: prototipias adolescentes en series vistas en España.
Comunicar, nº 33, v. XVII, 2009, pp. 203-211.
Potter, W.J. (2016). Media Literacy. Los Angeles: Sage Publication.
Ramírez Alvarado, М.M., Cobo Durán, S. (2013). La ficción gay-friendly en las series de televisión españolas. Nueva
época, № 19, pp. 213-235.
Silverblatt, A. (2001). Media Literacy. Westport, Connecticut - London: Praeger, 449 p.
Sputnitskaya, N.Y. (2011). Universchool. TV series Physics or Chemistry. Cinema Art. № 11.
Sputnitskaya, N.Y. (2016). The problem of gender in contemporary Russian cinema and serials: a critical introduction.
Moscow: Academy of Media Industry, 2016. 126 p.

Mass Media Education in Commonwealth of

Independent States (CIS)
Article · January 2018
CITATIONS READS
0 50
2 authors:


All content following this page was uploaded by Alexander Fedorov on 25 January 2018.

Preprint:
Fedorov, A., Levitskaya, A. Mass Media Education in
Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) Mass
Media Education in Commonwealth of Independent
States (CIS). Media Education. 2018, N 1.
Mass Media Education in Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) *

1954alex@mail.ru

Abstract. The authors address the goals, objectives and concepts of the project on mass media education in
Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS). The purpose of the study: a comparative analysis of the development
of media education in the CIS (1992-2020) at each stage (including theoretical concepts, goals and objectives, role,
place, functions, organizational forms of media education in the mainstream education). Object of the study is media
education in the countries of the CIS. The research's subject is basic stages of development, theoretical and
methodological concept of media education in the CIS countries over the past 25 years. Research objectives are to
formulate and justify a set of theoretical stances that make up the methodological basis of research into the history
of mass media education in the CIS (1992-2020); to analyze theoretical sources and practical experience of the
leading figures of media education in the CIS countries, to determine the essential features, qualities and properties
of media education in the CIS countries, to investigate the structure, main stages of historical development,
directions, theoretical concepts, goals and objectives, contents, media education technologies in the CIS;
to carry out a comparative analysis and systematization of the material, to identify the main theoretical and
methodological concepts of media education in the CIS countries, which may be a promising basis for further
successful development in the Russian contexts.
Keywords: media literacy, media education, CIS, Commonwealth of Independent States, Russia, analysis.
* The reported study was funded by Russian Foundation for Basic Research (RFBR) according to the research
project № 18-013-00022 “Mass Media Education in Commonwealth of Independent States – CIS (1992-2020)”.
Head of the project is Prof. Dr. Alexander Fedorov.
Introduction
The goal of the study is to undertake a comparative analysis of the development of media
education in the Commonwealth of Independent States – CIS (1992-2020) at each stage
(including theoretical concepts, goals and objectives, role, place, functions, organizational forms
of media education in the mainstream education).
The object of the study is media education in the countries of the CIS.
The research's subject is basic stages of development, theoretical and methodological
concept of media education in the CIS countries over the past 25 years.
The research objectives are the following:
 to formulate and justify a set of theoretical stances that make up the methodological basis
of research into the history of mass media education in the CIS (1992-2020);
 to analyze theoretical sources and practical experience of the leading figures of media
education in the CIS countries;
 to determine the essential features, qualities and properties of media education in the CIS
countries, to investigate the structure, main stages of historical development, directions,
theoretical concepts, goals and objectives, contents, media education technologies in the CIS; in
particular, the research based on the basic theoretical concepts (aesthetic, protectionist, practical,
ideological, critical thinking, cultural studies, sociocultural, ethics) will be examined. Models of
mass media education, developed in CIS countries, for various target audiences, will be studied;
 to carry out a comparative analysis and systematization of the material, to identify the
main theoretical and methodological concepts of media education in the CIS countries, which
may be a promising basis for further successful development in the Russian contexts;
 to synthesize key media education models applied in CIS countries with the help of
comparative analysis;
 to implement the research results into the education process of the university (for teacher
training departments).
The novelty of our research arises from the following contradictions:
- the contradictions that have arisen in connection with the great experience accumulated
in the last two decades by media educators in the CIS countries and the inadequate degree of
generalization, analysis and application of this experience – both in foreign and Russian
pedagogy (with the identification of the most grounded media education models for possible
adaptation in Russia);
- the contradiction between views on mass media education as a program of "journalism
for all" and "media activity" [Dzyaloshinsky, Pilgun, 2011, p. 353; Zhilavskaya, 2009; Ivanov,
2010, etc.] and media education as a means of developing the media competence of an individual
[our research team, etc.]. At the same time, these contradictions are inherent not only to the
views of Russian scientists and media educators, but also to the views of their Ukrainian,
Belarusian, Kazakh, Uzbek and other colleagues [Abdurakhmanov, Beknazarova, 2011;
Beknazarova, 2011; Gabor, 2002; Galzyrina, Kolbysheva, 2009; Golubtsova, Meiramkhan,
2003; Grinevich, 2008; Ivanov et al, 2011; Kazakov, 2007; Kirillova, 2005; Kolbysheva, 2009;
Korkonosenko, 2010; Korochensky, 2003; Melnik, 1996; Naidionova, 2007; Onkovich, 2007;
2011; Potyatinik, 2004; Razlogov, 2005; Sharikov, 1991; Vozchikov, 2007; Zhilavskaya, 2009;
Zhilinskaya, 2008];
- the contradictions that have emerged between Ukrainian and Russian scientists and
media educators over the past 3-4 years due to the fact that some Ukrainian media educators
began using media education as a propaganda weapon in political struggle against Russia and its
educational influence [see, for example: Emets-Dobronosova, 2014].
We assume that in the basis of a comparative approach to the development of mass media
education in the CIS countries, we will lay out a detailed analysis of the peculiarities of the
interpretation of key theories of media education (aesthetic, sociocultural, critical thinking,
semiotic, etc.). Thus,
- a comparative analysis and systematization of the main research in the field of mass
media education in the CIS countries will be undertaken, presented by leading scientific schools
and individual scientists in the context of sociocultural problems of the development of society,
globalization, state and corporate position in relation to the development of media education;
- the most promising trends (including theoretical models, concepts) will be identified in
the subject matter of the project;
- the ways of further development of such research, areas of improvement, corrections are
indicated.
Comparative analysis and interpretation of academic literature, government decrees,
ministerial instructions, pedagogical documentation, curriculum materials, periodicals,
government documents, resolutions, conferences proceedings on the problems of mass media
education in CIS countries, in our view, complies with the tasks of the project. It will enable us
to systematize, generalize, explore the main stages, directions, goals and objectives, the content,
methodological principles of media models education in various states.
The interest in Russian and international models of media education, in history of their
emergence and development has dramatically risen recently. The need to study the history of
media education derives from the fact that looking into the past allows one to see the origins of a
particular phenomenon and further perspectives, to comprehend the present, to reveal the essence
that lies at its basis.
Regrettably, media education in the CIS countries has not yet become the subject of a
full-scale generalization analysis up to now. Therefore, the choice of the theme of our project:
"Mass media education in CIS countries (1992-2020)" is dictated by its relevance, scarce
elaboration by academic community, and scientific contradictions noted above.
Scientific novelty of the study:
- for the first time on the international scale, the process of historical development of
mass media education in the CIS countries between 1992-2020 (Russia, Ukraine, Belarus,
Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, etc.) will be analyzed;
- the work of CIS educators in the field of mass media education, which had not
previously been presented in the world science, will be analyzed;
- the analysis of theoretical concepts, models, technologies, organizational forms of
media education characteristic for this period of mass media education's development in the CIS
countries will be carried out;
- based on the comparative analysis, the key media education models used in the CIS
countries will be synthesized (because the media education models are not everywhere explicitly,
structurally present). By our assumption, the structural blocks of the basic media education
models will include: the definition of the "media education" concept; conceptual theoretical basis
of media education; goals, objectives, organizational forms, media education technologies;
general contents of the media education curriculum; areas of use; possible outcomes of
implementing the model;
- on the above basis, the ways of further development of such research, areas of
improvement, correction, optimal ways of practical implementation of the best CIS practices in
the field of mass media education will be outlined.
Academic controversies in media education tasks (comparison of approaches of Western
media educators and media educators of the CIS countries) lead us to the formulation of the
problematic issue of our research: is it possible to synthesize the dominant media education
models on the basis of generalizing the accumulated experience of mass media education in the
CIS countries (1992-2020) and analysis of their main tendencies, the most relevant for
implementation in Russian universities and schools? We believe that the synthesis of key media
education models in the CIS countries can become the basis for theoretical substantiation and
development of conceptual models that are most relevant for implementation in Russian
universities and schools.
We are sure that media education can not be successfully and effectively developed
without systematization and generalization of its existing trends and processes in foreign
countries, without a "dialogue of cultures". It is necessary to fill the gap in the domestic science
in terms of studying and comparing the structure, main directions, trends of media education in
the CIS countries. That is why the problem of the project declared by us seems to be relevant.
One of the most prominent media educators and media philosophers Len Masterman
outlined seven reasons for arguing that media education should be given urgent priority as early
as in 1985: 1. The high rate of media consumption and the saturation of the contemporary
societies by the media. 2. The ideological importance of the media, and their influence as
consciousness industries. 3. The growth in the management and manufacture of information, and
its dissemination by the media. 4. The increasing penetration of media into our central
democratic processes. 5. The increasing importance of visual communication and information in
all areas. 6. The importance of educating students to meet the demands of the future. 7. The fast-
growing national and international pressures to privatise information [Masterman, 1985, p.2].
European Parliament resolution of 16 December 2008 on media literacy in a digital world
(2008/2129(INI)) also points out the relevance of the issue. In particular, it asserts that "media
education should be an element of formal education to which all children should have access and
which should form part and parcel of the curriculum at every stage of schooling"; recommends
that "compulsory media education modules be incorporated into teacher training for all school
levels, so as to enable the subject to be taught intensively; calls on the relevant national
authorities to familiarize teachers of all subjects and at every type of school with the use of
audiovisual teaching aids and with the problems associated with media education" [European
Parliament Resolution…, 2008].
The Moscow Declaration on Media and Information Literacy developed by UNESCO
Information for ALL Programme (2012) emphasizes the necessity to include media and
information literacy in the priority directions of the national policy in the sphere of education,
culture, and media; urgency of structural and pedagogical reforms necessary for enhancement of
media and information literacy (MIL); its integration in the curricula including systems of
assessment at all levels of education, inter alia, lifelong and workplace learning and teacher
training; encourage an intercultural dialogue and international cooperation while promoting MIL
worldwide [The Moscow Declaration…, 2012].
These premises are reflected in the text of the Long-term Concept of Social and
Economic Development of the Russian Federation for the period up to 2020, approved by the
Government of the Russian Federation, where the Concept among the prioritized directions of
information and telecommunication technologies, places the expansion of IT for the new forms
and methods of instruction, including media education. This shows that the necessity and
relevance of media education and its final goal – the media competence of the population is
recognized at the highest state level, becomes a task not only for enthusiasts in this highly-
demanded by information society field, but also on a national scale. We see an additional
relevance and significance of our research in that our university, having achieved official
registration of a new university specialization – Media Education by the Board of Educational
Methodological Association of the Ministry of Education and Science of the Russian Federation,
was one of the pioneers of its introduction into the educational process. The media education
classes are being taught in our university at the present time.
We believe that the role of the expected results in deepening the existing system of
knowledge about the development of mass media education in the CIS countries that make up
this subject area of science will be very important for the further development of mass media
education in various countries of the world, including Russia, because the comparative
approaches we propose, synthesized media education models, generalized technologies will
significantly improve the media competence of a wide audience (first of all – schoolchildren and
students).
Presumably, the major scientific significance of the expected results of the research will
be that (on the basis of comparative analysis) the optimal model for the development of mass
media education in the CIS countries will be synthesized.
The contribution of the planned scientific results to the solution of applied problems will
consist in the fact that the enhanced objective-settings (relating to the development of mass
media education in the CIS countries, taking into account the scientific contradictions revealed)
will be presented. Moreover, original provisions characterizing new outcomes of the task solving
(conclusions, recommendations for implementation in institutions of various types – in
universities, schools, in supplementary education establishments) will be provided.
We see the importance of the proposed study on the topic of the development of mass
media education in the CIS countries, both from the point of view of the existing trends'
development, and of expanding the possibility of practical application of scientific results.
Specific opportunities for the practical application of scientific results: the results of the project
will be introduced into the educational process of the university (for the future teachers training).
The supposed scope of the project's use is higher education institutions, Education, Social
Sciences departments, above all; colleges and schools. The range of users comprises university
teachers, post-graduate, graduate and undergraduate students, and secondary school teachers.
Materials of our research are academic writings on media education, media literacy, and
media competence published in a variety of countries, the CIS countries foremost, as well as
Internet sites, and evidence of the practical application of media education in the CIS countries,
accumulated from 1992 to the present day. Methodology is based on theoretical framework on
the relationship, interdependence and integrity of the phenomena of reality, the unity of the
historical and the logical in cognition, the theory of the dialogue of cultures by M. Bakhtin - V.
Bibler (taking into account the theoretical concepts developed by such well-known sociologists
and cultural studies researchers as M. Foucault, Y. Lotman, U. Eco, M. McLuhan, P. Sorokin, N.
Luhmann, M. Weber, J. Gerbner, A. Mole, V. Yadov, and others). The research is based on a
content approach (identifying the content of the process being studied, with due regard to the
aggregate of its elements, interaction between them, their nature, access to facts, analysis and
synthesis of theoretical conclusions, etc.) and a comparative approach.
The following methods are used: data collection (dissertations, extended abstracts of
Ph.D. dissertations, monographs, articles, reports) related to the project's theme, analysis of
academic literature, theoretical analysis and synthesis; generalization and classification; content
analysis, modeling.
The working hypothesis is: a comparative approach to scientific research in the project's
field (the results of which are reflected in dissertations, abstracts, monographs, scientific articles,
reports, etc.) will allow for systematization and comparative theoretical concepts, goals and
objectives, role, functions, technologies, organizational forms of media education in the general
educational process); will help synthesize the most relevant media education models for the CIS
countries. It is assumed that the structural blocks of these basic media education models will
include: the definition of the concept "media education"; conceptual theoretical basis of media
education; goals, objectives, organizational forms, media education technologies; multilevel
tasks, their interrelationships, didactic means of substantive and organizational nature, practical
technologies of pedagogical guidance / counseling, providing a diverse range of educational
creative tasks, problem situations, etc., developing the media competence of the individual; main
sections of the contents of the media education program; areas of application; possible results of
the implementation of the model. On this basis, additional prospects for research and further
practical action on the project will be outlined.
Discussion
Media have been playing increasingly important roles in people's daily life and in
education. Therefore the significance of the intensive development of media literacy education is
evident. "Big Russian Encyclopedia" defines media education as the process of a personality's
development with the help of and on the material of media, aimed at the enhancement of media
culture, creative, communicative skills, critical thinking, comprehensive perception,
interpretation, analysis and evaluation of media texts; teaching and learning of various forms of
self expression through media technologies; gaining media competence. The main directions of
media education are media education for future professionals in mass media industry; for future
teachers; for school and university students (which can be integrated with traditional subjects or
autonomous); at supplementary educational establishments and leisure centers; distance media
education for various groups; independent lifelong media education. The positive outcome of
media education is a personality's media competence - the sum of one's motives, knowledge,
abilities, skills, facilitating the choice, use, critical analysis, evaluation, creation and transfer of
media texts in various forms, forms and genres, analysis of complex processes of media
functioning in society [Media Education, 2012, p.480].
UNESCO defines media education as the prioritized sphere of cultural and pedagogical
developments in the XXI century. Its resolutions and recommendations have repeatedly
emphasized the significance and support of mass media education (UNESCO conferences in
Grünwald, 1982; Toulouse, 1990; Paris, 1997; Vienna, 1999; Seville, 2002, Paris, 2007;
Moscow, 2012, etc.). It is stated in UNESCO Recommendations that "Media Education is part of
the basic entitlement of every citizen, in every country in the world, to freedom of expression
and the right to information and is instrumental in building and sustaining democracy. While
recognizing the disparities in the nature and development of Media Education in different
countries, the participants of the Seville Seminar, following closely the prior definitions
developed by the Vienna Conference in 1999, recommend that Media Education should be
introduced wherever possible within national curricula as well as in tertiary, non-formal and
lifelong education" [UNESCO, 2002].
In 2008 and 2010, the Moscow State University hosted conferences and roundtables on
media education, where resolutions were adopted, that pointed out some negative trends in the
development of the media education process, both in Russia and in the CIS countries: "the
accumulated experience and research results remain insufficiently disseminated and are
underused, due to the fact that media education has not yet moved from the stage of the
experiment to the stage of wide practical application. The opportunities for additional education
are poorly used ... The interaction between existing centers and numerous experimental sites in
the field of media education is inadequate, the potential of teachers and researchers of leading
faculties is not fully utilized" [Resolution ..., 2008].
The main difficulties in the wider introduction of media education in the educational
process of higher education institutions and schools of the CIS countries are, first of all,
connected: with the apparent shortage of media educators given targeted training; with a certain
inertia of the leadership of a number of higher educational institutions (in fact, within the
framework of the disciplines of the regional component and the elective courses in higher
education institutions, there are possibilities for introducing new subjects, but most universities'
management is still reluctant to allocate hours for media education disciplines); with the
traditional approaches of the ministerial structures, which focus on supporting training courses in
IT and computer applications literacy with much less attention to the current problems of media
literacy / media competence.
In the view of the above, the urgent need for intensive analysis of the media-pedagogical
experience of the CIS countries is very important. Having received the results of the analysis of
this experience, the media educators of the CIS countries will be able to more effectively
develop their theoretical ideas, methodological / technological approaches, experimental work in
schools and universities, in out-of-school education establishments and leisure centers.
Note that, unlike the western approaches to the development of media education
(protectionist, theological, critical thinking, semiotic, cultural studies, etc.) [Buckingham, 2003;
Hobbs, 2011; Masterman, 1985; Potter, 2012; Siverblatt, Zlobin, 2004; Tyner, 2010, etc.], the
pedagogy of the CIS countries up to the end of the 1990s was based on the aesthetic concept.
However, in recent years new approaches to media education models have been developed by
Russian scientists I. Fateeva (2007), I. Zhilavskaya (2009), Ukrainian scientists G. Onkovich
(2013) and V. Ivanov (2013). There has been further development of the ideas advanced by Len
Masterman (the theory of critical thinking in media education), David Buckingham (cultural
theory of media education), A. Sharikov (sociocultural theory of media education). However,
there has been no attempt to accomplish a well-grounded comparative analysis of models of
mass media education in post-Soviet CIS countries (neither by international researchers, nor in
the CIS countries).
The analysis of the history of the development of media education in the USSR and
Russia in 1919-2002 had been made by our team with the support of the grant of the Russian
Foundation for the Humanities No. 01-06-00027a in 2001-2003, and a comparative analysis of
the development of media education in the leading Western countries (from the 1920s to the
beginning of the 21st century ) had been carried out with the funding of the Russian Foundation
for the Humanities No. 04-06-00038a in 2004-2006. As a result of these two previous projects, a
series of articles and two monographs on this subject were published. This, undoubtedly, will
serve as a solid foundation for the implementation of the current study - "Mass media education
in the CIS countries (1992-2020)". Considering that media education is relatively young, about a
hundred years old direction in pedagogy, and the CIS countries have developed as independent
states only in the last quarter of a century, the chronological scope of our research will be limited
to the period from the early 1990s to the present.
Results
In the 1980s-1990s and the beginning of the 21st century, many books, articles, and
studies devoted to the problems of education on the basis of various types of media were
published in Russia (L. Bazhenova, O. Baranov, E. Bondarenko, E. Vartanova, A. Zhurin, L.
Zaznobina, A. Korochensky, I. Levshina, G. Maximova, S. Penzin, E. Polat, G. Polichko, A.
Spichkin, Y. Usov, I. Fateeva, A. Fedorov, A. Sharikov, N. Khilko, Y. Yastrebtseva, and others).
The flow of media education researches has intensified, especially since the radical change in
political and socio-economic life in Russia (since the early 1990s). However, works concerning
the development of mass media education in the CIS countries are still relatively rare. On the one
hand, foreign researchers (primarily L. Marsterman, C. Bazalgatte, A. Hart, D. Buckingham, J.
Gonnet, B. Bachmayer, etc.) have investigated the problems associated with the history and
theory of media education in Europe, however, always limiting their studies to West European
experience, excluding the CIS countries.
On the other hand, the media educators- residents of the CIS countries (L. Akhmetova, S.
Beknazarova, N. Gabor, T. Zhilinskaya, V. Ivanov, S. Kolbysheva, O. Nechay, Zh. Meiramkhan,
G. Onkovich, B. Potyatinik, etc.) generally, have not reached the level of a comparative analysis
of the development of media education in neighboring CIS countries (except for references to the
development of media education in Russia).
For example, Ukraine, being part of the USSR, until 1992 was in line with the overall
media educational theoretical concepts of the time. In the 1960s-1980s, the aesthetic theory of
media education dominated here (Polikarpova, 1976, Silina, 1968, Chashko, 1979). In the first
half of the 1990s, Ukraine was at a difficult stage in the formation of a new state status,
including the educational context, which could not but affect the development of mass media
education, which (against the background of numerous problems) was not recognized at the
official level. Quite expectedly, in their theoretical approaches, Ukrainian media educators relied
on foreign experience, primarily, Western and Russian. Hence, it is not surprising that the
"Ukrainian Pedagogical Dictionary" [Goncharenko, 1997], published in this period, defining the
concept "media education", in fact, reproduced the same definition from the "Russian
Pedagogical Encyclopedia" [Media Education, 1993, p. 555].
Nevertheless, the 1990s brought to the forefront at least three Ukrainian theorists of
communications and media education. G. Pocheptsov (Kiev) analyzed and developed media
theories, including semiotic theories, theories of information influences, in his fundamental
monographs, numerously published in Russia and Ukraine [Pocheptsov, 2001]. Theoretical
approaches to the development of media education on the material of the press were developed
by the Kyivan citizen G. Onkovich [Onkovich, 2011], who had proposed the term "press
didactics" and considered integrated media education in the context of language learning.
Another theorist, the leader of the Lviv media education school, B. Potyatinik, asserted that
"media education is a scientific and educational sphere of activity that aims to help the individual
in the formation of psychological protection from manipulation or exploitation by the mass
media and develop information culture" [Potyatinik, 2005, p.8], so in the 1990s the research
team he headed concentrated on the protectionist theory of media education. In particular, as in
G. Pocheptsov's works, it was about developing a theoretical model of protecting the individual
from negative media influences.
In the first decade of the XXI century, along with the active researcher G. Pocheptsov,
another Ukrainian theorist of media and a media educator, V. Ivanov became well-known, he
published a series of monographs, teaching aids dedicated to the problems of mass
communications, journalism and media education. His works analyze in detail historical and
modern trends in the development of the media studies, including theoretical concepts, models,
problems of the information society and globalization [Ivanov, 2010]. At the beginning of the
21st century, the development of theoretical concepts of media education in Ukraine developed
more intensively. This is reflected by the sharp increase in the number of dissertations in the
field (Buzhikov, 2007; Dukhanina, 2011; Kazakov, 2007; Kurlischuk, 2008; Onkovich; 2004;
Roslyak; 2004; Sakhnevich, 2012; Chemeris, 2008; Shubenko, 2010; other).
To date, in the media education process in Ukraine, several rival research groups can be
distinguished: the development of the synthesis of media education and journalism (Academy of
the Ukrainian Press: a team of researchers led by V. Ivanov); development of media ecology,
protecting the audience from harmful media exposure (Institute of Media Ecology at the Lviv
National University); development of media didactics (team of media educators and researchers
under the guidance of G. Onkovich); development of the socio-cultural model of media
education (the collective of researchers headed by L. Naydenova); development of aesthetic
perception and taste of schoolchildren and students (National Association of Film Educators and
Media Pedagogy of Ukraine headed by O. Musienko). However, since 2014, the researches
conducted by the team led by V. Ivanov became visibly politically charged, propaganda oriented,
which gave media education development an ideological, at times anti-Russian coloring.
Among the works of Belarusian media educators it is possible to single out the works of
M. Zhbankov, A. Karpilova, O. Nechay, I. Sukmanov. The leading theoretical concepts of
Belarusian researchers in recent years have been the theory of critical thinking development,
cultural, aesthetic, practical, and socio-cultural theories of media education. Belarusian media
educators highly rank the tasks of the development of the audience's critical thinking, aesthetic
education of the younger generation by means and on the material of media culture, development
of the socio-cultural field of media culture. These positions are quite close to the approaches of
many Russian media pedagogues, who propose the synthesis of several theoretical media
education concepts.
An important role in the media education process belongs to the development of critical
thinking of the audience, the development of an understanding of the "possibilities of media
effects and media manipulation" [Zhilinskaya, 2008]. L. Glazyrina and S. Kolbysheva believe
that "it is the person who should determine the direction, nature and content of the
informatization process, act as the "consumer" of new information technologies and services. To
do this, one needs to learn to think without losing in the technologies-dominated world one's
intellectual, emotional, spiritual and moral tension" [Glazyrina, Kolbysheva, 2009, p. 216].
There are successful practices in the field of media education in Kazakhstan, too. For
example, the research team under the leadership of L. Akhmetova won a research grant of the
Ministry of Education and Science of the Republic of Kazakhstan on media education topics
("Developing Media Education Technologies for Building the Intellectual Potential of the
Country") in 2012 and has been developing activities in this direction [Akhmetova, 2012].
Conclusion
The preliminary review of media education literature shows that in the CIS countries
"preventive/inoculation" approach (i.e. learning to resist harmful media effects) and "aesthetic"
(i.e. aimed at the development of aesthetic taste of the audience) approach is being currently
replaced by "cultural studies" and "critical thinking" approaches. Mass media education is
receiving increasing support from the ministries of education of the CIS countries (especially in
Ukraine). In many ways, borrowing Russian experience, media education is developing in
Belarus and Uzbekistan.
However, having analyzed a significant amount of academic publications, we find that,
in general, a fundamental comparative analysis of historical stages and theoretical concepts of
media education in the CIS countries is required. Moreover, there is a significant degree of
disparity in research in the field of media education. Some researchers do not demonstrate a
grasp of the major ideas and existing findings that pertain to the media education field.
At the present stage of our research, the following periods of the development of media
education in the CIS countries can be singled out:
The first stage of the current phase of the mass media education development in the CIS
countries (1992-1999): political reforms aimed at transferring from a socialist state system to a
capitalist state system, inevitably associated with educational reforms and radical changes in
media education approaches. We believe that at this stage there was an intensive reorientation of
teachers from the dominant of the "aesthetic", "protective", "ideological", "practical" concepts of
media education towards the Western European (L. Masterman, C. Bazalgette, and others) and
North American (B. Duncan, J. Pangente, C. Worsnop, K. Tyner, etc.) critical thinking, cultural,
semiotic and sociocultural theories. These changes were taking place along with the intensive
development of new information and Internet technologies in the 1990s, with gradual entry into
the information society, which also required significant adjustments to the process of mass media
education - in schools and universities, other institutions.
On the one hand, the second stage of the current phase of the development of mass media
education in the CIS countries (2000-2020) is connected with a new round of intensive
development of media technologies (the Internet environment, digital audio-visual technology,
interactive media, etc.), and on the other hand, with the new media education initiatives of
UNESCO, the Council of Europe, the gradual start of mass introduction of media education in
the educational process of schools (this is especially true for Ukraine, where since 2011 a large-
scale national experiment of mass introduction of media education in dozens of secondary
schools has been going on), and universities. Ukraine, which is the most vigorous in this
direction, following the lead of Canada, Australia, Hungary and the Czech Republic, sets the
goal of making media education an obligatory component of school education of the 21st
century.
The challenges of introducing media education courses in the educational process of
schools and universities of the CIS countries, include: the low level of targeted media literacy
training of in-service and pre-service teachers, discrepancies between theoretical and practical
approaches to media education, the politicized approaches to media education that have emerged
in Ukraine since 2014.
The prospects for applying the experience of the CIS countries in mass media education
may be seen in the introduction of compulsory training courses of media education into classical
universities and pedagogical universities (and as a consequence - in the broad introduction of
media education in schools); in effective integrated media education based on the analytical
thinking development, cultural and sociocultural approaches in mass media education.
References
Abdurakhmanov, K.P., Beknazarova, S.S. (2011). From the History of the Development of Media Education in
Uzbekistan. Media Education. 2011. № 2.
Akhmetova, L.S. (2012). Media literacy and media education in the context of national security protection. Narrow
problems of media legislation of the Republic of Kazakhstan. Almaty, 2012
Beknazarova, S.S. (2011). Comparative analysis of the introduction of elements of media education in the learning
process. Media education. 2011. № 3.
Buckingham, D. (2003). Media Education. Cambridge, UK: Polity Press, 219 p.
Dzyaloshinsky, I.M., Pilgun, M.A. (2011). Media text: features of creation and functioning. Мoscow: Higher
Economic School, 377 p.
Emets-Dobronosova, J. (2014). "Media Education" according to the Kremlin prescription. Krytyka.
https://krytyka.com/ua/community/blogs/mediaosvita-za-kremlivskym-retseptom
European Parliament resolution of 16 December 2008 on media literacy in a digital world.
https://publications.europa.eu/en/publication-detail/-/publication/aa25676b-a98c-4f30-b813-
698fa076d035/language-en
Fateeva, I.A. (2007). Media education: theoretical bases and implementation experience. Chelyabinsk:
Chelyabinsk State University, 270 p.
Gabor, N. (2002). Media education. Media-attack. Lviv, pp. 49-52.
Glazyrina, L.D., Kolbycheva, S.I. (2009). The Foundations of mediatization: the value of the media in socio-cultural
space. Problems of management. No. 3, pp. 32-42.
Golubtsova, T., Meiramkhan, G. (2003). Problems of modern media education in Kazakhstan. http:
//subscribe.ru/archive/media.news.review.mediaproklass/200312/02063236.html
Grinevich, M.S. (2008). Media education of young people in the framework of the Bologna Process. Higher
Education in Ukraine. Attach. 3. Vol. (12), pp. 134-139.
Hobbs, R. (2011). Digital and Media Literacy: Connecting Culture and Classroom. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin
Press.
Ivanov, V., Voloshenyuk, O., Kulchynska, L. (2011). Media literacy education: a short look. Kiev: Academy of the
Ukrainian Press, 58 p.
Ivanov, V.F. (2010). The main theories of mass communication and journalism. Kiev: Academy of the Ukrainian
Press, 2010. 260 c.
Kazakov, Y.M. (2007). Pedagogical conditions of media education in the process of professional preparation of the
future teachers. Ph.D. Dis.. Lugansk, 22 p.
Kirillova, N.B. (2005). Media culture: from the modern to the postmodern. Moscow: Academic Project, 448 p.
Kolbysheva, S.I. (2009). Animation cinema as a means of forming audiovisual perception skills of high school
students. Minsk: Best print, 194 p.
Korkonosenko, S.G. (2010). Theory of Journalism: Modeling and Application. Moscow.
Korochensky, A.P. (2003). "The Fifth Power"? Media criticism in the theory and practice of journalism. Rostov:
Rostov State University, 284 p.
Masterman, L. (1985). Teaching the Media. London : Routledge.
Media education (2012). Big Russian Encyclopedia. Vol. 17. Moscow: Big Russian Encyclopedia, p. 480.
Melnik, G.S. (1996). Mass Media. Psychological processes and effects. St. Petersburg.
Moscow Declaration on Media and Information Literacy (2012).
http://www.ifapcom.ru/news/1347/?returnto=0&n=1
Naidionova, L.A. (2007). Prospect to develop media education in the context of the Bologna process: the
processional model of media culture. Bologna Process and the Vision of Ukraine in Ukraine: problems and
perspectives. Kiev, pp. 162-168.
Onkovich, G.V. (2007). Media education: distribution in the world. Divoslovo. № 6, pp. 2-4.
Onkovych, G.V. (2011). Media didactic theory of media education. Education Problems. № 66, pp. 181-186.
Pocheptsov, G.G. (2001). The theory of communication. Moscow, 2001.
Potter, W.J. (2012). Media Literacy. L.A.: Sage Publication.
Potyatinik, B.V. (2004). Media: clues to understanding. Lvov: Pais, 312 p.
Razlogov, K.E. (Ed.) (2005). New audiovisual technologies. Moscow: Editorial URSS, 488 p.
Recommendations addressed to the United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization UNESCO
Youth Media Education Seville, 15-16 February 2002
http://www.unesco.org/fileadmin/MULTIMEDIA/HQ/CI/CI/pdf/youth_media_education.pdf.
Sharikov, A.V. (1991). Media education: world and Russian experience. Moscow: Academy of Pedagogical
Sciences.
Silverblatt, A., Zlobin, N. (2004) International Communications: A Media Literacy Approach. Armonk, NY: ME
Sharpe, Inc.
Statement from the resolution of the round table "Media Education: problems and ways of development" (2008).
Moscow: Moscow State University, February 6, 2008. Media Education. 2008. № 2.
http://cyberleninka.ru/article/n/vypiska-iz-rezolyutsii-kruglogo-stola-mediaobrazovanie-problemy-i-puti-razvitiya-
moskva-mgu-6-fevralya-2008-goda
Tyner, K. (Ed.) (2010). Media Literacy: New Agendas in Communication. The University of Texas, Routledge.
Voznikov, V.A. (2007). Media sphere of the philosophy of education. Biysk: Biysk State Pedagogical University.
Zhilavskaya, I.V. (2009). Media education of the youth audience. Tomsk, 322 p.
Zhilinskaya, Т.S. (2008). Media formation of scientific personnel of the highest qualification: theoretical concepts
and methodological approaches. Proceedings of the International Scientific and Practical Conference "Innovations
and training of scientific personnel of the highest qualification in the Republic of Belarus and abroad". Minsk:
BelIsa, 316 p. Electronic resource: (http://belisa.org.by/ru/izd/other/Kadr2008/kadr08_71.html

The structural model of the contents of

audiovisual media texts on school and
university topic
CITATIONS READS
0 17


All content following this page was uploaded by Alexander Fedorov on 18 February 2018.

Media Culture
Fedorov, A., Levitskay, A., Gorbatkova, O. The structural model
of the contents of audiovisual media texts on school and university
topic. Media Education. 2018. N 1.
The structural model of the contents of audiovisual media texts

on school and university topic *

1954alex@mail.ru

Dr. Olga Gorbatkova

and Western audiovisual media texts". Head of the project is professor A.V. Fedorov.
Abstract. Based on the results of a comparative hermeneutic, anthropological and gender analysis of
audiovisual media texts on the theme of the school and university, their classification, content models, modifications
of the genre, ideology and stereotypes, the authors synthesized a structural model for the content of audiovisual
media texts on the theme of the school and university:
The historical period of events in a media text: can be any time period but mostly is contemporary to film
production.
Location, environment, everyday items: as a rule, the action takes place in the country where the media text
is created; furnishings, household items (of varying degrees of quality) are school classes, university rooms,
hallways, students' and teachers' homes.
Representation modes: generally, realistic, without grotesque (in TV series, drama, melodrama, detective,
thriller); grotesque and/or caricature (in comedy, fantasy / horror genres).
Positive characters, their values, ideas, clothing, vocabulary, facial expressions, gestures: teachers and
students with humanistic (socialist - in Soviet media texts) values, usually neatly dressed, good-looking, artistic in
facial expressions and gestures, possessing rich vocabulary.
Negative characters, their values, ideas, clothing, physique, vocabulary, facial expressions, gestures:
teachers and students with anti-human inclinations; clothes, appearance, vocabulary in this case can be any, although
for students, the rough vocabulary and evocative appearance predominate.
A crucial change in the characters' life: a) a new teacher / student comes to school / university and faces
opposition (including physical) from class / group of students, parents of students, other teachers; with lies,
blackmail, aggression, authoritarian domination; b) in an ordinary learning environment, an unexpected event occurs
(authoritarian domination, non-ordinary behavior, an act of violence, aggression, deception, suicide, blackmail,
including sexual, etc.); c) a teacher has an affair with a student; d) students begin love relationships.
The problem that has arisen: reputation, health (and sometimes life) of a teacher / a student is under threat;
a pupil/ a student becomes an outcast in a class / group, is alienated; characters feel uncomfortable because of
certain characteristics of love relationships.
The search for a solution to the problem: the teacher / student struggle (often with colleagues and friends)
with non-ordinary behavior, opposition (including physical) from the student, class / group of students, parents of
students, other teachers; with lies, blackmail, aggression, authoritarian domination; an attempt of the teacher /
student to establish good relations with other participants in the educational process and parents; an attempt by a
teacher / student to hide his/her love feelings from outsiders (if it is a school context) or an attempt to adapt to each
other (if it is a university).
Problem solutions: teachers / students (often with the help of colleagues and friends) win in the struggle against
antagonists, class / group of students, parents of students, other teachers (relatively rare option: positive teachers /
pupils lose in this fight); educators / students (often with the help of colleagues and friends) expose lies, blackmail,
on the part of the student, class / group of students, parents of students, other teachers; teachers / students manage to
establish good relations with other participants in the educational process and the parents of students, as a result of
which they improve their academic performance; the relationship between a teacher and a high school student is
usually broken up; in a teacher / university student's love relationship, harmony is possible, as well as, in the
relationships between two students.
Keywords: media text, school, university, teacher, student, education.
Introduction
In our previous studies [Fedorov, 2017; Fedorov & Huston, 2017; Fedorov & Levitskaya,
2017; Fedorov et al., 2017] a comparative hermeneutic, anthropological and gender analysis of
audiovisual media texts on the topic of school and university was made. Further on, we have
classified, structured content models, genre modifications, ideology and stereotypes of Soviet,
Russian and Western audiovisual media texts related to the treatment of the subject matter of the
school and university.

The material of our research is audiovisual media texts on the theme of school and
university; the main method is a comparative hermeneutical and genre analysis of media texts
(including: stereotype analysis, ideological analysis, identification analysis, iconographic
analysis, plot analysis, character analysis, etc.); theoretical modeling. We have also analyzed
academic works on the stated subject. Regarding the genre specifics, we have analyzed 1107
audiovisual media texts related to the subject of the school and university.
Discussion
An analysis of audiovisual media texts on the subject of the school and university showed
that good teachers are often shown as outsiders using personal-oriented instruction, a dichotomy
of inspiration / content, an emotional, aesthetic view of "good" learning. They not only teach, but
learn, have a lasting influence on the lives of students. Moreover, these good teachers usually do
not agree with the policy of the school administration and adapt the curriculum to the needs of
their students. Good students in a similar way demonstrate creative inspiration, responsibility
and creative attitude to learning, competitive spirit and friendly support [Chang-Kredl &
Colannino, 2017; Dalton, 1995; Gregory, 2007; Marcus & Stoddard, 2007]. A devoted teacher
can even sometimes sacrifice one's family interests or health for the sake of his/her students, and
often uses non-traditional means to achieve his/her teaching goals.
Bad teachers in audiovisual media texts are portrayed as unpleasant, authoritarian,
heartless, strange, boring, unfriendly, unfair, incompetent, corrupt, evil, manipulative. The media
images of bad students are built on the deviant behavior, propensity to lie, sexual challenges, and
often in the total absence of any cognitive interests [Chang-Kredl & Colannino, 2017;
Delamarter, 2015; Dalton, 1995; 2013; Gregory, 2007; Marcus & Stoddard, 2007]. Of course, in
the Soviet media texts, the images of good and bad students had their own peculiarities
associated with accentuation of their commitment to communist and socialist values, atheism
(for positive characters) and, on the contrary, ignoring them (for negative characters, for
example, school bullies).
Results
Comparison of media texts on the subject of the school and university in the USSR (from
1922 to 1991), Russia (1992 to present) and Western countries (from 1922 to the present) shows
that in the 1920s their genre difference was very strong. While in the 1920s the comedy
dominated (84%) in the West, in the USSR drama did (90%). Apparently, the political and
economic situation in the country (associated, in particular, with class contradictions, the
struggle against religion, homelessness and illiteracy, etc.) did not give the creators of Soviet
media texts on school reasons to smile, while American and European film industry clearly
preferred entertaining genres.
The genre situation began to change somewhat in the period 1931-1955. On the one hand,
the sound that was introduced to the cinema made it possible for Western audiovisual media to
generously endow the comedic genre spectrum of school and university subjects with music, and
on the other hand, it gave rise to the emergence of dramatic stories saturated with dialogues
(which began to form about a third of the genre field). In the USSR, the Stalin regime, since the
1930s, began to allow cheerful twists within the framework of the school theme, as a result of
which about 12% of audiovisual texts from 1931 to 1955 can be attributed to the comedy genre
(which, of course, was four times less than in the West, but dramatically more than in the 1920s).
The strict Hays Code, which operated in the United States since 1930, for a long time did not
allow media structures to use such spectacular genres as science fiction, thriller and horror within
the school framework. However, in the mid-1950s, the censorship frames were weakened, and
the world's first entertaining works, based on the synthesis of a fantasy and a horror film: I Was a
Teenage Werewolf, 1957 and Monster On The Campus, 1958 came out on screens.
Almost simultaneously, with the dominant comic genre (58%) in the western media texts
of the 1950s, dramatic key was intensified in stories about school life (The Blackboard Jungle,
the USA, 1955). The share of drama genre significantly grew: from 1956 to 1968 about 63% of
western audiovisual media texts on school theme were dramas, that is almost the same quantity
as in the USSR during the period.
The thaw period (1956-1968) in the USSR caused an influx of not only comedies (17%),
but also melodramas (10%), the first detective story also appeared, which was set in the boarding
school (Shadows of the Old Castle, 1966). The stagnation period (1969-1985) consolidated this
trend in the USSR: the number of comedy audiovisual texts on the school/university theme was
22%, melodramas – 10%.
Sexual revolution, of course, almost did not affect the Soviet sociocultural context,
caused in the West 1970s a surge of erotic comedies; in any case, they (mainly Italian) accounted
for at least a third of the then comic spectrum of audiovisual media texts on the school topic.
The revelatory pathos of "perestroika" (1986-1991) led to a dramatic increase in the level of
dramas (92%) on the theme of school and university in the USSR, entertaining genres became
marginal. Whereas in the West, on the contrary, the share of media texts about the school /
university in the genres of a thriller, fantasy and horror increased significantly (and comprised in
total 26%).
While in the USSR since the 1970s there were media texts on the school theme
belonging to science fiction or fantasy genre (The Secret of the Iron Door, 1970, The Adventures
of Electronics, 1979), then there were no horrors during that or later period. But in the post-
Soviet era school theme in Russia, though rarely (3%), was still adapted to the genre of the
thriller. But more importantly is that in the Russian period (from 1992 to the present), the
number of comedy media texts on the school/university theme (40%) for the first time in history
has exceeded the corresponding number of western media texts (35%), where, on the contrary,
coverage of school realities became more dramatic.
Data on the genres of the 1107 audiovisual media texts analyzed in the study are
presented in Table 1.
Table 1. Data on studied genres of audiovisual media texts related to school/university theme
Time frames Total Media texts' genre distribution

and number of (as % to the total number of media texts in the specific time frame)
countries audiovisua
l media
Melodrama
Detective/
texts
Comedy
Thriller
Science
Horror
related to
Drama
fiction
Other
school/
university
1922-1930
Western 13 9 84 7 0 0 0 0
countries
The USSR 10 90 0 0 0 0 0 10
1931-1955
Western 79 35 58 7 0 0 0 0
countries
The USSR 33 88 12 0 0 0 0 0
1956-1968
Western 44 63 27 2 0 6 2 0
countries
The USSR 46 71 17 10 2 0 0 0
1969-1985
Western 152 46 38 7 4 1 4 0
countries
The USSR 127 67 22 10 0 1 0 0
1986-1991
Western 66 35 29 9 4 9 13 1
countries
The USSR 42 92 2 2 4 0 0 0
1992-2018
Western 401 39 35 7 7 3 8 1
countries
Russia 94 37 40 17 3 3 0 0
Total 1107
Proceeding from the results of a comparative hermeneutic, anthropological and gender

analysis of audiovisual media texts on the theme of school and university, obtained in our
previous studies [Fedorov, 2017; Fedorov & Huston, 2017; Fedorov & Levitskaya, 2017;
Fedorov et al., 2017), the classification content models, modifications of genres, ideology and
stereotypes of Soviet, Russian and Western audiovisual media texts dealing with the subject of
school and university, we synthesized a structural model for the content of audiovisual media
texts on the theme (see Scheme 1) as follows:
The historical period of events in a media text: can be set in any time period but mostly is
contemporary to film production.
Location, environment, everyday items: as a rule, the action takes place in the country
where the media text is created; furnishings, household items (of varying degrees of quality) are
school classes, university rooms, hallways, students' and teachers' homes.
Representation modes: generally, realistic, without grotesque (in TV series, drama,
melodrama, detective, thriller); grotesque and/or caricature (in comedy, fantasy / horror genres).
Positive characters, their values, ideas, clothing, vocabulary, facial expressions,
gestures: teachers and students with humanistic (socialist - in Soviet media texts) values, usually
neatly dressed, good-looking, artistic in facial expressions and gestures, possessing rich
vocabulary.
Negative characters, their values, ideas, clothing, physique, vocabulary, facial
expressions, gestures: teachers and students with anti-human inclinations; clothes, appearance,
vocabulary in this case can be any, although for students, the rough vocabulary and evocative
appearance predominate.
A crucial change in the characters' life:
- a new teacher / student comes to school / university and faces opposition (including
physical) from class / group of students, parents of students, other teachers; with lies, blackmail,
aggression, authoritarian domination;
- in an ordinary learning environment, an unexpected event occurs (authoritarian
domination, non-ordinary behavior, an act of violence, aggression, deception, suicide, blackmail,
including sexual, etc.);
- a teacher has an affair with a student;
- students begin love relationships.
The problem that has arisen: reputation, health (and sometimes life) of a teacher / a
student is under threat; a pupil/ a student becomes an outcast in a class / group, is alienated;
characters feel uncomfortable because of certain characteristics of love relationships.
The search for a solution to the problem:
- the teacher / student struggle (often with colleagues and friends) with non-ordinary
behavior, opposition (including physical) from the student, class / group of students, parents of
students, other teachers; with lies, blackmail, aggression, authoritarian domination;
- an attempt of the teacher / student to establish good relations with other participants in
the educational process and parents; an attempt by a teacher / student to hide his/her love
feelings from outsiders (if it is a school context) or an attempt to adapt to each other (if it is a
university).
Problem solutions:
- teachers / students (often with the help of colleagues and friends) win in the struggle
against antagonists, class / group of students, parents of students, other teachers (relatively rare
option: positive teachers / pupils lose in this fight);
- educators / students (often with the help of colleagues and friends) expose lies,
blackmail, on the part of the student, class / group of students, parents of students, other teachers;
teachers / students manage to establish good relations with other participants in the educational
process and the parents of students, as a result of which they improve their academic
performance;
- the romantic relationship between a teacher and a high school student is usually broken
up;
- in a teacher / university student's love relationship, harmony is possible, as well as, in
the relationships between two students.
Scheme 1. Structural Model of the Contents of Audiovisual Media Texts on School / University Topic
The historical period of Location, environment, Representation modes:

events in a media text: everyday items:
generally, realistic, without
can be set in any time generally, the action takes grotesque (in TV series,
period but mostly is place in the country where the drama, melodrama, detective,
contemporary to film media text is created; thriller); grotesque and/or
production furnishings, household items caricature (in comedy,
(of varying degrees of fantasy / horror genres).
quality) are school classes,
university rooms, hallways,
students' and teachers' homes.
"Good" characters, their values, ideas, "Bad" characters, their values, ideas,
clothing, vocabulary, facial expressions, clothing, physique, vocabulary, facial
gestures: expressions, gestures:
teachers and students with humanistic teachers and students with anti-human
(socialist - in Soviet media texts) values, inclinations; clothes, appearance, vocabulary
usually neatly dressed, good-looking, artistic in this case can be any, although for students,
in facial expressions and gestures, possessing the rough vocabulary and evocative
rich vocabulary. appearance predominate.
A crucial change in the characters' life:

- a new teacher / student comes to school / university and faces opposition (including physical) from
class / group of students, parents of students, other teachers; with lies, blackmail, aggression,
authoritarian domination;
- in an ordinary learning environment, an unexpected event occurs (authoritarian domination, non-
ordinary behavior, an act of violence, aggression, deception, suicide, blackmail, including sexual, etc.);
- a teacher has an affair with a student; d) students begin love relationships.
The problem that has arisen:

reputation, health (and sometimes life) of a teacher / a student is under threat; a pupil/ a student becomes an
outcast in a class / group, is alienated; characters feel uncomfortable because of certain characteristics of love
relationships.
The search for a solution to the problem:

- the teacher / student struggle (often with colleagues and friends) with non-ordinary behavior,
opposition (including physical) from the student, class / group of students, parents of students, other
teachers; with lies, blackmail, aggression, authoritarian domination;
- an attempt of the teacher / student to establish good relations with other participants in the educational
process and parents; an attempt by a teacher / student to hide his/her love feelings from outsiders (if it
is a school context) or an attempt to adapt to each other (if it is a university).
Problem solutions:
- teachers / students win in the struggle against antagonists, class / group of students, parents of
students, other teachers (relatively rare option: "good" teachers / pupils lose in this fight);
- educators / students expose lies, blackmail, on the part of the student, class / group of students,
parents of students, other teachers; teachers / students manage to establish good relations with other
participants in the educational process and the parents of students, as a result of which they improve
their academic performance;
- the romantic relationship between a teacher and a high school student is usually broken up;
- in a teacher / university student's romantic relationship, harmony is possible, as well as, in the
relationships between two students.
Conclusions
Главным в результате синтеза данной модели стал наш вывод о том, что
она, невзирая на разницу в идеологической направленности, в целом
Conclusions
The synthesis of this model led us to the conclusion that, despite the differences in
ideological orientation, it is generally characteristic of most Soviet, Russian and Western
audiovisual media texts on school and university theme. However, the concept of a "good"
character (a teacher, a student) has significantly different ideological coloring in Soviet and
Western audiovisual media texts.
Certainly, the above structural model of the content of audiovisual media texts on the
school and university theme is a broad generalization. In fact, the content of media texts can
include certain nuances, exceptions. For example, in the finale of a media text, unconventional
students may remain holding their convictions, as they are not amenable to pedagogical /
parental influences. In extreme cases in the finale, a teacher may risk death at the hands of
aggressive students (of course, in Soviet media texts such a plot twist was not allowed).
Nonetheless, the common aspects outlined are noticeable in over a thousand media texts
analyzed.
References
Chang-Kredl, S. & Colannino, D. (2017). Constructing the image of the teacher on Reddit: Best and worst Teachers.
Teaching and Teacher Education. n 64, pp. 43-51.
Delamarter, J. (2015). Avoiding Practice Shock: Using Teacher Movies to Realign Pre-Service Teachers’
Expectations of Teaching. Australian Journal of Teacher Education, n 40 (2).
http://dx.doi.org/10.14221/ajte.2015v40n2.1
Dalton, M.M. (1995). The Hollywood curriculum: Who is the ‘good’ teacher? Curriculum Studies, n 3, pp. 23-
44.http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/0965975950030102.
Dalton, M.M. (2013) Bad Teacher Is Bad for Teachers. Journal of Popular Film and Television, 41:2, pp. 78-87,
DOI: 10.1080/01956051.2013.787352
Fedorov, A. (2017). Quantitative and genre dynamics of film production of Soviet and Russian films related to the
subject of the school and university. European researcher. Series A. 2017. № 8-3 (3), 122-153.
Fedorov, A., Huston, E. (2017). The TV series "Physics or chemistry": hermeneutic analysis of a media text. Media
Education. 2017. № 4, 92-96.
Fedorov, A., Levitskaya, A. (2017). Media education and media criticism in the educational process in Russia.
European Journal of Contemporary Education. 2017. № 6 (1), 39-47.
Fedorov A., Levitskaya A., Gorbatkova O., Huston, E. (2017). Directions, goals, tasks, author's concepts of
audiovisual media interpretations of the topic of the school and university in the Russian cinema (1992-2017).
Media Education. 2017. № 4, 206-235.
Fedorov, A., Levitskaya, A., Gorbatkova, O., Mamadaliev, A. (2017). Directions, objectives, and author’s concepts
of audiovisual media interpretations of school and university theme in the soviet cinema of the "thaw" period (1956-
1968). European Journal of Contemporary Education. 2017. № 6-3 (3), 516-529.
Gregory, M. (2007). Real teaching and real learning vs narrative myths about education. Arts and Humanities in
Higher Education, 6, pp. 7-27. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1474022207072197
Marcus, A., & Stoddard, J . (2007). Tinsel town as teacher: Hollywood film in the high school history classroom.
The History Teacher, 40(3), pp. 303-330.

See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at:
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/315011022
Film and Media Studies: 51 articles (2015-

2017)
CITATIONS READS
0 802
1 author:
Alexander Fedorov
SEE PROFILE

примере фильм П. Тодоровского «Какая чудная игра») // Медиаобразование.
2017. № 4. С. 158-166. View project
All content following this page was uploaded by Alexander Fedorov on 14 March 2017.

Introduction
Comunicar, 49, XXIV, 2016
Media Education around the World:

Curriculum & Citizenship
La educación en comunicación en el mundo: currículum y ciudadanía
Guest-edited special issue:
C
Dr. Alexander Fedorov, Rostov State University of Economics (Russia)
Dr. Jorge-Abelardo Cortés-Montalvo, Autonomous University of Chihuahua (Mexico)
Dr. Yamile Sandoval-Romero, University of Santiago de Cali (Colombia)
ommunicative competence, positioned today globally in a transverse axis for the exercise and
performance of any other academic competence, marks a required pattern to recognize that
it is necessary for educational environments to contribute to the process of media literacy as
an essential part of it is vital in everyday life both for teachers and students, aimed primarily
at the formation of responsible and critical citizenship.
The incorporation of education and media literacy in the curriculum for all levels of education,
from preschool to university, has been the subject of recent discussions and analysis in several countries,
the proposals also include teacher training, as is the case Curriculum for Media and Information
Literacy for Teachers (Media Information Literacy, MIL), in which UNESCO points out a set of com-
petencies, goals, activities and materials. However, in few countries, media literacy has become a part
of the compulsory curriculum structure within the general education system. There are also cases when
policies have been adopted to encourage, through procedures of non-formal education, which prepa-
res citizens to be media literate, both in regard to the reception, the analysis, and production of messa-
ges in multiple formats.
Still due to inertia and resistance of educational institution system in general, and in particular in the
countries with distinct and urgent political and economic priorities, it makes it difficult to pay due atten-
tion to media literacy challenge. Another possible reason for this lag, lies in the belief that the effort in
training teachers and students in developing skills in managing and updating information and communi-
cation technology (ICT) or its more recent conceptualization, learning and knowledge technologies
(LKT) comprises in itself media competence, with the result of poor training of educators in the recog-
nition and mastery of the factors that make up the dimensions of media communication.
It is therefore important to document the situation in the educational structure that media literacy is
in worldwide and answer questions such as: what is the current state of academic development of
media literacy?, what features does a successful media literacy curriculum have (based on a specific
educational level)?, what elements authorize a curriculum for media literacy education aimed at tea-
chers?, is it necessary to introduce mandatory courses on media education in the curriculum?, what are
the best strategies and methods to educate citizens about media?, etc.
The “Comunicar” Journal current issue shares the results of experience and research into the pos-
sibilities of gradual, but consistent inclusion of programs and projects aimed at the development of
media literacy. In the dossier of the monograph there are important contributions of research conducted
© ISSN: 1134-3478 • e-ISSN: 1988-3293

Introduction
9omunicar, 48, XXIV, 2016

in a wide geography. They include the analysis
of a set of case studies, qualitative and quanti-
tative research analyzed with the phocus on
the implementation of civic engagement
through online activities in several regions of
Portugal. Data and empirical results obtained
through questionnaires were used to create a
scoring system capable of reflecting school par-
ticipation and strategies on media literacy and
civic action online of teachers and students.
The article, entitled “Media education as a
strategy for online civic participation in Portu-
guese schools” is written by Tânia Dias-Fon-
seca and John Potter.
Jennifer Tiede and Silke Grafe, being con-
vinced that media pedagogy should be integra-
ted into pre-service teacher training in order to
use the media in their classrooms effectively
and successfully, focus on examples of Ger-
many and the US, reviewing different models
of media of both countries and try pedagogical
skills, through a study that measured the skills in
media education of students from both coun-
tries, to answer the question of whether these
skills are promoted by training programs. The
data allow, likewise, to identify different ways
of integrating media pedagogy in teacher trai-
ning. In addition, conclusions can be drawn about the consequences of processes involved in teacher trai-
ning and media literacy.
The Nupairoj Nudee’s article entitled “The ecosystem of media literacy: A holistic approach to
media education” proposes a systematic way to spread media literacy education in Thailand following the
MIL competencies of UNESCO. The ecosystem is composed of the apprenticeship scheme (students,
facilitators, curriculum and pedagogy), society (community, civil sector, media and parents) and politics,
the purpose of which is to bring a change of behaviour among students and to have an impact on their
way of life.
The investigation and analysis on out-of-school models is illustrated with the contribution of Mônica
Pegurer-Caprino and Juan-Francisco Martínez-Cerdá. This article analyzes the current status of the exis-
ting media literacy education in Brazil from the perspective of informal education. The situation is descri-
bed through a sample of projects and organizations operating under the three internationally recognized
dimensions of media education: access / use, critical understanding, and production of media content.
From the data provided the study proposes a model of media literacy projects developed in the field of
non-formal education.
Formal school media education is exemplified by research “Media competence of teachers and stu-
dents of compulsory education in Spain”, reported by Antonia Ramirez-Garcia and Natalia González-
© ISSN: 1134-3478 • e-ISSN: 1988-3293

Fernández. This research uses a quantitative methodology to determine the levels of media competence
Comunicar, 48, XXIV, 2016
of teachers and students of compulsory education in the six dimensions that comprise it. These levels
provide a preliminary assessment of possible shortcomings and needs of educational intervention. Their
observations and findings show that despite the existance of the curriculum that meets the needs of
media literacy in the compulsory education and proliferate technology supporting policies, in practice
one of the greatest weakness of the teachers- participants is that they tend to focus on the technological
aspect. The authors suggest that a critical review of school curricula should prevent media literacy edu-
cation from possible exclusion.
Number 49 of the Scientific Journal Comunicar with such a big scale international sampling, is
aimed at researchers, teachers and others readers interested in the inclusion of media literacy education
in plans and curricula, as well as its empowering strategies beneficial for broad social sectors and specific
segments of the population.
© ISSN: 1134-3478 • e-ISSN: 1988-3293

European Researcher, 2015, Vol.(93), Is. 4

European Researcher
ISSN 2219-8229
E-ISSN 2224-0136
Vol. 93, Is. 4, pp. 331-334, 2015
DOI: 10.13187/er.2015.93.331
www.erjournal.ru
UDC 37
Media Literacy Function in Critical Blogs
1 Alexander Fedorov
2 Anastasia Levitskaya
1 AntonChekhov Taganrog Institute, Russian Federation
Branch of Rostov State University of Economics
Doctor of Pedagogic Sciences, Professor
E-mail: mediashkola@rambler.ru
2 Taganrog Management and Economics Institute, Russian Federation
PhD, Associate professor

Abstract
The Internet is widely recognized as playing an important role in facilitating education on a
range of issues, including media literacy. Analyzing the media critical activity of contemporary
Russian bloggers, the authors of the article reveal the following reasons for popularity or, on the
contrary, unpopularity of blogger's media criticism: targeted orientation, emotional charge,
entertainment nature, duration, interactiveness, multimedia mode, simplicity/complexity of the
language of a media text, the level of conformity.
Keywords: media criticism; media education; media literacy; media competence; analytical
thinking; ethics; media blogger.
Introduction
It is difficult to challenge the viewpoint that the new "hyper technological environment, this
deepening of communicative globalization, has not only altered the way we perceive and use time
and space, it has also changed the chemistry of our everyday life and our culture. This new life and
cultural chemistry fostered by the acceleration of the rapid configuration of huge, changing publics
is in fact generating chain reactions of an unheard of scope and complexity that we are still far from
being able to grasp. It is affecting our environment, our culture and also our way of being
individuals, our way of framing ourselves as human beings. Perhaps we are not prepared to wholly
explain the change, but we must examine it because it affects all the dimensions of our existence.
Perhaps this is an unprecedented mutation that will not only affect our environment but also
decisively influence our psyche and our character" [Perez Tornero, Varis, 2010, p. 13-14].
In fact, interactive media, engaging their user into the creating process, thus turning him/her
from a receiver/translator into a creator of media texts, have made a real breakthrough to a personal
freedom in mass information sphere. The degree of dependence of a person from the dictate of a media
message's producer has significantly decreased and the borders of choice have been broadened; the
personality's status and self esteem have been raised [Korkonosenko, 2013, p. 38].
331

S.V. Ushakova (2006) classified the forms of media contribution to the development of
citizens' media competence. According to her, there are two groups - of direct and of indirect
participation.
The forms of indirect participation include:
- self education of the audience during media exposure; additionally, broadening of one's
communicative experience;
- enhancement of the audience's media competence due to its cooperation with media
agencies as freelance correspondents, sources of journalistic information, and/or participants of
television/radio programs;
- release of periodicals and TV/radio programs by a media center in an educational
institution/club/community center;
- blogging - publishing discussion or informational posts on the World Wide Web;
- "self-press" - participation in publication of alternative (informal) periodicals;
- public, out-of-editorial body communication of journalists and other media sphere
specialists with representatives of the audience (in the form of special events, journalists' meetings
with public, television audiences, etc.).
In contrast, the forms of direct participation include:
- media education publications and programs in mass media;
- media journalists/ media critics articles, containing analysis, interpretation and evaluation
of the contents of mass media and the issues of their functioning in society;
- publishing periodical TV guides and film guides, targeted at the mass audience and aimed at
the development of basic abilities to perceive and evaluate audiovisual media texts (facilitated by
reading publications, related to the analysis of TV programs and films);
- publishing syllabi, lesson plans and other materials produced by public media monitoring
organizations and media activists - representatives of civic society;
- sections and columns in mass media aimed at maintaining the feedback with the audience,
and explaining the "inside" journalism policy of collecting, evaluating, and verifying the
information;
- ombudsmen's columns, inquiring into disputable cases of journalism [Ushakova, 2006].
Whereby, speaking about professional media criticism, the peculiarity of the current situation is
connected to the fact that some media critics, actively involved in press, also successfully collaborate with
electronic media as well, thus television criticism begins to acquire some synthetic forms, uniting political
analysis and dismantling internal corporate problems, political bias and the independent view, theoretical
analysis of the form and method, and superficial, tabloid-tinted simplistic view [Gureev, 2004].
One would think that such active media critics as Dmitry Bykov, working nearly 24/7 in press, on
TV and on the Internet, would fully get hold of the audiences' attention. However it is not happening -
there are quite a few media bloggers on the Internet who sometimes attract even more readers.
Conclusions
Why is bloggers' media criticism popular?
We suggest the following reasons for popularity or, vice versa, unpopularity of bloggers'
media criticism:
1) Targeted orientation: media texts of popular bloggers may be aimed at a broad audience (thus
potentially popular) or at a narrow circle, joined by thematic or other interests. Professional media
critics' texts, apart from being targeted at a wide audience, may be corporative, that is "can influence
comparatively small, but strategically important groups of audiences (journalists and top media
managers, teachers and students of journalism schools, working journalists, researchers in various
fields of social studies and humanities, and social activists), empowering them with new ideas and
approaches, new vision of common problems of media functioning" [Korochensky, 2003, p.33].
2) Duration: popular media bloggers' texts are usually short, and professional media critics'
texts, on the contrary, often require prolonged reading/listening, that, evidently, discourages the
concentration of an impatient part of the audience with a short attention span (especially, the young);
3) Interactiveness, multi-media mode: popular media bloggers' texts are often interactive.
Short texts are accompanied by photographs, video clips, links to other sites, etc. On the other
hand, professional media critics' texts, even on the web, resemble the format of print press;
332
4) Language. Popular media bloggers' texts are written in plain, understandable for a wide
audience, language; often without a deep analysis and logical structure. Meanwhile professional
media critics' texts are well structured, logical, and often aimed at media competent readers who
are aware of the social and cultural context of the issue, understand media language, and
specialized media terms, know the functions of media agencies, manipulative effects, the creative
work of media professionals, and so on.
5) Emotional charge. The texts written by media bloggers, in general, are clearly emotionally
charged. They sometimes contain sharp, straightforward judgments and comments, while
professional media critics' texts are characterized by the understatement, sometimes ambivalent,
(implicitly) ironic, reasonable, argumentative evaluation of the ethical, aesthetic and other
categories. Moreover, the media critics of older generation often act in the spirit of "enlightenment"
and development of good taste in their audience.
6) Entertainment. Popular media bloggers' texts frequently exploit the entertainment
function, while professional media critics' texts are occasionally too serious, or even pompous.
7) Conformity. On the one hand, non-conformist texts of media bloggers commonly oppose
any authority, criticize media personalities of any scale and position. On the other hand,
professional media critics avoid any personal attacks, they tend to use apophasis, they do not break
social taboos. That said, we encounter that both bloggers and professional journalists frequently
break social norms [Muratov, 2001], and are not shy to use abusive language, including obscene
lexis, in their political propaganda statements.
What does the above-said mean for the media education practice? In this sense, it implies that
besides the mass communications theory, the syllabi for media teachers' pre-service or in-service
education should include theoretical units on non-mass mediated communication - ranging from
auto-media communication and interpersonal communication to in-group and intergroup media
communication. This theoretical background should become a starting point for the development of
the new framework of media education both in schools and universities [Sharikov, 2012]. Bloggers'
media texts may become a useful teaching and learning tool for a modern teacher, the same as
traditional media texts, created by professionals working in press, on television, and on radio.
Acknowledgement
The article is written within the framework of a study supported by the grant of the Russian
References:
1. Gureev, M. Does modern television criticism exist? // Culture. 2004. № 44.
2. Korkonosenko, S.G. Journalism education: the need for pedagogical conceptualization
// International journal of experimental education. 2013. №1, pp. 38-41.
3. Korochensky, A.P. Media criticism in the theory and practice of journalism. Ph.D. dis.
St.Petersburg, 2003.
4. Muratov, S.A. TV - the evolution of intolerance. Moscow: Logos, 2001. 240 p.
5. Sharikov, A.V. On the need for reconceptualization of media education // Media
Education. 2013. № 4.
6. Ushakova, S.V. The role of journalism in the development of media culture of the
audience // Journalism and Media Education in the XXI century. Belgorod: Belgorod State
University, 2006.
333
УДК 37
Медиаобразовательная функция блогерской медиакритики

1 Александр Федоров
2 Анастасия Левицкая
1 Таганрогский институт имени А.П. Чехова, Российская Федерация
Доктор педагогических наук, профессор
2 Таганрогский институт управления и экономики, Российская Федерация
Кандидат педагогических наук, доцент

Аннотация. Анализируя медиакритическую деятельность современных российских

блоггеров, авторы статьи выявили следующие причины популярности или, наоборот,
непопулярности блоггерской медиакритики: целевые ориентации, эмоциональность,
развлекательный характер, продолжительность, интерактивность, мультимедиахарактер,
простота/сложность языка медиатекста.
Ключевые слова: медиа; медиакритика; медиаобразование; медиаграмотность;
медиакомпетентность; аналитическое мышление; этика; средства массовой информации;
блоггер.
334
European Journal of Social and Human Sciences, 2015, Vol.(6), Is. 2
Matej Bel University, Banská Bystrica, Slovakia

Has been issued since 2014
ISSN 1339-6773
E-ISSN 1339-875X
Narrative Analysis of Media Texts in the Classroom for Student Audience
Alexander Fedorov
Anton Chekhov Taganrog Institute, branch of Rostov State University of Economics, Russian
Federation
Prof. Dr. (Pedagogy)
Abstract
The author analyzes the features of the narrative analysis of media texts on media education
classes in the university. The paper also provides examples of creative problems and issues
associated with this type of narrative analysis in the context of media education problems, ie based
on six key concepts of media literacy education: agency, category, language, technology, audience,
representation. The author argues that the narrative analysis of media texts on media education
classes can significantly develop media competence of students, including critical thinking and
perception.
Keywords: narrative analysis, media, media texts, media education, media literacy, media
competence, students.
Introduction
Narrative Analysis is the analysis of the plots of media texts. This analysis is closely related
with the structural, mythological, and other types of semiotic analysis of media and media texts
[Barthes, 1964; 1965; Berelson, 1984; Gripsrud, 1999; Eco, 1976; Masterman, 1984; Propp, 1998;
W.J. Potter [Potter, 2014], A. Silverblatt [Silverblatt, 2001; 2014].
Media literacy education offers a variety of creative ways to develop students‟ capacities for
the analysis of story / narrative concepts (plot, scene, topic, conflict, composition and others).
In general terms, these methods can be divided into: 1) literary simulations works (writing
applications for the scenario, writing mini scenario of media texts); 2) theatrical-role works
(dramatization of various episodes of media texts, the process of creating a media text, etc.);
3) image simulation (create posters, collages, drawings on the themes of culture media, etc.).
Imitation is a very popular method of learning media, and simulation is a form of role-playing
games: it attracts students and gives them the opportunity to be the creators of media texts
[Buckingham, 2003, p.79], because students do not play the role of cineastes, journalists or
advertisers: they are cineastes, journalists or advertisers. And even though students‟ achievements
can be amateurish, they involved in the decision-making processes [Craggs, 1992, p.21].
Narrative analysis of media texts implies a number of creative tasks (part of these tasks is
available at: BFI, 1990; Semali, 2000, pp.229-231; Berger, 2005, p.74; Nechay, 1989, p.265-280;
Usov, 1989; Fedorov, 2004, p.43-51; Fedorov, 2006, p.175-228, however, the cycle of tasks
I substantially supplemented and revised): literary simulation, drama, role-playing, image
simulation. Each of these tasks includes analysis of the key concepts of media literacy education
(media agencies, media categories, media language, media technologies, media representations,
media audiences, etc.).

Cycle of literary simulation tasks for the narrative analysis of media texts in the classroom
at the student audience:
Media agencies:
82
- writing the application for original screenplay (scenario plan) of media text (any types and
genre) followed his suggestion producers of hypothetical media company;
- drawing up of the producer‟s plan for media project.
Media / media text categories:
- writing the original text (in the genres of articles, reports, interviews, etc.) for a newspaper,
magazine, internet publication;
- writing the same plot synopsis in the different media genres.
Media technologies:
- development plan of technological methods that will be used in the scenario of a media
(film, radio / television program, computer animation, etc.).
Media languages:
- writing the shooting mini-script of a media (film, radio / television program, computer
animation, etc.): camera angles, camera movements, installation techniques, etc.
Media representations:
- writing of the mini-scenario for one of episode from famous book;
- writing of mini-scenario for one of episodes from your own application for the original
script;
- writing of the mini-scenario for the original product media culture (for example, the plot for
approximately 2-3 minutes of video action);
- create annotations and scenarios for advertising media texts;
- writing of the messages for TV-news, related to the case of your life;
- writing the story for the sequel of well-known media text;
- preparing newspaper website with stories, that are associated with events of your life or the
lives of your friends and acquaintances.
Media audiences:
- use the same plot for the scenario, designed for audiences of different ages, education level,
ethnicity, socio-cultural environment, etc.
Thus, the audience develops in practice (with the creative literary and performing simulation
tasks), such important concepts of narrative analysis of media texts as an idea, topic, scenario,
synopsis, plot, conflict, composition, script, screening, etc., without separate study of so-called
“means of expression.”
Of course, each such occupation is preceded by introductory remarks by the teacher (on
goals, objectives, and course assignments). The majority of literary and simulation tasks are
perceived audience is not just an abstract exercise, but have a real prospect for practical
implementation in a further series of training sessions.
Students‟ mini-scenario, episodes for hypothetical films; structural and thematic plans for
hypothetical magazines and newspapers, radio / TV programs, interactive sites can be submitted
for collective discussion, the best ones are selected for further media literacy works.
In this assignment, students should imagine that mini-scenario can be realized only for the
subjects that do not require bulky accessories, complex scenery, costumes, makeup, etc. However,
the scenario‟s fantasy is not limited to: students can develop any fantastic, unbelievable stories and
themes. But for video shooting understandably, purely practical reasons, only those selected
scenario development, which could be used without too much difficulty, for example, in the class
room, or to the nearest street.
Step by step, the audience on their own experience becomes aware of the role of the author-
screenwriter in the creation of media texts, the basics of narrative works of media culture.
The main indicator of the literary and performing simulation creative tasks: the student's ability to
formulate briefly their scenic designs, verbally disclosing audiovisual, space-time image of a
hypothetical media text.
Thus, students increase the level of their media competence on the basis of practice
developing of creative potential, critical thinking, and imagination.
Cycle of theatrical role-creative tasks for the narrative analysis of media texts in the
classroom at the student audience:
Media agencies:
- dramatization of the discussions about media text scenario with various authorities from
the media agency.
83

- dramatization of the media text episode with the same story line, but in a format different
media genres.
Media technologies:
- dramatization of the implementation of various technological methods that are used in the
scenario of a media text (film, radio / television program, computer animation, etc.).
Media languages:
- shooting short movie (duration: 2-3 min.) using different techniques of visual and sound
solutions;
- dramatization on acting roles performed by students: the characters must be close to the
plot of an episode of a particular media text. Work is proceeding in groups of 2-3 people. Each
group prepares and puts into practice your game project of the plot of the episode of a media text.
The teacher acts as a consultant. The results are discussed and compared;
- interview (various options for interviews with various imaginary media text person and
characters);
- dramatization of “press conference with the "author" of media text” (imaginary writer,
director, producer and others.);
- dramatization of interviews with imaginary “foreign persons of media culture” (can be in
foreign languages);
- dramatization of imaginary “international meeting of media criticism”: discussions about
various topics related to the subjects of media texts, analyze the plot, etc.;
- casting (casting of the characters or actors of media texts);
- shooting a video short movie or TV show.
Media audiences:
- use the same plot for theatrical sketches on the theme of hypothetical media texts, designed
for audiences of different ages, education level, ethnicity, socio-cultural environment, etc.
Naturally, all the above work collectively discussed and compared.
In fact, the role creative activities complement and enrich the skills acquired by the audience
during the literary simulation workshops. In addition to the practical immersion in the logic of the
plot structure of a media text, they promote emancipation, sociability audience, make it looser
students, and activate improvisational abilities.
The disadvantages of some role-playing activities can probably be attributed quite a long
stage of preliminary preparation of the audience who want to get into the role of “author”,
“journalists”, etc.
Cycle of graphic creative tasks for the narrative analysis of media texts in the classroom at
the student audience:
Media agencies:
- preparation of a series of cards, drawings, which could relate to the main stages of the
creation of a media text in the studio / edition.
- preparation of a series of cards, drawings, which could relate to the implementation of the
same plot in media texts of different genres.
Media technologies:
- preparation of a series of cards, drawings, which could relate to the implementation of the
same plot of a media text using different technologies.
Media languages:
- preparation of a series of pictures that could be used as a basis of a plot to shoot fight scene,
for example, in the western or detective (with support for various types of crop - the general plan,
close-up, detail, etc.).
- preparation of a series of pictures / cards that might correlate with the plot of a media text;
- creation of a posters, collages, drawings on the themes of various media texts;
- reading some scenic line (for example: "We take our books in the library”) and preparation
of a series of pictures that might correlate with this line.
84
Media audiences:
- preparation of a series of pictures that visually would disclose various emotional reactions
in the perception of media texts audiences of different ages, education level, ethnicity, socio-
cultural environment, etc.
Cycle of literary and analytical creative tasks aimed at developing the skills of audience for
narrative analysis of media texts in the classroom:
Media agencies:
- analysis of factors, causes, which may affect the agency change the original story, the
narrative skills.
- analysis of the factors that may affect the transformation scenes in media texts, depending
on specific genres.
Media technologies:
- analysis of the factors that may affect the transformation scenes in media texts depending
on the specific technology chosen for their implementation;
Media languages:
- analysis of promotional posters of media texts in terms of reflecting them in the narrative
media text;
- analysis of possible audiovisual, stylistic interpretations of the same plot of a media text.
- creating a “time line” to show the sequence of events in media text;
- modeling (in tabular / structural form) of narrative stereotypes of media texts (characters, a
significant change in the lives of the characters, problems encountered, solutions to the problem,
the solution / return to stability); revealing the narrative structure of a particular episode of a
media text;
- selection of thesis from the point of view of the student, truly reflects the logic of the plot of
a media text;
- selection of media text abstracts in order of importance for the understanding and
description of the narrative structure of a media text;
- separation of media text blocks on the plot. Attempt to interchange these blocks and,
consequently, the creation of options for changing the course of events;
- understanding of the mechanism of “emotional pendulum” in the media text plot
(alternation of episodes that cause positive and negative emotions of the audience);
- acquaintance with the first (or final) episode of a media text, followed by an attempt to
predict the future (past) events in the story;
- analysis of stereotypes in particular genre of media texts;
- analysis of the relationship between significant events and characters in the media texts;
- analysis of the plot of a media text on a historical theme, based on documentary evidence.
The study of regional geographic, political and historical materials relating to the subject and the
time period. Comparison of the studied material depicting historical events in the story of a
particular media text;
- identification plot stereotypes image of the country, nation, race, nationality, social
structure, political governance, the justice system, education, employment, etc.;
- comparison of reviews and discussion (articles, books about media texts) in professional
media criticism, and journalism;
- preparing essays devoted to the peculiarities of narrative in media texts;
- students‟ reviews about the media texts of different types and genres (with emphasis on the
analysis of the plot).
- group discussions (with the help of problem questions of the teacher) about plots of media
texts.
Media audiences:
- analysis of media perception typology of same media stories for audience of different age,
education level, ethnicity, socio-cultural environment, etc.
Narrative analysis of a media text is as follows: identification and review content of the
scenes of media texts, with maximum brightness embody the characteristic patterns of narrative
85
work as a whole; analysis of logic thinking of authors in the plot of a media text (in the
development of conflicts, characters, ideas, audio-visual, spatial images, etc.).
Concludes with a discussion of problem-test questions, affecting the utilization of the
audience received a plot of a media text analysis skills (for example: "What are the known media
texts stories you can compare this story? Why? What do they have in common?", etc.).
Classes for the formation of skills of analysis of media texts‟ plots aimed at training the
memory, the stimulation of creative abilities of the individual, on improvisation, independence, a
culture of critical thinking, the ability to apply this knowledge in new pedagogical situations, the
reflections on the moral and artistic values, etc. etc.
Methodical implementation of these steps based on a cycle of workshops devoted to the
analysis of specific media texts.
However, as my experience shows, it is necessary, first, to go from simple to more complex:
first choose to discuss, analyze of the plot, the author's thoughts, the style of media texts.
And secondly aim: to take into account the genre, thematic preferences of the audience.
Using creative, game, heuristic and problem tasks, significantly increasing the activity and
interest of the audience. Heuristic form of the class, in which the audience is invited to a few wrong
and right judgment, much easier for the audience analytical tasks and serves as a first step to
subsequent gaming and problematic forms of media texts discussion.
During the implementation of heuristic approaches methodology of training audiences
include:
- true and false interpretations of the story on the material of a particular episode of a media
text;
- right and incorrect versions of the author's conception, reveals in a particular media text.
Such a heuristic form of employment is particularly effective in the classroom with low media
competence, with mild personality beginning and independent thinking. This audience will
undoubtedly need "support" theses on the basis of which (plus own additions, etc.) can be
formulated as a particular analytical judgment.
Critical analysis of media texts stories also connected with an acquaintance with the works of
critics' community professionals (reviews, theoretical articles, monographs devoted to media
culture and specific media texts), in which the audience can judge the different approaches and
forms of this type of work.
The audience is looking for answers to the following problematic questions:
- What media critic opinion about the advantages and disadvantages of the media text?
- How deep reviewers penetrate the author's intention?
- Do you agree or not with this or that estimates reviewers? Why Are?
- Do this reviewer has the individual style? If yes, what is it manifests itself (style, vocabulary,
accessibility, irony, humor, etc.)?
- Why the author has constructed story composition of his media text so and not otherwise?
Performing creative tasks related to the plot analysis of media texts, student Paul D., for
example, composed entirely convincing imaginary interview with a famous director. Student
Natalya B. created the interesting texts on subjects of continuing a newspaper article about a
woman who has lost her memory at the accident. Student Sergei S. wrote several short stories in a
variety of genres (comedy, romance, thriller, etc.).
Student Anna V. in his creative work moved the action comedy "Operation "Y" in the
fantastic future on one of the planets of distant galaxies. Student Irina K. suffered another action
comedy "Prisoner of the Caucasus" in contemporary America. Student Eugene V. transformed the
comedy "Home Alone" into a dark bloody drama...
Questions for narrative analysis of media texts [Buckingham, 2003, pp.54-60; Silverblatt,
2001, pp.107-108; Fedorov, 2004, pp.43-51; Fedorov, 2006, pp.175-228]:
Media agencies:
- What agency / communicator wants to make you feel in specific scenes of the story?
- Why creators of media text want you to feel this?
- What stereotypical stories, storylines conventions specific to the genre?
- Is it possible to trace the evolution of specific stereotypical scenes? These changes in the
subjects talk about changes in the culture of the society?
86
- Is it possible creating of media text without the dramatic conflict?

- As a genre is refracted in the plots of specific persons of media culture (the same genre in
plots of different figures of media culture, different genres of stories in the works of the same
person of media culture)?
Media technologies:
- How different media technologies used in the development of plots of specific figures of
media culture (for example, different technologies in the development of plots of the same person
of media culture)?
Media languages:
- Are audio-visual, stylistic features of a media text depend on whether or not from the
concrete plot? If so, how?
- What is the significance for the understanding of the plot is called a media text?
- What is the relationship between significant events and characters in the story of a media
text?
- What are the causes of action, the characters' behavior?
- What the characters have learned as a result of their experiences gained in the development
of a media story?
- What events occur in the complication of the plot of a media text? What that tells us about a
media text?
- Do you trust this media text? If not, what prevents your trust?
- Can you identify the secondary storylines?
- Are there any links between secondary storylines that help to understand the world, the
characters and themes of media text?
Whether the final set in the logic complication of the plot, the logic of the characters and their
world?
Media audiences:
- What is your emotional response for the media text?
- Does your emotional reactions understanding your personal value system?
- What types of media text stories, in your opinion, cause difficulties in the perception of a
mass audience?
Conclusions
So I presented the main path for the narrative analysis of media texts on media education
classes in the university, including the examples of creative problems and issues associated with
this type of narrative analysis in the context of media education problems, ie based on six key
concepts of media literacy education: agency, category, language, technology, audience,
representation. I suppose that the narrative analysis of media texts on media education classes can
significantly develop media competence of students, including critical thinking and perception.
References:
1. Barthes, R. (1964). Elements de semiologie. Communications, N 4, pp. 91-135.
2. Barthes, R. (1965). Mythologies. Paris: Editions de Seuil.
3. Berelson, B. (1954). Content Analysis in Communication Research. New York: Free
Press, pp. 13-165.
4. Berger, A.A. Seeing is believing. Introduction to visual communication. Moscow:
Williams, 2005. 288 p.
5. BFI. Film Education. Moscow, 1990. 124 p.
6. Buckingham, D. (2003). Media Education: Literacy, Learning and Contemporary
Culture. Cambridge, UK: Polity Press, 219 p.
7. Craggs, C.E. (1992). Media Education in the Primary School. London – New York:
Routledge, 185 p.
8. Eco, U. (1976). A Theory of Semiotics. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
9. Fedorov, A.V. Media Education: creative tasks for students and pupils // Innovation in
Education. 2006. N 4, pp. 175-228.
87
10. Fedorov, A.V. Specificity of media pedagogical students // Pedagogy. 2004. № 4,

pp. 43-51.
11. Gripsrud, J. (1999). Understanding Media Culture. London – New York: Arnold &
Oxford University Press Inc., 330 p.
12. Masterman, L. (1984). Television Mythologies. New York: Comedia.
13. Nechay, O.F. Film education in the context of fiction // Specialist. № 5. 1993, pp. 11-13.
14. Nechay, O.F. Fundamentals of Cinema Art. Moscow: Education, 1989, pp. 265-280.
15. Propp, V.Y. Folklore and Reality. Moscow: Art, 1976, pp.51-63.
16. Propp, V.Y. The morphology of the fairy tale. The historical roots of the fairy tale.
Moscow: Labirint, 1998. 512 p.
17. Semali, L.M. (2000). Literacy in Multimedia America. New York – London: Falmer
Press, 243 p.
18. Silverblatt, A. (2001). Media Literacy. Westport, Connecticut – London: Praeger, 449 p.
19. Usov, Y.N. Film education as a means of aesthetic education and artistic development
of pupils. Ph.D. Dis. Moscow, 1989. 362 p.
88
Available online at www.jmle.org
The National Association for Media Literacy Education’s

Journal of Media Literacy Education 7(2), 12 - 22
Soviet Cineclubs: Baranov’s Film/Media Education Model
Alexander Fedorov, Anton Chekhov Taganrog State Pedagogical Institute
Elizaveta Friesem, Temple University
Abstract
In this paper we analyze a historical form of media literacy education that is still insufficiently discussed in English-
language literature: Russian cineclubs. We focus on one particular cineclub that was created by a Soviet educator Oleg
Baranov in the 1950s. We describe this cineclub’s context and structure, and discuss its popularity among students. The
content of Baranov’s classes might have been shaped by ideological requirements of the time. However, we believe that
the structure of his model can be used as an inspiration for a media literacy club in today’s schools globally, and not only
in Russia.
Keywords: film, education, critical thinking, ideology, film clubs, Russia, Soviet, history
According to the definition of the National Association for Media Literacy Education, “[t]he purpose of
media literacy education is to help individuals of all ages develop the habits of inquiry and skills of expression
that they need to be critical thinkers, effective communicators and active citizens in today’s world” (Core
Principle of MLE, n.d.). Many European countries, as well as Russia, use the definition of media literacy
education formulated by UNESCO which states that “[i]nformation and media literacy enables people to
interpret and make informed judgments as users of information and media, as well as to become skillful creators
and producers of information and media messages in their own right” (Media and Information Literacy, n.d.).
What these and many other definitions of media literacy education share is the focus on teaching audiences to
critically engage with media messages (e.g. Fedorov, 2012; Buckingham, 2003; Hobbs, 1998; Masterman,
1985; Potter, 2004). Thus, it should not come as a surprise that many activities in media literacy classes involve
interactions with media texts. Students discuss films, TV programs, commercials, music videos, magazines, and
websites while the teacher provides examples and questions (Hobbs, 2011). Sometimes young people also
create media texts to express their voices using the power of the media (Goodman, 2003).
We argue that the emergence of media literacy education can be traced back to the days when educators
started to encourage their students to critically analyze media texts, which happened when popular media began
to play increasingly important role in people’s lives. The goal of these educators was often to protect audiences
from negative effects of entertainment culture, which seemed to sway the masses in the beginning of the
twentieth century (Ortega-y- Gasset, 1985 [1930]). For example, the U.S. film education movement in the
1930s “consisted of a series of efforts to regulate the conditions and effects of film viewing” (Jacobs, 1990, p.
29). The goal of these efforts was not to develop critical thinking skills in the way media literacy educators
understand them today (Hobbs, 2011), but to protect people from the dangerous influence of entertainment
media (Leavis & Thompson, 1977 [1933]; Macdonald, 1962).
Exploring the history of the field, it is important to pay attention to these first initiatives, however
different they might seem from media education today (Hobbs & Jensen, 2009). In this paper, we describe a
historical form of media literacy education that is still insufficiently explored in English-language literature:
Soviet cineclubs.
12
A. Fedorov & E. Friesem / Journal of Media Literacy Education 7(2), 12 - 22
Educational cineclubs in U.S.S.R. had much in common with the film education courses described by
Jacobs (1990). In both cases, one of the main goals was to teach the appreciation of “better” films and to
influence audiences’ tastes (Baranov, 1968). Cineclubs were recreational and/or educational clubs where
participants gathered to watch and discuss films. They were not an exclusively Russian phenomenon. The first
cineclubs (сiné-clubs) appeared in France in the beginning of the twentieth century, soon after the cinema was
invented. A variety of educated people who loved cinema gathered in these clubs to watch and discuss
experimental films of the French avant-garde, which were unavailable in ordinary cinema theaters (Hoare, n.d.;
Martineau, 1988; Pinel, 1964). Soon, similar clubs appeared in other European countries, such as Great Britain
and Belgium (Geens, 2000).
In the U.S.S.R., cineclubs emerged in the 1920s. Soviet cinema theaters of the time mostly showed
entertainment movies, many of them imported from European countries. The U.S. Soviet cineclubs initially
offered spaces where people could watch films that were difficult or impossible to find; in this sense, they were
similar to European сiné-clubs. Later, the number of their purposes expanded. They began to be used for
political propaganda, entertainment, research, and education – to improve popular tastes in films (Penzin, 1987).
As media literacy scholars, we are primarily interested in the educational application.
In this paper, we focus on one educational cineclub that was created in the end of the 1950s by Oleg
Baranov in a school of Tver/Kalinin, a Russian town located between Moscow and St. Petersburg. We chose
this cineclub because of the role that Baranov has played in Soviet/Russian film (later media) education (Penzin,
1987). When he started this cineclub, Baranov was a physics teacher with a passion for developing young
people’s aesthetic taste and moral values through cinema. Soon he became known as one the first film educators
in the U.S.S.R., and the author of a successful film education model. Baranov’s model (also known as the
Kalinin/Tver model) was based on the spiral approach (Harden, 1999) – reiterative teaching with levels of
difficulty increasing from elementary to middle to high school. Activities in this cineclub included not only
viewing and discussing films, but also a variety of games, trips to film studios, correspondence with actors and
film directors, media production (short films, wall newspaper), maintenance of a cinema museum, and peer-to-
peer teaching (Baranov, 2008b). This model inspired Baranov’s colleagues (Monastirsky, 1995; Penzin, 1987)
and helped this pedagogue to maintain the popularity of his cineclub among students for almost two decades.
Baranov has authored numerous books and articles where he describes his educational practices and the success
of his cineclub (e.g., 1967, 1973, 1979, 2008a, 2008b).
On the following pages, we offer a detailed description of Baranov’s model and explain its relevance for
media literacy education today. Baranov’s focus on cultivating in his students an understanding of the difference
between high cinema art and mindless entertainment (Baranov & Penzin, 2014) might be not be considered
media literacy education by some scholar who emphasize inquiry-based approach and independent thinking
(Hobbs, 1998). We admit that the content of Baranov’s classes might have been rooted in and shaped by
ideological requirements of the time. However, we believe that the structure of his model can be used as an
inspiration for a media literacy club in today’s schools globally, and not only in Russia.
At the time when Baranov created his cineclub, films were one of the most popular kinds of media texts.
Today, this is not the case. To be relevant, a modern media literacy club would need to include not only films,
but also TV programs, video games, Internet websites, advertising, social networks, and other types of media.
Such a club, engaging students on all stages of a school program, attracting them with exciting activities and
thrilling opportunities, could offer an alternative to stand-alone media education courses (which largely remain
an ideal in the rigidly-structured U.S. school system), integrated media literacy education (see Hobbs, 2007;
Masterman, 1985), and short-term (often extracurricular) initiatives (e.g., Friesem, 2014; Irving, Dupen, &
Berel, 1998; Scharrer, 2006).
Terms and Sources
Before moving any further, it is necessary to briefly discuss several key terms we use on the following
pages. Although in this paper we talk about media literacy education, Russian scholars usually use the term
13
mediaobrazovanie, which is literally translated as media education. In the period from the 1950s to the 1980s,
when Baranov’s cineclub existed, Russian academic and education literature did not mention media education in
their writings. Rather, Soviet scholars and practitioners of the time usually talked about film education
(kinoobrazovanie), defined as education about and through the cinema. The term film education in Soviet
literature was first used by Oleg Baranov, whose cineclub is in the focus of this paper (Baranov, 1967).
As far as we know, Soviet educators had little access to academic works outside of their country.
Therefore, we believe that the term film education did not appear because of the Western influence. In his
works, Baranov does not talk about film education efforts outside of the U.S.S.R. and it is likely that he was not
aware of them. We assume that educators within and outside of the U.S.S.R. developed the idea to teach film
appreciation independently from each other. As for media education, this term eventually came to the U.S.S.R.
in the 1980s, when more academic literature from outside of the Soviet Union started to penetrate the Iron
Curtain (Sharikov, 1990).
Many Soviet cineclub theorists initially defined themselves as film educators and their field as film
education. Since the 1980s, they started to use terms media education and film education interchangeably
(Baranov, 2008). As the shift in terminology occurred when cineclubs already existed, we use the term
film/media education in order to reflect this change.
For this study we reviewed a number of Russian-language sources on cineclubs and film/media
education in the U.S.S.R. We used works of several key film/media educators, such as Penzin (1987),
Rabinovich (1969), Monastirsky (1995), and Levshina (1978). Penzin (1987) has been a prominent Russian
film/media educator for over three decades. He was one of the first Soviet educators who systematized the
theory of film education and cineclubs in the U.S.S.R. Rabinovich (1969) has worked in the area of film
education since the 1950s, and later became one of the leading authorities of media education in the U.S.S.R.
Monastirsky (1995) has studied cineclubs since the 1970s, and created his own cineclub in Tambov. Levshina
(1978) is a renowned cinema critique and educator. All these authors have worked in the field of film/media
education alongside Baranov, the author of the model we discuss on the following pages. They witnessed the
popularity of his cineclub and described it in their works. Some of them even collaborated with Baranov. Penzin
and Baranov still co-author works on theory and practice of film/media education (Baranov & Penzin, 2014).
Last but not least, in our analysis we used several works by Baranov himself (e.g., 1967,
1973, 1979, 2008a, 2008b). Over the five decades of working in film/media education, Baranov wrote an
impressive amount of articles and books on the role of the cinema in aesthetic and moral education of youth. For
this study, we were particularly interested in Baranov’s works where he described the history and structure of
his famous cineclub.
Historical Context and Structure of

Soviet Cineclubs
The first cineclubs appeared in Russia in the 1920s. As soon as in 1925, the Soviet government
recognized the value of cineclubs for the propaganda of communism and created the Society for Friends of the
Soviet Cinema (SFSC), whose board of directors included such prominent Soviet cinematographers of the time
as Sergei Eisenstein. SFSC started to use cineclubs for introducing ideology-laden films to Soviet audiences
(Maltsev, 1925).
While in French сiné-clubs of the time audiences could see surreal films of Buñuel, Clair, Vigo, and
other famous cinematographers, in Soviet cineclubs people often discussed works of Eisenstein (Battleship
Potemkin), Kuleshov (The Extraordinary Adventures of Mr. West in the Land of the Bolsheviks), Dovzhenko
(Earth) and Pudovkin (Mother). All these films combined cinematic innovation with explicit ideological
propaganda. For example, Battleship Potemkin tells the story of the mutiny that occurred on the Russian
battleship of the same name in 1905. The crewmembers of the ship are portrayed as noble heroes who rebel
14
against the Tsarist regime represented by cruel officers. The film Mother encourages the viewer to sympathize
with the plight of a woman who is trying to help her son to fight against the unfair and ruthless Tsarist regime.
Cineclubs served for promotion of these and other ideological films, which were usually less popular among the
public than entertaining cinema hits of the time (Ilyichev & Nashekin, 1986).
SFSC made sure that most Soviet cineclubs of the 1920s and the beginning of the 1930s watched films
approved by the government. Although during this period discussing political aspects of screened films was not
explicitly prohibited, cineclub-goers understood very well that not all opinions could be openly expressed
(Monastirsky, 1995). As Stalin started gaining power in the end of the 1920s, the situation got worse.
Expressing dissident opinions could lead to arrest, a concentration camp, or even execution. In 1934 Stalin
closed the Society for Friends of the Soviet Cinema. One can assume that discussions about the communist
ideology in cineclubs led to more reflection than the government could tolerate (Zalessky, 2009).
From 1935 to the mid-1950s cineclubs virtually did not exist in Russia (Stalin died in
1953). The cineclub movement started to re-emerge only during Khrushchev’s thaw – a period from the mid-
1950s to the early 1960s when political repression and censorship were partially reversed and the communist
regime softened. New cineclubs were in many ways similar to the pre-Stalin ones. The government was still
pushing cineclub organizers to use films for communist propaganda. At the same time, the focus on aesthetic
qualities remained prominent (Monastirsky, 1995). Combining these two functions, cineclubs were increasingly
seen as a place of aesthetic and moral education for Soviet youth.
The sociocultural situation in Russia from the end of 1950s until the middle of the 1980s contributed to
the popularity of cineclubs, especially among young people. During this period, there was no organization like
SFSC that would directly control cineclubs; thus, cineclub organizers could combine ideological films with
popular and art house movies. Films were still seldom shown on TV, and the number of television channels was
limited (Vladimirova, 2011). Despite the effects of Khrushchev’s thaw, censorship persisted, in particular in
relation to the information about the “West.” Audiences also felt the lack of access to films of some cult
directors whose work the government did not favor (e.g., Tarkovsky and Parajanov). The screen of some
cineclubs offered to Soviet cinema lovers an access to this censored and desired material.
During Khrushchev’s thaw, cineclubs appeared in so-called palaces of culture (establishments for
recreational activities such as cinema watching, singing, dancing, and theater), as well as in many cinema
theaters, schools, and colleges. The target audience of U.S.S.R. cineclubs of the 1950s-1980s was primarily
youth, especially students (Monastirsky, 1995). Films for cineclubs – including Soviet and “Western” movies –
were selected according to their perceived artistic value, although ideological requirements of the time also had
to be taken into consideration. Cineclub organizers had a variety of goals: to provide a venue for recreation, to
promote ideological films, to give access to films that were seldom screened in commercial cinema theaters,
and/or to educate people by developing their tastes (Ilyichev & Nashekin, 1986).
Two main activities in post-thaw cineclubs were, predictably enough, watching films and discussing
them. Typically, before the screening, the head of the cineclub or one of its participants made a short
introduction to tell the audience about the time the film was created, its scriptwriter, director, photographer,
composer, and actors. Following the introduction, participants watched the film and discussed it for 30-40
minutes (Penzin, 1987).
In the case of educational cineclubs – at school and colleges they were often called cinema electives
(Baranov, 1977) – activities included studying the history of the cinema, cinematic language, and biographies of
distinguished cinema personalities. Sometimes participants also practiced media production (Baranov & Penzin,
2014). Cineclubs in cinema theaters and palaces of culture charged a fee for every session. The price was only a
bit higher than that of a ticket for ordinary cinema screenings (Levshina, 1978). Cineclubs in educations settings
were usually free for students.
15
Baranov and His Film/Media Education Model
Oleg Baranov was born in 1934. He graduated from Kalinin Pedagogical University in 1957, the same
year that he started working in the Internat-school #1 (the equivalent of a foster home) as a physics teacher and
founded his soon to be famous cineclub. In 1965, Baranov started combining teaching at the Kalinin State
University with his work at school. In 1967, the pedagogue described the history of his cineclub and the theory
behind it in his first book (Baranov, 1967). In 1968, he finished graduate studies at the All-Union State Institute
of Cinematography. He was one of the first Soviet scholars to defend a dissertation in film education (Baranov,
1968). In 1971, Internat-school #1 was closed, and Baranov moved his cineclub experiments to several other
schools in Kalinin. After his last school cineclub was closed in 1984, the by then renowned scholar focused on
teaching in the Kalinin (Tver after 1990) State University. While there, he served for many years as chair of the
Pedagogy Department. During his pedagogical career, Baranov made more than forty presentations at academic
conferences and published more than eighty scholarly works. His model of film/media education (the
Kalinin/Tver model) has been famous among Russian film and media educators for several decades.
The first cineclub, which Baranov started in 1957, shared a number of characteristics with similar
educational cineclubs of the time. It aimed to develop students’ aesthetic taste and moral values by focusing
their attention on what Baranov deemed to be the best examples of cinema art. The cineclub also emphasized
the importance of growing young people’s knowledge base about the cinema by helping them memorize facts
about films, actors, and directors using a variety of activities. Bearing in mind these similarities, here we would
like to focus on characteristics that made Baranov’s cineclub unique.
Baranov’s model, which he started to develop through trial and error as soon as he opened his first
cineclub, was characterized by several features. In his cineclub, Baranov used a spiral approach to teaching,
which emphasized students’ independent work, peer-to-peer learning and the combination of various activities:
memory games, media production (short videos and wall newspaper), trips to famous cinema studios,
communication with prominent cinema personalities (in person and through letters), staging scenes from
popular films, and maintaining a cinema museum. We describe this structure and some of the activities in more
detail below.
The cineclub existed in the Internat-school #1 until 1971, when Baranov moved his film education
project (including the museum) to several other schools in Kalinin. This second stage of Baranov’s cineclub
lasted from 1972 to 1984. Starting from the middle of the 1980s, cineclubs began to lose their popularity.
Television was offering more and more channels, cinemas expanded their repertoire, and increasing numbers of
“Western” films were penetrating (both legally and illegally) into the Soviet market. After Baranov’s last school
cineclub was closed in 1984, he focused on teaching film/media education in Kalinin (later, Tver) State
University.
Inside Baranov’s Cineclub
Baranov’s cineclub started with a school cinema theater. Such theaters were common at the time. They
usually consisted of a large auditorium equipped with a 16-millimeter projector and a screen. However, Baranov
added to the familiar an unusual twist; he delegated many responsibilities of maintaining the theater to his
students. With Baranov’s help, young people decided how to divide assignments. The students became
technicians, decorators, and ticket sellers. The theater even had its own director (one of the students) and
janitors (Baranov, 2008b). Young people created posters for upcoming screenings, chose the price of the ticket
(no low grades during a given week), and supervised screening sessions. Those who wanted to join in had to
start by doing simple tasks (e.g., cleaning); later, they could move up the career ladder, and choose
responsibilities that were more entertaining.
16
Interestingly, all cineclub participants were volunteers. Baranov advertised his club by going to different
classes of the school (Baranov, 1979). What made students come to Baranov’s cineclub and become its
members? We believe that Baranov’s secret might have been his ability to offer young people a variety of
engaging activities together with an opportunity to play a major role in organizing the cineclub’s work (Baranov
& Penzin, 2014).
The popularity of the cineclub among students continued to grow. Initially, only older students could
join, but soon the cineclub spanned across elementary, middle, and high schools. Baranov decided to structure
his program in a way that allowed students to return to the same topics, terms, and texts repeatedly on different
stages (spiral approach), gradually adding new materials and making the analysis more and more sophisticated.
The model was built so that students could join the cineclub starting from the first grade and participate in it
until they graduated. Soon after establishing the cineclub, Baranov decided that young people should study the
history of the cinema; in his understanding, this would enable them to discuss cinematic masterpieces and help
further develop their aesthetic taste. Beginning with entertaining and easy-to-remember facts about films, the
pedagogue gradually offered his students materials that were more complex. In the final year, young people
summarized everything they had learned so far. This cumulative approach based on reiteration and the growing
complexity of class materials is similar to the structure of many standard school classes. However, in the case of
the cineclub, the spiral approach was combined with many additional features. Although film screenings and
discussions remained the foundation of Baranov’s project until the end, soon after transforming the school
cinema into the cineclub Baranov started to experiment by adding new activities.
In order to help students of all ages memorize large amounts of information about the history of the
cinema, Baranov used a variety of memory games. These games included all sorts of competitions, word
puzzles, charades, and crosswords about cinema. To play these games, students used film excerpts, audio
recordings, snapshots, photos of actors, cards with questions, and quotes from books and articles discussed in
class. For example, for the game “Do you know cinema?” students created 100 cards with images on one side
and questions for the audience on the other side, such as: “What is this film?,” “What other works of this
director do you know?,” “Who is in the frame?,” etc. (Baranov, 1979). To play the game called “Cinema
mystification” one of the participants read a text (e.g., about a certain period in the history of the cinema) out
loud. The text contained mistakes in dates, surnames, and other facts. The audience had to find mistakes and
correct them (Baranov, 1979).
To foster students’ independence, Baranov relied on peer-to-peer teaching approach. In one of his books,
he described how “acquiring vast knowledge, kids simultaneously learn to ‘give back’: they offer themed
evenings, deliver lectures, organize exhibitions and festivals, create clubs for cinema enthusiasts in younger
classes and outside of the school, passionately promote cinema art” (Baranov, 1979, p. 8). Baranov believed
that, by teaching others, students become more responsible and can better articulate things they had studied.
Peer-to-peer activities also helped the cineclub to attract new participants and spread Baranov’s message about
aesthetic and moral values of the authentic cinema art.
Apart from watching films, Baranov’s students also practiced media production. They made short films
about their lives, the school, and the cineclub. Baranov believed that making their own films, however amateur
they would be, prepared young people to better understand masterpieces that they watched in the cineclub
(Baranov, 2008b). Another form of media production was a wall newspaper, which students periodically issued
to tell the school about their accomplishments. Yet another creative activity that cineclub participants engaged
in was staging scenes from some of their favorite movies.
One the major projects that Baranov used to foster young people’s independence and their love for the
cinema art was a cinema museum. Believing in students’ ability to accomplish important projects
independently, Baranov encouraged young people to create the museum by themselves. This project later
became the hallmark of Baranov’s cineclub and one of the biggest school cinema museums in the U.S.S.R.
Collecting artifacts for the museum, young people maintained a busy correspondence with film directors, actors,
and cinema critics. They also sent letters to the All-Union State Institute of Cinematography and famous film
17
studios of the time, such as “Moscow” and “Lenfilm.” In response, young people regularly received film scripts,
drafts, sketches, set props, and autobiographies. All these artifacts became museum exhibits.
Occasionally, young people made trips to visit major centers of cinema art. They were able to talk to many
famous cinema personalities face-to-face, see how new films were made, and sometimes even participate in the
first screenings closed to the public (Baranov & Penzin, 2014). When young people were not traveling, some
media celebrities of the time visited the cineclub to give lectures about cinema.
Selection of Films
Although initially young people preferred to choose light entertainment films for the cineclub repertoire,
Baranov encouraged them to put more emphasis on what he considered cinema art. After all, developing
students’ taste for so-called good films was one of Baranov’s main goals. Baranov also used cinema as a vehicle
for moral education. In his opinion, the conflict between protagonists and antagonists on the screen could
illustrate for young people the battle between good and evil, and teach them to make the right choices in their
own lives (Baranov, 2008b).
What films did Baranov select for his cineclub? The pedagogue favored such classics of the Soviet
cinema as Battleship Potemkin (1925) and Ivan the Terrible, Part I (1944) by Eisenstein, Earth (1930) by
Dovzhenko, and The Extraordinary Adventures of Mr. West in the Land of the Bolsheviks (1924) and Fragment
of an Empire (1929) by Ermler. While Battleship Potemkin portrays the mutiny against Tsarist officers as an
epic moral battle, Ivan the Terrible, Part I shows the powerful leader who fights his enemies in order to
strengthen Russia. Earth glorifies the fight against rich landowners who opposed the process of collectivization
(replacement of individual peasant farms by collective ones) in Ukraine. The Extraordinary Adventures of Mr.
West in the Land of the Bolsheviks satirizes stereotypes that U.S. people allegedly had about the Soviet Russia in
the 1920s. It shows caricatured representations of Americans and the greatness of the Soviet regime, which is so
impressive that the main character Mr. West ends up putting a portrait of Lenin in his study. Fragment of an
empire portrays the Soviet regime as the positive force, which helps people finally become free and equal.
Baranov has never been a big fan of contemporary films, preferring good old Soviet classics (Baranov &
Penzin, 2014). According to the pedagogue, his priorities were shaped not by the ideological requirements or
the time but by the aesthetic qualities of the films (Baranov, 1979). However, we can see that at least some of
them were in alignment with the ideology of the communist regime and contained elements of political
propaganda. Occasionally Baranov’s cineclub screened explicitly ideological films, such as Lenin in 1918,
created in 1939 by Romm.
In order to engage young people, Baranov allowed them to watch popular comedies, detectives, and
melodramas. Among popular contemporary films that students discussed in Baranov’s cineclub was a satirical
comedy by Klimov about pioneer camps, Welcome, or No Trespassing, released in 1964. This film mocks a
pioneer camp director who tries to control children by imposing strict rules. Another example of a light film that
Baranov let young people watch was the science fiction movie Amphibian Man made in 1962 by Chebotaryov
and Kazansky. It tells a dramatic love story of a pearl-fisher’s daughter and a man whose father had to implant
him with gills in order to save his life.
Although Baranov let his students watch these popular movies, he saw it as a necessary stage of the
educational process that would let him introduce authentic cinema art. Baranov believed that to explain concepts
and ideas he wanted his students to understand, he had to start with entertainment media. An opportunity to
watch entertainment movies made students more engaged and attracted new members to the cineclub. However,
Baranov made sure to stress the idea that all the “light” films were inferior to timeless classics created by such
cinema personalities as Eisenstein and Dovzhenko.
18
A talented pedagogue, Baranov used his passion for the cinema, and his strong belief in the importance
of shared aesthetic and moral values to create the unique cineclub. By offering young people independence,
responsibility and the wide variety of activities, he kept the project going for many years.
From Baranov’s Cineclub to Media Literacy Club
Today, cinema is but one form of popular media, competing with television, the Internet, video games,
and social networks. Although a few cineclubs still exist, the popularity of the phenomenon is unlikely to come
back. Does it mean that Baranov’s model has become obsolete? And if not, can educators in other countries use
Baranov’s successful experience in Soviet schools as an example? We argue that Baranov’s model of media
education can be applied outside of Russia – if adjusted to the different time and place requirements. Whether or
not you share Baranov’s goal to teach young people about moral values and develop their aesthetic taste, you
can select some elements of his cineclub’s structure to create a media literacy club in your school.
Introducing and maintaining stand-alone media education courses within the U.S. public school system
is problematic due to the system’s rigidity. A more realistic model involves integrating media literacy activities
into existing courses, such as English (Hobbs, 2007), History, or Geography (Masterman, 1985). This approach
requires some creativity and flexibility, but does not necessitate significant bending of the existing school
program. Finally, young people can learn about media literacy through workshops and various extracurricular
programs (Friesem, 2014). Such initiatives are usually short-term, although they can be regularly repeated (e.g.,
Scharrer, 2006).
A media literacy club based on Baranov’s model could be a variation of this third strategy. Here are
some features that such a club could have: (1) its own space, and its doors could be open for students every day
of the school year; (2) it could be run by several teachers interested in media literacy education and by volunteer
student peer mentors; (3) the club could attract participants by a variety of engaging activities. Its members
could discuss and create videos, photos, ads, websites, and video games. Young people could search for
information on topics they are interested in online and learn to evaluate Internet sources. Participants could also
contact media personalities or even invite them to visit their school; (4) teachers running the club could choose
several key ideas that they would like their students to learn and/or questions they want young people to ask of
media texts. Teachers could then structure the materials using the spiral approach, to make sure that the key
ideas are addressed on every learning stage. In addition, (5) students could participate in the club over the period
of several years. In this case activities and materials would vary, but the key principles taught at the club would
remain the same year after year. Thus, students could gradually hone their media literacy skills even if they visit
the club only once in a while. This approach could solve a problem that many media literacy initiatives
currently have – short time spans. Furthermore, (6) the club could foster peer-to-peer learning and collaboration
between students of different ages. Older students could pass on media literacy knowledge and skills to younger
students. Finally, (7) the club could rely on students’ enthusiasm and independent work. First, this could help
the club to attract participants. Second, this could make the club easier to handle, as teachers who run it would
delegate some of their responsibilities to young people (peer mentors).
Attracting participants to such a club might seem challenging on the initial stage. However, if it is
endorsed by school administration, and if its activities are engaging and appealing, some students might be
willing to give it a try. Once the club exists for a while and becomes known in the school, more and more
students might start seeking an opportunity to participate.
Conclusion
Media literacy education has come a long way from the time educators first started to develop students’
critical thinking skills and consider different strategies of helping them understand the role of the media in their
19
lives (Hobbs & Jensen, 2009). Influenced by different cultural contexts, both in terms of time and place, media
literacy education evolved into a variety of forms (Buckingham, 2003; Hobbs, 1998; Potter, 2004).
Because of the significant changes of the media over the past decades, it may seem that many historical
forms of media literacy education are nowadays irrelevant. By the same token, Soviet cineclubs, which were
popular in the U.S.S.R. until the 1980s, might appear outdated and obsolete. After all, they were specifically
created to discuss films, while now movies are just one kind of popular media texts. By ignoring magazines, TV
programs, websites, and social networks, media literacy educators would seriously limit the effectiveness of
their efforts. In addition, Soviet cineclubs were often used to develop students’ aesthetic taste and moral values;
critical thinking was not a priority for Soviet cinema educators, although they talked about it in their writings
(Baranov, 1977). Taking into consideration these limitations, we argue that modern media literacy practitioners
do have something to learn from cineclubs of the past. Even if we do not entirely agree with what students
learned in Baranov’s classes, it can be useful to consider how they learned it.
Baranov’s model of film/media education provides an example of a long-term media literacy education
program that maintained its popularity by being engaging and by relying on students’ natural curiosity. Even an
educator who does not think that developing students’ aesthetic taste equates raising their levels of media
literacy might use this cineclub’s structure as a basis for media education initiative in their school.
The structure of Baranov’s model has several key elements that educators might want to borrow. First,
Baranov’s cineclub attracted students by offering a variety of entertaining activities. Young people were not
forced to participate; they came to the club because they were attracted by the opportunities it offered. Second,
assignments that fostered independent work helped students to develop the feeling of ownership for the club.
Third, because Baranov used the spiral approach, students learned the key ideas he wanted them to retain by
repeatedly returning to the club. Fourth, a peer-to-peer approach helped Baranov’s students better memorize
information and practice skills they learned in the club. Active peer-to-peer mentors were able to constantly
attract new participants, which contributed to the cineclub’s popularity. And, fifth, by having the club’s doors
open all year long for many years, Baranov was able to turn this project into a long-term media literacy
initiative.
Learning from the past is an important enterprise. It helps us better understand how we got to where we
are now. It also allows us to learn from mistakes that our predecessors made and cherry-pick some of their
practices. Learning from the past teaches us to be flexible, curious, and humble, and it encourages us to think
about the future. We must remember that those who will come after us might be critical of our biases and
choices as we are critical of our media education “grandparents.” We do not know which of our strategies those
who come after us will use and which they will discard. In this paper, we wanted to give the reader a glimpse of
the journey that media literacy education has travelled in Russia. Most importantly, we wanted to reflect on how
our past can enrich our present and future.
References
Baranov, O. (1967). Cineclub in Kalinin. Moscow, Russia: Prosvesheniye. [Баранов, O. (1967). Киноклуб в
Калинине. Москва: Просвещение.]
Baranov, O. (1968). School cineclubs and their role in film education of high school students. (Unpublished
doctoral dissertation). All-Union State Institute of Cinematography, Moscow, Russia. [Баранов, O.
(1968). Школьные киноклубы и их роль в кинематографическом воспитании
старшеклассников. Дис. канд. искусствоведения, Всесоюзный государственный институт
кинематографии, Москва].
Baranov, O. (1973). Cinema elective at school. Kalinin, Russia: Kalinin State University Press. [Баранов, O.
(1973). Кинофакультатив в школе. Калинин: Изд-во Калинин. гос. ун- та.]
20
Baranov, O. (1977). Fictional films in middle school. Kalinin, Russia: Kalinin State University Press.
[Баранов, O. (1977). Художественный кинематограф в работе средней школы. Калинин: Изд-во
Калинин. гос. ун-та.]
Baranov, O. (1979). Screen becomes a friend. Moscow, Russia: Prosvesheniye. [Баранов, O. (1979). Экран
становится другом. Москва: Просвещение].
Baranov, O. (2008a). Media education at school and in college. Tver, Russia: Tver State Univeristy [Баранов
О. (2008). Медиаобразование в школе и в вузе. Тверь: Изд-во Твер. гос. ун-та.]
Baranov, O. (2008b). Tver school of film education: 50 years. Taganrog, Russia: Center of Personal
Development. [Баранов, O. (2008). Тверская школа кинообразования: К 50-летию. Таганрог:
Центр развития личности.]
Baranov, O., & Penzin, S. (2014). Cinema and school. Art and Education, 1, 87-113. [Баранов,
О., & Пензин, С. (2014). Кино и школа. Искусство и образование, 1, 87-113.]
Buckingham, D. (2003). Media education: Literacy, learning and contemporary culture. Malden, MA: Polity.
Core Principles of MLE (n.d.). Retrieved from http://namle.net/publications/core-principles
Fedorov, A. (2012). Media education. In Y. Osipov and S. Kravetz (Eds.) Big Russian Encyclopedia, V. 17 (p.
480). Moscow, Russia: BRE. [Федоров А. (2012). Медиаобразование. B Ю. Осипов и С. Кравец
(Peд.) Большая Pоссийская Энциклопедия, Т. 17 (c. 480). Москва: БРЭ.]
Friesem, E. (2014). A story of conflict and collaboration: Media literacy, video production and disadvantaged
youth. Journal of Media Literacy Education, 6(1), 44-55.
Geens, V. (2000). Le temps des utopies. CHTP-BEG, 7, 189-237.
Goodman, S. (2003). Teaching youth media: A critical guide to literacy, video production, and social change.
New York, NY: Teachers College Press.
Harden, R.M. (1999). What is a spiral curriculum? Medical Teacher, 21(2), 141-143.
Hoare, M. (n.d.) Elements sur l’histoire des ciné-clubs en France: Les projections non commerciales - passe,
present, avenir… Retrieved from: http://www.avenirvivable.ouvaton.org/journal/cineclubhistoire.html
Hobbs, R. (1998). The seven great debates in the media literacy movement. Journal of
Communication, 48(1), 16-23.
Hobbs, R. (2007). Reading the media: Media literacy in high school English. New York, NY: Teachers
College.
Hobbs, R. (2011). Digital and media literacy: Connecting culture and classroom. Thousand Oaks, CA:
Corwin Press.
Hobbs, R., & Jensen, A. (2009). The past, present, and future of media literacy education. Journal of Media
Literacy Education, 1, 1-11.
Ilyichev, S., & Nashekin, B. (1986). Amateur cinema: Origins and perspectives. Moscow, Russia: Iskusstvo.
[Ильичев, C., & Нащекин, Б. (1986). Кинолюбительство: Истоки и Перспективы. Москва:
Искусство]
Irving, L.M., Dupen, J. & Berel, S. (1998). A media literacy program for high school females. Eating
Disorders: The Journal of Treatment & Prevention, 6(2), 119-131.
Jacobs, L. (1990). Reformers and spectators: The film education movement in the thirties. Camera Obscura,
8: 28-49.
Leavis, F.R., & Thompson, D. (1977[1933]). Culture and environment: The training of critical awareness.
Westport, CT: Greenwood Press.
Levshina, I. (1978). Do you like cinema? Moscow, Russia: Iskusstvo. [Левшина, И. (1978). Любите ли вы
Кино? Москва: Искусство].
Macdonald, D. (1962). Against the American grain. New York, NY: Random House.
Maltsev, K. (1925). Cinema and soviet society: Society for Friends of the Soviet Cinema. Soviet Cinema, 1.
Retrieved from http://www.retropressa.ru/kino-i-sovetskaya-obshhestvennost-ob-obshhestve-druzejj-
21
sovetskogo-kino [Мальцев, K. (1925). Кино и советская общественность: Об Обществе Друзей

Советского Кино. Советское Кино, 1.]
Martineau, M. (Ed.). (1988). L’enseignement du cinema et de l’audiovisuel. Paris, France:
CinemAction.
Masterman, L. (1985). Teaching the media. New York, NY: Routledge.
Media and Information Literacy (n.d.). Retrieved from http://portal.unesco.org/ci/en/ev.php-
URL_ID=15886&URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION=201.html
Monastirsky, V. (1995). Cineclub Contact: Not a conclusion. Tambov, Russia: Tambov State University
Press. [Монастырский, B. (1995). Киноклуб Контакт: Неокончательные итоги. Тамбов: Тамбов.
гос. ун-т.]
Penzin, S. (1987). Cinema and aesthetic education: Methodological problems. Voronezh, Russia:
Voronezh State University Press. [Пензин, С. (1987). Кино и эстетическое воспитание:
Методологические проблемы. Воронеж: Изд-во Воронеж. гос. ун-та]
Pinel, V. (1964). Introduction au ciné-club: histoire, théorie, pratique du ciné-club en France. Paris, France:
Éditions ouvrières.
Potter, W. J. (2004). Theory of media literacy: A cognitive approach. Thousand Oakes, CA: Sage.
Rabinovich, Y. (1969). Principles of studying cinema at school. Kurgan, Russia: Kurgan Pedagogical Institute
Press. [Рабинович, Ю. (1969). Принципы изучения кино в школе. Курган: Издательство Курган.
гос. педагогич. инст-та]
Scharrer, E. (2006). “I noticed more violence:” The effects of a media literacy program on critical
attitudes toward media violence. Journal of Mass Media Ethics, 21(1), 69–86.
Sharikov, A. (1990). Media Education: International and Russian Experience. Moscow, Russia: Russian
Academy of Education. [Шариков А. (1990). Медиаобразование: Mировой и отечественный
опыт. Москва: Издательство Академии педагогических наук]
Vladimirova, M. (2011). Transformation of collective consciousness under the influence of the media
(examples from Russian television). Moscow, Russia: Flinta. [Владимирова М. (2011).
Трансформация массового сознания под воздействием средств массовой информации (на
примере российского телевидения). Москва: Флинта]
Zalessky, K. (2009). Stalin’s Empire. Moscow, Russia: Veche. [Залесский, K. (2000). Империя
Сталина. Москва: Вече.]
22
European Journal of Contemporary Education, 2016, Vol. (16), Is. 2
Copyright © 2016 by Academic Publishing House

Researcher
ISSN 2304-9650
E-ISSN 2305-6746
Vol. 16, Is. 2, pp. 205-216, 2016
DOI: 10.13187/ejced.2016.16.205
www.ejournal1.com

UDC 37
Modern Media Criticism and Media Literacy Education:

The Opinions of Russian University Students
Alexander Fedorov a , * , Anastasia Levitskaya b

a Anton Chekhov Taganrog Institute (branch of Rostov State Economic University),
Russian Federation
b Taganrog Management and Economics Institute, Russian Federation
Abstract
The authors analyze the results of two universities students' survey aimed at finding out the
respondents' media competence levels. The findings confirm a general tendency, that commonly,
less than a quarter of the young audience reveals a high level development of the media
competence's motivational index. A considerably larger part of respondents, about a half,
demonstrates a low level of the motivational index. The analysis of the received data proves that a
high degree of the media contact frequency and a high level of media competence’s motivational
index are not directly linked with an ability level to analyze a media text comprehensively.
Nevertheless, the levels of interpretational/evaluation parameters of the audience's media
competence to a large extent reflect the levels of their informational and motivational descriptors.
Moreover, it turns out that the high level of informational index does not necessarily correlate to
the level of media competence’s evaluation index. On the whole, the survey shows that media
competence of modern students needs to be developed. Therefore, university students (not less
that school students) do need media literacy courses.
Keywords: media literacy, education, media criticism, students, Russia, university, survey.
E-mail addresses: 1954alex@mail.ru (A. Fedorov), a.levitskaya@tmei.ru (A. Levitskaya)
205
1. Introduction
The students' survey was organized in order to find out levels of the audience’s media
competence (with emphasis on the synthesis of media education and criticism). Media competence
is defined as a complex of motives, knowledge, skills, abilities (descriptors: contact, motivational,
informational, interpretation/evaluation, activity), facilitating the choice, use, critical analysis,
evaluation, creation and communicating media texts in different forms, types and genres, analysis
of the media functioning in society (Ashley et al., 2013; Downey et al., 2014; Fantin, 2010; Fedorov,
2003; Korochensky, 2003; Marchessault, 2014; Myasnikova, 2010; Potter, 2014; Soldatova, 2013;
Sourbati, 2009; Sparks, 2013; Tsymbalenko et al., 2013; Wilson et al., 2011; Zircon, 2013).
While developing most of the units of questions and assignments we deliberately chose the
close form of a questionnaire (so that a question was followed by several options to choose from).
This decision is explained by the fact that most students are as a rule not able to provide clear and
brief argumentation for their viewpoint on media preferences. Therefore several most probable
variants of an answer were offered. Moreover, close questionnaires take less time to fill out for the
respondents, and can fit in within the time limit of a class period.
The differentiation of media competence levels is based on the classification of media
competence levels (the audience's development in the media culture sphere). According to it,
audiences are offered 5 main units of questions and assignments:
 the unit of questions for ascertaining the media competence’s contact index level (frequency
of contacts with different types of media, media criticism and media literacy texts);
 the unit of questions to determine motivational level of the audience's media competence
(genre, thematic, psychological, therapeutic, emotional, gnoseological, moral, intellectual, creative,
and aesthetical motives that effect the audience's choice to contact various media texts);
 the unit of questions to discover the informational level (knowledge of terminology, history
and theory of media culture, media education and media criticism) of the audience's media
competence;
 the unit of analytical assignments to determine the interpretation/evaluation level of the
audience's media competence;
 the unit of assignments to ascertain the activity (practical, hands-on) index of the
audience's media competence.
2. Materials and Methods

The following respondents took part in the survey:
 61 first and second year students of Taganrog Management and Economics Institute
(respondents only participating in summative experiment), including 38 young women and
23 young men;
 59 first and second year students of Anton Chekhov Taganrog Institute (respondents,
participating both in summative and formative experiments), including 39 female and 20 male
students.
The aim of ascertaining the media competence’s contact index level: to determine the
frequency of contacts of the audience with various types of media. Gained results reflect the degree
of respondents' involvement with media culture, media critics and educators' texts.
Each respondent was offered to choose an option characteristic of his/her frequency of contacts
with different media (press, TV, radio, Internet, etc.).
While determining the contact level we decided to consider the following scale:
 high level: respondent’s daily contacts with media texts;
 medium level: respondent's contact vary from several times a week to a month;
 low level: rare contacts with media or total isolation from media.
It is clear that the content of such contacts is affected by media competence’s motivational
factor. However, according to our hypothesis, such influence is not direct: i.e. single contacts with
media do not necessarily mean that a respondent possesses a wide spectrum of media motives and
vice versa.
The aim of determining motivational index levels was to ascertain most popular with the
audience contact motives (genre, thematic, psychological, therapeutic, emotional, gnoseological,
206
moral, intellectual, aesthetical, functional) with media texts (including media critics' texts and
media educational texts).
While determining the motivational index levels of media competence development, we
defined:
 high level as a wide complex of genre, thematic, emotional, hedonistic, intellectual, creative,
psychological, aesthetical motives (including: choice of various genre and thematic spectrum, in
particular including non-entertaining genres; pursuit for philosophical/intellectual, aesthetic
challenge/dialogue with a media text's creators, criticism; identification, sympathy; quest for
aesthetical impressions; quest for new information; for proving own competence in various spheres
of life and media culture; search for material for study, research objectives, etc.);
 medium level as a complex of genre, thematic, emotional, hedonistic, intellectual, creative,
psychological, aesthetical motives, including: the choice of rather varied genre and thematic range,
search for study/research materials; however without significant evidence of pursuit for
philosophical/intellectual, aesthetical challenge/dialogue with media text's creators;
 low level: narrow range of genre, thematic, emotional, hedonistic, psychological motives,
mainly the choice of entertainment genre; pursuit for compensation, for psychological "treatment";
search for suspense, recreation, absence of aesthetical, intellectual, creative motives of contacts
with media texts.
Achieved results help us to account for audiences’ real preferences, take into consideration
concrete media genres and themes, that the audiences are motivated by, and therefore, are
considerably affected (morally and psychologically). These findings need to be compared with the
written creative assignments, and interviews, in order to more specifically ascertain audiences’ self
evaluation of preferences and underpinning grounds, as revealed by the research.
At this stage students were offered a list of media genres and functions (press, radio,
television, Internet, video games, etc.) to choose the ones they prefer. Respondents were also
presented a list of psychological, therapeutical, emotional, gnoseological, moral, intellectual,
creative, and aesthetic motives of contacts with media texts. Knowing media genre and functions
direction, chosen by the respondents, with high degree of probability we were able to suppose the
types of most important motives of contacts with media. For example, if a person prefers
entertainment, blockbuster media, he/she is likely to choose the search for recreation,
entertainment, suspense, as his/her main motives for media contacts.
Detection of informational index level was aimed at discovering the audience's knowledge of
terminology, history, and theory of media culture, media education, and media criticism. Students
were asked to answer 22 questions. While defining media competence’s informational index levels,
we agreed upon:
 high level: more than 75 % of correct answers;
 medium level: more than 50 % of correct answers;
 low level: less than 50 % of correct answers.
Of course, there is a linkage between levels of contact, motivational and informational
factors. A person not contacting with media, cannot possess any information about media culture.
However, according to our hypothesis, a high level of contact and motivational descriptors of media
competence can combine with a low/medium level of informational index and vice versa.
Undoubtedly, a survey based on the multiple choice questions, is always limited by a chance
of getting a correct answer unfairly, a guess, not based on real knowledge. Moreover, some
respondents might even cheat. Therefore, the results of the tests were validated later by additional
individual analytical and creative tasks, and interviews.
While working on determining the levels of interpretation/evaluation index we agreed upon
the following scale:
 high level: media texts analysis is based on the ability to relate with its author, ability to
analyze and synthesize space and time form of a media text; understanding, interpretation, and
evaluation of the author's concept in the context of a media text's structure; the ability to correlate
emotional appreciation with the conceptual judgment, to transfer this opinion onto other media
culture types; to connect a media text with own experience and other people's experience;
 medium level: ability to characterize a media character’s behavior and psychological state;
using fragments of knowledge to be able to explain the logics of the events in the plot, ability to
207
comment on some components of a media image; absence of the interpretation of the author's
stance (or its simplistic interpretation);
 low level: naive comprehension of a media text, poor knowledge of media language,
incomprehensibly expressed opinions, conformity to other opinions, neither interpretation of
characters' and authors' positions, nor their evaluation.
We gave to the respondents the choice between three topics for writing assignments:
a) "Audiovisual media text that impressed me",
b) "Audiovisual media text that influenced my self esteem and/or relation to other people",
c) "Analysis of a single episode from an impressive media text".
Respondents had to choose one topic and write a 3-4 page essay. According to Usov (1989),
the very choice of the topic can indirectly testify of the interpretation/evaluation index level of a
respondent’s media competence: option c), as a rule, is chosen by respondents with higher level of
interpretation/evaluation parameter. With that, it is logical to suppose that the motivational index
level of media competence is considerably linked with the interpretation/evaluation index level.
That is, the more varied media contact motives are (including intellectual and aesthetic
components), the higher his/her level of media competence’s interpretation/evaluation index.
While ascertaining levels of media competence’s activity factor, i.e. practical/hands-on skills
to create and communicate media texts of various types and genres, we agreed upon the following:
 high level: independent/autonomous skills to create media texts of various types and
genres;
 medium level: practical skills of media texts creation with the help of
teachers/experts/peers;
 low level: practical skills are deficient.
The audience was offered to do several hands-on tasks aimed at a media text creation
(video/photo, layout of a poster, etc.). Noticeably, a high level of activity parameter can combine
with a low/medium level of interpretation/evaluation index and vice versa.
3. Results
Table 1. Classification of Contact Index Levels
Levels of Taganrog Management Anton Chekhov Taganrog

contact index and Economics Institute students: Institute students:
control group (%) experimental group (%)
Female Male Total Female Male Total
High 73.7 95.7 82.0 84.5 80.0 83.1

Medium 23.7 4.3 16.4 12.9 15.0 13.5
Low 2.6 0.0 1.6 2.6 5.0 3.4
Table 1 data testify that there is no big difference between the media contact levels of the
students in two universities (control and experimental groups). Over 80 % of the respondents show
high (daily) level of contact index. However, from the start, we didn't consider the contact index as
an ultimate parameter for media competence. Certainly, a respondent never contacting with media,
cannot be media competent. Nevertheless, the highest level of contacts cannot guarantee a high
level of media competence if a person does not acquire analytical skills.
On the other hand, there are less than 4 % of the students who show a low level of contact
index providing evidence that our category of respondents cannot imagine their life without media.
208
Table 2. Classification of the Contact Levels Index of the Students' Media Competence
Development Related to Media Critics' Texts

High 10.4 8.7 9.8 12.8 10.0 11.9

Medium 44.8 43.5 44.2 61.6 45.0 55.9
Low 44.8 47.8 46.0 25.6 45.0 32.2
The Table 2 data indicate that on the whole there is no significant difference between the
contact levels with media criticism texts between two universities (control and experimental
groups). Less than 12 % show high (daily) level of contact with media criticism texts. On the other
hand, students revealing medium contact level comprise from 42.2 % to 55.9 %, so about half of the
given respondents category in that or another way (several times a week/a month) do
read/listen/watch media critics' texts.
Table 3. Classification of Contact Levels Index of the Media Competence Development Related to
Media Education Texts

High 2.6 13.1 6.6 0.0 15.0 5.1

Medium 21.1 17.4 19.6 33.3 20.0 28.8
Low 76.3 69.5 73.8 66.7 65.0 66.1
The data of Table 3 attests no significant difference between levels of contact related to media
education texts expressed by the students in two universities (control and experimental groups).
On the whole, less than 7 % of them reveal a high (daily) level of contact related to media education
texts. On the other hand, there are 19.6 % to 28.8 % of students who manifest medium level, which
testifies that nearly one quarter of respondents do address media education texts several times a
week/month.
Table 4. Classification of the Motivation Index of Students' Media Competence Development

motivational and Economics Institute students: Institute students:
index control group (%) experimental group (%)
High 15.8 17.4 16.4 17.9 15.0 17.0

Medium 28.9 30.4 29.5 25.7 30.0 27.1
Low 55.3 52.2 54.1 56.4 55.0 55.9
Table 4 data show that a high level of media competence’s motivational index development,
i.e. a wide complex of genre, thematic, emotional, gnoseological, hedonistic, intellectual,
psychological, creative, aesthetic motives (including: choice of various genre and thematic
spectrum of media texts, in particular including non-entertaining genres; pursuit for
philosophical/intellectual, aesthetic challenge/dialogue with a media text's creators, criticism;
209
identification, sympathy; quest for aesthetical impressions; quest for new information; for proving
own competence in various spheres of life and media culture; search for material for study,
research objectives, etc.) is only expressed by 16–17 % of the students (with no significant gender
differentiation). And vice versa, a lot more respondents – ranging from 54.1 % (Taganrog
Management and Economics Institute) up to 55.9 % (Anton Chekhov Taganrog Institute) show a
low level of motivational parameter, meaning a narrow spectrum of genre, thematic, emotional,
hedonistic, psychological motives, including: the choice of media texts that are of strictly
entertaining genres and themes; pursuit of compensation; pursuit of psychological "therapy";
longing for thrill; recreation, entertainment and absence of aesthetical, intellectual, or creative
reasons of contacts with media).
Herewith, a deeper study of the findings showed that the students of two Russian universities
- Taganrog Management and Economics Institute (further: TMEI) and Anton Chekhov Taganrog
Institute (further: ACTI) - are attracted by the following genres most:
 comedy – from 77.1 % (TMEI) to 76.3 % (ACTI);
 science fiction – from 55.8 % (TMEI) to 59.3 % (ACTI);
 thriller – from 49.1 % (TMEI) to 40.7 % (ACTI);
 detective – from 45.9 % (TMEI) to 47.5 % (ACTI).
As far as the gender is concerned, it turns out that the number of male students preferring
such entertaining genres as science fiction, thriller and a detective story, is somewhat higher than
the number of female ones:
 science fiction: 60.9 % of male students and 52.7 % female students (TMEI); 60 % of male
students and 59 % of female students (ACTI);
 thriller: 60.9 % of males and 42.2 % of females (TMEI); 45.0 % of male students and 38.5 %
of female students (ACTI);
 detective genre: 47.8 % of male students and 44.8 % of females (TMEI); 50.0 % of male and
46.2 % of female students (ACTI).
At the same time, female students prefer a sentimental melodrama genre: 17.4 % of male
preferences vs. 42.2 % of female preferences (TMEI); 15.0 % of male preferences vs. 53.8 % of
female preferences (ACTI).
The following genres became outsiders:
 musical comedy - from 1.6 % (preferences of students of TMEI) to 5.1 % (ACTI);
 operetta - from 1.7 % (preferences of students of TMEI) to 6.8 % (ACTI);
 opera - from 5.0 % (preferences of students of TMEI) to 11.9 % (ACTI);
 satire - from 5.0 % (preferences of students of TMEI) to 18.6 % (ACTI).
Subsequent talks with the respondents in focus groups showed that modern students
perceive opera and operetta as archaic, boring genres; and they appreciate not satire in comedies
but pure entertainment (gags, tricks, funny jokes, stand-up comedian acts, etc.).
The answer of the students of two Russian institutes - TMEI and ACTI - to the question about
the appealing functions in print/audiovisual media texts, media critics' works, media education
literature (in press, Internet, radio or TV), has considerably assisted us to correlate them to
previously expressed genre preferences.
The analysis of students' answers demonstrates that the most popular function of media texts
is a recreational one: 60.7 % of TMEI students (at that this function is 20 % more popular with
female respondents than with male ones) and 52.5 % of ACTI students (without significant genre
difference).
Then follow:
 information-communicative function (46.0 % of students' answers in TMEI; 28.8 % of
students' answers in ACTI, no big gender difference);
 aesthetical, artistic function (41.0 % of TMEI students, with females prevailing by 23.9 %;
and 44.1 % of ACTI students’ preferences, with female answers prevailing 21.3 %).
Gender differences are visible in the answers about other functions of media texts:
 analytical function: 60.9 % of male TMEI students vs. 15.8 % of female students; 35.0 % of
male ACTI students vs. 28.2 % of female students;
210
 ideological, political function: the function is popular with 39.1 % of male TMEI and 26.3 %
female students, while in ACTI – 15.2 % of male vs. 28.2 % of female students;
 aesthetical function: in TMEI it is favoured by 30.4 % male and 18.5 % female students,
while in ACTI this function is popular with 20.0 % of male respondents and 10.3 % of female ones;
 advertising / commercial function: 4.3 % of male and 15.8 % of female TMEI students;
30.0 % of male and 15.4 % of female respondents in ACTI marked this function.
Let us bear in mind that the analysis of genre motivation showed that on the whole,
entertaining media texts ranked from 45.9 % to 77.0 %, that correlates to popularity of the
recreational function with the surveyed audience. The smallest number of votes (1.6–1.7 %) of both
universities' students was collected by the regulatory-corporation function of media texts. We have
expected that because our survey group was not a media-related major, but comprised of future
managers, economists, lawyers, and teachers who are not very keen on professional backstage of
media industry.
Answering the question of what main psychological, intellectual, creative, aesthetic, etc.
motives of the students' contacts with media critics’ works, are, revealed the following leading
motives:
 pursuit to access new information – 82.0 % (preferences of TMEI students, with female
students' answers prevailing 13.0 %) and 67 % (ACTI students with female answers prevailing by
26.9 %);
 search for entertainment, recreation - 60.7 % (TMEI students, with 20.7 % more female
answers than male ones) and 52.5 % of ACTI students, without significant gender differentiation;
 search for aesthetical, artistic impressions – 44.3 % (preferences of TMEI students, with
female voices dominating by 22.3 %) and 41.1 % (preferences of ACTI students, with female
students dominating by 21.3 %);
 longing for spending one's free time - from 29.5 % (TMEI students with female voices
exceeding male ones by 12.6 %) to 32.2 % (ACTI students with no big gender difference).
On the whole, the students' aspiration for entertainment and recreation (60.7 %) and relaxed
way of watching/listening media (29.5 %) correlates to students' preferences of entertaining media
genres and functions.
The less number of students' voices was received by:
 aspiration for improving one's skills in media literacy – 2.6 % (TMEI students) and 1.9 %
(ACTI students);
 pursuit of developing one's knowledge in media education - 4.4 % of TMEI students and
3.2 % of ACTI students.
To sum up, the low motivation of students to gain knowledge and skills in the field of media
literacy was something we had expected because the survey was conducted with 1-2 year students
who had never taken a media education course.
Table 5. Classification of the Informational Index Levels

information and Economics Institute Institute students:
index students: control group (%) experimental group (%)
High 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0

Medium 55.3 52.2 54.1 51.3 55.0 52.5
Low 44.7 47.8 45.9 48.7 45.0 47.5
The detection of the information index levels of TMEI and ACTI students' media competence
development was conducted with the help of a test. The testing procedure with the developed
questions (see Appendix) had some vulnerable spots. On the one hand, the test format contains the
opportunity of guessing (intuitive or logic – by eliminating most ambiguous answers) the right
answer with the probability of 25 %. On the other hand, during the testing there might have
occurred cheating or prompting by some participants. However, the test results were verified by
211
the finding of focus groups and face-to-face interviews that to a large extent facilitated the
clarification and validation of students' competence levels.
None of the students questioned demonstrated the high level of media competence
development’s information index (which was assigned as 75–100 % of correct answers to questions
related to terminology, history and theory of media, media culture, media criticism and media
education). About 52–54 % of surveyed students showed a medium level of the information
parameter (without significant gender differences between the respondents). 45-47 % of the
students revealed a low level of media competence's information index that is they were able to give
less than 50 % of correct answers. Herewith, the minimal number of correct answers (less than
40 %) was received to the questions connected to the knowledge of media specialists' activities,
media educators, media theories, and a media text production stages.
Completing a phrase "Media criticism is ..." from 65.6 % (TMEI students) to 69.5 % (ACTI
students) could choose a correct answer out of four suggested. Preliminary conversations with
students in focus groups showed that without multiple choice options they, as a rule, found it hard
to give a definition to media criticism. Still, we should note that even having a correct answer as
one of the options, one third of the students could not detect it.
Completing a sentence “Media culture is...”, from 85.3 % of TMEI students to 89.8 % of ACTI
students were able to choose a correct answer out of the four given options. However, as focus
groups had previously revealed, without ready answers to choose from, students were at a loss.
Completing a definition for media education, from 77.1 % of TMEI students to 83.0 % of
ACTI students could choose a correct answer. But again, the same question in focus groups was
difficult for the participants.
Finishing a phrase "Media perception is...", 72.1 % of TMEI students and 69.5 % of ACTI
students chose the correct option. As before, they had difficulty giving this definition without
suggested answers in focus groups.
Completing a phrase "Media language is..." 91.8 % of TMEI students and 83.0 % of ACTI
students surveyed could choose the correct answer out of the four provided. Nevertheless,
preliminary conversations with students in focus groups showed that without multiple choice
options they, as a rule, found it hard to give a definition.
Completing a definition for media competence, 62.3 % of TMEI students and 59.3 % of ACTI
students chose the right answer. 64.0 % of TMEI students and 52.5 % of ACTI students were able
to differentiate a correct answer while completing a sentence "Media text is...".
Matching a "story line" with its definition, 62.3 % of TMEI students and 47.4 % of ACTI
students recognized the correct answer out of the four offered options. 72.1 % TMEI and 67.8 %
ACTI students gave the correct answer continuing the phrase "Manipulative influence of media
is...".
When answering a question about the workplace of a media critic, 72.1 % of TMEI students
and 67.8 % of ACTI students gave the correct answer. We should remember that the latter and all
of the above listed questions raised problems when they were asked in focus groups with no
multiple choice options. Therefore, the students' choice during a test is more likely a result of
logical comparison of the suggested options for choice (the so called "test-wiseness"), but not of the
real knowledge. Moreover, a test's major weakness is that it promotes guessing (one can get 25 %
by choosing all "a"s or "b"s , etc.). So it should be stressed, that the test results have been balanced
with other forms of research.
Answering the question about the job of a media teacher, 37.7 % of TMEI students and
50.8 % of ACTI students got the right answer. Choosing a surname of a researcher who had
introduced the media theory concept of the "global village", only one third – 37.7 % of TMEI
students and 37.3 % of ACTI students chose the correct answer. While in focus groups none of the
participants could remember the name of Marshall McLuhan as its author.
Looking for a term not related to media culture, media criticism or education, 70.5 % (TMEI
students) and 72.9 % (ACTI students) were able to choose the correct answer.
However, identifying skills, not related to media culture, media criticism or education, only
14.8 % of Management and Economics Institute, and 27.1 % of ACTI were able to choose the
correct answer out of the four options. Another rather low result was shown by the choice of the
media-related "wrong sentence": only 34.4 % of TMEI students and 50.8 % of ACTI students could
identify the correct answer.
212
While answering the question, which of the following theories of media is based on the idea
of strong, direct impact of a media text on the audience, the impact that provokes immediate
reaction, only 34.4 % of respondents from TMEI and 32.2 % of ACTI students chose the correct
answer (inoculatory approach). Answering the question, which of the suggested media theories is
based on studying sign systems, only 39.4 % of TMEI students and 52.5 % of ACTI students
surveyed identified semiotic theory as the correct one.
Choosing the correct phrase (out of 4 options) connected to media criticism, 19.7 % of TMEI
students and 18.6 % of ACTI students were able to find it. Answering the question about what
media critic's writing about television, only 16.4 % and 23.7 % (students of TMEI and ACTI,
correspondently) identified the right person. When doing the assignment to re-arrange the stages
of an audiovisual or print media critic's text in the logical sequence, only 39.3 % of TMEI and
23.7 % of ACTI students coped with the task.
Table 6. Classification of the Interpretation/evaluation Index Levels

interpretation/ and Economics Institute students: Institute students:
evaluation control group (%) experimental group (%)
index Female Male Total Female Male Total
High 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0

Medium 76.3 73.9 75.4 76.9 75.0 76.3
Low 23.7 26.1 24.6 23.1 25.0 23.7
Exposure of the interpretation/evaluation index levels was conducted through the

assignments related to the analysis of various media texts.
As a result (Table 6) it turned out that none of the respondents demonstrated a high level of
interpretation/evaluation index. The high level presumes a media text’s analysis based on the
ability to relate to its author, analysis and synthesis of the space and time form, its understanding,
interpretation and evaluation of the author's concept in the context of a media text’s structure; the
ability to correlate emotional perception with concept opinion, to transfer this opinion onto other
genres and types of media culture, to relate a media text with own experience or experience of
other people.
The medium level of media competence development’s interpretation/evaluation index
assumes the ability to characterize characters' behaviour and psychological state on the basis of
rudimentary knowledge; the ability to explain the logic of the events sequence in a plot; the ability
to dwell on some components of a media image; lack of an author's stance interpretation (or its
simplistic interpretation). The medium level was demonstrated by 75-76 % of students without a
significant gender difference in both universities.
The low level of interpretation/evaluation parameter presumes a naive, realistic perception of
a media text's story line, unawareness of media language peculiarities, inconsistency, confusion of
opinions, dependency on peer influence; simplistic interpretation of characters' positions and the
author's stance. This level was shown approximately by a quarter of respondents in both
universities.
Table 7. Classification of Activity Index Levels
Activity index Taganrog Management Anton Chekhov Taganrog

levels and Economics Institute students: Institute students:
High 28.9 34.8 31.2 25.6 30.0 27.1

Medium 55.3 56.5 55.7 56.4 60.0 57.6
Low 15.8 8.7 13.1 18.0 10.0 15.3
213
The identification of activity index levels was realized in the course of analysis of their
assignments targeted at creation and communication of media texts’ various forms and genres.
On the whole (Table 7), the high level of the activity index (practical skills to create a media
text) was demonstrated by 27-31 % of students. With that male students prevailed by 5 %
approximately.
The medium level of activity parameter (hands-on skills to create a media text with the help
of a teacher/specialist/other people) was revealed by about a half of the students, with male
respondents outnumbering female ones by 1-4 %.
The low level of activity index (inability to create a media text or unwillingness to do it) was
shown by 13-15 % of students, with female students prevailing by 7-8 %.
4. Discussion
Validness of our findings can be proved by the research results of Moscow sociological group
"Zircon" under the title "Current state and perspectives of media literacy of the Russian citizens
based on the national monitoring of media behavior (2009-2013)" which was initiated by the
Ministry of Communications and Mass Media of the Russian Federation and used the volume of
1600 respondents (representative sample). The surveys were held annually in five stages from
2009 to 2013. As reported by "Zircon", on average, over 80 % of Russian population watch
television (i.e. contact with television media texts) daily (Zircon, 2013).
If we address the survey results of teenagers’ Internet contacts, held by the research group
headed by G. Soldatova in 2013 (1203 teenagers aged 12-17 were questioned, living in 58 Russian
cities with the population of 100 thousand people and more, from 45 regions and 8 federal areas),
we'll see that Russian teens somewhat surpass both adults and university students as far as the
frequency of contacts with media texts is concerned. 89 % of teenagers use Internet daily
(Soldatova, 2013). Similar findings were gained by other Russian (Tsymbalenko et al., 2013),
British (Ofcom, 2013) researches of teenagers' media behavior, and others media researches
(Fenton, 2009; Garcia-Ruiz, Ramirez-Garcia, Rodriguez-Rosell, 2014; Hammer, 2011; Hermes et
al., 2013; Holt, & Von Krogh, 2010).
The comparative analysis of the students’ answers in two Russian universities – Taganrog
Management and Economics Institute and Anton Chekhov Taganrog Institute - to the question
about the frequency of their contacts with media texts showed that on average, over 80 % of
students (82.0 % in TMEI and 83.0 % in ACTI) contact with media on a daily basis. On the whole,
the findings verify the results of many sociological surveys (Fedorov, 2003; Myasnikova, 2010;
Zircon, 2013; Ofcom, 2013), held in different years. The level of media contacts is very high, while
entertaining genres dominate in their preferences. Male respondents to a larger degree than female
prefer action/thriller genres, female respondents tend to favor melodramas.
At the same time, as far as we know, neither in Russia, nor in other countries, a research of
audience's (including students') contacts with media criticism was conducted. Comparative
analysis of students' answers testifies the degree of demand for print and audiovisual media critics'
texts: without a significant gender difference, it turned out that from 9.8 % (TMEI students) to
11.9 % (ACTI students) have such contacts daily. Another 42-55 % students read/listen/watch
media critical text several times a week/month. Still, as we had anticipated, there are young people
in both universities who rarely or never contact media critics' messages: ranging from 32 to 47 %.
Focus groups conversations showed that the respondents in the first place, contact with texts of
popular but "amateur" media bloggers (who review latest films and computer games, videos, etc.),
because these texts are easier and more understandable for them than texts of media professionals.
As far as the research of audience's contacts with media literacy texts, we also have not found
the previously done similar surveys in Russia or elsewhere. Before conducting a survey, we took
into account that the first or second year students had not studied any media literacy course yet,
therefore a percentage of respondents who contacted media education texts on a regular basis
would be very low. However the findings corrected our initial expectation: there is a demand for
that kind of media texts. It turned out that 5.1 % (ACTI students) to 6.6 % (TMEI students) contact
with media education texts daily. From 19.6 % to 28.8 % of students try and do that several times a
week/month. However, as we had anticipated, the vast majority of young people - from 66.1 %
(ACTI) to 73.8 % (TMEI) never have anything to do with media literacy texts. Focus group
214
discussions showed that the respondents, in the first place, read the texts related to technical,
computer learning aids, and do not differentiate between media education and computer literacy.
Our research has affirmed the tendencies, that had been revealed in previous researches
(Ashley et al., 2013; Downey et. Al, 2014; Fantin, 2010; Korochensky, 2003; Marchessault, 2014;
Myasnikova, 2010; Sparks, 2013; Potter, 2014).
Noticeably, a high level of motivational index is demonstrated, as a rule, by less than a
quarter of young audience. Whereas a considerably larger number of respondents - about a half -
has a low level of motivational parameter.
Our research findings proved that the high frequency of contacts with media and high level of
motivational index are not directly linked with the high level of comprehensive media texts
analysis. Although the information and motivational index levels of media competence are
reflected on levels of interpretation/evaluation parameter.
We have also acknowledged a tendency that a high level of media competence's information
index does not necessarily correspond to an equally high level of evaluation index. Therefore,
awareness of media terms, theory and history of media culture and media criticism does not
automatically foster analytical skills related to media texts.
The high level of media competence's information index was not demonstrated by a single
student of two universities surveyed that is characteristic of non-media studies departments. We
have found that half of respondents have a medium level of information index, that is they do have
some knowledge about media terminology, history and theory, gained through self education
or/and family education.
As far as the activity levels of media competence development are concerned, our analysis has
shown that they are rather similar to previous survey results (Fedorov, 2003; Myasnikova, 2010;
Soldatova, 2013; Zircon, 2013; Wilson et al., 2011; Tsymbalenko et al. 2013; Sourbati, 2009), when
a high level of this parameter was indicated by around a quarter of a similar age group respondents
(with male respondents slightly exceeding female ones).
5. Conclusion
In summary, we can draw a conclusion that our research demonstrates that modern students'
media competence in several parameters (motivational, information, interpretation/evaluation,
activity) needs to be considerably elevated. The development of the media competence’s above
mentioned parameters, in our opinion, is possible in the course of media education. Therefore,
university students (not less than school students) need to take media literacy courses. In that case
we can only speak about significant advancement of the UNESCO concept (Wilson et al., 2011)
about the synthesis of information and media literacy.
6. Support and acknowledgement

Science Foundation (RSF) project No. 14-18-00014 “Synthesis of media education and media
criticism in the preparation of future teachers," performed at Taganrog Management and
References
Ashley et al., 2013- Ashley S., Maksl A., Craft S. (2013). Developing a News Media Literacy
Scale. Journalism & Mass Communication Educator, 68 (1), 7–21.
Downey et al., 2014 - Downey J., Titley, G., Toynbee, J. (2014). Ideology Critique:
The Challenge for Media Studies. Media, Culture & Society, 36 (6), 878-887.
Fantin, 2010 - Fantin M. (2010). Literacy, Digital Literacy and Information Literacy.
International Journal of Digital Literacy and Digital Competence, 1(4), 10-15.
Fedorov, 2003 - Fedorov A. (2003). Media Education and Media Literacy: Experts’ Opinions.
MENTOR. A Media Education Curriculum for Teachers in the Mediterranean. Paris: UNESCO.
Fenton, 2009 - Fenton N. (2009). My Media Studies: Getting Political in a Global, Digital
Age. Television New Media, 10, 55-57.
Garcia-Ruiz et al., 2014 - Garcia-Ruiz R., Ramirez-Garcia A., Rodriguez-Rosell M.M. (2014).
Media Literacy Education for a New Prosumer Citizenship. Comunicar. 22 (43), 15-23.
215
Hammer, 2011 – Hammer R. (2011) Critical Media Literacy as Engaged Pedagogy.

E-Learning and Digital Media, 8(4), 357-363.
Hermes et al., 2013 - Hermes J., Van den Ber, A., Mol M. (2013). Sleeping with the Enemy:
Audience Studies and Critical Literacy. International Journal of Cultural Studies, 16 (5), 457–473.
Holt, Von Krogh, 2010 - Holt K., Von Krogh T. (2010). The Citizen as Media Critic in Periods
of Media Change. Observatorio Journal, 4 (4), 287-306.
Korochensky, 2003 - Korochensky A.P. (2003). Media Criticism in the Theory and Practice of
Journalism. Rostov: Rostov State University Press.
Marchessault, 2014 - Marchessault J. (2014). Media Studies as Interdisciplinary Exploration.
Journal of Visual Culture, 13, 82-84.
Myasnikova, 2010 - Myasnikova T.I. (2010). Comparative analysis of the media preferences
of Russian and German students: axiological perspective. Bulletin of the Orenburg State
University, 10, 25-32.
OFCOM, 2013 - OFCOM (2013). Children and Parents: Media Use and Attitudes. Report.
London: Ofcom.
Potter, 2014 - Potter W.J. (2014). Media literacy. LA: Sage.
Soldatova et al., 2013 - Soldatova G.U. et al. (2013). Digital competence of adolescents and
parents. The results of nationwide research. Moscow: Foundation for Internet Development.
Sourbati, 2009 - Sourbati M. (2009). Media Literacy and Universal Access in Europe.
The Information Society, 25, 248–254.
Sparks, 2013 - Sparks C. (2013). Global Media Studies: Its Development and Dilemmas.
Media, Culture & Society, 35(1), 121–131.
Tsymbalenko et al., 2013 - Tsymbalenko S.B., Sharikov A.V. et al (2013). Monitoring and
analysis of the Moscow informational and educational space: results of sociological research and
programming. Moscow: Moscow state University of Humanity.
Usov, 1989 - Usov Y.N. (1989). Film education as a means of aesthetic education and artistic
development of students. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Russian Academy of Education,
Moscow.
Wilson et al., 2011 - Wilson C., Grizzle A., Tuazon R. Akyempong K., Cheung C.-K. (2011).
Media and Information Literacy. Curriculum for Teachers. Paris: UNESCO.
Zircon, 2013- Zircon (2013). Current status and prospects of literacy of the population of the
Russian Federation on the basis of national monitoring of media conduct (2009-2013). Moscow:
Zircon.
216

European Researcher
ISSN 2219-8229
E-ISSN 2224-0136
Vol. 93, Is. 4, pp. 331-334, 2015
DOI: 10.13187/er.2015.93.331
www.erjournal.ru
UDC 37
Media Literacy Function in Critical Blogs
1 Alexander Fedorov
2 Anastasia Levitskaya
1 AntonChekhov Taganrog Institute, Russian Federation
Doctor of Pedagogic Sciences, Professor
2 Taganrog Management and Economics Institute, Russian Federation
PhD, Associate professor

Abstract
The Internet is widely recognized as playing an important role in facilitating education on a
range of issues, including media literacy. Analyzing the media critical activity of contemporary
Russian bloggers, the authors of the article reveal the following reasons for popularity or, on the
contrary, unpopularity of blogger's media criticism: targeted orientation, emotional charge,
entertainment nature, duration, interactiveness, multimedia mode, simplicity/complexity of the
language of a media text, the level of conformity.
Keywords: media criticism; media education; media literacy; media competence; analytical
thinking; ethics; media blogger.
Introduction
It is difficult to challenge the viewpoint that the new "hyper technological environment, this
deepening of communicative globalization, has not only altered the way we perceive and use time
and space, it has also changed the chemistry of our everyday life and our culture. This new life and
cultural chemistry fostered by the acceleration of the rapid configuration of huge, changing publics
is in fact generating chain reactions of an unheard of scope and complexity that we are still far from
being able to grasp. It is affecting our environment, our culture and also our way of being
individuals, our way of framing ourselves as human beings. Perhaps we are not prepared to wholly
explain the change, but we must examine it because it affects all the dimensions of our existence.
Perhaps this is an unprecedented mutation that will not only affect our environment but also
decisively influence our psyche and our character" [Perez Tornero, Varis, 2010, p. 13-14].
In fact, interactive media, engaging their user into the creating process, thus turning him/her
from a receiver/translator into a creator of media texts, have made a real breakthrough to a personal
freedom in mass information sphere. The degree of dependence of a person from the dictate of a media
message's producer has significantly decreased and the borders of choice have been broadened; the
personality's status and self esteem have been raised [Korkonosenko, 2013, p. 38].
331

S.V. Ushakova (2006) classified the forms of media contribution to the development of
citizens' media competence. According to her, there are two groups - of direct and of indirect
participation.
The forms of indirect participation include:
- self education of the audience during media exposure; additionally, broadening of one's
communicative experience;
- enhancement of the audience's media competence due to its cooperation with media
agencies as freelance correspondents, sources of journalistic information, and/or participants of
television/radio programs;
- release of periodicals and TV/radio programs by a media center in an educational
institution/club/community center;
- blogging - publishing discussion or informational posts on the World Wide Web;
- "self-press" - participation in publication of alternative (informal) periodicals;
- public, out-of-editorial body communication of journalists and other media sphere
specialists with representatives of the audience (in the form of special events, journalists' meetings
with public, television audiences, etc.).
In contrast, the forms of direct participation include:
- media education publications and programs in mass media;
- media journalists/ media critics articles, containing analysis, interpretation and evaluation
of the contents of mass media and the issues of their functioning in society;
- publishing periodical TV guides and film guides, targeted at the mass audience and aimed at
the development of basic abilities to perceive and evaluate audiovisual media texts (facilitated by
reading publications, related to the analysis of TV programs and films);
- publishing syllabi, lesson plans and other materials produced by public media monitoring
organizations and media activists - representatives of civic society;
- sections and columns in mass media aimed at maintaining the feedback with the audience,
and explaining the "inside" journalism policy of collecting, evaluating, and verifying the
information;
- ombudsmen's columns, inquiring into disputable cases of journalism [Ushakova, 2006].
Whereby, speaking about professional media criticism, the peculiarity of the current situation is
connected to the fact that some media critics, actively involved in press, also successfully collaborate with
electronic media as well, thus television criticism begins to acquire some synthetic forms, uniting political
analysis and dismantling internal corporate problems, political bias and the independent view, theoretical
analysis of the form and method, and superficial, tabloid-tinted simplistic view [Gureev, 2004].
One would think that such active media critics as Dmitry Bykov, working nearly 24/7 in press, on
TV and on the Internet, would fully get hold of the audiences' attention. However it is not happening -
there are quite a few media bloggers on the Internet who sometimes attract even more readers.
Conclusions
Why is bloggers' media criticism popular?
We suggest the following reasons for popularity or, vice versa, unpopularity of bloggers'
media criticism:
1) Targeted orientation: media texts of popular bloggers may be aimed at a broad audience (thus
potentially popular) or at a narrow circle, joined by thematic or other interests. Professional media
critics' texts, apart from being targeted at a wide audience, may be corporative, that is "can influence
comparatively small, but strategically important groups of audiences (journalists and top media
managers, teachers and students of journalism schools, working journalists, researchers in various
fields of social studies and humanities, and social activists), empowering them with new ideas and
approaches, new vision of common problems of media functioning" [Korochensky, 2003, p.33].
2) Duration: popular media bloggers' texts are usually short, and professional media critics'
texts, on the contrary, often require prolonged reading/listening, that, evidently, discourages the
concentration of an impatient part of the audience with a short attention span (especially, the young);
3) Interactiveness, multi-media mode: popular media bloggers' texts are often interactive.
Short texts are accompanied by photographs, video clips, links to other sites, etc. On the other
hand, professional media critics' texts, even on the web, resemble the format of print press;
332
4) Language. Popular media bloggers' texts are written in plain, understandable for a wide
audience, language; often without a deep analysis and logical structure. Meanwhile professional
media critics' texts are well structured, logical, and often aimed at media competent readers who
are aware of the social and cultural context of the issue, understand media language, and
specialized media terms, know the functions of media agencies, manipulative effects, the creative
work of media professionals, and so on.
5) Emotional charge. The texts written by media bloggers, in general, are clearly emotionally
charged. They sometimes contain sharp, straightforward judgments and comments, while
professional media critics' texts are characterized by the understatement, sometimes ambivalent,
(implicitly) ironic, reasonable, argumentative evaluation of the ethical, aesthetic and other
categories. Moreover, the media critics of older generation often act in the spirit of "enlightenment"
and development of good taste in their audience.
6) Entertainment. Popular media bloggers' texts frequently exploit the entertainment
function, while professional media critics' texts are occasionally too serious, or even pompous.
7) Conformity. On the one hand, non-conformist texts of media bloggers commonly oppose
any authority, criticize media personalities of any scale and position. On the other hand,
professional media critics avoid any personal attacks, they tend to use apophasis, they do not break
social taboos. That said, we encounter that both bloggers and professional journalists frequently
break social norms [Muratov, 2001], and are not shy to use abusive language, including obscene
lexis, in their political propaganda statements.
What does the above-said mean for the media education practice? In this sense, it implies that
besides the mass communications theory, the syllabi for media teachers' pre-service or in-service
education should include theoretical units on non-mass mediated communication - ranging from
auto-media communication and interpersonal communication to in-group and intergroup media
communication. This theoretical background should become a starting point for the development of
the new framework of media education both in schools and universities [Sharikov, 2012]. Bloggers'
media texts may become a useful teaching and learning tool for a modern teacher, the same as
traditional media texts, created by professionals working in press, on television, and on radio.
Acknowledgement
The article is written within the framework of a study supported by the grant of the Russian
References:
1. Gureev, M. Does modern television criticism exist? // Culture. 2004. № 44.
2. Korkonosenko, S.G. Journalism education: the need for pedagogical conceptualization
// International journal of experimental education. 2013. №1, pp. 38-41.
3. Korochensky, A.P. Media criticism in the theory and practice of journalism. Ph.D. dis.
4. Muratov, S.A. TV - the evolution of intolerance. Moscow: Logos, 2001. 240 p.
5. Sharikov, A.V. On the need for reconceptualization of media education // Media
Education. 2013. № 4.
6. Ushakova, S.V. The role of journalism in the development of media culture of the
audience // Journalism and Media Education in the XXI century. Belgorod: Belgorod State
University, 2006.
333
УДК 37
Медиаобразовательная функция блогерской медиакритики

1 Александр Федоров
2 Анастасия Левицкая
1 Таганрогский институт имени А.П. Чехова, Российская Федерация
2 Таганрогский институт управления и экономики, Российская Федерация
Кандидат педагогических наук, доцент

Аннотация. Анализируя медиакритическую деятельность современных российских

блоггеров, авторы статьи выявили следующие причины популярности или, наоборот,
непопулярности блоггерской медиакритики: целевые ориентации, эмоциональность,
развлекательный характер, продолжительность, интерактивность, мультимедиахарактер,
простота/сложность языка медиатекста.
Ключевые слова: медиа; медиакритика; медиаобразование; медиаграмотность;
медиакомпетентность; аналитическое мышление; этика; средства массовой информации;
блоггер.
334

Researcher
ISSN 2304-9650
E-ISSN 2305-6746
Vol. 16, Is. 2, pp. 205-216, 2016
DOI: 10.13187/ejced.2016.16.205
www.ejournal1.com

UDC 37
Modern Media Criticism and Media Literacy Education:

The Opinions of Russian University Students
Alexander Fedorov a , * , Anastasia Levitskaya b

a Anton Chekhov Taganrog Institute (branch of Rostov State Economic University),
Russian Federation
Abstract
The authors analyze the results of two universities students' survey aimed at finding out the
respondents' media competence levels. The findings confirm a general tendency, that commonly,
less than a quarter of the young audience reveals a high level development of the media
competence's motivational index. A considerably larger part of respondents, about a half,
demonstrates a low level of the motivational index. The analysis of the received data proves that a
high degree of the media contact frequency and a high level of media competence’s motivational
index are not directly linked with an ability level to analyze a media text comprehensively.
Nevertheless, the levels of interpretational/evaluation parameters of the audience's media
competence to a large extent reflect the levels of their informational and motivational descriptors.
Moreover, it turns out that the high level of informational index does not necessarily correlate to
the level of media competence’s evaluation index. On the whole, the survey shows that media
competence of modern students needs to be developed. Therefore, university students (not less
that school students) do need media literacy courses.
Keywords: media literacy, education, media criticism, students, Russia, university, survey.
E-mail addresses: 1954alex@mail.ru (A. Fedorov), a.levitskaya@tmei.ru (A. Levitskaya)
205
1. Introduction
The students' survey was organized in order to find out levels of the audience’s media
competence (with emphasis on the synthesis of media education and criticism). Media competence
is defined as a complex of motives, knowledge, skills, abilities (descriptors: contact, motivational,
informational, interpretation/evaluation, activity), facilitating the choice, use, critical analysis,
evaluation, creation and communicating media texts in different forms, types and genres, analysis
of the media functioning in society (Ashley et al., 2013; Downey et al., 2014; Fantin, 2010; Fedorov,
2003; Korochensky, 2003; Marchessault, 2014; Myasnikova, 2010; Potter, 2014; Soldatova, 2013;
Sourbati, 2009; Sparks, 2013; Tsymbalenko et al., 2013; Wilson et al., 2011; Zircon, 2013).
While developing most of the units of questions and assignments we deliberately chose the
close form of a questionnaire (so that a question was followed by several options to choose from).
This decision is explained by the fact that most students are as a rule not able to provide clear and
brief argumentation for their viewpoint on media preferences. Therefore several most probable
variants of an answer were offered. Moreover, close questionnaires take less time to fill out for the
respondents, and can fit in within the time limit of a class period.
The differentiation of media competence levels is based on the classification of media
competence levels (the audience's development in the media culture sphere). According to it,
audiences are offered 5 main units of questions and assignments:
 the unit of questions for ascertaining the media competence’s contact index level (frequency
of contacts with different types of media, media criticism and media literacy texts);
 the unit of questions to determine motivational level of the audience's media competence
(genre, thematic, psychological, therapeutic, emotional, gnoseological, moral, intellectual, creative,
and aesthetical motives that effect the audience's choice to contact various media texts);
 the unit of questions to discover the informational level (knowledge of terminology, history
and theory of media culture, media education and media criticism) of the audience's media
competence;
 the unit of analytical assignments to determine the interpretation/evaluation level of the
audience's media competence;
 the unit of assignments to ascertain the activity (practical, hands-on) index of the
audience's media competence.
2. Materials and Methods

The following respondents took part in the survey:
 61 first and second year students of Taganrog Management and Economics Institute
(respondents only participating in summative experiment), including 38 young women and
23 young men;
 59 first and second year students of Anton Chekhov Taganrog Institute (respondents,
participating both in summative and formative experiments), including 39 female and 20 male
students.
The aim of ascertaining the media competence’s contact index level: to determine the
frequency of contacts of the audience with various types of media. Gained results reflect the degree
of respondents' involvement with media culture, media critics and educators' texts.
Each respondent was offered to choose an option characteristic of his/her frequency of contacts
with different media (press, TV, radio, Internet, etc.).
While determining the contact level we decided to consider the following scale:
 high level: respondent’s daily contacts with media texts;
 medium level: respondent's contact vary from several times a week to a month;
 low level: rare contacts with media or total isolation from media.
It is clear that the content of such contacts is affected by media competence’s motivational
factor. However, according to our hypothesis, such influence is not direct: i.e. single contacts with
media do not necessarily mean that a respondent possesses a wide spectrum of media motives and
vice versa.
The aim of determining motivational index levels was to ascertain most popular with the
audience contact motives (genre, thematic, psychological, therapeutic, emotional, gnoseological,
206
moral, intellectual, aesthetical, functional) with media texts (including media critics' texts and
media educational texts).
While determining the motivational index levels of media competence development, we
defined:
 high level as a wide complex of genre, thematic, emotional, hedonistic, intellectual, creative,
psychological, aesthetical motives (including: choice of various genre and thematic spectrum, in
particular including non-entertaining genres; pursuit for philosophical/intellectual, aesthetic
challenge/dialogue with a media text's creators, criticism; identification, sympathy; quest for
aesthetical impressions; quest for new information; for proving own competence in various spheres
of life and media culture; search for material for study, research objectives, etc.);
 medium level as a complex of genre, thematic, emotional, hedonistic, intellectual, creative,
psychological, aesthetical motives, including: the choice of rather varied genre and thematic range,
search for study/research materials; however without significant evidence of pursuit for
philosophical/intellectual, aesthetical challenge/dialogue with media text's creators;
 low level: narrow range of genre, thematic, emotional, hedonistic, psychological motives,
mainly the choice of entertainment genre; pursuit for compensation, for psychological "treatment";
search for suspense, recreation, absence of aesthetical, intellectual, creative motives of contacts
with media texts.
Achieved results help us to account for audiences’ real preferences, take into consideration
concrete media genres and themes, that the audiences are motivated by, and therefore, are
considerably affected (morally and psychologically). These findings need to be compared with the
written creative assignments, and interviews, in order to more specifically ascertain audiences’ self
evaluation of preferences and underpinning grounds, as revealed by the research.
At this stage students were offered a list of media genres and functions (press, radio,
television, Internet, video games, etc.) to choose the ones they prefer. Respondents were also
presented a list of psychological, therapeutical, emotional, gnoseological, moral, intellectual,
creative, and aesthetic motives of contacts with media texts. Knowing media genre and functions
direction, chosen by the respondents, with high degree of probability we were able to suppose the
types of most important motives of contacts with media. For example, if a person prefers
entertainment, blockbuster media, he/she is likely to choose the search for recreation,
entertainment, suspense, as his/her main motives for media contacts.
Detection of informational index level was aimed at discovering the audience's knowledge of
terminology, history, and theory of media culture, media education, and media criticism. Students
were asked to answer 22 questions. While defining media competence’s informational index levels,
we agreed upon:
 high level: more than 75 % of correct answers;
 medium level: more than 50 % of correct answers;
 low level: less than 50 % of correct answers.
Of course, there is a linkage between levels of contact, motivational and informational
factors. A person not contacting with media, cannot possess any information about media culture.
However, according to our hypothesis, a high level of contact and motivational descriptors of media
competence can combine with a low/medium level of informational index and vice versa.
Undoubtedly, a survey based on the multiple choice questions, is always limited by a chance
of getting a correct answer unfairly, a guess, not based on real knowledge. Moreover, some
respondents might even cheat. Therefore, the results of the tests were validated later by additional
individual analytical and creative tasks, and interviews.
While working on determining the levels of interpretation/evaluation index we agreed upon
the following scale:
 high level: media texts analysis is based on the ability to relate with its author, ability to
analyze and synthesize space and time form of a media text; understanding, interpretation, and
evaluation of the author's concept in the context of a media text's structure; the ability to correlate
emotional appreciation with the conceptual judgment, to transfer this opinion onto other media
culture types; to connect a media text with own experience and other people's experience;
 medium level: ability to characterize a media character’s behavior and psychological state;
using fragments of knowledge to be able to explain the logics of the events in the plot, ability to
207
comment on some components of a media image; absence of the interpretation of the author's
stance (or its simplistic interpretation);
 low level: naive comprehension of a media text, poor knowledge of media language,
incomprehensibly expressed opinions, conformity to other opinions, neither interpretation of
characters' and authors' positions, nor their evaluation.
We gave to the respondents the choice between three topics for writing assignments:
a) "Audiovisual media text that impressed me",
b) "Audiovisual media text that influenced my self esteem and/or relation to other people",
c) "Analysis of a single episode from an impressive media text".
Respondents had to choose one topic and write a 3-4 page essay. According to Usov (1989),
the very choice of the topic can indirectly testify of the interpretation/evaluation index level of a
respondent’s media competence: option c), as a rule, is chosen by respondents with higher level of
interpretation/evaluation parameter. With that, it is logical to suppose that the motivational index
level of media competence is considerably linked with the interpretation/evaluation index level.
That is, the more varied media contact motives are (including intellectual and aesthetic
components), the higher his/her level of media competence’s interpretation/evaluation index.
While ascertaining levels of media competence’s activity factor, i.e. practical/hands-on skills
to create and communicate media texts of various types and genres, we agreed upon the following:
 high level: independent/autonomous skills to create media texts of various types and
genres;
 medium level: practical skills of media texts creation with the help of
teachers/experts/peers;
 low level: practical skills are deficient.
The audience was offered to do several hands-on tasks aimed at a media text creation
(video/photo, layout of a poster, etc.). Noticeably, a high level of activity parameter can combine
with a low/medium level of interpretation/evaluation index and vice versa.
3. Results
Table 1. Classification of Contact Index Levels

High 73.7 95.7 82.0 84.5 80.0 83.1

Medium 23.7 4.3 16.4 12.9 15.0 13.5
Low 2.6 0.0 1.6 2.6 5.0 3.4
Table 1 data testify that there is no big difference between the media contact levels of the
students in two universities (control and experimental groups). Over 80 % of the respondents show
high (daily) level of contact index. However, from the start, we didn't consider the contact index as
an ultimate parameter for media competence. Certainly, a respondent never contacting with media,
cannot be media competent. Nevertheless, the highest level of contacts cannot guarantee a high
level of media competence if a person does not acquire analytical skills.
On the other hand, there are less than 4 % of the students who show a low level of contact
index providing evidence that our category of respondents cannot imagine their life without media.
208
Table 2. Classification of the Contact Levels Index of the Students' Media Competence
Development Related to Media Critics' Texts

High 10.4 8.7 9.8 12.8 10.0 11.9

Medium 44.8 43.5 44.2 61.6 45.0 55.9
Low 44.8 47.8 46.0 25.6 45.0 32.2
The Table 2 data indicate that on the whole there is no significant difference between the
contact levels with media criticism texts between two universities (control and experimental
groups). Less than 12 % show high (daily) level of contact with media criticism texts. On the other
hand, students revealing medium contact level comprise from 42.2 % to 55.9 %, so about half of the
given respondents category in that or another way (several times a week/a month) do
read/listen/watch media critics' texts.
Table 3. Classification of Contact Levels Index of the Media Competence Development Related to
Media Education Texts

High 2.6 13.1 6.6 0.0 15.0 5.1

Medium 21.1 17.4 19.6 33.3 20.0 28.8
Low 76.3 69.5 73.8 66.7 65.0 66.1
The data of Table 3 attests no significant difference between levels of contact related to media
education texts expressed by the students in two universities (control and experimental groups).
On the whole, less than 7 % of them reveal a high (daily) level of contact related to media education
texts. On the other hand, there are 19.6 % to 28.8 % of students who manifest medium level, which
testifies that nearly one quarter of respondents do address media education texts several times a
week/month.
Table 4. Classification of the Motivation Index of Students' Media Competence Development

motivational and Economics Institute students: Institute students:
index control group (%) experimental group (%)
High 15.8 17.4 16.4 17.9 15.0 17.0

Medium 28.9 30.4 29.5 25.7 30.0 27.1
Low 55.3 52.2 54.1 56.4 55.0 55.9
Table 4 data show that a high level of media competence’s motivational index development,
i.e. a wide complex of genre, thematic, emotional, gnoseological, hedonistic, intellectual,
psychological, creative, aesthetic motives (including: choice of various genre and thematic
spectrum of media texts, in particular including non-entertaining genres; pursuit for
philosophical/intellectual, aesthetic challenge/dialogue with a media text's creators, criticism;
209
identification, sympathy; quest for aesthetical impressions; quest for new information; for proving
own competence in various spheres of life and media culture; search for material for study,
research objectives, etc.) is only expressed by 16–17 % of the students (with no significant gender
differentiation). And vice versa, a lot more respondents – ranging from 54.1 % (Taganrog
Management and Economics Institute) up to 55.9 % (Anton Chekhov Taganrog Institute) show a
low level of motivational parameter, meaning a narrow spectrum of genre, thematic, emotional,
hedonistic, psychological motives, including: the choice of media texts that are of strictly
entertaining genres and themes; pursuit of compensation; pursuit of psychological "therapy";
longing for thrill; recreation, entertainment and absence of aesthetical, intellectual, or creative
reasons of contacts with media).
Herewith, a deeper study of the findings showed that the students of two Russian universities
- Taganrog Management and Economics Institute (further: TMEI) and Anton Chekhov Taganrog
Institute (further: ACTI) - are attracted by the following genres most:
 comedy – from 77.1 % (TMEI) to 76.3 % (ACTI);
 science fiction – from 55.8 % (TMEI) to 59.3 % (ACTI);
 thriller – from 49.1 % (TMEI) to 40.7 % (ACTI);
 detective – from 45.9 % (TMEI) to 47.5 % (ACTI).
As far as the gender is concerned, it turns out that the number of male students preferring
such entertaining genres as science fiction, thriller and a detective story, is somewhat higher than
the number of female ones:
 science fiction: 60.9 % of male students and 52.7 % female students (TMEI); 60 % of male
students and 59 % of female students (ACTI);
 thriller: 60.9 % of males and 42.2 % of females (TMEI); 45.0 % of male students and 38.5 %
of female students (ACTI);
 detective genre: 47.8 % of male students and 44.8 % of females (TMEI); 50.0 % of male and
46.2 % of female students (ACTI).
At the same time, female students prefer a sentimental melodrama genre: 17.4 % of male
preferences vs. 42.2 % of female preferences (TMEI); 15.0 % of male preferences vs. 53.8 % of
female preferences (ACTI).
The following genres became outsiders:
 musical comedy - from 1.6 % (preferences of students of TMEI) to 5.1 % (ACTI);
 operetta - from 1.7 % (preferences of students of TMEI) to 6.8 % (ACTI);
 opera - from 5.0 % (preferences of students of TMEI) to 11.9 % (ACTI);
 satire - from 5.0 % (preferences of students of TMEI) to 18.6 % (ACTI).
Subsequent talks with the respondents in focus groups showed that modern students
perceive opera and operetta as archaic, boring genres; and they appreciate not satire in comedies
but pure entertainment (gags, tricks, funny jokes, stand-up comedian acts, etc.).
The answer of the students of two Russian institutes - TMEI and ACTI - to the question about
the appealing functions in print/audiovisual media texts, media critics' works, media education
literature (in press, Internet, radio or TV), has considerably assisted us to correlate them to
previously expressed genre preferences.
The analysis of students' answers demonstrates that the most popular function of media texts
is a recreational one: 60.7 % of TMEI students (at that this function is 20 % more popular with
female respondents than with male ones) and 52.5 % of ACTI students (without significant genre
difference).
Then follow:
 information-communicative function (46.0 % of students' answers in TMEI; 28.8 % of
students' answers in ACTI, no big gender difference);
 aesthetical, artistic function (41.0 % of TMEI students, with females prevailing by 23.9 %;
and 44.1 % of ACTI students’ preferences, with female answers prevailing 21.3 %).
Gender differences are visible in the answers about other functions of media texts:
 analytical function: 60.9 % of male TMEI students vs. 15.8 % of female students; 35.0 % of
male ACTI students vs. 28.2 % of female students;
210
 ideological, political function: the function is popular with 39.1 % of male TMEI and 26.3 %
female students, while in ACTI – 15.2 % of male vs. 28.2 % of female students;
 aesthetical function: in TMEI it is favoured by 30.4 % male and 18.5 % female students,
while in ACTI this function is popular with 20.0 % of male respondents and 10.3 % of female ones;
 advertising / commercial function: 4.3 % of male and 15.8 % of female TMEI students;
30.0 % of male and 15.4 % of female respondents in ACTI marked this function.
Let us bear in mind that the analysis of genre motivation showed that on the whole,
entertaining media texts ranked from 45.9 % to 77.0 %, that correlates to popularity of the
recreational function with the surveyed audience. The smallest number of votes (1.6–1.7 %) of both
universities' students was collected by the regulatory-corporation function of media texts. We have
expected that because our survey group was not a media-related major, but comprised of future
managers, economists, lawyers, and teachers who are not very keen on professional backstage of
media industry.
Answering the question of what main psychological, intellectual, creative, aesthetic, etc.
motives of the students' contacts with media critics’ works, are, revealed the following leading
motives:
 pursuit to access new information – 82.0 % (preferences of TMEI students, with female
students' answers prevailing 13.0 %) and 67 % (ACTI students with female answers prevailing by
26.9 %);
 search for entertainment, recreation - 60.7 % (TMEI students, with 20.7 % more female
answers than male ones) and 52.5 % of ACTI students, without significant gender differentiation;
 search for aesthetical, artistic impressions – 44.3 % (preferences of TMEI students, with
female voices dominating by 22.3 %) and 41.1 % (preferences of ACTI students, with female
students dominating by 21.3 %);
 longing for spending one's free time - from 29.5 % (TMEI students with female voices
exceeding male ones by 12.6 %) to 32.2 % (ACTI students with no big gender difference).
On the whole, the students' aspiration for entertainment and recreation (60.7 %) and relaxed
way of watching/listening media (29.5 %) correlates to students' preferences of entertaining media
genres and functions.
The less number of students' voices was received by:
 aspiration for improving one's skills in media literacy – 2.6 % (TMEI students) and 1.9 %
(ACTI students);
 pursuit of developing one's knowledge in media education - 4.4 % of TMEI students and
3.2 % of ACTI students.
To sum up, the low motivation of students to gain knowledge and skills in the field of media
literacy was something we had expected because the survey was conducted with 1-2 year students
who had never taken a media education course.
Table 5. Classification of the Informational Index Levels

information and Economics Institute Institute students:
index students: control group (%) experimental group (%)
High 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0

Medium 55.3 52.2 54.1 51.3 55.0 52.5
Low 44.7 47.8 45.9 48.7 45.0 47.5
The detection of the information index levels of TMEI and ACTI students' media competence
development was conducted with the help of a test. The testing procedure with the developed
questions (see Appendix) had some vulnerable spots. On the one hand, the test format contains the
opportunity of guessing (intuitive or logic – by eliminating most ambiguous answers) the right
answer with the probability of 25 %. On the other hand, during the testing there might have
occurred cheating or prompting by some participants. However, the test results were verified by
211
the finding of focus groups and face-to-face interviews that to a large extent facilitated the
clarification and validation of students' competence levels.
None of the students questioned demonstrated the high level of media competence
development’s information index (which was assigned as 75–100 % of correct answers to questions
related to terminology, history and theory of media, media culture, media criticism and media
education). About 52–54 % of surveyed students showed a medium level of the information
parameter (without significant gender differences between the respondents). 45-47 % of the
students revealed a low level of media competence's information index that is they were able to give
less than 50 % of correct answers. Herewith, the minimal number of correct answers (less than
40 %) was received to the questions connected to the knowledge of media specialists' activities,
media educators, media theories, and a media text production stages.
Completing a phrase "Media criticism is ..." from 65.6 % (TMEI students) to 69.5 % (ACTI
students) could choose a correct answer out of four suggested. Preliminary conversations with
students in focus groups showed that without multiple choice options they, as a rule, found it hard
to give a definition to media criticism. Still, we should note that even having a correct answer as
one of the options, one third of the students could not detect it.
Completing a sentence “Media culture is...”, from 85.3 % of TMEI students to 89.8 % of ACTI
students were able to choose a correct answer out of the four given options. However, as focus
groups had previously revealed, without ready answers to choose from, students were at a loss.
Completing a definition for media education, from 77.1 % of TMEI students to 83.0 % of
ACTI students could choose a correct answer. But again, the same question in focus groups was
difficult for the participants.
Finishing a phrase "Media perception is...", 72.1 % of TMEI students and 69.5 % of ACTI
students chose the correct option. As before, they had difficulty giving this definition without
suggested answers in focus groups.
Completing a phrase "Media language is..." 91.8 % of TMEI students and 83.0 % of ACTI
students surveyed could choose the correct answer out of the four provided. Nevertheless,
preliminary conversations with students in focus groups showed that without multiple choice
options they, as a rule, found it hard to give a definition.
Completing a definition for media competence, 62.3 % of TMEI students and 59.3 % of ACTI
students chose the right answer. 64.0 % of TMEI students and 52.5 % of ACTI students were able
to differentiate a correct answer while completing a sentence "Media text is...".
Matching a "story line" with its definition, 62.3 % of TMEI students and 47.4 % of ACTI
students recognized the correct answer out of the four offered options. 72.1 % TMEI and 67.8 %
ACTI students gave the correct answer continuing the phrase "Manipulative influence of media
is...".
When answering a question about the workplace of a media critic, 72.1 % of TMEI students
and 67.8 % of ACTI students gave the correct answer. We should remember that the latter and all
of the above listed questions raised problems when they were asked in focus groups with no
multiple choice options. Therefore, the students' choice during a test is more likely a result of
logical comparison of the suggested options for choice (the so called "test-wiseness"), but not of the
real knowledge. Moreover, a test's major weakness is that it promotes guessing (one can get 25 %
by choosing all "a"s or "b"s , etc.). So it should be stressed, that the test results have been balanced
with other forms of research.
Answering the question about the job of a media teacher, 37.7 % of TMEI students and
50.8 % of ACTI students got the right answer. Choosing a surname of a researcher who had
introduced the media theory concept of the "global village", only one third – 37.7 % of TMEI
students and 37.3 % of ACTI students chose the correct answer. While in focus groups none of the
participants could remember the name of Marshall McLuhan as its author.
Looking for a term not related to media culture, media criticism or education, 70.5 % (TMEI
students) and 72.9 % (ACTI students) were able to choose the correct answer.
However, identifying skills, not related to media culture, media criticism or education, only
14.8 % of Management and Economics Institute, and 27.1 % of ACTI were able to choose the
correct answer out of the four options. Another rather low result was shown by the choice of the
media-related "wrong sentence": only 34.4 % of TMEI students and 50.8 % of ACTI students could
identify the correct answer.
212
While answering the question, which of the following theories of media is based on the idea
of strong, direct impact of a media text on the audience, the impact that provokes immediate
reaction, only 34.4 % of respondents from TMEI and 32.2 % of ACTI students chose the correct
answer (inoculatory approach). Answering the question, which of the suggested media theories is
based on studying sign systems, only 39.4 % of TMEI students and 52.5 % of ACTI students
surveyed identified semiotic theory as the correct one.
Choosing the correct phrase (out of 4 options) connected to media criticism, 19.7 % of TMEI
students and 18.6 % of ACTI students were able to find it. Answering the question about what
media critic's writing about television, only 16.4 % and 23.7 % (students of TMEI and ACTI,
correspondently) identified the right person. When doing the assignment to re-arrange the stages
of an audiovisual or print media critic's text in the logical sequence, only 39.3 % of TMEI and
23.7 % of ACTI students coped with the task.
Table 6. Classification of the Interpretation/evaluation Index Levels

interpretation/ and Economics Institute students: Institute students:
evaluation control group (%) experimental group (%)
index Female Male Total Female Male Total
High 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0

Medium 76.3 73.9 75.4 76.9 75.0 76.3
Low 23.7 26.1 24.6 23.1 25.0 23.7
Exposure of the interpretation/evaluation index levels was conducted through the

assignments related to the analysis of various media texts.
As a result (Table 6) it turned out that none of the respondents demonstrated a high level of
interpretation/evaluation index. The high level presumes a media text’s analysis based on the
ability to relate to its author, analysis and synthesis of the space and time form, its understanding,
interpretation and evaluation of the author's concept in the context of a media text’s structure; the
ability to correlate emotional perception with concept opinion, to transfer this opinion onto other
genres and types of media culture, to relate a media text with own experience or experience of
other people.
The medium level of media competence development’s interpretation/evaluation index
assumes the ability to characterize characters' behaviour and psychological state on the basis of
rudimentary knowledge; the ability to explain the logic of the events sequence in a plot; the ability
to dwell on some components of a media image; lack of an author's stance interpretation (or its
simplistic interpretation). The medium level was demonstrated by 75-76 % of students without a
significant gender difference in both universities.
The low level of interpretation/evaluation parameter presumes a naive, realistic perception of
a media text's story line, unawareness of media language peculiarities, inconsistency, confusion of
opinions, dependency on peer influence; simplistic interpretation of characters' positions and the
author's stance. This level was shown approximately by a quarter of respondents in both
universities.
Table 7. Classification of Activity Index Levels
Activity index Taganrog Management Anton Chekhov Taganrog

levels and Economics Institute students: Institute students:
High 28.9 34.8 31.2 25.6 30.0 27.1

Medium 55.3 56.5 55.7 56.4 60.0 57.6
Low 15.8 8.7 13.1 18.0 10.0 15.3
213
The identification of activity index levels was realized in the course of analysis of their
assignments targeted at creation and communication of media texts’ various forms and genres.
On the whole (Table 7), the high level of the activity index (practical skills to create a media
text) was demonstrated by 27-31 % of students. With that male students prevailed by 5 %
approximately.
The medium level of activity parameter (hands-on skills to create a media text with the help
of a teacher/specialist/other people) was revealed by about a half of the students, with male
respondents outnumbering female ones by 1-4 %.
The low level of activity index (inability to create a media text or unwillingness to do it) was
shown by 13-15 % of students, with female students prevailing by 7-8 %.
4. Discussion
Validness of our findings can be proved by the research results of Moscow sociological group
"Zircon" under the title "Current state and perspectives of media literacy of the Russian citizens
based on the national monitoring of media behavior (2009-2013)" which was initiated by the
Ministry of Communications and Mass Media of the Russian Federation and used the volume of
1600 respondents (representative sample). The surveys were held annually in five stages from
2009 to 2013. As reported by "Zircon", on average, over 80 % of Russian population watch
television (i.e. contact with television media texts) daily (Zircon, 2013).
If we address the survey results of teenagers’ Internet contacts, held by the research group
headed by G. Soldatova in 2013 (1203 teenagers aged 12-17 were questioned, living in 58 Russian
cities with the population of 100 thousand people and more, from 45 regions and 8 federal areas),
we'll see that Russian teens somewhat surpass both adults and university students as far as the
frequency of contacts with media texts is concerned. 89 % of teenagers use Internet daily
(Soldatova, 2013). Similar findings were gained by other Russian (Tsymbalenko et al., 2013),
British (Ofcom, 2013) researches of teenagers' media behavior, and others media researches
(Fenton, 2009; Garcia-Ruiz, Ramirez-Garcia, Rodriguez-Rosell, 2014; Hammer, 2011; Hermes et
al., 2013; Holt, & Von Krogh, 2010).
The comparative analysis of the students’ answers in two Russian universities – Taganrog
Management and Economics Institute and Anton Chekhov Taganrog Institute - to the question
about the frequency of their contacts with media texts showed that on average, over 80 % of
students (82.0 % in TMEI and 83.0 % in ACTI) contact with media on a daily basis. On the whole,
the findings verify the results of many sociological surveys (Fedorov, 2003; Myasnikova, 2010;
Zircon, 2013; Ofcom, 2013), held in different years. The level of media contacts is very high, while
entertaining genres dominate in their preferences. Male respondents to a larger degree than female
prefer action/thriller genres, female respondents tend to favor melodramas.
At the same time, as far as we know, neither in Russia, nor in other countries, a research of
audience's (including students') contacts with media criticism was conducted. Comparative
analysis of students' answers testifies the degree of demand for print and audiovisual media critics'
texts: without a significant gender difference, it turned out that from 9.8 % (TMEI students) to
11.9 % (ACTI students) have such contacts daily. Another 42-55 % students read/listen/watch
media critical text several times a week/month. Still, as we had anticipated, there are young people
in both universities who rarely or never contact media critics' messages: ranging from 32 to 47 %.
Focus groups conversations showed that the respondents in the first place, contact with texts of
popular but "amateur" media bloggers (who review latest films and computer games, videos, etc.),
because these texts are easier and more understandable for them than texts of media professionals.
As far as the research of audience's contacts with media literacy texts, we also have not found
the previously done similar surveys in Russia or elsewhere. Before conducting a survey, we took
into account that the first or second year students had not studied any media literacy course yet,
therefore a percentage of respondents who contacted media education texts on a regular basis
would be very low. However the findings corrected our initial expectation: there is a demand for
that kind of media texts. It turned out that 5.1 % (ACTI students) to 6.6 % (TMEI students) contact
with media education texts daily. From 19.6 % to 28.8 % of students try and do that several times a
week/month. However, as we had anticipated, the vast majority of young people - from 66.1 %
(ACTI) to 73.8 % (TMEI) never have anything to do with media literacy texts. Focus group
214
discussions showed that the respondents, in the first place, read the texts related to technical,
computer learning aids, and do not differentiate between media education and computer literacy.
Our research has affirmed the tendencies, that had been revealed in previous researches
(Ashley et al., 2013; Downey et. Al, 2014; Fantin, 2010; Korochensky, 2003; Marchessault, 2014;
Myasnikova, 2010; Sparks, 2013; Potter, 2014).
Noticeably, a high level of motivational index is demonstrated, as a rule, by less than a
quarter of young audience. Whereas a considerably larger number of respondents - about a half -
has a low level of motivational parameter.
Our research findings proved that the high frequency of contacts with media and high level of
motivational index are not directly linked with the high level of comprehensive media texts
analysis. Although the information and motivational index levels of media competence are
reflected on levels of interpretation/evaluation parameter.
We have also acknowledged a tendency that a high level of media competence's information
index does not necessarily correspond to an equally high level of evaluation index. Therefore,
awareness of media terms, theory and history of media culture and media criticism does not
automatically foster analytical skills related to media texts.
The high level of media competence's information index was not demonstrated by a single
student of two universities surveyed that is characteristic of non-media studies departments. We
have found that half of respondents have a medium level of information index, that is they do have
some knowledge about media terminology, history and theory, gained through self education
or/and family education.
As far as the activity levels of media competence development are concerned, our analysis has
shown that they are rather similar to previous survey results (Fedorov, 2003; Myasnikova, 2010;
Soldatova, 2013; Zircon, 2013; Wilson et al., 2011; Tsymbalenko et al. 2013; Sourbati, 2009), when
a high level of this parameter was indicated by around a quarter of a similar age group respondents
(with male respondents slightly exceeding female ones).
5. Conclusion
In summary, we can draw a conclusion that our research demonstrates that modern students'
media competence in several parameters (motivational, information, interpretation/evaluation,
activity) needs to be considerably elevated. The development of the media competence’s above
mentioned parameters, in our opinion, is possible in the course of media education. Therefore,
university students (not less than school students) need to take media literacy courses. In that case
we can only speak about significant advancement of the UNESCO concept (Wilson et al., 2011)
about the synthesis of information and media literacy.

Science Foundation (RSF) project No. 14-18-00014 “Synthesis of media education and media
References
Ashley et al., 2013- Ashley S., Maksl A., Craft S. (2013). Developing a News Media Literacy
Scale. Journalism & Mass Communication Educator, 68 (1), 7–21.
Downey et al., 2014 - Downey J., Titley, G., Toynbee, J. (2014). Ideology Critique:
The Challenge for Media Studies. Media, Culture & Society, 36 (6), 878-887.
Fantin, 2010 - Fantin M. (2010). Literacy, Digital Literacy and Information Literacy.
International Journal of Digital Literacy and Digital Competence, 1(4), 10-15.
Fedorov, 2003 - Fedorov A. (2003). Media Education and Media Literacy: Experts’ Opinions.
Fenton, 2009 - Fenton N. (2009). My Media Studies: Getting Political in a Global, Digital
Age. Television New Media, 10, 55-57.
Garcia-Ruiz et al., 2014 - Garcia-Ruiz R., Ramirez-Garcia A., Rodriguez-Rosell M.M. (2014).
Media Literacy Education for a New Prosumer Citizenship. Comunicar. 22 (43), 15-23.
215
Hammer, 2011 – Hammer R. (2011) Critical Media Literacy as Engaged Pedagogy.

E-Learning and Digital Media, 8(4), 357-363.
Hermes et al., 2013 - Hermes J., Van den Ber, A., Mol M. (2013). Sleeping with the Enemy:
Audience Studies and Critical Literacy. International Journal of Cultural Studies, 16 (5), 457–473.
Holt, Von Krogh, 2010 - Holt K., Von Krogh T. (2010). The Citizen as Media Critic in Periods
of Media Change. Observatorio Journal, 4 (4), 287-306.
Korochensky, 2003 - Korochensky A.P. (2003). Media Criticism in the Theory and Practice of
Journalism. Rostov: Rostov State University Press.
Marchessault, 2014 - Marchessault J. (2014). Media Studies as Interdisciplinary Exploration.
Journal of Visual Culture, 13, 82-84.
Myasnikova, 2010 - Myasnikova T.I. (2010). Comparative analysis of the media preferences
of Russian and German students: axiological perspective. Bulletin of the Orenburg State
University, 10, 25-32.
OFCOM, 2013 - OFCOM (2013). Children and Parents: Media Use and Attitudes. Report.
London: Ofcom.
Potter, 2014 - Potter W.J. (2014). Media literacy. LA: Sage.
Soldatova et al., 2013 - Soldatova G.U. et al. (2013). Digital competence of adolescents and
parents. The results of nationwide research. Moscow: Foundation for Internet Development.
Sourbati, 2009 - Sourbati M. (2009). Media Literacy and Universal Access in Europe.
The Information Society, 25, 248–254.
Sparks, 2013 - Sparks C. (2013). Global Media Studies: Its Development and Dilemmas.
Media, Culture & Society, 35(1), 121–131.
Tsymbalenko et al., 2013 - Tsymbalenko S.B., Sharikov A.V. et al (2013). Monitoring and
analysis of the Moscow informational and educational space: results of sociological research and
programming. Moscow: Moscow state University of Humanity.
Usov, 1989 - Usov Y.N. (1989). Film education as a means of aesthetic education and artistic
development of students. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Russian Academy of Education,
Moscow.
Wilson et al., 2011 - Wilson C., Grizzle A., Tuazon R. Akyempong K., Cheung C.-K. (2011).
Media and Information Literacy. Curriculum for Teachers. Paris: UNESCO.
Zircon, 2013- Zircon (2013). Current status and prospects of literacy of the population of the
Russian Federation on the basis of national monitoring of media conduct (2009-2013). Moscow:
Zircon.
216
Asian Journal of Social and Human Sciences, 2016, Vol.(1), Is. 1

Asian Journal of Social and Human Sciences
ISSN: хххх-хххх
Vol. 1, Is. 1, pp. 14-18, 2016
DOI: 10.13187/slave.2016.1.4
www.ejournal45.com
Autobiographical Analysis on Media Education Classes for Student Audience
aAnton Chekhov Taganrog Institute, branch of Rostov State University of Economics, Russian
Federation
Abstract
Autobiographical analysis – a comparison of person’s life experiences with the life experience
of media texts’ characters. This analytical approach is based on human associative memory (flashes
of memory) and helps the audience to understand the impact of media culture is critical for the
development of the human personality, contributes to the development of media competence.
The compensations of the feelings, missing in the person’s real life and experiences, are absolutely
natural. And the autobiographical analysis on media literacy education classes is associated with
the therapeutic effect and the phenomenon of compensation. The article presents the main
directions for autobiographical analysis on media education classes for student audience, including
the examples of creative problems and issues associated with this type of the analysis in the context
of media education problems, i.e. based on six key concepts of media literacy education: agency,
category, language, technology, audience, representation. The author thinks that the
autobiographical analysis of media texts on media education classes can significantly develop
media competence of students, including critical thinking and perception.
Keywords: autobiographical analysis, media, media texts, media education, media literacy,
media competence, students.
1. Introduction
Autobiographical analysis – a comparison of person’s life experiences with the life experience
of media texts’ characters. This analytical approach is based on human associative memory (flashes
of memory) and helps the audience to understand the impact of media culture is critical for the
development of the human personality, contributes to the development of media competence. The
compensations of the feelings, missing in the person’s real life and experiences, are absolutely
natural. And the autobiographical analysis on media literacy education classes is associated with
the therapeutic effect and the phenomenon of compensation.
The autobiographical analysis on media education classes in the student audience may apply
different tasks, activating critical and creative thinking of students, contributing to the
development of media competence.

The main material for this article was the area of the books and articles about the
autobiographical analysis of media texts. The method of the autobiographical analysis implies a
number of students of creative tasks.
14
3. Discussion
Cycle of literary creative tasks for autobiographical analysis of media texts in the classroom at
the student audience (Semali, 2000: 229-231; Berger, 2005: 125, 145, Fedorov, 2004; Fedorov,
2006: 175-228; Potter, 2014; Silverblatte, 2001; 2014) needs a number of students of creative tasks
(BFI, 1990; Buckingham, 2003; Berger, 2005:, 125; Fedorov, 2004, Potter, 2014; Silverblatt, 2001;
2014), but the cycle of tasks I significantly updated and revised. These tasks include analysis of the
key concepts of media literacy education [media agencies, media categories, media language,
media technologies, media representations, media audiences etc.].
4. Results
Media agencies (media agencies):
- imagine yourself as an employee of the media agency and create a detailed plan for a
hypothetical for publication or TV show.
- writing a mini-scenario on the subject of how you would behave in different situations in
the frame of comedy, drama, detective genre.
Media technologies:
- imagine yourself as an employee of the media agency and write the justification of the
technology of the future media text.
Media languages:
- imagine yourself as one of the media personalities, whose eyes "see" or "hear" this or that
event and write a mini-scenario on topics similar events seen / heard with the audiovisual language
"subjective view" (angle, size of plan, detail, strength, tone, sound, etc.).
- writing the story on behalf of the protagonist or secondary character of media texts,
presenting yourself in his place (identification, compassion, co-creation);
- imagine yourself in a role of a well-known media text, but to change certain of its
components (genre, song, time, place, action skills; age, nationality character, etc.), write an
imaginary monologue of such a character;
- imagine yourself as an inanimate object or animal, appearing in media texts, thus changing
the narrative perspective in a paradoxical, fantasy-eccentric side; write an imaginary "inner
monologue" of such a character;
- write mini-scenario about funniest, darkest, happy and most unbelievable stories from his
life;
- take in consideration the certain features of media text’s character and the facts of your life,
to come up with new media images of characters, their conversations, emotional and moral
conditions;
- write the texts for the magazine, talks about your future life;
- write the text for TV-news associated with any event of your life.
Media audiences:
- write the monologues representatives audiences like your type of media insight, but you
different age and social status.
Cycle of the theatrical role-creative tasks for autobiographical analysis of media texts in the
Media agencies:
- role game with a variety of options for your hypothetical action role in media agency.
- role game with variety of options to influence the audience of all ages and social status of
media texts of different genres.
Media technologies:
- preparing of the pantomime about the impact the television, computers, the Internet on
your personality.
Media languages:
- preparing of the theatrical sketches on the theme of various audiovisual interpretations of
your behavior in some real life situations.
15
- role game: the press conference with “domestic and foreign authors' of media text”
(“writers”, “directors”, “actors”, “producers” and others). The “authors” based in their responses to
their real life experiences, personal life events;
- role game about the process of "investigation" of the crimes in the media text, some
students playing the roles of "negative character".
Media audiences:
- role game about the audience dispute, with different types of media insight, age and social
status.
Graphic-cycle simulation creative tasks for autobiographical analysis of media texts in the
Media agencies:
- preparing series of drawings / comics, which revealed a variety of options for your
hypothetical action role in media agency.
- create a series of drawings in which you portray yourself as a character of media texts of
different genres.
Media technologies:
- preparing series of drawings about the impact the television, computers and the Internet on
your personality.
Media languages:
- preparing comics with different visual interpretations of your behavior in some real life
situations;
- drafting a series of photographs "One day of my life";
- create your own website on the Internet on the topic of your personal life achievements;
then discuss the content (advantages, disadvantages) of this site with your friends, relatives,
acquaintances.
Media audiences:
- create a series of drawings on the theme of emotional reactions representatives audiences
with different types of media insight, the same or different from your age and social status.
Cycle of literary and analytical creative tasks for autobiographical analysis of media texts
in the classroom at the student audience (Semali, 2000: 229-231; Berger, 2005: 125, 145; Fedorov,
2004):
Media agencies:
- imagine yourself as an employee of the media agencies and analyze the impact of this
investment by a large amount in a risky project (correlating their actions with your life experiences
related to responsible financial transactions).
- analysis of some associations (flashbacks) from your life, connected with some media
genres.
Media technologies:
- imagine yourself as an employee of the media agencies and analyze possible criteria for the
selection of technology to create a hypothetical media text.
Media languages:
- imagine yourself as one of the media personalities, whose eyes "see" or "hear" this or that
event, and analyze them based on their life experiences.
- analysis of the behavior of a particular media character based on a comparison of his
character and actions with your own.
Media audiences:
- analysis of the best / worst subjective (mood, individual physiological data, etc.) conditions
for the reception of media text;
- drafting the list of the top five (in your opinion) books / newspapers / magazines / movies /
radio / TV programs; Describe your criteria for this assessment.
16
Questions to the autobiographical analysis of media texts in the classroom at the student
audience (Semali, 2000; Berger, 2005; Fedorov, 2004: 43-51; Fedorov, 2006: 175-228; Silverblatt,
2001; 2014):
Media agencies:
- What action will you take if you mainly produced in solid media agency, if you feel that you
proposed projects threaten the company losses?
What types of media texts and genres contribute more identification with media characters?
Media technologies:
Do you feel some effect of the computer technology, the Internet on you personality? If yes,
what?
Media languages:
Why certain characters’ items (including clothing, etc.) are represented this way? What these
things tell us about the media text characters, their lifestyle, their relation to each other?
Can you remember the episodes of media texts, where the events narrated / seen through the
eyes of a character?
Who is an active element of action in this media text - male or female character? What
actions make these characters? Could you make the same actions? Why (not) be able to?
What causes the characters' actions? Does the implications of this relationship to a particular
character's behavior? Do you tend to this kind of behavior? Why are?
At what stages and how it reveals the conflicts between the characters in this media text?
What would you do in such situations of conflict?
The characters of the media text to express their views on life, ideas? Do you close this kind of
ideas and views? Why Are?
What is your opinion about the character N.? Could you do the same as the character N. in
this or that situation?
Media audiences:
What makes you sympathize with one hero and condemn others?
Can change your sympathy for the characters in the course of the action in the story of a
media text? Whether it is connected with the features of your character, temperament, outlook?
What qualities, character traits you would ideally like to find the hero / heroine? Why are?
What feelings caused you this media text? If you do not feel, why not? If any media works
aroused strong feelings in you, how would you explain it? Did you feel envy, desire, anxiety, fear,
disgust, sadness or joy? Why Are?
Can you prepare an interview about the TV program on any day for yourself. Answer the
questions about your favorite shows, why you are interested to watch them, and can you to discuss
after? What programs you do not like?
If you were offered to make an exhibition / festival of media texts that reflect your individual
qualities, which texts would you choose? Why these media texts?
If you are asked to select ten of media texts that could tell about your country, which would
you choose? Why these media texts?
You are invited to read a university lecture on media culture in your country. What media
texts you could choose to illustrate your presentation? Justify your choice.
Here are a few typical opinions of students who used the method of autobiographical analysis
for media texts:
Statistics relentless: young people usually are not interested for art house media texts,
deprived of entertainment. Heroes and problems of art house media text are simply uninteresting
for many young viewers:
- I started watching it on TV a psychological film. People locked themselves within the four
walls. And they talk, talk... The main heroine of all time suffered because of something. She
talked very long about her love experiences. Boring! I did not understood. I switched to another
channel ... I am not against love. I recently watched one episode: the beautiful actress, interesting
plot, great shot! ... (Alex C.).
However, the analysis of autobiographical elements can be easily read and the statements of
the students focused on the entertainment media texts:
17
- If my peers ask what they would like to see - comedy or tragedy (or drama - it is all one
for them!), they immediately will say, of course, a comedy! Relax, laugh! Yes, I have also
sometimes a bad mood and I that want to escape from with ... comedy, only to laugh ... I like
also Western melodrama, because there is a life which I never will. Of course, I would like to have
a big house, a closet full of fashionable clothes, the expensive car. And I would like to go every
year to different countries, to rest on the Mediterranean resorts, meet with celebrities ... So watch
TV or videos - and eyes run! How many countries, how many interesting things! But I want to
visit France. But I and my parents have not money for this trip. I know: I will not live so
beautiful ... My father and mother are not businessmen! Well, I can see the best style of the life in
the screen only (Tatiana F.).
Empathy, identification, in most cases it is something for which millions of people to
communicate with the media. We mentally put yourself in the shoes of a media text’s characters,
get used to the image, virtually "play" the role of the fancy. According to Anna K., given below, she
understands the topic and events of media text. Assessment of the status of the heroine of a media
text is given, though without nuance, but relatively faithful, though her and there is no deep insight
of the author's concept:
- I think there is a true life of the protagonist. She has no light in the window, there is no
real purpose in her life. It seems that the world is open, available. But, alas, is not for everyone ...
Rather, for those who have rich parents, husbands, relatives. Here at me, like the protagonist,
nothing. Like her, I live in a dorm ... It is so hard to get a job and a money for a separate
apartment. I like the main character, understand that we must remain optimistic, to hope for
something. Well, she was unlucky in the final. And me? I do not know ... (Anna K.).
Well, students would like to be in the country, where people live a normal and optimistic
life...
5. Conclusion
In this article I presented the main directions for Autobiographical Analysis on media
education classes for student audience, including the examples of creative problems and issues
associated with this type of the analysis in the context of media education problems, ie based on six
key concepts of media literacy education: agency, category, language, technology, audience,
representation. I suppose that the Autobiographical Analysis of media texts on media education
perception.
References
Berger, 2005 - Berger, A.A. (2005). Seeing is believing. Introduction to visual
communication. Moscow: Williams, 288 p.
Fedorov, 2004 - Fedorov, A.V. (2004). Specificity of media pedagogical students. Pedagogy.
№ 4, pp. 43-51.
Fedorov, 2006 - Fedorov, A.V. (2006). Media Education: creative tasks for students and
pupils. Innovation in Education. N 4, pp. 175-228.
Potter, 2014 - Potter, W.J. (2014). Media Literacy. L.A.: Sage.
Semali, 2000 - Semali, L.M. (2000). Literacy in Multimedia America. New York – London:
Falmer Press, 243 p.
Silverblatt, 2001 - Silverblatt, A. (2001). Media Literacy. Westport, Connecticut – London:
Praeger, 449 p.
Silverblatt, 2014 - Silverblatt, A. (Ed.). (2014). The Praeger Handbook of Media Literacy (in
2 volumes). Santa Barbara, California and Oxford, England: Praeger.
18
Zhurnal ministerstva narodnogo prosveshcheniya, 2016, Vol.(8), Is. 2

Zhurnal ministerstva narodnogo prosveshcheniya
ISSN: 2409-3378
E-ISSN: 2413-7294
Vol. 8, Is. 2, pp. 71-77, 2016
DOI: 10.13187/zhmnp.2016.8.71
www.ejournal18.com
UDC 37
Character Analysis in the Media Literacy Education of Students
Alexander Fedorov
Anton Chekhov Taganrog Institute, branch of Rostov State University of Economics,

Russian Federation
Doctor of pedagogy, professor
Abstract
Development of critical thinking of the audience in the process of media education is
inextricably linked with the analysis of media texts of different types of genres. Character Analysis
is the analysis of the nature, motives, ideological orientations, behavior / action of media texts’
characters with use a variety of tasks that activate critical and creative thinking of students. As a
result, students wrote stories on behalf of the heroes of the popular films of mass success.
When the students were of this kind of writing, they sometimes unconsciously penetrated into the
author's world of media text and psychology of the character. Practical mastering of media insight
typology contribute and creative tasks offering the audience the possibilities to simulate various
types of persons in the letters on behalf of the members of the audience of different age, level of
education, artistic perception and taste, etc. An indicator of mastering the material can serve as the
ability to identify with an imaginary "recipient" having one or another level of media reception.
Keywords: character analysis, media, media texts, media education, media literacy, media
Introduction
Development of critical thinking of the audience in the process of media education is
inextricably linked with the analysis of media texts of different types of genres. Character Analysis
is the analysis of the nature, motives, ideological orientations, behavior / action of media texts’
characters with use a variety of tasks that activate critical and creative thinking of students.
And here we can find support in the dialogue between cultures [Bibler, 1992; Bibler, 1993, p.27].

The main material for this article was the area of the books and articles about the character
analysis of media texts. The method of the character analysis implies a number of students
of creative tasks. I believe that this kind of work has the correlation with V. Bibler’s teaching
methodology [Bibler, 1993, p.13-14].
Discussion
Analysis of the characters of media texts implies a number of students of creative tasks [BFI,
1990; Buckingham, 2003; Semali, 2000, pp.229-231; Berger, 2005, p.125; Fedorov 2004, p. 43-51,
71
Potter, 2014; Silverblatt, 2001; Silberblatt, 2014, but the cycle of tasks I significantly updated and
revised]: literary simulation, theatrical role-playing, art-simulation. These tasks include analysis of
the key concepts of media literacy education [media agencies, media categories, media language,
media technologies, media representations, media audiences etc.].
Results
Cycle of literary creative tasks for the analyze of media text’s characters in the student
audience:
Media agencies:
- writing of the text containing justification, as a famous media personalities can be a logo,
a brand media agency / firm.
- writing of the synopses, where the same stereotypical character acts in media texts of
different types and genres.
Media technologies:
- writing the plan using a variety of media technologies for the creation of a well-known
character.
Media languages:
- writing the "shooting script" for media text (eg, for up to 2-3 minutes of screen action film /
TV programs, realizable in practice) with two or three main characters (film, radio / television
program, computer animation, etc.): camera angles, camera movement, editing, etc.
- drafting the story on behalf of the leading or secondary character of a media text: preserving
the features of his character, vocabulary, etc. ("identification", "compassion", "co-creation");
- drafting the story on behalf of one of inanimate objects appearing in the media texts, thus
changing the narrative perspective in a paradoxical, fantasy-eccentric side;
- inclusion of a media text’s character in changing situation (with a change of name, genre,
time, place, action media text, its composition: strings, climax, denouement, epilogue, etc.; age,
gender, nationality, character, etc.);
- inventing new media text’s characters, their dialogue;
- writing the "screening" episode of the famous literary work, with an emphasis on the
development of the characters;
- writing the episode from the applications for original screenplay, where the main
characters are joined to each other in a sharp conflict;
- writing the original synopsis with an emphasis on the development of the characters;
- writing the original media text (reports, interviews and so on.) for a newspaper, magazine,
internet publication of the site with an emphasis on the development of the characters.
Media audiences:
- writing the monologues ("letters" in the editorial offices of newspapers and magazines, on
television, in the Ministry of Culture, etc.) from various representatives of the audience age, social,
professional, educational, and other data at different levels of media insight ("primary
identification" "secondary identification", "complex identification," according to the orientation on
entertainment, recreational, compensatory, and other functions of media culture, etc.).
In this way the teacher achieves the goal of creative tasks: the audience gets to the lab
creating media personalities.
For example, student Alena S. wrote the continuation of the famous film adaptation of the
fairy tale Cinderella, on behalf of the main character. And Andrew Y. wrote stories on behalf of the
boxer Rocky...
And we have even more paradoxical, fantastic view, when students wrote a story on behalf of
an inanimate object, animal, appearing in the media text. For example, banknotes, passing from
hand to hand, the mirror in the personage’s room, the car in which the hero pursues criminals, etc.
During our classes, students wrote stories on behalf of inanimate characters like the revolver from
the gangster film, ocean liner "Titanic", a magic wand of Harry Potter, etc.).
For example, Elena B. wrote this text:
“Hello! Let me introduce myself, I just played a major role in the film “Perfume” (2006).
I - bubble, which first mix all the ingredients of the very spirits that created my brilliant host.
72
I felt every drop that slowly slid down my glass faces. Each of them was great. When I was filled
to the brim, it felt very important, the great! It was an incredible feeling! Finally my master
opened me to the area where he was to be executed, well, and then you know - the effect was
amazing! At this point I realized that I was a star! But, alas, soon had to come down from heaven
on the earth: I ended up in the mud, completely devastated, trampled ... And I did not stand-ins,
I hope the audience will appreciate my efforts!".
Many students are attracted by the idea of creating imaginary interviews with well-known
characters of media texts (Batman, Shrek, etc.).
And here, for example, the creative work of Catherine F. and Daria K.:
"- Good day, dear listeners. Daria and Catherine at the microphone of radio station.
And today in our weekly column "We have a party," the famous cartoon character Shrek.
- Tell me how you managed to win the hearts of millions of girls?
- First, I do not wash like normal guys. Only once a month, take a mud bath. Secondly
I have a beautiful tan all year round. There are still a lot of advantages…
- Do you have any bad habits?
- Oh yes! I love picking my nose!
- And what is your relationship with your friend?
- It is very talkative, it annoys me ...
- Do you have a favorite dish?
- Yes, I like to eat slugs in their own juice. Fiona - my wife - their delicious cooking.
- Tell me, what are your plans for the next season of the cartoon?
- I Would like to play in any action movie. But only a major role!
- Very laudable desire. We wish you success!
- Chao, Peaches!
- And we remind you that today our guest star was the biggest and friendly cartoon Shrek.
Since you were Ekaterina and Daria. We will meet again!".
Performance indicators for the creative tasks “The Story on behalf of the character”,
“Character in an altered situation” becomes the student's ability to identify with the character,
understand and verbally recreate his psychology, language, justify his motives and actions.
The phrase of student Valeria H .: "I always empathize characters, put yourself in their shoes,
I try to understand why they do so and not otherwise" is very important in this sense.
For example, this is the results of the creative task called "Letter on behalf of the viewer."
Here are some examples of successful works of students, where most clearly palpable creative
learning of theoretical material, which was an indicator of the ability to identify with an imaginary
viewer-reader-listener, having one or another level of media insight:
By Irina O. "Monologue on behalf of female pensioner over melodramatic television series":
"Yesterday - even threw wash – I looked TV series. Poor girl, so sweet, kind, and how much
grief at her fallen! And this bastard holds the land of this! I like cruelty have not seen! I used it
with their own hands strangled ... Poor girl, how to play well as spiritually! Such a sad look, as
much heart grasps! (...) I think they still remain together! Oh, such a cute couple ... Oh, I shall live
there, when all these series will be shown to the end ... If only all ended well".
And this is the text of Vlad E. "Letter to the Kremlin on behalf of a well-deserved weaver":
"Our dear, dear President! I'll start with the main. I looked for the last time a few films and
programs on television and say that my indignation is no limit. My husband and me kissed for
the first time when I married him. But now so many films show the acts of love! What the moral
for the youth? I am normal woman, not prostitute, I and don’t like to see “free love” on the screen!
Yes, a lot of enemies want to infect our people every dirty trick and pornography. But I know,
I'm not alone. Every dog has his day! I beg you, do something! Do not disregard my letter!
Sincerely, Anna Ivanova."
And this is the text of Daria K.: "Letter to the Minister of Culture" from the pensioner":
"On behalf of the older generation of Russian citizens write you my opinion on the state of
culture in our country. Cinema, television, press clearly aimed at the corruption of children and
youth: no positive ideology, only betrayal, fighting, murder, etc. And most importantly: these
films and TV programs teach young people how to kill, cheat, rob, that is all that it takes to
become a criminal. We also demand a ban frank sex scenes! And how many cram advertising!
73
Nerves can not stand! Is it possible that all this advertising will be on one channel only? Please,
help! ".
As seen from these creative works, students quite successfully coped with the task. Suffice it
to compare the above monologues fictional characters with real letters viewers that have been
published in the Russian press. Coincidences are obvious, sometimes even textual. Therefore,
students who wrote these texts, not bad learned to navigate the typology of perception, right caught
some characteristic tendencies inherent in the mass media insight (focus on recreational,
compensatory function of media culture, the prevalence levels of "primary" and "secondary"
identification with media texts, the desire to see them improved model of reality, etc.). This kind of
creative tasks developed imagination, fantasy audience, its ability to "get used" to the image of a
fictional character (in this case - "the writer").
As a result, the whole complex activities of a creative nature is in addition to the knowledge
and skills acquired in previous lessons audience: students develop cognitive interests, fantasy,
imagination, associative, creative, critical, individual thinking, media competence. The knowledge
and skills connected with the concepts of the courses of literature, culture, world culture, music,
and others. The audience learns the deeper concepts such as "perception," "empathy",
"identification", etc.
My study showed that a large part of media insight student audience is at the level of
"secondary identification" ("identification with the character of a media"). Oral group discussions,
individual interviews, written work showed that the audience with a level of perception is able to
give moral characteristics of the character, to justify the motives of characters’ actions, highlight
the main conflict (or more conflicts) plot.
Analysis of the characters of a particular media text can be with gender-based description of
representation in a media category: characters’ age, race, clothes, physique level, profession,
hobby, marital status, social status, temperament, facial expressions, gestures, vocabulary, value
orientation (ideological, religious, etc.), actions, methods of conflict resolution, etc. Students can to
name the conventional codes of typical characters of media texts: Cinderella, Superman (Hercules,
Hero), Cully (Ivan the Fool), King (Ruler), Beauty & Beast, Outsider (Loser), Villain or Maniac,
Spy (Scout), Traitor, Vampire, Victim, etc.
I used also the special discussion topic of media characters’ influence on the behavior of the
audience. For example, American scientists studied the effects of the behavior of young viewers,
depending on the presence of films viewed episodes of violence. Within 7 days scientists measured
the levels of aggression, the analysis of which led researchers to the conclusion that the negative
impact of these tapes [Parke, et all, 1977, pp.148-153]. However, in my opinion, others sociological
concepts look more convincing: there is no direct cause-and-effect relationship between viewing
violence screen stories and crime. But media violence have, of course, a great impact in terms of
stimulating aggressive tendencies faced by people with unstable or mental disorders, with a weak
intelligence, criminal and / or drug-dependent environment ...
No doubt, after watching an action movie about gangsters vast majority of young viewers will
not rob the shop and pull money out of the pockets of passers-by. Everything is so. But whether all
of young people have ironically attitude toward the portrayal of violence on the screen? In our
opinion, here it is necessary to think ... Thoughtless, fun, exciting, and well! - Consumption of such
media texts leads other teens to that bloody entertaining spectacle is not only desirable, but almost
the only favorite media topic [For more details: Tarasov, 2005; Fedorov, 2001, 2003; 2004, 2006;
Fedorov, 2000; 2005]. Young people with this thinking mode can be in the stereotype circle: if
funny or shoot it is great, if the characters overwhelmed by serious problems it is boring. As a
result, young audience can blunt in their personalities such a natural feeling of compassion for
human pain. But I agree with S. Freud wrote that “culture should mobilize all its forces to put a
limit aggressive primary human urge to slow down their displays by creating the necessary
psychological reactions” [Freud, 1990, p.29] ...
Questions to the analysis of a media text characters in the classroom with students (some of
the questions is available at: BFI, 1990; Semali, 2000; Silverblatt, 2001; Berger, 2005; Usov, 1989;
Fedorov, 2004, p.43-51; Fedorov, 2006, p.175-228., however, this cycle of questions substantially
supplemented and revised):
Media agencies:
74
Can the media characters depend on the theme / genre / political, etc. orientation specific
media agencies? If so, how?
What are the similarities and differences heroes of tragedy, drama and melodrama?
Media technologies:
Does the image of characters depends from the media technologies? If so, how?
Media languages:
As exaggerated facial expressions and gestures of the characters associated with the genres of
comedy, musical, science fiction?
How the authors of media texts can show that their character has changed?
Can you remember the episodes of media texts, where the events narrated / seen through the
eyes of a character? Is there such episodes are times when the proposed point of view helps to
create a sense of danger or surprise?
How certain items (including clothing of characters, etc.) are represented in most
stereotypical stories (Cinderella, Superman, King, Beauty & Beast, Loser, Villain or Maniac, Spy,
Traitor, Vampire, Victim, etc.). What tell us these things about the characters, their lifestyle, their
relation to each other?
What is the image mode of characters’ family, class, gender, race, etc. in the popular media
texts of different genres and countries?
What political, social and cultural sentiments are reflected in the views and actions of the
characters of the media text? Are there visible signs of deviant behavior, sexism, anxiety, conflicts,
etc.?
How characters of the media text can express their views on life, ideas?
What are the psychological relationships between the characters in media texts, the reasons
for their actions, the consequences of these actions?
That the characters have learned as a result of a media text story?
At what stages and how it reveals the conflicts between the characters in this media text?
Who is an active element of action in this media text: male or female character? What
actions make these characters? There is a need for the presence in the story of the female
character?
Are there any links between secondary storylines that help to understand the world, the
characters and themes of media text?
Should the creators of media texts portray negative characters as the embodiment of evil?
Is it really straightforward life itself?
What do you think about the final logic of the characters development in this media text?
Which would you prefer finale? Why Are?
Media Audiences:
What about the character N.? Whether it arrives? Could you do the same as the character
N. in this or that situation?
What makes you sympathize with one character and condemn others?
What is the contribution of each character of a media text in your understanding of the
protagonist?
Can change your sympathy for the characters in the course of the action in the story of a
media text?
What qualities, character traits you would ideally like to find the hero / heroine? Can one of
your favorite character called active?
Can the reaction of the audience to extend / terminate the life of serial media characters?
Conclusion
As a result, students can write stories on behalf of the heroes of the popular films of mass
success. When the students wrote of this kind of texts, they sometimes penetrated into the author's
world of media text and psychology of the character. Practical mastering of media insight typology
contribute and creative tasks offering the audience the possibilities to simulate various types of
persons in the letters on behalf of the characters of different age, level of education, artistic
75
perception and taste, etc. An indicator of mastering the material can serve as the ability to identify
with an character.
References:
1. Berger, A.A. (2005). Seeing is believing. Introduction to visual communication.
Moscow: Williams, 288 p.
2. BFI (British Film Institute). Film Education. Moscow, 1990. 124 p.
3. Bibler, V.S. (1992). Basics program // School of Dialogue of Cultures: the basics of the
program. Kemerovo: Aleph, pp. 5-38.
4. Bibler, V.S. (1993). Dialogue of Cultures and School XXI Century // School of Dialogue
of Cultures: Ideas, experiences, challenges. Kemerovo: Aleph, pp. 9-106.
6. Fedorov, A. (2000). Russian Teenagers and Violence on the Screen: Social Influence of
Screen Violence for the Russian Young People // International Research Forum on Children and
Media (Australia), N 9, p.5.
7. Fedorov, A. (2000). Violence in Russian Films and Programmes // International
Clearinghouse on Children and Violence on the Screen (UNESCO), N 2, p. 5.
8. Fedorov, A. (2005). School Students and Computer Games with Screen Violence //
Russian Education and Society. (USA). Vol. 47. N 11, pp. 88-96.
9. Fedorov, A.V. (2001). Violence on the screen and the Russian youth // Bulletin of the
Russian Humanitarian Foundation. 2001. № 1, p. 131-145.
10. Fedorov, A.V. (2003). Young audience and screen violence problem // Kino-Kolo.
2003. № 20, pp. 86-103.
11. Fedorov, A.V. (2004). Influence of violence on television screens children's audience in
the USA // US-Canada: Economics, Politics, Culture. 2004. № 1, pp. 77-93.
12. Fedorov, A.V. (2004). Rights of the child and violence on the screen // Monitoring.
2004. № 2, pp.87-93.
13. Fedorov, A.V. (2004). Specificity of media pedagogical students // Pedagogy. 2004.
№ 4, pp. 43-51.
14. Fedorov, A.V. (2004). Violence on the screen // Chelovek. 2004. № 5, pp. 142-151.
15. Fedorov, A.V. (2006). Media Education: creative tasks for students and pupils //
Innovation in Education. 2006. N 4, pp. 175-228.
16. Fedorov, A.V. (2006). School teachers and the problem of "screen violence" //
Innovative educational technology. № 1, pp. 35-47.
17. Freud, S. (1990). Dissatisfaction culture // Cinema Art. 1990. № 12, pp. 18-31.
18. Parke R.D., Berkowitz L., Leyens J.P., West S.J., Sebastian P.J. (1977). Some Effects of
Violent and Nonviolent Movies on the Behavior of Juvenile Delinquents. In: Advances in
Experimental Social Psychology. N.Y. Academia Press, N 10, pp. 148-153.
19. Potter, W.J. (2014). Media Literacy. L.A.: Sage.
Press, 243 p.
21. Silverblatt, A. (2001). Media Literacy. Westport, Connecticut – London: Praeger,
449 p.
22. Silverblatt, A. (Ed.). (2014). The Praeger Handbook of Media Literacy (in 2 volumes).
Santa Barbara, California and Oxford, England: Praeger.
23. Tarasov, K.A. (2005). Violence in the mirror audiovisual culture. Moscow: Research
Institute of Film Arts, White Beach, 384 p.
24. Usov, Y.N. (1989). Film education as a means of aesthetic education and artistic
development of pupils. Ph.D. Dis. Moscow, 362 p.
76
УДК 37
Анализ персонажей медитекстов в процессе медиаобразования студентов
Александр Федоров
Таганрогский институт имени А.П. Чехова, филиал Ростовского государственного

университета экономики, Российская Федерация
E-почта: mediashkola@rambler.ru
Аннотация. Развитие критического мышления аудитории в процессе

медиаобразования неразрывно связано с анализом медиатекстов различных видов жанров.
Анализ персонажей медиатекстов – это анализ характеров, мотивов, идеологических
ориентаций, поведения/действия персонажей медиатекстов с использованием
разнообразных задач, которые активируют критическое и творческое мышление учащихся.
В результате, студенты могут писать рассказы от имени героев популярных фильмов
массового успеха. Когда студенты пишут такого рода письма, они проникают в авторский
мир медиатекста и психологию персонажа. В практическое освоение медиавосприятия через
типологию вносят свой вклад и творческие задачи, предлагающие аудитории возможности
моделировать различные типы персонажей в письмах от имени персонажей разного
возраста, уровня образования, художественного восприятия и вкуса, и т.д. Показателем
усвоения материала может служить способность идентифицировать себя с персонажами.
Ключевые слова: анализ персонажей, медиа, медиатекст, медиаобразование,
медиаграмотность, медиакомпетентность, студенты.
77
Russian Education & Society
Volume 57, Issue 10, 2015
Articles
The Application of Hermeneutical Analysis to Research on the Cold War in Soviet

Animation Media Texts from the Second Half of the 1940s
Full text HTML

PDF
Full access
DOI: 10.1080/10609393.2016.1148951
A.V. Fedorov
pages 817-829
Publishing models and article dates explained
 Published online: 21 Mar 2015
Abstract
The Cold War era, which spawned a mutual ideological confrontation between communist and
capitalist countries, left its mark on all categories of media texts, including cartoons and
animations. Cartoons were used by the authorities as tools for delivering the necessary
confrontational ideological content in an attractive folkloric, fairy-tale packaging in order to
influence adults as well as children.
 Full text HTML

 PDF
A.V. Fedorov (2015) The Application of Hermeneutical Analysis to Research

on the Cold War in Soviet Animation Media Texts from the Second Half of the 1940s, Russian
Education & Society, 57:10, 817-829, DOI: 10.1080/10609393.2016.1148951
http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/10609393.2016.1148951
European Journal of Contemporary Education, 2015, Vol.(14), Is. 4

Researcher
ISSN 2219-8229
E-ISSN 2224-0136
Vol. 14, Is. 4, pp. 223-231, 2015
DOI: 10.13187/ejced.2015.14.223
www.ejournal1.com

UDC 37
The Potential of an Alliance of Media Literacy Education

and Media Criticism in Russia
Anastasia Levitskaya
Institute of Management and Economics in Taganrog, Russian Federation

Dr.
E-mail: a.levitskaya@tmei.ru
Abstract
Media criticism and media literacy education have much in common. For example, media
literacy education and media criticism attaches great importance to the development of analytical
thinking audience. Indeed, one of the most important tasks of media literacy education is precisely
to teach the audience not only to analyze media texts of any kinds and types, but also to understand
the mechanisms of creation and functioning in society. Actually, the same is engaged in media
criticism and, at the same time addressing both the professional and to the widest possible
audience. That is why, in our opinion, is so important synthesis of media criticism and media
literacy education. That is why it is so important debate on the role and functions of the media in
society and analysis of media texts of different types and genres in classrooms of schools and
universities.
Keywords: media criticism, media literacy, media competence, media education, pupils,
students, media texts, Russia.
Introduction
In recent years, the position of the supporters of practical ways for media literacy education,
considering it as a set of skills to use modern media technology exclusively for practical purposes
(Razlogov, 2005, 68-75), finds fewer supporters. Without denying the importance of this aspect of
teaching modern "Great Russian Encyclopedia" defines media literacy education as “a process of
personal development with the help and on material means of mass communication in order to
build a culture of communication with the media, creative and communicative abilities, critical
thinking, perception, interpretation, analysis and evaluation of media texts, teaching different
forms of self-expression with media technology, media literacy acquisition. The positive result of
223
media literacy education should be considered as media competence of the individual (media
competence of personality) - the set of her motives, knowledge, skills, abilities (indicators:
motivational, contact, information, perceptual, interpretative, practices and activity, creative)
contributing to the selection, use, critical analysis, evaluation, creation and transfer of media texts
in different types, forms and genres, the analysis of complex processes of media functioning in
society” (Fedorov, 2012, 480).
And here is one of the most important components - training audience skills analysis of
media texts of different types and genres, where true and effective help, in our opinion, it is media
criticism - creative and cognitive activity, during which the critical knowledge and evaluation of
socially significant, relevant creative, professional and ethical aspects of the production of
information in the media, with a focus on the creative side of media content. This is a
communication with the audience, in which based on the analysis, interpretation and evaluation of
media texts, genre and stylistic forms of their implementation have an impact on the perception of
the media content on the presentation of the material and the spiritual world, are formed in the
minds of the audience (Korochensky, 2003). These problems associated with the use of media
information (different kinds of genres and forms), its analysis, the definition of economic, political,
social and / or cultural interests that are associated with it.
Media criticism can be divided into academic (relating to the publication of scientific
research related to the comprehension of the media sphere, and is designed primarily for media
professionals and teachers of media schools and faculties), professional (published in publications
intended for a professional audience from media sphere) and mass (designed for a mass audience)
(Korochensky, 2003).
Thus, it is media criticism in mass media, as well as media literacy education tend to increase
the level of media competence / literacy of widest audience.

The materials of this articles: the UNESCO documents about media literacy education, the
articles about media literacy education and media criticism. The methods: sociocultural historical,
comparative analysis of the topic’s problems, analysis of scholars’ discussion about media criticism
and media education literacy.
History of question
Media competence of the individual is multidimensional and requires a broad perspective
based on knowledge developed structure. It is not a rigid category, we can theoretically increase the
level of media competence for all human life, perceiving, interpreting and analyzing the cognitive,
emotional, aesthetic and ethical media information and audience, located on a higher level of
media literacy has a higher level of understanding, control and evaluation media world (McQuail,
2010, 12).
However, as correctly noted Art Silverblatt media literacy education and media criticism are
many obstacles: "elitist" - people can easily notice the influence of the media on the others, but the
same people are not willing to recognize the impact of media on their own life; the complexity of
the language of the media; emotional media effects, imposing patterns of behavior in society, and
public confidence in the media (for a large part of the audience it becomes an obstacle to the
analysis of media texts) (Silverblatt, 2001, 5-6).
Turning to the situation in Russia, we agree that the problem of preparing the younger
generation for life in the era of the explosion of information technology, the increasing role of
information as an economic category is not updated in the context of school education, graduate
school is not ready for integration into the world information space (Zaznobina, 1998) in which the
manipulation component takes, unfortunately, a significant place. Unavailability of the graduate
school to resist manipulative influence of modern media, largely a consequence of the low media
competence of Russian teachers.
There is a contradiction between insufficient research in the field of media education and
media criticism synthesis (including in the preparation of future teachers) and the actual
development of media competence and analytical thinking of students of pedagogical profile. Not
only in the field of media activities (ie the creation, use and distribution of media information of
different kinds of genres and forms), but its comprehensive analysis, determination of economic,
224
political, social and / or cultural interests that are associated with it. Although, of course, the
process of analyzing media texts - the same kind of activity.
In particular, we clearly trace problematic contradiction between 1) journalistic model of
media education (Dzaloshinsky & Pilgun, 2011; Zhilavskaya, 2009), aimed at the development of
audience’s media activities in the practical creation and distribution of media texts, 2) media
education integrated model (6; 7), where the main emphasis is on the study of media education in
support of mandatory school disciplines, and 3) the need to go beyond the utilitarian framework by
creating more important for a wide audience model for development of media competence and
analytical thinking, built on a synthesis of media literacy education and media criticism.
In addition, in our opinion, there is a contradiction in the theoretical and practical
approaches of the supporters of "protective theory" of media literacy education, calling to protect
the audience from the harmful media manipulation effects, including by educating the younger
generation in samples of "high art" and supporters of cultural and sociocultural theories of media
literacy education, the problem of media literacy education in a broad social, cultural, genre and
thematic spectrum of media texts (Sharikov, 2005; Buckingham, 2003; Silverblatt, 2001).
And here too, we believe that the successful resolution of this contradiction can help the synthesis
of media literacy education and media criticism.
The history of media criticism in Russia goes back more than three centuries. It is understood
that the beginning of his career (XVIII century) we can find in the pages of newspapers and
magazines only literary criticism. However, since the end of the XIX century the spectrum of media
criticism increased by analyzing photo / cinema sphere. And the media criticism of XX century has
included such new types of media as broadcasting, sound recording, television and the Internet.
At all stages of its development, media criticism (corporate, academic, mass) perform analytical,
educational, information and communication, regulatory, commercial and other functions
throughout the variety of genres of media texts.
With the advent of the mass distribution of Internet number of critics' community has
increased dramatically due to the amateur authors, because now the audience does not necessarily
apply to the traditional press. However, as shown by an Roman Bakanov’s content analysis of
publications, almost all of these amateur try to criticize the TV based on their own experiences and
emotions, not bothering to analytical, evidence-based work. They set themselves the task to assert
themselves, to attract the audience's attention to their texts with negative assessments. Perhaps
that is why the vast majority of their performances have a negative opinions about any part of
media production. In addition, the text does not attempt to examine and analyze the identified
problems from different angles, to understand the causes and to find out the possible
consequences. To do this, the media analyst needs Research glance, the ability to not only search,
but also collect, compile information (Bakanov, 2009).
However, this certainly does not mean that true professional of media criticism
(Lev Anninsky, Roman Bakanov, Yuri Bogomolov, Dmytry Bykov, Anry Vartanov, Dannil
Dondurei, Valary Kitchin, Aalexander Korochensky, Irina Petrovskaya, Andrei Plakhov, Kirill
Razlogov) have lost their influence. Each of them has its own target audience. A favorite theme of
many of them (in addition to working in the press) found time to lead author websites, live
journals, forums and so on.
In our opinion, a professional media criticism can positively influence a mass audience media
competence. That's what this media critic Irina Pertrovslaya writes: “Do I need to indulge baser
tastes, or, on the contrary, to confront them and to improve the taste and manners of the audience?
Most of TV believe that we should indulge in, because that is the audience, are the people and the
means of television they do not alter. But the horror is that television can make people worse than
they really are, to lower the bar to such an extent that people would no longer be able to distinguish
what is good and what is bad” (Petrovskaya, 2003, 43- 44).
The relevance of the synthesis of media literacy education and media criticism evidenced by
the European Parliament resolution of 16 December 2008 on media literacy in a digital world,
which states mandatory media literacy education. The resolution, inter alia, states that media
literacy education should be a component of formal education available to all students, it must be
an integral part of the curriculum at every stage of schooling; should be included in teacher
training programs required modules on media literacy education for all levels of schooling to
promote a more intensive introduction of the subject; authorities should introduce teachers of all
225
disciplines and in all types of schools with the use of audiovisual teaching aids and with the
problems relating to media education (European..., 2008).
The Moscow Declaration on Media and Information Literacy, developed by the
Intergovernmental Council for UNESCO's "Information for All" (2012) stresses the need for
inclusion of media and information literacy among the priorities of the national policy on
education, culture, information, media, etc.; the inevitable pedagogical reform for the development
of media and information literacy; inclusion of media and information literacy, and assessment of
its level in the curricula at all levels of education, including education in lifelong learning in the
workplace, training and retraining of teachers; promote intercultural dialogue and international
cooperation in the development of media and information literacy around the world (Moscow...,
2012). A similar declaration was adopted and held at the end of May 2014 the First European
Forum on Media Literacy, held at UNESCO headquarters in Paris (The First European..., 2014).
All this is very important and significant in the light of the official registration of Russian
Ministry of Education of the university specialization for pedagogical universities - Media
Education (03.13.30) and implementation (since September 2002) this specialization by our team.
The urgency of the need for further development of media literacy education is confirmed
and at the state level: November 17, 2008, the Government of Russia approved the Concept of
long-term socio-economic development of the Russian Federation for the period till 2020. Among
the priorities in the concept called “the increased use of information and communication
technologies for the development of new forms and methods of education, including distance
education and media literacy education” (Concept..., 2008).
Discussion
Kirill Razlogov published polemically sharpened article, which expresses the idea that media
personality develops and should develop spontaneously (Razlogov, 2005, 68-75). This article was
the beginning of discussions in the journal "Media Education". However, later K. Razlogov
explained that although the question of general media literacy education remains open to him, “a
special media literacy education is certainly needed. It is necessary for teachers ... and for people
who seriously interested in classical and contemporary art” (Razlogov, 2006, 92).
In our view, in terms of the discussion can be very useful and problematic questions raised by
Alexander Korochensky:
1) Is the idea of forming a rational and critical awareness of media competence illusion
masking the inability to realize in the socioeconomic and cultural context of the proclaimed
humanistic concept of training people to conditions of life and work in the information age? Is it
possible to widely rational-critical communications culture in social environments where there are
powerful tendencies working to reduce the level of critical consciousness recipients of media
information? Does under these conditions the chances of success of the attempts of local social
planning of media education literacy?
2) The instincts, the unconscious impulses and emotions play a very significant role in the life
and activity. Effective use of modern media technologies of various effects on the area of the
collective unconscious, rational overwhelming reaction of people is a clear proof of that. In this
regard, the question is: is the ideal rational-critical communications culture phantom purely
speculative purpose, elusive due to the inherent characteristics of the human person and human
communities?
3) Is the critical autonomy in dealing with the media myth, masking the inability in the socio-
political context of the real emancipation and self-emancipation of citizens from the manipulative
influence of the media and other harmful influences from the media? (Korochensky, 2005, 41-42).
It seems, A. Korochensky correctly outlined the dangers that stand in the way of media
literacy education and media criticism. But, in our view, if we can to say to all of these questions
"yes", then on media literacy education probably have to give up at all resigned to the fact that the
obstacles to this process too much, and their head irresistibly strong and aggressive (some human /
biological instincts are worth!). You can add here and irrefutable results of numerous sociological
studies show that the subculture of creative intelligence in any society covers only 4 to 7 percent of
the population (Razlogov, 2006, 92)....
But ... any education is opposed to the human instinct. And is manipulative tendencies in
modern society only concern media culture?
226
Undoubtedly, a wholly-owned media competence humanity as illusory as a wholly human

equality in all spheres of life, including in the field of education and culture. However, if we have
the desire, ability and opportunity to develop media competence, and analytical thinking not for
millions, but only for thousands, hundreds or even dozens of people, this is a worthy goal, to
achieve that is to work hard ...
Expansion of the concept of media literacy education Alexander Korochensky (Korochensky,
2003, 163) proposes to extend the concept of media literacy education as a long-term socio-
educational activities aimed not only at schoolchildren and students, but also at an adult audience.
Then we can talk about the continuous development of a culture of adequate perception of media
messages (articles, radio / television, movies, the Internet site, etc.) and self-evaluation of the
media based on democratic and humanitarian ideals and values.
The theory of media literacy education as the development of critical thinking (critical
thinking approach in media education), most fully developed of Len Masterman (1985; 1997), in
the last decade has gained not only supporters but also opponents. Although we carried out an
expert survey of experts in the field of media literacy education in different countries has shown
that the majority of them (84%) believes that the most important goal of media education is
developing the ability to critical thinking / critical autonomy, perception, assessment,
understanding of media texts (Fedorov, 2003).
Len Masterman believes that successful media literacy education should be due to the
following factors: a clear understanding of the purpose of teacher training; productive discussion of
these goals with the students, based on their own comments, priorities and enthusiasm; regular
inspections, analysis (and if necessary - and reviewing) the purpose of studies (Masterman, 1985,
19).
At the same time, the practical implementation of the tasks of forming a rational-critical
communication culture of citizens on the basis of rational self-critical thinking faces a number of
significant interference and difficulties. It can not be explained only undeveloped institutions,
media literacy education or incomplete conceptualization of the goals, methods and content of the
activities in this field of pedagogy (although both of these phenomena do occur). Scale
"achievements" of the mass media in manipulating the consciousness and behavior of the audience
for political and commercial purposes; progressive irrationally of media reality formed by means of
mass communication; intellectual passivity and emotional infantilism significant portion of the
citizens in the face of negative media influences - all of this is observed both in Russia and other
countries where mass media literacy education is at the stage of formation and in the countries
where it has already become a mandatory component of the educational process at its various
levels " (Korochensky, 2005, 37-38).
In fact, today's media focused primarily on the commercial viability of an (almost) any way.
So it is quite natural that in the long run media industry is not interested in the fact that the
audience has developed analytical thinking in relation to the functioning of the media in society
and to all kinds of media texts and genres. Lonely island focused on lucrative advertising Russian
media agencies (such as the TV channel "Culture" or the newspaper of the same name) will
inevitably drown in the flow of the mainstream market...
On the other hand, as noted Alexander Korochensky precisely, there is another danger for the
development of media competence of the individual, the postmodern skepticism with regard to
reason and cognitive abilities of man (and, correspondingly, to the possibilities of his
enlightenment and improvement); intellectual and moral relativism, giving birth scornful and
ironic attitude to the fundamental human values, the ideals of democracy and social justice.
Against this background, in certain social circles, not excluding the impact of media professionals,
there are signs of a negative attitude to the idea of widespread rational-critical communications
culture - ranging from a fundamental negation of its feasibility under current conditions (for
example: Razlogov, 2005, 68 -75) to open hostility, aggressive rejection of the spirit of
enlightenment and civilization inherent in this intelligent initiative (Korochensky, 2005, 39-40).
This correctly noticed a trend in recent years, and is recognized in the West (McMahon, 2003).
Unfortunately, the great importance of the mass media in the lives of today's Russian society,
paradoxically combined with the lack of development of the domestic media criticism, whereas it
(regarded as a special area of journalism) aims to analyze the current creative, professional and
ethical, legal, economic and technological aspects of information production in the media and
227
thereby increase the level of media competence and analytical thinking wide audience of all ages.
In Russia, many talented critics' community of practitioners, however, not all of them are capable
of significant theoretical generalizations.
In principle, it is clear why the development of media criticism and media literacy education
has not received the official support of the Soviet era. Power was interested in the fact that the mass
audience (both adults and students) as little thought about the goals and objectives of a particular
(especially the “national importance”) media text. Prevalence of incompetence in the public media
sphere always opens a wide scope for manipulation in the press, on radio and TV.
Today, the situation of media criticism and media literacy education in Russia has changed
significantly. “Media criticism, - says Alexander Korochensky, - is communication with the
audience, in which based on the analysis, interpretation and evaluation of the whole complex of
media content and genre and stylistic forms there of influence the perception of the content of the
public, on presentation of the material and the spiritual world, are formed in the minds of
recipients. Media criticism examines and evaluates not only the creativity of the media creators and
media content, but also evaluates the complex relationship of diverse print and electronic media
with the audience and the society as a whole. This allows you to define the subject of media
criticism as the actual operation of the multifaceted social media” (Korochensky, 2003, 32).
Based on this definition clearly distinguishes Alexander Korochensky formulates the basic
functions of media criticism (information and communication, educational, correctional, social,
organizational, educational, commercial) and the main tasks of media criticism: the knowledge of a
source of information; the study and change the public perception of media content and
perceptions of the outside world, prevailing in the minds of the media audience; to influence the
attitude of the public to the media, the formation of a certain social culture study and evaluation of
the mass media, the development of the spiritual world of the audience; to promote the
development and improvement of creative and professional culture of the creators of media texts;
social media functioning of the media, etc. (Korochensky, 2003, 32).
The latter, in our opinion, is of particular importance due to the fact that all Russian audience
with less confidence in the media. We think the reason for the decrease of the level of audience’s
trust to Russian media (Vartanova, 2003, 23; RIA News, 2013) not only the abundance of low-brow
television, but also - to some extent - the impact on the public media criticism, which, thanks to the
Internet is becoming increasingly accessible to the population, are increasingly aware of
manipulative of many media texts.
Based on the analysis of multiple sources, Alexander Korochensky organizes the most
common manipulative elements of modern media: the schematic simplification; the identity of the
logical and alogical; improperly formed reflection; the absence of clearly defined criteria for
distinguishing between surface and deep relationships; references to tradition, authority,
precedent, regulatory, divine will; syncretism aesthetic and imaginative, ethical and regulatory and
proper cognitive elements of the myth; play polysyllabic mythical picture of the world through
binary oppositions ("good-evil", "friend or foe"); claim to the only true explanation of the
phenomena of reality outside history and the absolute correctness of the practical actions arising
from this case; estimated-orienting nature of media texts; deliberate creation, and others
(Korochensky, 2003, 83-84).
So, we see the enormous potential of media criticism in terms of supporting the efforts of
training and educational institutions in the development of audience’s media competence. And
then at the media criticism and media literacy education have a lot in common, as one of the most
important tasks of media education is precisely to teach the audience not only to analyze media
texts of any kinds and types, but also to understand the mechanisms of creation and functioning in
society.
Moreover, the British media educators (Bazalgette, 1995) among the six key concepts of
media literacy education emit “agency” (referring to a comprehensive study, an analysis of how the
structures created by media messages, for what purpose it creates a particular media text and etc.),
“the language of the media” (includes a study of the characteristics of the media language),
“representation” (an understanding of how this or that “agency” is in reality a media text) and
“media audience” (here provides an analysis of typology of perception audience and its degree of
susceptibility to influence by “agency”).
228
Actually, the same key concepts of media analyzes and media criticism, addressing at the
same time as a professional, and to a wide audience. That is why it is so important a strong
association between media criticism and media literacy education.
Noting that the English-language literature is used the term “media criticism” to refer to both
the scientific analysis of the media in academic writings, as well as for “operational analysis” of
actual problems of functioning of the media (Masterman, 1997; McMahon, 2003), we will focus on
this form of media criticism.
We agree with Alexander Korochensky: we need a psychological, cultural and sociological
analysis of media texts of entertainment popular culture to identify embedded in their content and
social flawed ideas, cultural and behavioral stereotypes. In fact, television shows like Russian
“House-2”, fixed in the public mind ideas about the fundamental impossibility of perfection
supposedly lowly human nature, reducibility motivations of human actions to the effects of the
elementary instincts of the moral permissibility and social legitimacy of the use of immoral
methods (slander, harassment, backroom collusion) to suppress and eliminate people who were an
obstacle on the road to success (Korochensky, 2003, 83-84).
A. Korochensky proposes to extend the concept of media literacy education as a long-term
socio-educational activities aimed not only at schoolchildren and students, but also at an adult
audience (Korochensky, 2003, 164). Then we can talk about the continuous development of a
culture of adequate perception of media messages (articles, radio / television, movies, the Internet
site, etc.) and self-evaluation of the media based on democratic and humanitarian ideals and
values.
Meanwhile, as in media literacy education and media criticism have huge potential in terms
of supporting the efforts of training and educational institutions in the development of media
competence audience. And it makes sense to increase the participation of academics, scientists and
experts in different fields (teachers, sociologists, psychologists, cultural scientists, journalists, and
others.), cultural and educational institutions, public organizations and foundations for the
development of media literacy / media competence of citizens in the creation of organizational
structures capable of performing the full spectrum of media literacy education in cooperation with
the media criticism (Korochensky, 2003, 254).
The development of media competence audience includes active use of methods of analysis of
media texts and functioning of media in society. Among these methods are the following (Propp,
1998; Potter, 2011; Fedorov, 2007; Fedorov et al, 2012; Eco, 1976): Autobiographical Analysis;
Stereotypes Analysis; Cultural Mythology Analysis; Character Analysis; Hermeneutic Analysis of
Cultural Context; Identification Analysis; Ideological and Philosophical Analysis; Iconographic
Analysis; Content Analysis; Cultivation Analysis; Semiotic analysis; Structural Analysis;
Narrative Analysis; Aesthetical Analysis; Ethical Analysis.
All of these methods, one way or another, include an analysis of the key concepts of media
literacy education as a media agencies, media categories, media language, media technologies,
media representations, media audiences.
Of course, the study of these concepts takes place in an integrated, interdisciplinary,
integrated manner, immersed in a social and cultural context, thus confirming that media
education is the process of formation of human culture of media & social communication
(Sharikov, 2005, 78-79).
Conclusions
Media criticism and media literacy education have much in common. For example, media
literacy education and media criticism attaches great importance to the development of analytical
thinking audience. Indeed, one of the most important tasks of media literacy education is precisely
to teach the audience not only to analyze media texts of any kinds and types, but also to understand
the mechanisms of creation and functioning in society. Actually, the same is engaged in media
criticism and, at the same time addressing both the professional and to the widest possible
audience (Pocheptsov, 2012). That is why, in our opinion, is so important synthesis of media
criticism and media literacy education. That is why it is so important debate on the role and
functions of the media in society and analysis of media texts of different types and genres in
classrooms of schools and universities.
229
Support and acknowledgement

Science Foundation (RSF). Project 14-18- 00014 «Synthesis of media education and media
criticism in the preparation of future teachers», performed at Taganrog Management and
References:
1. Bakanov, R.P. (2009). Media criticism of the federal periodicals 1990 // Information
field of modern Russia: the practices and effects. Kazan: Kazan University Press, 2009, p..109 -116 .
2. Bazalgette, C. (1995). Key aspects of media education. Moscow: Russian Association
for Film Education, 51 p.
4. Concept of long-term socio-economic development of the Russian Federation for the
period until 2020. Approved by the Government of the Russian Federation 17.11.2008.
5. Dzyaloshinsky. I.M., MA Pilgun, M.A. (2011). Media text: especially the establishment
and operation. Moscow: School of Economics, 2011. 377 p.
7. European Parliament resolution of 16 December 2008 on media literacy in a digital
world. Brussels, 2008.
8. Fedorov, A. (2003). Media Education and Media Literacy: Experts’ Opinions. In:
9. Fedorov, A.V. (2007). Development of media competence and critical thinking of
students of pedagogical universities. Moscow, 616 c.
10. Fedorov, A.V. (2012). Media Education // Big Russian Encyclopedia. Vol. 17. Moscow:
Big Russian Encyclopedia, 2012, p. 480.
11. Fedorov, A.V., Levitskaya, A.A., Chelysheva, I.V., Murukina, E.V. at all. (2012).
Research and Education Center "Media Education and Media Competence". Moscow, 2012. 614 p.
12. Korochensky, A.P. Media criticism in the theory and practice of journalism. Rostov:
Rostov State University, 2003. 284 p.
13. Korochensky, A.P. (2005). Media Education in Russia: not only the external difficulties
and obstacles. Media Education. 2005, N 3, p.37-42.
14. Masterman, L. (1985). Teaching the Media. London: Comedia Publishing Group, 341 p.
15. Masterman, L. (1997). A Rational for Media Education. In: Kubey, R. (Ed.) Media
Literacy in the Information Age. New Brunswick (U.S.A.) and London (UK): Transaction
Publishers, pp.15-68.
16. McMahon, B. (2003). Relevance and Rigour in Media Education. Keynot Presentation.
In: Baltimor: National Media Education Conference Alliance for a Media Literate America.
17. McQuail, Denis (2010), McQuails's Mass Communication Theory
18. Petrovskaya, I.E. (2003). Media criticism: "good" and "bad" boys: Why TV people are
trying to expand the boundaries of acceptable // Journalism and media market. 2003. № 2,
pp. 42 -45.
19. Pocheptsov, G.G. (2012). Agents of influence and impact of texts. As a virtual
information space, and create and maintain social system breaks. http://osvita.
mediasapiens.ua/material/8505
20. Potter, W.J. (2011). Media literacy. Los Angeles: Sage, 463 p.
21. Propp, V. (1998). Morphology of a fairy tale. The historical roots of fairy tales. Moscow:
Labirint,. 512 p.
22. Razlogov, K.E. (2005). Media Education: what is it for? Media Education. 2005. N 2,
p.68-75.
23. Razlogov, K.E. (2006). Media education - myths and reality. Media Education. 2006.
N 3, p.90-93.
24. RIA news. 2013. 26.03.2013 . http://ria.ru/society/20130326/929117516.html
25. Sharikov, A.V. (2005). Media Education: So What is it For? Media Education. 2005.
N. 2, p.75-81.
26. Silverblatt, A. (2001). Media Literacy. Westport, Connecticut – London: Prager, 449 p.
230
27. The First European Media Literacy Forum. 2014. http://www.

europeanmedialiteracyforum.org/
28. The Moscow Declaration on Media and Information Literacy. Moscow, 2012.
http://www.ifapcom.ru/news/1347/?returnto=0&n=1
29. Vartanova, E.L. (2001). Modern media structure // Media in Post-Soviet Russia.
Moscow, 2002, p.23.
30. Zaznobina, L.S. (1998). Standard media education integrated with the various school
disciplines // Standards and Monitoring in Education. 1998. № 3, pp.26-34.
231
Russian Journal of Sociology, 2015, Vol. (1), Is. 1

Russian Journal of Sociology
ISSN: 2409-6288
Vol. 1, Is. 1, pp. 19-26, 2015
DOI: 10.13187/rjs.2015.1.19
www.ejournal32.com
UDC 316
Defining the Levels of the Audience's Media Competence

and Critical Thinking in Sociological Surveys
Anastasia Levitskaya
Taganrog Management and Economics Institute, Russian Federation

PhD, Associate Professor
Abstract
The author of the article agrees that sociological researches of the levels of media
literacy/competence of different groups of citizens are very timely today. However such researches
require a significant shift of emphasis: the most important indicator should be the audience's
ability to analyze and evaluate media messages and media's role in society (including a media text's
analysis); only afterwards such skills as creation and communication of own media production and
skills to use media technology should follow. The article attempts to illustrate that otherwise the
findings of sociological surveys on media competence will display a common flaw - the over-
estimation of user's skills. The author emphasizes that media literacy does not benefit from its
reduction as a technical matter.
Keywords: media education; media literacy; media criticism; media competence; analytical
thinking; sociological surveys.
Introduction
In 2009 the results of a large scale sociological survey addressing the levels of media literacy
development in different states of the European Union were published [Celot, 2009]. According to
its findings, the countries of EU were divided into 3 groups:
- EU countries manifesting a heightened level of media competence: Austria, the UK,
Denmark, Luxembourg, Netherlands, Finland, France, Sweden;
- EU countries with a median level of media education and media literacy of people: Belgium,
Hungary, Germany, Ireland, Spain, Italy, Lithuania, Malta, Portugal, Slovenia, the Czech Republic,
Estonia;
- EU countries with a limited/basic degree of media competence of people: Bulgaria, Greece,
Cyprus, Latvia, Poland, Romania, Slovakia [Celot, 2009, p.69].
In 2011 a similar European survey was conducted, according to which EU countries were also
grouped into 3 clusters:
- EU countries with a high level of media literacy and media education: Austria, the UK,
Germany, Denmark, Luxembourg, Netherlands, Finland, France, Sweden;
- EU countries with a medium level of media education and media literacy of people:
Belgium, Hungary, Ireland, Spain, Italy, Lithuania, Malta, Portugal, Slovenia, Cyprus, the Czech
Republic;
19
- EU countries with a low level of media education and media literacy of people: Bulgaria,
Greece, Latvia, Poland, Romania, Slovakia, Estonia [Testing…, 2011, p. 38].

Comparison of these groups/clusters shows that on the whole there has not been many
changes in differentiation of EU countries according to the development levels of media education
and media literacy over 3 years: Germany only managed to join the group of the most advanced in
media education countries. Cyprus and Slovakia went up from the third group into the second, and
Estonia, on the contrary, lowered its position and moved down to the third group.
Thus, Great Britain in both sociological surveys (2009 and 2011) along with France,
Netherlands, Austria and some Nordic countries was included into the group of the most advanced
in the sphere of media education EU countries. It is interesting that comparing and contrasting the
development of media education in Great Britain and Russia, one can draw the conclusions about
some similarities in current processes. Undoubtedly, media education in the UK has been
developing more actively, national educational curricular include media literacy aspects (as a rule,
in subjects like English, Citizenship, Social Studies, Arts, Health) [Bazalgette, 2010]. However, as
in modern Russia, on the whole, media education in the UK is still largely dependent on the
interest and enthusiasm of individual teachers, with the inevitable result of the inhomogeneous
and different level of quality. Moreover, only a small minority of teachers are reasonably aware of
media education, during which the cultural experience, critical methods of analysis, creative
abilities of pupils are being developed due to the integrated approach embedded in the curriculum
[Bazalgette, 2010].
Moreover, the initiative of the organization Ofcom, created in 2003 and aimed at regulating
electronic media including telecommunications and Internet, quite differs from the cultural studies
approach to media education, implemented by the educational department of the British Film
Institute (BFI). Ofcom interprets media literacy very broadly, encouraging media industry to get
interested in media education in new ways; it does useful researches ranging from people's access
to media technologies to people's trust in media. However as a regulatory body, Ofcom unavoidably
relies on the protection of people against the alleged negative effects of media, as well as on the
development of media literacy in terms of basic technical skills (for instance, how to block spam,
etc.). Taking into consideration that Ofcom belongs to the British Department of Culture, Media
and Sport (DCMS), it does not have any significant impact on the actual educational policy
[Bazalgette, 2010].
Ofcom argues that media literacy "enables people to have the skills, knowledge and
understanding to make full use of the opportunities presented by both traditional and new
communications services. Media literacy also helps people to manage content and
communications, and protect themselves and their families from the potential risks associated with
using these services". It defines media literacy as "the ability to use, understand and create media
and communications in a variety of context" [http://stakeholders.ofcom.org.uk/market-data-
research/other/media-literacy/]. This definition has been widely spread in Britain. Since Ofcom
primarily acts as an economic regulator, a regulator of the market, rather than a content regulator,
in this context, "it would be possible to interpret media literacy as a familiar neo-liberal strategy.
In a deregulated, market-driven economy, the argument goes, people need to be responsible for
their own behaviour as consumers. Rather than looking to the government to protect them from
the negative aspects of market forces, they need to learn to protect themselves. What does it matter
if Rupert Murdoch owns the media, if we are all wise and critical consumers? And so media literacy
becomes part of a strategy of creating well-behaved, self-regulating “citizen-consumers” (to use
Ofcom’s term): it reflects a shift from public regulation to individual self-regulation that we can see
in many other areas of modern social policy. Of course, this comes packaged as a democratic move
– a move away from protectionism and towards empowerment. But it is also an individualising
move: it seems to be based on a view of media literacy as a personal attribute, rather than as a
social practice. Indeed, it could be seen to place a burden on individuals that they might not
necessarily be disposed or able to cope with. And while it gives people responsibilities, it does not
also extend their rights: it positions them as consumers rather than as citizens. It has become the
20
duty of all good consumers – and, when it comes to children, of all good parents —to regulate their
own media uses" [Buckingham, 2009, p. 16-17].
The situation with Ofcom is very similar to the Russian 2013 case with "Roskomnadzor"
(http://eng.rkn.gov.ru/), the regulatory body that has no influence of the system of education.
In 2010, the Federal Law No. 436-FZ On Protecting Children from Information Harmful to Their
Health and Development came into effect and Federal Service for Supervision of Communications,
Information Technology, and Mass Media prepared the Framework of Information Security of
Children, where in Chapter 20 there is a "Strategy, Aims, Objectives, and Methods of Information
Literacy of Children and Teenagers" [Vartanova, Matvejeva, Sobkin, Soldatova, Sharikov et all,
2013]. Firstly, this Framework, likewise the Ofcom activity, is mainly aimed at the protection of the
underage audience from harmful media impact. Secondly, it does not affect the real educational
process in Russia.
The same line of development is characteristic of Zircon, a Moscow research group

specializing in sociological and marketing researches and consulting (http://www.zircon.ru
/en/about/). The purpose of its study "Monitoring of media literacy level of the population of
Russia" (for The Ministry of communications and mass communications of the RF, 2009-2013)
[Zircon, 2013] was to examine primarily the skills and abilities of using the media by the audience.
The surveys of 1600 respondents were conducted annually. Findings from a national research
project conducted by Zircon reveal the following:
- level of skills to use information sources;
- skills to use media gadgets, Internet, and frequency of use (defined by the territory and
age);
- citizens' access to computers and Internet;
- access rate to traditional media vs. new media;
- types of attitudes of the people towards the information flow, its critical perception, and
verification;
- people's activities when disclosing false information (grouped by gender, age, level of
education, and location);
- types of assessment judgments about media flow [Zircon, 2013].
The large-scale survey studies report that from 2009 to 2013 1600 Russian respondents
increased their use of mobile telephone communication dramatically (from 85% in 2009 to 93% in
2013), computers (from 49% in 2009 to 71% in 2013), Internet (from 37% in 2009 to 69% in 2013),
the television consumption stayed at about the same level (99%-100%), as well as the use of own
book library (53%-54%), MP3 players (27%-26%) and video cameras (22%-26%), in contrast, the
number of radio consumers decreased (from 61% in 2009 to 41% in 2013) [Zircon, 2013].
In this sense, Zircon's research proves that in spite of the active growth of contacts with
Internet, its television and mobile communication that remain the leading media in Russia. Nearly
every day according to Zircon data, 95% of respondents use a mobile telephone, over 80% of people
daily watch television, and 72-73% go on the Internet. Whilst 43% listened to the radio in 2013
daily, and still fewer people read press – only 17% in 2013 read newspapers and 10% read
magazines [Zircon, 2013]. Do these numbers say anything about the level of media literacy of the
people? In our view, no. On the whole, the high level of media consumption alone is not directly
linked to the high level of media competence [Potter, 2014; Tyner, 2009, etc.].
Same oblique relationship to media competence is demonstrated by the findings of Zircon

about the differentiation of media consumption according to one's location, age, education and
gender. Evidently, media consumption is higher in big cities than in smaller towns and villages
(although television remains the medium most liked by small towns/village residents and the
amount of television exposure in the villages is bigger compared to other media). Young people,
especially men, contact with new media more often than elderly people, and so on. Moreover, the
frequent contacts with media may actually mean that a considerable part of respondents is only
hooked on a particular reality show or tabloid websites.
21
Media activity, defined by Zircon as "a person's activity of creation of information artifacts
and their dissemination (creating and maintaining own webpages, posting texts, photographs, etc.,
sending information to media (press, radio, TV)", comes closer to the identification of the media
competence level [Zircon, 2013]. Zircon's research suggests that 47,3% of population have the low
level of media activity, 29,4% have the medium level and 23,3% only have the high one [Zircon,
2013]. However one should not forget that such media activeness alone can not only be positively
but also negatively charged, even anti humanistic. So it would be wrong to make a judgment of a
person's high level of media competence solely based on his/her media activity index.
It seems that a person's attitude to the media flow can say more about his/her level of media
competence. Zircon's research of 2013 shows that only 29% of respondents confessed that it is
difficult for them to find their way in the information flow. However 40% are sure that such
navigation is no problem for them, and 26% of people add that not only do they easily operate in
the media world, but also do not see any problem in a huge amount of available media information
[Zircon, 2013]. But can it be true? Psychologists [Rubinstein, 1973; Leontiev, 2002, p. 380; Potter,
2012] have long been aware of the effect of an inflated self-concept of one's skills, knowledge and
abilities; but the verification of respondents' real skills in media field was not included into the
research by Zircon.
In reference with the key indicators of media competence, the results of Zircon's research
related to the audience's skills of critical/analytical thinking are more interesting. Thus, in 2013
58% of respondents admit that while watching TV, listening to radio, reading newspapers and
magazines they often have a feeling of being deceived or misled, that is given false, unverified
information, being imposed some views on. Whilst the respondents trust Internet as a source of
information more (42% in 2013) than TV programs (only 15% in 2013), press (11%) or the radio
(6%) [Zircon, 2013]. On the whole, the sum total of the audience that is critical about media texts is
58%. This correlates significantly with the identified by Zircon, data of the previous part of the
survey, when 66% of people argue that they easily manage information flow [Zircon, 2013].
It is worth mentioning the answers to three thesеs that respondents needed to evaluate.
Thus, the thesis "media should bear responsibility for low-quality information just as a
manufacturer is responsible for the low-quality product" in 2013 was supported by 86% of
respondents. The theses "I usually know where (from what source) I can get the information
I need" and "media should only tell facts, and it is up to a person to derive their meaning" were
approved by 76% of people [Zircon, 2013].
The research findings demonstrate that 74% of respondents in 2013 pointed out that
different media repeat the same information, at the same time, 70% of people were sure that
information messages from different sources often contradicted each other. Still 52% mentioned
that they often compared information with other sources in order to verify it. Moreover, 41% of
respondents answered that while evaluating the information they tried to find out whose interests a
media agency served. But over one third of respondents (38%) admitted that they are used to
believing media messages. On the whole only 19% of respondents revealed a basic level of
evaluation skills, while 38% are in the middle, and 43% have highly developed evaluation skills
[Zircon, 2013].
The comprehensive index of media literacy was calculated by Zircon by combining three
indices: 1) the use of media devices activity index (partial index A), 2) index of self evaluation of
skills to operate the information (partial index B), and 3) index of one's media activity (partial
index C). Within the framework of a sociological survey, Zircon adopted the following estimation of
the level of media literacy/competence: a media literate person is the one who demonstrates a high
level of use of media gadgets (A), a high level of self evaluation of skills to operate the information
(B), and a high or a medium level of one's media activity (C). 14,5% of all the respondents in the
data set of the research conducted by Zircon met these criteria [Zircon, 2013].
22
Nevertheless, in our opinion, the technique of estimation of the integrated level of media
competence of the audience proposed by Zircon, contains a methodological error, because by
summing up the results of the sociological survey some key indices of media literacy were not
considered. As we have noted above, a high level of media gadgets' use (A) in most cases does not
testify for the similarly high level of analytical assessment of the information, of a media text, and a
wide range of relations between a person and media sphere. The direct link between the high level
of media literacy and a high level of self-evaluation of user's skills (B) looks quite vague, too. A high
level of one's media activities, certainly, has to do with the level of media literacy much more than
the level of media consumption. However it cannot be considered as the priority one in the ranking
of markers of media literacy/media competence.
Broadly, one can agree that "these four components - access, analysis, evaluation and content
creation - together constitute a skills-based approach to media literacy. Each component supports
the others as part of a non-linear, dynamic learning process: learning to create content helps one to
analyze that produced professionally by others; skills in analysis and evaluation open the doors to
new uses of the internet, expanding access, and so forth" [Livingstone, 2004, p. 5].
Yet, to my mind, the ranking order (and therefore, the percent of its index volume) of the
markers of any sociological research claiming to determine the levels of media literacy, should be
the following:
1) level of the analytical evaluation of information, a media text, a wide range of interrelations
with media sphere by a respondent;
2) level of one's media activity of a respondent;
3) level of activeness of using media gadgets;
4) level of self-evaluation of a respondent of one's skills to operate the information (although
this marker could be omitted due to the possibility of inadequately elevated self-evaluation).
Consequently, if the level of analytical evaluation of media messages had been the main
marker in the Zircon survey, then "the comprehensive index of media literacy" of the people would
have been different. It would have much more depended on the fact that in 2013 the survey
revealed that 38% of respondents had a medium level of evaluation skills when working with mass
media, and 43% - the high one.
It should be noted that the level of analytical evaluation of media messages was detected only
indirectly by Zircon. The direct evidence of this marker of media literacy/media competence could
be received by and by working in focus groups and by respondents' actually completing some
analytical assignments, related to media, and later assessed by experts.
Our opinion about the priority of the level of analytical evaluation of information in
sociological researches is shared by other media educators, including those who produced the
survey in European Union in 2011. The first place in the ranking of media literacy core markers was
given to critical understanding of information that is presented by different media sources and
skills in critically evaluating the credibility of information, comparison of information across
sources with skills in managing privacy and protecting self from unwanted messages, content
creation in various media forms following up [Testing…, 2011, p. 6-7]. The critical understanding of
media contents can be found at the top of the pyramid of main criteria of media literacy in the EU
research in 2009, as well [Celot, 2009, p. 8].
The importance of analytical evaluation of media information is stressed by Pérez Tornero

and T. Varis. They insist that the development of analytical thinking in media education can be
regarded as the way to use information for analysis and assessment, creation of new concepts,
ideas, arguments and hypothesis. Critical thinking makes instruments for understanding the
environment and its patterns develop. Taking into consideration that the huge part of information
process is realized via media technologies, the development of media literacy should be aimed at
stimulating critical thinking [Pérez Tornero, Varis, 2010, p. 79].
23
The ranking of indexes (according to their significance) in All-Russian sociological research

headed by G. Soldatova is constructed more convincingly, compared to Zircon research. Soldatova's
research was aimed at distinguishing the levels of digital competence of adolescents and their
parents [Soldatova et al., 2013]. We should say that the authors of the research define "digital
competence" as the one "based on continuing mastering the competencies (system of
corresponding knowledge, skills, motivation and responsibilities), the ability of a person to choose
and use information and communication technologies in various spheres of life (work with content,
communications, use) confidently, efficiently, critically and safely; and his/her willingness to such
activities" [Soldatova, 2013, p. 4].
This research of 2013 used a stratified sample of 1203 teenagers aged 12 to 17 and
1209 parents living in 58 towns from 45 regions of all 8 federal districts of Russia with the
population of 100 thousand people and more [Soldatova, 2013, p. 4]. Setting up a questionnaire,
the authors distinguished "four spheres of life that to a large extent reveal great opportunities and
new risks of Internet space. These are the information (content) environment (creation, search,
selection, critical evaluation of the content), communication sphere (creation, development,
sustaining relationship, identity, reputation, self representation), consumption sphere (use of
Internet as consumers - orders, services, shopping, etc.) and technological sphere (use of computer
hardware and software, furthermore, technical safety)" [Soldatova, 2013, p. 16]. We think it is only
fair that the analytical and evaluation activity of a person is placed first and foremost.
As one would expect, the sociological research headed by G.Soldatova shows that Russian
teens surpass their parents in frequency of Internet use: 89% of teens use it daily vs. 53% of parents
(moreover, 17% of parents do not use Internet at all). Yet, five types of teenage users were
distinguished: "education oriented" (29%), "communicators" (25%), "web readers" (22%),
"gamers" (17%), "universal users" (7%) " [Soldatova, 2013, p. 5-7].
As it's known, "Information Technology" is an obligatory subject in Russian schools, that is

why it is this subject that should develop pupils' "digital literacy" in the first place. The large group
of parents that took part in the survey by Soldatova also reported that schools should inform their
kids about Internet threats (42%), teach safe surfing the Net (38%), and teach to use modern
information and communication technologies efficiently (39%). Moreover, one in five parents
would like to be informed about Internet security and safety rules on the Internet during school
parent meetings" [Soldatova, 2013, p. 11].
However the sociological survey guided by G. Soldatova demonstrates that "teenagers

evaluate school teachers' help low: only 40% of schoolchildren are fully or partially satisfied with
the knowledge about using Internet that they got at school. While 44% of teenagers think that the
school does not provide any useful knowledge in this field. Every tenth teenager believes that
he/she knows more about the Internet than a teacher does. One in ten teens gets the information
about safe Internet use at school" [Soldatova, 2013, p. 10]. Therefore, based on the findings of this
research it can be concluded that IT school lessons achieve their objectives poorly and ineffectively.
On the whole, Soldatova's research shows that on average the level of digital literacy of
Russian teenagers as well as their parents is about one third of the possible rate (31% by parents,
and 34% by teens). The questions that were answered negatively both by parents and children (i.e.
that they don't know how to do something, can't do this, don't want to learn it, don't lay emphasis
on it, etc.) twice more outnumber the positive answers (meaning that they feel competent in doing
something) [Soldatova, 2013, p. 6].
Nevertheless, if compared to the media literacy survey done by Zircon in the same year of
2013, there the number of media literate respondents was half – 14,5% [Zircon, 2013].
This discrepancy may be explained by the fact that firstly, the researchers had different criteria of
media literacy and digital competence, and secondly, half of Soldatova's respondents were
teenagers who in many ways surpass adults in media use skills.
24
Conclusions
Summing up, determining the media literacy/media competence levels of various groups of
people is an important and well-timed task, however, it is not an easy task. It requires a significant
shift of emphasis: the indices of the audiences' skills to analyze and evaluate media messages and
their role in society should come first, and only then such skills as creation and communication of
self media production, and skills to use media gadgets should follow. Otherwise the description of
the research findings on the topic of media competence will reveal a common drawback – the
predominance of the importance of user's skills.
Acknowledgement
References
1. Bazalgette, C. (2010) Media Education in the UK. London, 2010.
2. Buckingham, D. (2009). The future of media literacy in the digital age: some challenges
for policy and practice // Verniers, P. (ed.) (2009). Media literacy in Europe: controversies,
challenges and perspectives. Bruxelles: EuroMeduc, p.13-24.
3. Celot, P. at all (eds.) (2009). Study on Assessment Criteria for Media Literacy Levels.
Brussels: EAVI, 139 p.
4. Leontiev, D.A. (2002). I - the ultimate authority in the person // Personality psychology
in the works of local psychologists. St-Petersburg: Peter.
5. Livingstone, S. (2004). Media Literacy and the Challenge of New Information and
Communication Technologies. The Communication Review, N 7, pp. 3–14.
6. Pérez Tornero, J.M. and Varis, T. (2010). Media Literacy and new Humanism. Moscow:
UNESCO Institute for Information Technologies in Education, 136 p.
7. Potter, W. J. (2012). Media effects. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. 377 p.
8. Potter, W.J. (2014). Media Literacy. L.A.: Sage, 2014, 452 p.
9. Rubinstein, S.L. (1973). Man and World: Problems of General Psychology. Moscow.
10. Soldatova, G.U. at all. (2013). Digital competence of adolescents and parents. The
results of nationwide research. Moscow: Foundation for Internet Development, 2013. 144 p.
11. Testing and Refining. Criteria to Assess Media Literacy Levels in Europe. Bruselles:
European Commission, 2011, 236 p.
12. Tyner, K (2009). Audiences, Intertextuality, and New Media Literacy. IJLM. Vol. 1, N 2,
pp. 25-31.
13. Vartanova, EL, Matveeva, L.V., Sobkin, V.S., Soldatova, G.U., Sharikov, A.V. at all.
(2013). Strategy, goals, objectives and methods of information education of children and
adolescents // Information Security Concept children. Moscow: Roscomnadzor, 2013. 108 p.
14. Zircon, A research group. (2013). Current status and prospects of literacy of the
population of the Russian Federation on the basis of national monitoring of media conduct
(2009-2013). Moscow: Zircon. http: //www.zircon.ru/publications/sotsiologiya-smi-i-massovykh-
kommunikatsiy/
УДК 316
Уровни медиакомпетентности аудитории

в зеркале социологических опросов
Анастасия Левицкая
Таганрог институт управления и экономики, Российская Федерация

кандидат педагогических наук, доцент
25
Аннотация. Автор статьи считает, что социологические исследования уровней

медиаграмотности / медиакомпетентности различных групп граждан весьма актуальны.
Однако такие исследования требуют значительного смещения акцентов: самыми важными
показателями должны быть умения аудитории анализировать и оценивать медийные
сообщения и роль медиа в обществе; только после этого могут следовать показатели
медиакомпетентности, связанные с умениями создания и распространения собственных
медиатекстов, с практическим использованием медиатехники. В противном случае
результаты социологических опросов, выявляющих уровень медиакомпетентности, будут
страдать общим недостатком – доминированием компетенций, связанных с
(медиа)пользовательскими навыками.
Ключевые слова: образование медиа; медиаобразование; медиаграмотность;
медиакритика; медиакомпетентность; аналитическое мышление; социологические опросы.
26
Communication Today, 2016, Vol. 7, No. 2
IS MEDIA LITERACY STILL

ONE OF THE PRIORITIES
FOR POLICY MAKERS?
Interview with David BUCKINGHAM and Alexander FEDOROV
Prof. David Buckingham, FBA
Emeritus Professor of Communication and Media Studies
Loughborough University ABSTRACT:
Leicestershire The interviews focus on the key question whether media literacy is still in the spotlight of contemporary so-
LE11 3TU ciety. The past decades has seen rapid development of professional and academic interest in the field of media
United Kingdom literacy. The theoretical and practical issues that have dominated the field for many years have already drawn
d.buckingham@lboro.ac.uk attention to the importance of this concept for the individual and for the society. In fact, the introduction
of media education in schools and other areas of public life is still being confronted with many challenges.
David Buckingham is a scholar, writer and consultant specialising in young people, media and education. He Moreover, the wide range of related problems is becoming less in the centre stage of policy making – at the
is an Emeritus Professor at Loughborough University (UK) and a Visiting Professor at Sussex University (UK) European and non-European level alike. The interviews address questions about the priorities of educational
and at the Norwegian Centre for Child Research. He was for many years a Professor of Education at the Insti- policy, which should not be focused only on the topics that can directly contribute to economic growth and job
tute of Education, London University, where he was the founder and director of the Centre for the Study of creation. Particularly today, at the times of global conflicts and societal as well as cultural transformations,
Children, Youth and Media; and subsequently a Professor of Media and Communications at Loughborough it is very important to develop the critical thinking of citizens – of course, in relation to the media and their
University. He is a leading internationally recognised expert on children’s and young people’s interactions society-wide actions and agendas.
with electronic media, and on media literacy education. He has directed more than 25 externally-funded
research projects on these issues, and been a consultant for bodies such as UNESCO, the United Nations, KEY WORDS:
UNICEF, the European Commission, Ofcom (the UK media regulator), and the UK Government. critical thinking, digital age, media education, media education policy, media literacy
Prof. Dr. Alexander Fedorov Norbert Vrabec (N. V.): Professor Buckingham, Professor Fedorov, you’re both leading experts in the media
Anton Chekhov Taganrog State Pedagogical Institute literacy, theory and practice of media education as well as media education policy. How do you see the future
Iniciativnaya, 48 of media literacy and education in the digital age?
Taganrog, Rostovskaya oblast, 347936
Russian Federation David Buckingham: Good question. If I think back to when I was first involved with media education, I can re-
tgpi@mail.ru member using very basic technology. When children in school were ‘making’ media, they were literally cutting
pieces of paper with scissors and sticking them onto other pieces of paper. And I can remember the beginnings
Alexander Fedorov is Deputy Director for Science of Anton Chekhov Taganrog Institute at the Rostov State of video but the video was impossible to edit back then. You needed to go somewhere special, bribe a technician
University of Economics, Russia, and honourable president of Russian Association for Film and Media Educa- to allow you to edit it. It was a real problem. If you think about it now, I have a phone in my pocket, you have a
tion. He is also a member of the Russian Academy of Film Arts and Science, the Russian Union of Filmmakers, phone here, and we can make a movie, edit a movie and do whatever we want. It’s an amazing difference! It’s
CIFEJ and FIPRECI. Professor Fedorov is the author of 20 books and more than 400 articles in media studies a unique opportunity.
and media literacy journals. He has been a Guest Professor and research fellow in the Norway Association for Another thing is that what we think of as media has changed. People of our generation, we think it’s
Media Education (Oslo), the Central European University (Budapest), Kassel University (Germany), Maison television, movies, newspapers... But actually nowadays, it is far more about digital media; and these media are
des sciences de l’homme (Paris), the Kennan Institute, (Washington D.C.), Humboldt University (Berlin), working in a different way. If you think about Facebook as a medium, and Twitter, they are not just media, they
Mainz University and Frankfurt University (Germany). are media platforms, but they work in very different ways. Economically, in terms of representation, in terms of
how producers get engaged with the audience, they are very different. And we have to grasp that, engage with
100 Interview Communication Today

that. We have to develop new theories, questions. All of it is very important, very exciting, very challenging. At Then, in 2010, we had a change of government and media literacy was finished as a policy issue. I mean
the same time, what does education do in response to these technological changes? In my opinion, schools and people occasionally talk about it, but as a policy priority, it is really finished. The timescale in Europe was
universities have been very quick to use technology. There has been a ‘big push’, partly from the government, different: somewhere around 2006 – 2008, The European Commission was publishing documents about the
but particularly from the commercial companies: for example, Apple has pushed really hard to get their prod- topic, but since that time it has shifted and much of the impetus has really evaporated. So people are now
ucts into schools. We have big companies that see education as a really significant market. So, we are being talking about digital competence, although they have also started to speak more about film, European film.
pushed and in media education we have to be really careful about this, because many people think that technol- There’s a kind of European protectionism there, certain voices encouraging people not to go and watch Hol-
ogy is just a very simple and straight-forward benefit. There is a problem with the functional use of technology lywood movies. Yet on the other hand there are other media, television, computer games, and so on, that have
rather than the critical, and that is the real challenge for us, particularly at school level. been around for a long time already, but are not perceived as respectable enough. I find it very hard to be opti-
I am old enough to remember the first computers coming to schools as a strange, new thing; but now in mistic on the things that are happening on the European level. Again, I see it as an opportunity but I think that
every class they have several computers. And I think we need to engage with this but to ask critical questions. there is no political push behind it.
So there is a mixture of positive things and the dangers that people who teach media in schools really need to
address. Alexander Fedorov: When we have a look at Russia, Russian media literacy is, in many cases, based on the
ethical and aesthetical value of information shared. When you speak about media education in a broader sense,
Alexander Fedorov: I think that the future of media literacy education has certain positive perspectives. But it is not very ‘comfortable’ for many Russian educators. We rather speak about a more comfortable notion of
of course, we have some negative factors too. For example, some of my university students lose their ability information literacy; media may give us a certain sense of feeling uncomfortable, media literacy seems to be
to read long texts. For example, my students have the possibility of a quick click on a link on Facebook or unknown, but information literacy is okay. There exists a certain Russian journal in Moscow that dedicates its
the possibility of using mobile phones, the opportunity to use the video camera and Twitter, because these space to information literacy education. Russian Ministry of Education perceive media education as something
digital communication forms are very fasts and texts are short. But when I ask them about, for example, lexical additional, something extra, not as a compulsory thing. On the other hand, on the university level, the extent of
or other test, it is very difficult to reach interesting and competent answers. It is very difficult to make them media literacy is greater nowadays. But on the high school level, however, the range and scope are very small.
analyse a complex media text, e.g. a film by Quentin Tarantino or Federico Fellini, because it is very hard for In Russia, high school education is more conformist, more traditional. It is really hard for the teachers to incor-
them to ‘read’ through such a long sophisticated message. We can try to find a balance in between a short visual porate the media literacy into high school education.
picture and more inside, deeper, topical texts.
Of course, Russia is – in certain ways – culturally different from the Great Britain and other countries, N. V.: Media Literacy is a set of skills or a specific form of competency. An important part of these skills and
because Russia has on the one hand a long tradition of broadsheets and on the other hand a strong tradition competencies is critical thinking. Do you believe that the leaders at the European level or in Russia are eager
of longing for power; the pressure on and of the media is substantial. However, when I read now the western to develop critical thinking skills among citizens? In several European countries, we observe an increase in the
papers like The New York Times or The Times or Le Figaro, I see that many western journalists think that Rus- popularity of alternative, radical political movements and political parties that propose significant systemic
sian media always cannot offer any faithful, objective facts. But this is not true because, of course we have many changes in the current neo-liberal policies of European countries. Do you think the rise in popularity of these
problems and main channels, main papers are under the government control, of course, but we have absolutely parties and movements, which is also associated with increasing scepticism towards mainstream media, could
independent and freelance news texts now, texts with clearly critical position against Russian power, against be the result of previous and existing educational activities in the field of media literacy and encouraging active
president Putin; for example, in some privately-held newspapers or in the Internet area. This is very different citizenship and participation in civil society?
from the Soviet Union because the power of the Soviet Union controlled everything. But not now: the new
position of the new media like the Internet gives Russian people thorough views on all events. I think it is a very David Buckingham: Well, it is possible. I think that the government would say, ‘Yes, we value critical think-
good position for the development of critical thinking, because when we have many different national sources, ing’, but do they really want to develop critical thinking? If people develop critical thinking, life is very un-
we become cautious about holding any position, any opinion. And we try to teach our students to have their comfortable for the government. Yes, on the one hand there are these challenging social movements but on
own position, an independent position against the ordinary propaganda. the other hand there is a rising authoritarianism, a rising form of right-wing populism in politics. So I think we
have to be very careful about where politics and media go.
N. V.: Do you think that media literacy is still one of the priorities for policy makers at the European level? Or Critical thinking is a very positive, constructive thing: in order to be able to imagine how things could
the current status is that the focus of European policy is gradually shifting to other priorities? Such as digital be different, you have to be critical. But criticism actually may become a kind of cynicism. So we can all sit with
literacy, skills in programming, technical competence, and so on. the arms behind our backs and say, ‘Politicians are all corrupt. I don’t trust anybody, I don’t trust the media’,
and then we actually become apathetic and we justify doing nothing. What’s more, this cynicism may simply
David Buckingham: Certainly in the UK, but also in Europe, these things are changing. And I think that media justify the authoritarian political and media establishment. It can actually go in many directions.
literacy is no longer a priority. Some ten years ago, this was a topic many people were speaking about. When me- For example, in the UK there is a lot of buzz now about the radicalisation of young people. Some young
dia literacy appeared on the policy landscape, it wasn’t very clearly defined: it was fairly big and broad and for that people are going to join the fighting in Syria. And the government actually say that media play a certain part in
reason educators, like me, saw it as a big opportunity. Yet the policy became confused, narrower, and much more this radicalisation. In fact, when young people look at what is happening in Syria, then they look at the main-
focused on technology. It became no longer a matter of media literacy but a pure matter of technological literacy, stream media and they compare this with what they see online, they might well think the movements are being
technological competence – learning how to turn on the computer, to use the browser, and so on. And in the misinterpreted; they become very critical of the media. And they go to fight for ISIS. This is the story anyway.
process, media literacy became a very much reduced idea, a matter of the ability to operate within the digital field. The point of this example is that distrust in mainstream media is not always leading people towards politically
Also, when we first started to talk about media literacy, it wasn’t only ‘digital’; but since that time the Internet and correct directions. Likewise, if we look at conspiracy media and those conspiracy web sites, they really distrust
the challenges of the Internet have really become the most important things. Internet competence is very impor- the mainstream media. They claim that the mainstream media simply tell lies about everything. We are told lies
tant, of course, but knowing how to use the Internet is not the same as media literacy, it is much broader than that. about 9/11, and about Princess Diana... Whatever. There is a lot of criticism towards the mainstream media

but it is not necessarily going in good directions. We have to be careful about what kind of criticism we are David Buckingham: It is very difficult to be positive about these questions. What has happened in teacher
looking for, and what does criticism mean. Because criticism, cynicism and paranoia are not the same things. education in the UK is that universities have a smaller and smaller part to play, largely because the government
distrusts the universities. In the last 30 years the government has promoted the impression that the teachers
Alexander Fedorov: Well, I completely agree with Professor Buckingham. We need media criticism and media are getting these strange ideas from ‘crazy’ people like me, ‘dangerous’ people, the teachers at universities
competence, but not cynicism or conspiracies. We may use Professor Len Masterman’s approach towards the who teach them all these crazy things that are terribly impractical. So the government decided to squeeze the
Internet, because the main question Masterman addresses is, ‘Who is the owner of the media agency? Who has universities and push the universities out of teacher education. So I think you are absolutely right.
the interest in certain information’s medialisation?’. This is a very good methodology of judging the mainstream Becoming a media education teacher is a really long process, and it’s hard to get good training. Most
media, the main TV channels, radio stations, Internet web sites (information texts). Unfortunately, now Russia media and communication students, and I am sure it is the case here too, want to get a job in media, or in Public
faces very difficult political problems in relation towards the other European countries, so the political level of Relations, or wherever. Even so, some of them will want to go into teaching or will work in the public sector.
media is a very important part of media judgment. But of course, we need another methodology for the art house They don’t see it necessary to work for a commercial company. In the UK, media studies as a subject in universi-
media texts. Well, it is very important to develop media competence of personality. So, of course, we need to de- ties is significantly increasing. For example, a friend of my son did media studies at university and he managed
velop critical thinking and media competency in all people from the young people at high schools to older people. to find a school teaching media studies, he got training and he is now moving forward as a specialised media
studies teacher. But he’s got most of the knowledge from his first degree. I think that there will be more and
N. V.: Media education acts at the interface of different influences and interests. Direct or indirect impact on me- more media studies graduates and I hope that some of them will find their way into teaching in schools.
dia literacy is always related to an educational policy on a national or European level, market-driven economy,
taking into account the requirements of political correctness, the interests of the media industry and so on. Do Alexander Fedorov: I believe that the teacher training is very important. I think it is very important for Rus-
you recognise appropriate strategies and methodological approaches that would enable media literacy to face sia, too. If we don’t have enough media teacher education, then we don’t have media teachers educated enough.
the increasingly complex world and society? Of course, there are certain media education teacher trainings in Russia, including one at my university, but
speaking in numbers it is not enough for Russia. I can say by guess we have 5 teacher training courses (in Mos-
David Buckingham: Well, I don’t know. My experience has been that in the UK we have developed a certain cow, Yekaterinburg, etc.) but it is simply not enough for a country this big. Moreover, we don’t have enough
conceptual framework for media education. I think that some things may need to be added to that framework and media education teacher licences, too.
some may need to be changed. But the overall conceptual approach is correct – and it can also be adapted to ad-
dress the latest digital media. As I have said during the conference, we live in what might appear to be communica- David Buckingham: I think it is a question of teachers’ status and the general perception of the profession. In
tive chaos. On one level, we are ready to face the chaos, but what we need is critical tools that can help us to make Finland, for example, all the teachers have to have a Master’s degree and teaching is a high-status profession. In
sense of all that. I think that media education provides us with those critical tools. In the UK, there are people Britain, I have to say that I think that teachers have been de-professionalized. Politicians have no respect for the
who would say, ‘You are old-fashioned, we can’t judge this new age of media with old-fashioned critical concepts’. idea that the teachers should learn about educational theory. The government often seems to regard teaching
The question is: Do we want to get rid of these concepts? My argument is that we need to keep thinking and chal- as an unprofessional job. It has the idea that the teachers just ‘deliver’ the curriculum like the postman delivers
lenging ourselves, but actually we do have a framework that helps us to understand the changing media situation. the post, or the milkman delivers the milk. This is how teachers are supposed to ‘deliver’ knowledge. This is a
viewpoint that undermines the status of teaching: it sees teaching as having a functional role. As a result, more
Alexander Fedorov: It is a very good question. I think, however, that we do not have any universal methodol- and more teachers in the UK are leaving the profession. They get training and after 3 years or so, almost half of
ogy of media education now. We have and we actually need different competitors with different approaches in them have left their profession – which, apart from anything else, is a big waste of money. I think we have a bit
methodology (Len Masterman, Umberto Eco, etc.). Now I am a member of the team working on the methodol- of a crisis in the teaching profession. So it is not only the problem of media education teachers, it is a bigger
ogy of the international approach that aims to create an international multi-language media literacy tutorial; problem with the teaching profession and teacher training in general.
now we are working on 10 language variants of this framework panel. I am a member of the team for the Rus-
sian language variant of this online media literacy tutorial. We try to create the panel language framework for N. V.: Today’s children and young people are now growing up with a wide range of new media tools and ap-
the beginnings of media education in high schools, now. Not yet for the universities. This panel links cultural, plications. Do you consider that education policy and curriculum content are able to flexibly respond to these
synergic, and critical thinking approach. dynamic changes in media and social environment?
David Buckingham: I agree. Sure, we have the key conceptual questions that we have to keep on asking, but David Buckingham: In relation to media, in the UK, I would say that generally, education has always had a
the approach needs to evolve. It needs to take into account particular circumstances on the national level, on problem with popular culture. It has always had a significant problem in recognising the diversity of children’s
the ethnic level... The approach you need to develop towards political questions in Russia would be very dif- experience outside school. I think that the argument for the media education is part of a bigger argument. Edu-
ficult from the one in the US, or in the UK, or in South Africa. The different approaches need to be local, but at cation really needs to acknowledge the children’s world outside the classroom. There is a certain expectation
the same time there needs to be a continuous international dialogue. that children will come into school and they will leave everything at the doorstep. That they come into school
as blank slates and just then the teachers deliver them the knowledge. As long as education continues to see it
N. V.: Media education is a cross-disciplinary field that draws on knowledge from multiple disciplines such in this way, while it fails to recognise what children do outside school, it will always fail to address bigger social
as media studies, sociology, psychology, political science and beyond. This means that it is a relatively com- changes.
plex and sophisticated educational field that requires specific initial education of teachers, as well as lifelong There also is a very strong conservative direction in education policy that goes back a very long way.
learning. In some European countries, however, these kinds of teacher education and training are relatively There needs to be space for the modern, technologically-aware curriculum at school. But certainly many pol-
low spread. This is one of the reasons of lack of teachers capable of teaching media courses. What do you think icy makers still have the idea that the knowledge is just delivered as it is to children, that teachers’ role is to
would help to improve this adverse situation that prevails in Slovakia, but also in other countries? transmit the whole body of knowledge from the past. However, the world is changing all the time, so surely the

question should be: how do schools prepare children for the future? We need to learn from the past, we need David Buckingham: I think we all have a right to choose to watch anything we like, including soap opera. The
children to have access to the knowledge from the past. Children need to know about Chekhov, too... But they question is whether the soap operas and the entertainment are simply patronizing and repetitive or whether
also need to develop the kinds of critical thinking that will help them to respond to the changing world. The they are thoughtful and engaging. At the moment we have a great controversy going on in Britain in regards
world the children will grow up in is not the world that their teachers grew up in. I think this is a very big ques- to one of our radio soap operas, to do with a storyline about domestic abuse, psychological abuse. It generated
tion. It really needs a change in educators’ thinking: how do they prepare children for the future, if we do not a big public debate about whether you can deal with such issues in soap operas. It is not a simple issue to talk
really know what the future is going to be like? about; it is actually complicated – from the formal and fictional point of view. I think that we all have a right to
a diverse media ‘diet’, but I also think that we have a right to demand that things will be dealt with in a complex
Alexander Fedorov: I think it would be good for Russia if media literacy and education were present at every way. I think that we deserve entertainment, but good quality entertainment. And that is what a media literate
level of institutionalised education. This way of media education integration means elevation of media com- person would be demanding.
petence of teachers and students. We have a very much centralised educational system in Russia, not like in
Germany, for example, or in the USA; we have it really centralised. The aim shall be, step by step, once the me- Alexander Fedorov: I mean, what is the good quality entertainment... I guess that most soap operas or film
dia educators are more educated, to integrate the media education into ordinary subjects like literature, etc. trash are not a good quality entertainment. But I agree that a more demanding audience would want more
quality soap operas, too. Of course.
N. V.: In addition to the school, media organisations could also play an important role in the development of
critical thinking. However, the primary goal of media organisations is not media education, but rather fulfil- This interview was given at the international conference Megatrends and Media that took place
ment of commercial interests. Do you believe that critically thinking audience is in the interest of media organ- on 19th – 20th April 2016 at the Smolenice Castle.
isations? Or do they prefer an ‘ indoctrinated’ viewer, listener or reader who is a satisfied consumer of media
content, and therefore an easily influenced target of marketing strategies and advertising? Prepared by Norbert Vrabec
David Buckingham: I can give you a certain utopian answer, which would be that it should be in the interest of
media industries to have an educated audience, because such an audience would be a demanding audience for
good quality media and that would be a productive challenge for media industries. So yes, I think it should be in
the media industry’s best interest to do that. A more cynical answer would be to say that in the media industry
there are people who say, ‘Yes, media literacy is very good’, but in fact what they do to enhance the general pub-
lic’s media literacy is really very limited. Actually they are not very happy about people asking critical questions
about what they do. Even the BBC. I mean, you would expect the BBC as a public interest broadcaster, to have
a view of media literacy as an important dimension of participation in the public sphere. However when you
look at what they do in relation to media literacy, it is quite limited. The media industries ought to have an inter-
est in the general public being media literate, even though I am a bit sceptical if this is really what they want.
Alexander Fedorov: Yes, I once again agree with Professor Buckingham. We have many media agencies and
organisations in Russia and when their representatives speak about media competence, they always support
it; however, when it comes to action, they say that this is not their problem, but it is the task of the Ministry
of Education, though. I think that this is a pretty cynical answer from the media organisations because their
employees choose to produce their programmes. They, in fact, don’t want to have media competent audiences.
Because who media competent would want to see, for example, soap operas? Nobody really does, but we have
many soap operas on TV because their production does not cost too much money. It is also necessary to point
out that many cinema distributors in Russia are Americans, but not all of them. We have a considerably big film
market segment related to domestically produced movies, movies with their own topics and cultural frame-
works that compete on the [mainstream] cinema market, but most of these movies are still based on entertain-
ing narratives, not of high quality. It is something rather American, only slightly adjusted to correspond with
the Russian nature. It would be challenging for Russian media producers to have demanding people as their
audience.
David Buckingham: I probably do not agree fully on this point. I actually don’t think that a media literate
viewer would not demand soap operas. I think that a media literate person would demand better quality soap
operas and also better entertainment. I really don’t think that a media literate person only watches serious
news and documentaries.
Alexander Fedorov: Maybe people want them, maybe they don’t.


European Researcher
ISSN 2219-8229
E-ISSN 2224-0136
Vol. 95, Is. 6, pp. 442-450, 2015
DOI: 10.13187/er.2015.95.442
www.erjournal.ru
Pedagogical Sciences
Педагогические науки
UDC 37
Critical Analysis of Media Violence Text on the Media Education Lessons
Alexander Fedorov
Anton Chekhov Taganrog Institute, Russia, branch of Rostov State University of Economics
Abstract
The media violence is the important problem for education. Based on of Len Masterman‟s
media education theory of critical thinking and the methods of Umbeto Eco, the author of this
article selected the following significant items for the analysis of media texts: author's ideology;
socio-cultural, market and political environment, the process of creating a media text, audience
perceptions, structure and narrative techniques. This approach is quite corresponds to the method
of media texts analysis, building on media literacy education aspects such as media agencies,
media / media text categories, media technologies, media languages, media representations and
media audiences, because all these concepts are directly related to the ideological, socio-cultural
and structural aspects.
Keywords: media violence, screen violence, film, media, analysis, media text, media literacy
education, media studies, media culture, students, Balabanov.
Introduction
The media violence is the important problem for education. As an example for this kind of
critical analysis I select Alexei Balabanov‟s film Cargo 200 (2007), which will allow us to address
the actual problem of media violence and its impact on the audience. The story of Cargo 200:
Soviet province in 1984, the policeman maniac kidnaps the daughter of local Secretary of the
Communist Party and arranges bloody show with corpses and violence...

Materials for this article: the media literacy education and media studies literature, periodical
press, the media text with the violence content: Alexei Balabanov‟s film Cargo 200 (2007),
Methods: based on of Len Masterman‟s media education theory of critical thinking
(Masterman, 2005) and following the methods of Umbeto Eco (Eco, 2005, p. 209), I select the
following significant items for the analysis of media texts: author's ideology; socio-cultural, market
and political environment, the process of creating a media text, audience perceptions, structure
442
and narrative techniques. I think this approach is quite corresponds to the method of media texts
analysis (Bazalgette, 1995), building on media literacy education aspects such as media agencies,
media / media text categories, media technologies, media languages, media representations and
media audiences, because all these concepts are directly related to the ideological, socio-cultural
and structural aspects.
Discussion
It is known that some scholars have pointed out inconsistencies in the approaches to the
problem of media violence in the circle of psychologists, politicians, teachers and parents, as
complaining about the flow of aggressive character of the entertainment industry, they forget to ask
why, in fact, there is a huge market of literature, films, cartoons, computer / video games, toys with
the theme of violence? Politicians and others who discussed the topic of media violence have
focused only on the product, ignoring its perception by the public. Psychologists, too, ignored the
appeal of violence in the entertainment field, with a focus on its effects (Goldstein, 1998a;
Goldstein, 1998b, p. 1).
Recently have been a lot of discussion about the relationship between media violence and
aggressive behavior of minors. Studies have confirmed that a permanent, frequent viewing
aestheticized and “ordinary” violence that affects the attitude of children on their emotional
bitterness, and sometimes – on their own aggressive behavior. The bitterness, indifference to
human suffering, which cause media in children - it is a slow, hidden process (Cantor, 2000, p. 69).
Meanwhile, media violence is increasingly penetrating into Russian society. In spite of all the
efforts of individual teachers-enthusiasts, media literacy education in schools, colleges and
universities is poorly developed.
Long-term studies of J. Cantor detail classified seven possible reasons for the appeal of
violence for the audience (especially - a minor):
1) the desire to experience the excitement (a media violence raises, enhances the emotional
excitement. There is evidence that watching scenes of violence or threats of violence will
significantly increase empathy, increases the heart rate and the pressure, even in adults.
The impact of media violence on the level of emotion was reflected in experiments in during which
measures heart rate and skin temperature (Cantor, 1998, p.96-98);
2) the desire to experience the virtual aggression (the effect of empathy): many media
recipients like virtually participate in hostile actions. For example, in one study, "48% of students
said they always sympathize with the victim, and 45% said they always empathize "bad guy". 39%
of students admit that they like to watch people fight on the screen, hurt each other, etc. These data
suggest that the fascination with media texts with a realistic portrayal of violence is directly related
to the process of obtaining pleasure from the contemplation of these scenes, uncommon to identify
with the aggressor, not the victim or positive character (Cantor, 1998, p.98-99); According to my
research, a sense of aggressiveness in connection with the viewing screen violence experienced
8.4% and a sense of exasperation - 7.8% of the 450 students surveyed;
3) disregard of restrictions (the effect of forbidden fruit): parents often limit the access of
children to media violence, causing episodes of this kind are to a certain part of minors more
desirable;
4) an attempt to see violence and aggression reflecting their own experiences. In this sense,
aggressive people love to watch the program, showing their characteristic behavior. Studies show
that people, who in real life are aggressive, opt for more aggressive programs (Cantor, 1998, p. 102-
103). This conclusion is supported by K. Tarasov‟s studies (Tarasov, 2002, p.154-155);
5) to study the criminal world (cognition role of violence in society and habitats of the
audience); people for whom violence is an integral part of their social circle, are more interested in
violence on the screen (Cantor, 1998, p.104);
6) complacency (the effect of apprehension): contact with media texts, containing scenes of
violence, sometimes helping people to escape from their own fears of life and real problems, as, for
example, a typical plot of the television series ends with the triumph of order and justice (Cantor,
1998, p. 105-106);
7) the effect of gender (the role of violence in the gender component of socialization).
The children's audience has a gender difference in the perception of violence. When boys and girls
are watching the same TV show, the first may be more prone to "effect of aggression" and
443
identification with the typical aggressive male character, whereas girls are increasingly suffering
from fear, because identifying with the typical female character-victim (Slaby, 2002, p.316).
My study was clearly stated that the male students among the active fans of screen violence twice as
much as the female. Among the respondents (450 students from 7 to 17 years) boys were 21.0% of
fans violence on the screen and girls – only 12.4%. These findings are confirmed by other Russian
researchers (Sobkin, Glukhova, 2001, p.2; Tarasov, 2002, p. 153-154).
But in addition, the scenes of violence / aggression in media texts "psychologically prepare
the person to intense emotional situations; allow to show in a symbolic form their physical activity
and the ability to act in times of crisis, to carry out psychological self-regulation at the time of
confusion"(Petrus, 2000).
It is clear that all of these factors in varying degrees, attracted the audience's attention to the
Cargo 200, regardless of its artistic value (in relation to which the opinions of professional and
mass audience as rigidly divided, and not on the principle of "professionals against amateurs").
Results
Author's ideology in the social and cultural context (the dominant concept are: media
agency, media representation, media audiences)
The ideological message of Alexei Balabanov, the writer-director of the film Cargo 200, is
clear: "It's just a movie about 1984, as I remember it, as I imagine it and see. I wanted to make a
film about the hard end of the Soviet Union - that I did it"(quoted from the source: Nekrasov,
2007). And this film has many fans. For example, the writer, journalist, broadcaster and film critic
and winner of many awards Dmitry Bykov wrote that it is "an outstanding film: perhaps most
important movie of the year"(Bykov, 2007). Another film critic – Alena Solntseva echoes: "there
are many associations: and our Russian incredible tolerance for evil, to the scum who live
peacefully alongside; and a surprising indifference to the surrounding landscape; and a strange
attachment to metaphysical disputes against the backdrop of indifference to loved ones"(1984:
critics session, 2007). Even more conceptual generalizations comes from Maria Kuvshinova:
"Balabanov‟s film is a hard and honest response to all that is happening and will happen in our
country, and in general - in the world under heaven"(1984: critics session, 2007).
It would seem that we are dealing with a consolidated opinion of professionals, art historians,
who, opening the "underground corridors metaphors", found in Balabanov‟s media text the
philosophical depth and a powerful ideological, nearly "Orwellian" message to humanity.
But equally authoritative group of professionals (Kitchin, 2007; Kudryavtsev, 2007;
Mathiesen, 2007; Pavluchik, 2007) analyzes Cargo 200 from the opposite point of view, arguing,
for example, that "the whole picture of life depicted, ridiculous in terms of elementary credibility,
easy to fit into tight directorial concept, the essence of which - to show the agony, insanity of the
Soviet system, like decaying corpses thereby (ingenuous metaphor) that are rotting in the
apartment rapist-cop... This is hand made horror film, infused with social "dill", horror and sexual
violence ... Characters from Cargo 200 (ie, the population of the country in miniature) - a
gathering of some freaks, degenerates, alcoholics, and criminal elements, profoundly indifferent to
all people in the world"(Pavluchik, 2007).
Valery Kitchin‟s conclusion even tougher: "Then why is this story needed Balabanov for his
version of "1984"? And it's simple: he wants to be George Orwell. The year 1984 was chosen with a
clear allusion. But his talent is lean, his tasteful is bad, his fantasy is insignificant" (Kitchin, 2007).
In short, on the one hand the film of A. Balabanov treated as an extreme (and even
messianic) ideological message, and on the other – as the primitive "horror", bad taste and
professional level or almost parodic extravaganza "trash".
In this regard, good media literacy education way - to offer methodical approach, which
essentially helps ideological analysis of media text. Students must know the basic techniques of
manipulative influence of media on the audience (many of which, in my point of view, significantly
visible in Cargo 200):
• orchestration - the psychological pressure in the form of constant repetition of certain facts,
regardless of the truth;
• selection - the selection of certain trends: for example, only positive or negative, distortion,
exaggeration (understatement) of these trends;
• embellishment of facts;
444
• sticking labels (eg, guilty, insulting, etc.);

• transfer - the transfer of any qualities (positive, negative) to another event (or person);
• evidence - a reference (not necessarily correct) to authorities in order to justify an action, or
that slogan;
• folksy game, including, for example, the most simplified form of information presentation.
On this basis I use the following methodological procedures for the analysis of media texts in
the classroom:
• sifting of information (for example, for media texts claiming documentary students can
select true and false, make the purification of the information from the rouge and shortcuts, etc.);
• removing information from the halo of typical, authority;
• critical analysis of the objectives and interests of agency / media text authors.
Market conditions that have contributed to the plan, the process of creating a media text,
audience’s perception (the dominant aspects: media agency, category media / media texts, media
technology, audience).
The question arises: why Alexei Balabanov decided to settle with the Soviet regime in 2007,
while other Russian authors made about 20 years earlier (don‟t forget Alexander Solzhenitsyn, who
wrote and published The Gulag Archipelago with real risk to his life in the 1960s)?
Maybe one answer is simple: the beginning of the XXI century open more possibilities for
trash treatment of serious social and ideological issues. Most likely, the authors of Cargo 200
previously relied on polar interpretations of their work, because the atmosphere of scandal,
confrontation in the debate about the degree of plausibility, the reality and the shock of naturalism
largely helps promote the product in the media market in a modern socio-cultural context.
Of course, Cargo 200 was marginalized in ordinary Russian cinema halls: "this film collected
only 300 thousand dollars for 11 days" (Matizen, 2007). More or less notable international festivals
disdained to take Cargo 200 in the competition. However, Cargo 200 has the success in media,
intended for individual viewing (video, DVD, computer discs, files). And this demand is
substantially fueled "branded" advertising for Cargo 200 ("See the shocking film from cult director
of Brother and Brother-2!) and contradictory reactions from journalists, critics and the public
(thanks to Internet sites, advanced part of the mass audience is almost instantly responds to any
more or less significant event in politics, economy and culture).
But do not ignore the commercial potential of media violence, which has always been a great
place in Balabanov‟s media texts. And then, I think, K. Tarasov is right: "As part of the modern film
industry, focused on extracting the maximum profit, the depiction of violence is perhaps the most
cost-effective elements of the film. Creating a serious and at the same time fascinating media
product, affecting important concern to many questions in relation to the creative task is very
complex, requiring much time and effort. The saturations of the film fights, gunfights, chases let
hide a weak story and characters, the lack of any meaningful themes, etc. and attract the viewer's
attention"(Tarasov, 2003, p.123).
Considering that age limit is not adhered the practical sale of DVD in Russia, I can assume
that a large part of Cargo 200‟s audience was minor audience, because media violence is attractive
area for teenagers.
Based on the analysis of the results of the research and study of the works of Russian and
foreign scientists, I developed the following typology of audience perception of media violence:
1) active, targeted positive perception of media violence on the level of identification with the
environment, the plot and / or severe / aggressive media text characters;
2) passive (no explicit relationship) perception of media violence at the level of the partial
identification with the environment, the plot and / or severe / aggressive media text characters;
3) the active, purposeful negative perception of media violence on the level of identification
with the environment, the plot and / or victims of violent / aggressive media text characters;
4) active, purposeful negative perception of screen violence at opposition positions / actions
violent / aggressive media text characters and / or the position of the creators of media text.
Turning to the citations of the articles of professional media critics and ordinary viewers
comments about Cargo 200 it is easy to see a typology of perception of media violence (the desire
to experience the excitement / arousal, empathy, fear, a premonition of a happy ending, the effect
of "forbidden fruit" etc.). The more common and often underestimated are two of them - the fear
and indifference to scenes of violence (Kunkel, Wilson, and others, 1998, p. 155-156).
445
My research experience (Fedorov, 2000; 2001; 2004; 2007) also showed that most of these
reasons are often seen in children's audience. The feeling of fear in relation to the display of
violence is characteristic of 15.3% of pupils. However, the situation in the 7-8-year-olds pupils area
is much higher - 20.0%. The feelings of indifference, apathy, caused scenes of media violence,
admitted one in ten of those interviewed minors.
The American research team following the television preferences of minors in the group for
22 years. As a result, it was found that viewing violence on television is the factor by which to
predict violent or aggressive behavior later in life, and it surpasses even such common factors, such
as the behavior of parents, poverty (Cannon, 1995, p. 19).
I share the view of J. Goldstein, that on appeal of violence affects not only the specific
situation in which the audience, but also society as a whole (Goldstein, 1998a, p. 221).
In this context, in my view, modern social and cultural situation in Russia has extreme
tolerance for radical media violence. The creators of Cargo 200, having considered the market
situation, have decided that domestic audience "is ripe" for their "radical concept" at a time when,
despite the camouflage declaration, Russian media removed all the old taboos on the degree of
naturalism in the portrayal of violence.
So, there are media violence‟s main reasons to appeal to the audience: entertainment,
recreation, compensation, the desire to experience the excitement / fear; the desire to experience
the virtual aggression (the effect of empathy); identification with aggressive characters or
character-victim (the effect of identification), the desire of ignoring restrictions (the effect of
"forbidden fruit); attempt to see violence / aggression reflecting their own experience; studies
surrounding the criminal world (cognition role of violence in society and in the habitat of the
audience); the effect of complacency, ie the effect of foreboding happy ending, and the realization
that "this nightmare does not happen to me"; the effect of gender, etc.).
All this fully corresponds with the basic theory of "media effects" that describe the following
mechanisms of action of audiovisual works, containing scenes of violence:
- manipulation with sense of fear (for example, promoting a sense of fear of aggression and
violence);
- training audiences violent / aggressive actions and their subsequent commission in real life
(violence as a valid way to solve any problems);
- stimulation, agitation aggressive, imitative instincts of the audience, its appetite in relation
to scenes of violence (especially in relation to the audience with mental disorders);
- "grafting" the audience‟s feelings of the indifference to the victims of violence, decrease the
sensitivity in relation to violence in real life;
- "cathartic", a virtual and safe way for others aggressive emotions that do not lead to
negative consequences in real life.
Undoubtedly, the authors of Cargo 200 can be any number disown the fact that they
deliberately counted the impact of this kind of rides media violence, but, as you know, the end
result is not necessarily associated with the deliberate intent of the authors. Consciously or
unconsciously, prudently and intuitively... The result is important, in this case, a media text, the
main attraction of which was the "radical" and naturalistic shown violence in its various guises.
The structure and narrative techniques in the media text (the dominant aspects are: media
/ media texts category, "media technology, media language, media representation)
In my opinion, Cargo 200 is built on the simple oppositions:
1) a ruthless maniac and his helpless victim (see folkloric roots of the tale of Little Red Riding
Hood and the Gray Wolf);
2) the indifferent State and its "citizens-cogs", which it sends to die in the war, or doomed to
a miserable stagnation in appalling living conditions;
3) naive heroine (Red Riding Hood) and cunning maniac (Grey Wolf);
4) plans (plans of the daughter of the big boss - Little Red Riding Hood, plans of the maniac -
Grey Wolf, the plans of Professor-atheist) and the final results, opposite of these plans.
However, this kind of oversimplification typing has the supporters (Swinarenko, 2007;
Gladilschikov, 2007, and others).
I can probably agree that the Сargo-200 stylized under "late Soviet folk horror stories",
based on which "determined here and all the rest: the schematic characters overabundance
446
unexamined fable turns a simple bust erased images, demonstrative hopelessness is happening"
(Mantsov, 2007).
However, it is difficult to agree with the enthusiasm about the "quality" images of violence in
the film about the "real" life: "we finally get is not glamorous Hollywood toy, but a tape in which
the reliability, blood and sweat even more than in real life. This brilliant the corpse paratrooper
who lies in bed with the bride. Which is a real high-Mighty horror! ... Who would have dared to
keep the dead man for so long in the frame, with all its sickening details?"(Swinarenko, 2007).
Student audiences can offer more specifically to analyze the expression of genre stereotypes
in Balabanov‟s film with additional questions. And it seems that this kind of analysis - an important
component of the development of critical thinking and media competence in the audience.
Questions for critical (ideological, philosophical, semiotic, identification, ethical,
autobiographical, iconographic, aesthetic, cultural, hermeneutic and so on.) analysis (BFI, 1990;
Buckingham, 2003, pp.54-60; Semali, 2000; Silverblatt, 2001, pp.42-43; Silverblatt, 2014; Berger,
2005; Usov, 1989; Fedorov, 2004, p.43-51; Fedorov, 2006, p.175-228; Fedorov, 2007; Potter,
2014, and others.)
Media agencies:
Can the media messages contribute to the promotion of militarism and / or violence?
Who is the author of a media text?
What is the main purpose of the ideological media texts? To what extent achieved this goal?
What is the reaction of the audience expect its creators?
Can you identify the moral values that are held by the authors of a media text?
What kind of event media agency / authors seek to reflect this work in the first place, which
seek to eliminate?
What, in your opinion, the assumptions creators of media text about the audience?
How would you assess the target audience of the media text?
Can the media characters depend on the thematic / genre / political, etc. focus specific media
agencies? If so, how?
What is the ideology of these characters express?
What is the difference between the fiction and documentary media texts?
Can you name the genre, which are the most common characters with aggressive behavior,
immoral acts?
What types of media texts and genres promote greater identification with media characters?
What are the stereotypical scenes, plot conventions characteristic of the thriller and horror
genres?
Is there a predictable formula of the genre? As understanding of this formula helps your
perception of a particular media text?
What are the stereotypical scenes, conventions storylines specific to the genre / the specific
media text?
Can you articulate the ties to stereotypes stereotypical genres / themes related to media
violence?
As a visual codes and conventions are manifested in different types of media texts (for
example, in the genres of thriller and horror)?
Is there a difference in approach to the use of color and light in the media texts of different
types and genres (for example, in the genres of thriller and drama)?
Media technologies:
How different media technologies used in the development of plots of the same figure of
media culture (for example, in the work of the author, the specific media text which is analyzed at
the moment)?
Are the results in the media text stereotype technological solutions?
Does the stereotypical media technologies by genre media text?
Media languages:
Is there a media text in the visual symbols, signs? If so, what?
What about the facial expressions and gestures of characters associated with the genres of
thriller and horror?
447
Think about the various social problems, such as crime, violence, racism, etc. How the media
can exacerbate these problems or, on the contrary, contribute to their resolution?
Is there a media text in this particular world view, ideology, philosophy, political values?
What are the political, ideological, philosophical, social trends are reflected in the media text
(for example, the problem of deviant behavior, sexism, conformity, anxiety, stereotyped thinking,
conflict of generations, arrogance, snobbery, loneliness, etc.)?
Does the media text hidden subtexts, false information?
What are the political, social and cultural sentiments are reflected in the views and actions of
the characters of the media text?
Is there any scenes of violence in the media text? If so, what is the difference between the
image of violence of other famous media texts?
Are the creators of media text, to portray negative characters as the embodiment of evil?
Media audiences:
Are there any media messages aimed at the manipulation of the audience? If so, in what
media texts is specifically manifested?
What is the meaning of ethics in the media culture? Does the media texts in moral
evaluation? If so, how to define the criteria of morality?
Can the media texts to promote racial, class, ethnic, national or religious enmity and hatred?
Can you think of media texts that you do not want to show the children aged 7-10 years? Why
is that?
To what level of audience appeal moral authors of this media text?
Why did the audience takes some stereotypical media representations as true and reject
others as false?
For what reasons the audience can choose the media text?
How does the audience interprets, evaluates the ideological orientation of the media text?
What is the typology of perception and evaluation of media texts the audience?
What are the reasons for the success of mass (mass lack of success) of a particular media text
at a mass audience?
What is the role of gender, social class, age and ethnic origin in the media perception of the
audience (including in relation to a particular media texts)?
What abilities, skills a person needs to qualify to analyze media texts?
Conclusions
Balabanov‟s media text with hard media violence has the clear connection with the
traditional structure of the plot, or horror thriller stereotypes:
The structure of the story thriller genre stereotypes
- Characters: civilians and maniac;
- A significant change in the lives of the characters: a maniac commits a series of murders;
- A problem: the violation of the law, the peaceful life of each character under threat;
- Find a solution: the positive character or cop pursuit of a maniac;
- Solution / return to a stable life: destruction / arrest the maniac, the return to ordinary life.
The structure of the story of horror genre
- Characters: civilians and monster;
- significant change in the lives of the characters: the monster attacks civilian people;
- A problem: the violation of peace life;
- Search for solutions: the struggle of civilians (or nominated from among the brave hero)
with a monster;
- Solution / return to a stable life: the destruction of the monster, the restoration of peaceful
life
And the basis of analysis of this text with media violence, in my opinion, can be based on a
variety of creative tasks associated with the key concepts of media literacy education (media
agencies, media categories, media language, media technologies, media representations, media
audiences, etc.).
448
References:
1. Bazalgette, C. (1995). Key aspects of media education. Moscow: Association for Film
Education, 51 p.
2. Berger, A.A. (2005). Seeing is believing. Introduction to the visual communication.
3. BFI (1990). (British Film Institute). Film Education. Moscow, 124 p.
5. Bykov, D.L. (2007). Cargo 2007 // Ogonyok. March, 30.
6. Cannon, C. (1995). Media Violence Increases Violence in Society. In: Wekesser, C. (Ed.).
Violence in the Media. San Diego, CA: Greenhaven Press, p.17-24.
7. Cantor, J. (2000). Mommy, I‟m Scared: Protecting Children from Frightening Mass
Media. In: Media Violence Alert. Zionsville, IN: Dream Catcher Press, Inc., pp.69-85.
8. Fedorov, A. (2000). Russian Teenagers and Violence on the Screen: Social Influence of
Screen Violence for the Russian Young People. International Research Forum on Children and
Media, N 9, p.5.
9. Eco, U. The role of the reader. Research on the semiotics of the text. St.Petersburg:
Symposium, 2005. 502 p.
10. Fedorov, A. (2000). Violence in Russian Films and Programmes. International
Clearinghouse on Children and Violence on the Screen (UNESCO), N 2, p.5.
11. Fedorov, A.V. (2001). The violence on the screen and the Russian youth // Bulletin of the
Russian Humanitarian Foundation. 2001. № 1, pp.131-145.
2004. № 2, p.87-93.
13. Fedorov, A.V. (2004). Students and computer games from the "screen violence" //
Pedagogy. 2004. № 6, pp.45-49.
14. Fedorov, A.V. (2004). The impact of violence on television screens children's audience in
the USA // USA-Canada: Economics, Politics, Culture. 2004. № 1, pp.77-93.
15. Fedorov, A.V. (2004). The Right of the Child and the problem of violence on the Russian
screen. Taganrog: Kuchma, 2004. 414 p.
16. Fedorov, A.V. (2004). The specificity of media education students of pedagogical
universities // Pedagogy. 2004. № 4, pp. 43-51.
17. Fedorov, A.V. (2004). Violence on the screen // Chelovek. 2004. № 5, pp. 142-151.
18. Fedorov, A.V. (2006). Media Education: creative tasks for students and schoolchildren
// Innovations in education. 2006. N 4, pp. 175-228.
19. Fedorov, A.V. (2007). Development of media competence and critical thinking of
students of pedagogical high school. Moscow: ICOS UNESCO "Information for All".
20. Fedorov, A.V. (2007). The ratio of students to violence on the screen, the causes and
effects of their exposure to screen violence // Pedagogical diagnostics. 2007. N 2, pp.129-139.
21. Fedorov, A.V. (2007). Underage audience and violence on the screen // Pedagogical
diagnostics. 2007. N 1, pp.141-151.
22. Gladilschikov, Y. (2007). Tin wonderful people // Russian Newsweek. April 9th.
23. Goldstein, J. (1998a). Introduction. In: Goldstein, J. (Ed.). Why We Watch: The
Attractions of Violent Entertainment. N.Y., Oxford University Press, pp. 1-6.
24. Goldstein, J. (1998b). Why We Watch. In: Goldstein, J. (Ed.). Why We Watch: The
Attractions of Violent Entertainment. N.Y., Oxford University Press, pp. 212-226.
25. Kitchin, V.S. (2007). Time of man // Russian Newspaper - Week. N 4388. June 15th.
26. Kunkel, D., Wilson, D.J. and others. (1998). Content Analysis of Entertainment
Television: Implication for Public Policy. In Hamilton, J.T. (Ed.). Television Violence and Public
Policy.
27. Mantsov, I. (2007). 1984: Critics "session" of the film by Alexei Balabanov "Cargo 200"
// Session. 4 April.
28. Matizen, V.E. (2007). Corpses block "Cargo-200" requires a reboot.
http://www.kinopressa.ru/
29. Nekrasov C. (2007). Alexei Balabanov: Cargo-200 will not leave anyone indifferent //
Film Business Today. 2007. N 2.
449
30. Michigan: The University of Michigan Press, pp.149-162.

32. Pavluchik, L.V. (2007). Freaks and werewolves // Literary newspaper. July, 18.
33. Petrus, G. (2000). Aggression in computer games. http: //www.computerra.
ru/offline/2000/347/2605/
35. Swinarenko, I. (2007). It - poignant artwork! // Russian Newspaper - Week. N 4388.
June 15th.
36. Sobkin, VS, Glukhova, T.V. (2001). Teenager at the TV screen // First of September.
December 15, pp.2-3.
Press, 243 p.
40. Slaby, R.G. (2002). Media Violence: Effects and Potential Remedies. Katzemann, C.S.
(Ed.). Securing Our Children’s Future. Washington D.C.: Brooking Institution Press, pp. 305-337.
41. Solntseva, A. (2007). 1984: Critics "session" of the film by Alexei Balabanov "Cargo 200"
// Session. 4 April.
42. Tarasov, K.A. (2003). Globalized cinema as school violence // Cinema in the world and
the world of the movies. Moscow: Publishing House of the Research Institute of Film Arts,
pp. 116-133.
43. Tarasov, K.A. (2002). The violence in the film, and the predisposition of young viewers
to its modeling in life // Movies: realities and challenges of globalization. Moscow: Research
Institute of Film Arts, pp. 122-164.
УДК 37
Критический анализ медиатекста, содержащего сцены насилия,

на медиаобразовательных занятиях

Аннотация. Медианное насилие – важная проблема для образования. Основываясь

на теории медиаобразования как способа развития критического мышления (Л. Мастерман)
и аналитических методахв У. Эко, автор статьи анализирует следующие существенные
элементы для анализа медиатекстов: авторская идеология; социально-культурная,
рыночная и политическая среда, процесс создания медиатекста, восприятие медиатекста
аудиторией, структура и повествовательные приемы. Этот подход вполне соответствует
методу анализа медиатекстов, принятому в медиаобразовании – с использованием таких
аспектов, как медиаагентство, категории медиа, медиатехнологии, язык медиа,
медиарепрезентация, медийная аудитории, потому что все эти понятия имеют
непосредственное отношение к идеологическим, социально-культурным и структурным
аспектам.
Ключевые слова: медийное насилие, экранное насилие, кино, медиа, анализ,
медиатекст, медиаграмотность, изучение медиа, медиакультура, студенты, Балабанов.
450
Russian Journal of Political Studies, 2016, Vol. (3), Is. 1

Russian Journal of Political Studies
ISSN: 2410-910X
E-ISSN: 2413-7537
Vol. 3, Is. 1, pp. 4-8, 2016
DOI: 10.13187/rjps.2016.3.4
www.ejournal31.com
Articles and Statements
UDC 327
Political Engagement: Hermeneutical Analysis of Soviet Films about Yaroslav Galan
Alexander Fedorov
Anton Chekhov Taganrog Institute,

branch of Rostov State University of Economics, Russian Federation
Doctor of pedagogical sciences, professor
Abstract
This article gives the way for hermeneutic analysis of cultural context - the study of the process of
interpretation of media texts, cultural and historical factors influencing the views of the agency / author
on the media text. The hermeneutical analysis suggests media text comprehension through comparison
with historical, cultural tradition and reality; penetration of its logic; through comparison of media
images in historical and cultural context by combining historical, hermeneutical analysis of the
structural, plot, ethical, ideological, iconographic / visual, media stereotypes and analysis of media text
characters. Example of this hermeneutic analysis of cultural context is analysis the media texts about
the life of famous publicist Yaroslav Galan (1902-1949). An analysis of this kind of media texts, in our
opinion, is particularly important for media literacy education of future historians, culture and art
historians, sociologists, linguists, psychologists and educators.
Keywords: hermeneutical analysis, Soviet, USSR, Ukraine, film, film studies, media texts,
media literacy, media education, information literacy.
Introduction
In our previous works (Fedorov, 2008; 2011), I have repeatedly appealed to the technology
hermeneutical analysis of media texts (Eco, 1976; 1998; 2005; Silverblatt, 2001, p.80-81).
This time I take as an example for this analysis the media texts about the life of famous publicist
Yaroslav Galan (1902-1949). An analysis of this kind of media texts, in our opinion, is particularly
important for media literacy education of future historians, culture and art historians, sociologists,
linguists, psychologists and educators.

The main materials for this article was the area: the books, articles and Soviet films about the
Ukrainian famous publicist Yaroslav Galan (Bantichev, 2009; Markova, 1974). I used also the
method of hermeneutic analysis of the cultural context of media texts (Eco, 1976; Silverblatt, 2001).
This method connected with the key concepts of media literacy education (media agencies, media
categories, media language, media technologies, media representations, media audiences etc.).
4
Discussion
It should be noted that there are two main versions of the murder of Y. Galan - officially-
Soviet, reflected in the book Yaroslav Galan (Belyayev, Elkin, 1971) and in the film of V. Isakov
Until the last minute (1973), and a post-Soviet, alleging that the obstinate journalist, was not only
against the Ukrainian nationalists, the Nazis, the Unitarian and Catholic churches, but also against
of many negative, from his point of view, the phenomena of Soviet rule. And he had fallen at the
hands of agents of the MGB (Bantishev, 2009).
Perhaps serious historical study, based on declassified archives, ever would clarify the real
life story of Y. Galan. For us it is important to another - as the politically engaged Soviet cinema
used the fate of the well-known publicist for propaganda purposes.
Results
Technology of hermeneutical analysis of Soviet fiction films about the life of well-known
political journalist Yaroslav Galan (1902-1949)
The scene, historical, cultural, political, ideological context
Historical Context
a) The times of media texts: 1946-1949, USSR (Western Ukraine), Germany;
b) Film of L. Lukov It should not be forgotten (1954) was made and released in a short period
of post-Stalinist "dual power" of G.M. Malenkov and N.S. Khrushchev, and the film of V. Isakov
Until the last minute (1973) was filmed already at its peak during the reign of Leonid Brezhnev;
c) The films of L. Lukov and V. Isakov created on the story of the last period of the life of the
famous Ukrainian publicist with pro-communist political orientation - Yaroslav Galan, who was
killed October 24, 1949 in Lviv. Of course, film of L. Lukov was "hot pursuit", with a strong
propaganda against Ukrainian nationalism and western influence. The delivered twenty years later
V. Isakov’s film revelatory emphasis was largely shifted toward condemnation of the Uniate
Church, of course, while maintaining antinationalist and anti-Western trends;
d) The political situation in Western Ukraine in the first half of the 1950s was not so acutely
confrontational, as in the 1940s, but is still quite tense. So the film of L. Lukov It should not be
forgotten, trying to interpret the most current events. This screenplay was built very freely with
respect to the real fate of Yaroslav Galan (suffice it to say that in the L. Lukov’s interpretation
writer successfully escaped death in the final), so the main character is named an assumed name -
Alexander Garmash. The film of V.Isakov Until the last minute, the same character (derived under
a different name - Jaroslav Gaidai) already killed by Ukrainian nationalists, however, and here the
filmmakers do not undertake to assert that their media text accurately reflects real events 1946-
1949 years.
The ideological, political context
I can see clearly traced ideological message in the media texts about Yaroslav Galan.
These films aimed at convincing the audience that:
- A happy life of the Ukrainian people can only be a part of the Soviet Union and only in the
context of the communist doctrine;
- The fight against Ukrainian nationalism in all its forms is justified and necessary;
- Ukrainian nationalists of the 1940s, is closely associated with the Unitarian Church, with
the support from Nazis, and then with the support from Western countries carried out mass terror
against its opponents and the civilian population as a whole (though anti-Church line clearly
manifested only in the film of V. Isakov);
- You need to be vigilant, as well disguised agents of Western intelligence services could act
with the Ukrainian nationalists, which are necessary to expose and / or destroyed.
In general, the ideological and political context of world depicted in the media texts about the
life of Y. Galan, is as follows:
The ideology of the media texts’ world:
- for positive characters: communist ideology in its Stalinist / Leninist interpretation;
- for negative characters: nationalist, religion, bourgeois ideology.
The media texts’ hierarchy of values according to this worldview:
- for positive characters: the fight against nationalism - the Communist Party - the people -
the hatred of the enemy - the family.
5
- for negative characters: nationalism - the terror - cruelty to enemies neglect –

to subordinates.
The values of the media texts:
- for positive characters: Communist values (for all actions of a media text).
- for negative characters: the nationalist, bourgeois, religious values.
Cultural Context
Obviously, the media texts about the life of Y. Galan strongly supports the popular Soviet
myth that Ukraine can exist "correctly" only as part of the communist regime of the USSR, and
"Loving Moscow is to love humanity" (a characteristic phrase of the protagonist of the film).
Genre modification: drama (also interspersed elements of detective: the exposure of agents
of Western intelligence agencies).
Dramatic stereotype: the nationalists are trying to destroy the peaceful and happy life of the
people of Western Ukraine (L. Lukov’s film begins with this kind of holiday pictures: the scene with
cheerful folk festival on the streets of Lviv), the nationalists terrorize, intimidate the civilian
population. Writer and publicist fights with the nationalists, exposing them in their articles. In the
first film, he is still alive, in the second - is dying. But most importantly, according to the authors of
media texts is not it, but that the overall victory over nationalism, bourgeois and religious values is
inevitable, "the life of Galan ended, but this life live and struggle for justice, peace and brotherhood
among peoples his passionate pamphlets, his plays, his ideas" (Markova, 1974).
Methods of representation of reality (iconography) - furnishings, household items, etc.
Typical iconographic codes in Soviet fiction films about the life of Y. Galan:
- residence-enemy character is shown in two versions: the luxury life of representatives of the
Uniate Church and the relatively modest living conditions of the "forest brothers" and their
accomplices. As for the main enemies in the movie It should not be forgotten, one of them is the
owner of second-hand bookshop, and another hiding under the guise of a Galan’s family friend...
- residence Soviet character modest but well made. The protagonist does not live in a
communal apartment: he has own flat.
The typology of the characters (their values, ideas, ethics, clothes, physique, vocabulary,
facial expressions, gestures)
Male characters (character Age: 20-70 years).
The appearance, clothes, physique: the positive characters are dressed modestly (especially -
the villagers), and negative characters is clearly richer; Athletic characters - both positive and
negative - varies widely and depends on the context of a particular film. Negative characters first
(especially if they are masked) may look intelligent, but in the end (face distorted grimace) reveal
their negative essence.
Education: university level (the protagonist, his wife, colleagues, many of the camp hostile to
the hero), incomplete higher education (students), secondary and primary.
Social status, profession: the social position of the positive and negative characters depends
on their professional status.
Marital status characters: the main character is happily married, and the rest are positive
and negative characters are mostly single, or the status is not punctuated.
Personality traits, values, behavior, methods of resolving conflicts.
Commitment, emotional activity, loyalty, optimism, courage (the main character), hostility,
cunning, cruelty, purposefulness (negative figures). The main character has a pretentious
vocabulary. Negative figures (nationalists, enemy agents) shows as the evil and cruel fanatics,
however, they can use a positive masks. Positive character peculiar to communist values, negative -
nationalist bourgeois, religious values. The actions of the characters are dictated by the
development of the plot of a media text. The positive characters demonstrate their best qualities in
the fight against nationalism. The actions of the negative characters have the close connections
with the cruelty and ruthlessness.
In the L. Lukov’s film there is also the doubter character - a student. At first he (under the
influence of the enemies of communist regime) has passionate nationalist ideas and composing
hymns for free Ukraine. And in the media text’s end, this student became an active supporter of the
main character, and write new verses glorifying the indestructible union of the Ukrainian and
Russian peoples.
6
Female characters (character Age: 20-70 years).

The appearance, clothes, physique: positive characters usually have to average build, dressed
in street clothes. Negative characters are richly dressed, but physiognomically filed repulsive.
Education: higher, secondary and primary.
Social status, profession: the social situation of positive female characters is the same; the
social position of the negative characters differentiated.
Marital status: dominated by married women.
Character, behavior, methods of resolving conflicts: activity, loyalty, optimism, courage,
commitment (positive characters), hostility, cunning, cruelty, meanness (negative figures). Positive
character peculiar to communist values, negative – to nationalist, bourgeois, religious values. The
actions of the characters are dictated by the development of the plot of a media text. The movie
Until the last minute shows an ambiguous character of rural teacher, which initially sympathized
with nationalist ideas, but then disappointed in them.
A significant change in the plot by the media and lives of the characters, problems
encountered: the positive character is faced with the machinations of the enemies who do not want
the publication of his revelatory pamphlets.
A problem, finding a solution to the problem: the only way to solve the problems - an
uncompromising struggle against the enemies of the Soviet power (the nationalists). The solution:
the exposure, arrest, destruction of enemies.
Conclusion
We realized Hermeneutic Analysis of Cultural Context - the study of the process of
interpretation of media texts, cultural and historical factors influencing the views of the agency /
author on the media text. And we mean that the hermeneutical analysis suggests media text
comprehension through comparison with historical, cultural tradition and reality; penetration of
its logic; through comparison of media images in historical and cultural context by combining
historical, hermeneutical analysis of the structural, plot, ethical, ideological, iconographic / visual,
media stereotypes and analysis of media text characters.
References:
1. Bantishev, O.F. (2009). Yaroslav Galan: Open any secrets KGB archives about his
murder? // Golos Ukrainy. 2009. № 201 (4701). 24.10.2009. http://www.golos.com.ua/
Article.aspx?id=150535
2. Belyaev, V.A., Elkin, A. (1971). Yaroslav Galan. Moscow: Young Guard.
4. Eco, U. (1998). Lack of structure. Introduction to semiology. St. Petersburg: Petropolis,
432 p.
5. Eco, U. (2005). The role of the reader. Research on the semiotics of the text. St.
6. Fedorov, A.V. (2008). Analysis of the cultural mythology of media texts in the classroom
at the student audience // Innovations in education. 2008. № 4, pp.60-80.
7. Fedorov, A.V. (2011). Structural analysis of media text: stereotypes of the Soviet cinema’
war image and V. Vinogradov’s film "Eastern Corridor" (1966) // Questions of Cultural Studies.
2011. № 6, pp.110-116.
8. Markova, F. (1974). "Until the last minute" // Sputnik of moviegoers. 1974. № 3.
7
УДК 327
Политическая ангажированность: герменевтический анализ

советских фильмов о Ярославе Галане
Таганрогский институт имени А.П. Чехова,

филиал Ростовского государственного университета экономики, Российская Федерация
Аннотация. В этой статье дается пример герменевтического анализа культурного

контекста – исследование процесса интерпретации медиатекста, культурных и исторических
факторов, влияющих на вид на агентство / автора медиатекста. Герменевтический анализ
предусматривает понимание медиатекста в контексте исторической, культурной традиции и
реальности; проникновение в логику медиатекста путем сравнения медийных имиджей
в историческом и культурном поле, сочетая исторический, герменевтический, структурный,
этический, идеологический, иконографический, семиотический анализ. В данном случае это
делается на примере герменевтического анализа культурного контекста медиатекстов
о жизни известного публициста Ярослава Галана (1902–1949). Анализ такого рода
медиатекстов особенно важен для развития медиакомпетентности будущих историков,
культурологов, искусствоведов, социологов, лингвистов, психологов и педагогов.
Ключевые слова: герменевтический анализ, советский, СССР, Украина, фильм,
медиатекст, медиаграмотность, медиаобразование, информационная грамотность.
8
European Researcher. Series A, 2016, Vol.(111), Is. 10

European Researcher
ISSN 2219-8229
E-ISSN 2224-0136
Vol. 111, Is. 10, pp. 524-535, 2016
DOI: 10.13187/er.2016.111.524
www.erjournal.ru
UDC 37
Movies: the Audience Favorites
Alexander Fedorov а
а Rostov State University of Economics, Russian Federation
Dr. (Education), Professor
Abstract
Modern screen art over its success to the use of folklore, myth, synthesis of the natural and
supernatural, and a consistent orientation toward the most popular plot schemes.
Their metaphorical appeal is not to the rational but to the emotional, through identification with
the magic power of heroes and standardization of ideas, situations, characters and so on in
compensation for dreams not realized in life, there are illusions – happy endings. In movies,
TV shows, and music videos' rhythmic organization, viewers' feelings are influenced as much by the
order of changing shots as by the content of productions.
On the basis of the foregoing, it can be concluded that the media texts of popular culture
obliged to a variety of factors for its success. These include: reliance on folklore and mythological
sources, constancy metaphors, focus on consistent implementation of the most persistent plot
schemes, the synthesis of the natural and the supernatural, the appeal not to rational and
emotional, through the identification of (imaginary transformation in of active characters merge
with the atmosphere, the aura of works), “magic power” of heroes, standardization (replication,
unification, adaptation) ideas, situations, characters, etc., mosaic, seriality, the compensation
(of the cherished illusion, but not come true desires), the happy ending, the use of such rhythmic
organization movies, TV shows, clips, where the feeling of the audience with the content of the
frame affects the order of their shift; intuitive guessing subconscious audience interests, etc.
Keywords: hermeneutical analysis, Soviet, USSR, Russia, screen, audience, film, film
studies.
1. Introduction
Russian cinema today is, like Russia itself chaotic, unpredictable and full of contrasts. No one
can tell if the country will become an equal among equals on the world's professional stages by the
beginning of the 21st century, casting off its poor role as a supplicant to Western artistic leaders.
Anyone who knows even a little history is aware that Russia was virtually outside European
civilization for 75 years of XX century. The Communist regime firmly controlled all spheres of life
for a sixth of the planet's citizens. In spite of totalitarian pressure, however, Russian culture
managed to survive. The best books of Mikhail Bulgakov and Anna Ahmatova, the symphonies of
Dmitry Shostakovich and Alexander Prokofiev, the films of Andrei Tarkovsky and Vassily Shukshin
were created in the years of the most rigid censorship.
Despite bans, prisons and gulags, the artists leaned to speak to their readers and spectators in
524
some sort of language of initiates. Music, without clearly defined plot, made it much easier to do
this. Writers, directors and actors were forced to talk about many things in hints and symbols,
taking advantage of legends, fairy tales and parables.
Russian authorities of the 1960s through the 1980s officially supported the publication and
distribution of classical literature – the works of Lev Tolstoy, Alexander Pushkin, Nikolai Gogol,
Ivan Turgenev, Anton Chekhov, etc. The best film directors knew this, and were aware of weakened
censorial control applied, at times, to screen adaptations. Consequently, the period saw The Nest of
Noble Family (1968) based on Turgenev novel and Uncle Vanya (1971) based on Chekhov's play,
directed by Andrei Konchalovsky.
There were also Station's Employee (1972, using Pushkin's prose) directed by Sergey
Soloviev, Dead Souls (1984, from the Gogol novel) directed by Mikhail Schweitzer, and others.
Nikita Mikhalkov, making films based on Chekhov (Unfinished Piece for Mechanical Piano, 1976)
and Ivan Goncharov (Several Days in the Life of Oblomov, 1980), succeeded in telling more about
the situation in Russia – and the national character – than the majority of his colleagues whose
pictures dealt with the country's modern life. Oblomov embodies the paradoxes of mysterious
Russian soul: intelligence, talent and an innate sense of beauty go poignantly hand in hand with
passivity, laziness, sleepy inaction and abstract dreaming...
The Russian cinematic fairy tale also has old traditions, founded by Alexander Row
(The Frosty Fire, Water and Cooper Trumpets, Morozko, etc.) and Alexander Ptushko (The Stone
Flower, Sadko). Until recently, however, fantasy films had to submit to two unwritten rules: all
except a few were made for a children's audience, and the action had to take place in ancient times,
in a faraway kingdom. The first rule dictated an understandable style for the fairy tale, with vivid,
clear pictures and vocabulary, and villains looking not very fearful but on the contrary, usually,
funny and harmless. The second rule was very seldom infringed, because magicians, witches,
demons and other fairy characters – according to “highly placed” thought – could be perceived as
an embodiment of the authors' mysticism intruding on a modern background. In these cases, when
magic and witchery were admitted into our days (as in The Snowy Fairy Tale by E. Shengelaya and
A. Saharov), unintended associations and parallels appeared.
In the word, the production of films similar to The Omen by Richard Donner and The Shining
by Stanley Kubrick for the Russian screen couldn't be even imagined until 1980-s. Now the
situation has turned 180 degrees. Russian screen are full of foreign and indigenous horror films
and fearsome tales that chill the blood. Vampires, demons, witches and others evil spirits have
become frequent guests on video and cinema circuits from Moscow to the very frontiers...
Remarkable Russian actors – Oleg Dal (1941-1981), Vladimir Vissotsky (1938-1980), Anatoly
Solonitsin (1934-1982), Vladislaw Dvorzecki (1937-1978), Nikolai Grinko (1920-1989), Alexander
Kaidanovsky (1946-1995) – very often played heroes who stood beyond the usual circle of life on
the screen of the 1960-s and 1970-s. The Fairy Ivans, fools and intelligent outsiders of Oleg Dal.
The hot-tempered, contentious, furious romantics of Vissotsky. The inspired, always doubtful or
cynical, devastated heroes of Solonitsin (Andrei Tarkovsky's favorite actor)... These were in
opposition to the artificial characters distilled in the retort of Socialist Realism.
Censorship was ruthless to the filmmakers. Important scenes, phrases and frames were cut
out of many movies. Yet Tarkovsky's Andrei Rublev (1966), despite all the alterations, extolled
Russian culture and closely connected with the Orthodox faith, while Elem Klimov's The Parting
(1981) remained an angry accusation of the political system of the time, aspiring to destroy this
same culture and religion.
After the widespread destruction of temples and churches in the 1920-s and 1930-s, Russian
culture became a peculiar national religion; as the only source of spirituality, it allowed people who
could not stand slavery to maintain a dream of Beauty during the hardest years.
Indisputably, politics had a highly negative influence on the development of Russian culture
and education, but the classical legacy of art helped people to survive. Every new truthful book or
film of the masters was perceived throughout the country as a desirable breath of cool wind.
I remember how the books of Alexander Solzhenitsyn were handed around, how the films of
Marlen Hutsiev or Gregory Chuhrai, in the 1960s, were discussed till voices became hoarse. And
what events for Russian viewers in the 1970s were screenings of masterpieces by Federico Fellini
(Amarcord, Orchestra Rehearsal)!
Another paradox of Russian life is that all people hoped for and aspired to the “light future”,
525
yet their ranks included dissenters who were Slavophiles, craving a return to the Russia of 1913,
and dissenters of Western orientation who wanted a rapprochement with America, while the
majority of the so-called “common people” faithfully waited for a near-Socialist paradise of well-
being and, in the name of this, were ready to tolerate “temporary” hardships. Today a lot of Russian
politicians try to find some “middle way” between capitalism and socialism where, to trust the
premises of fashionable leaders, harmony will reign. In the political, economical currents some
Russian filmmakers thoroughly lost their bearings, becoming victims of the whirlpools, submerged
stones and shallows. Having got rid of censorship and having been given carte blanche in freedom
of thought, they began to throw onto the screen what they apparently believed were commercial
and brave statements, but which in fact were monotonous, non-competitive films. The freedom
didn't evoke the expected abundance of masterpieces, because bitter truth alone isn't enough for
the creation of a work of art. Talent is also needed, and it is everywhere in deficit.
Some Russian cineastes, finding it harder and harder to work in the Motherland in a
condition of permanent economic crisis, are gathering under Western’s roofs. It is rather logical:
Russian filmmakers hope that West will become a gate to the world screen for them; at home
indigenous movies are being forced out by American production everywhere. Only the most
entertaining Russian films manage to survive the competition in such conditions, but they, as
usual, copy U.S. pictures and don't hold any special interest as art. Undoubtedly, such work in the
West requires a certain attention to the producers' wishes and an orientation toward middle-of-
the-road European and American viewer's tastes. Well, don't judge and you will not be judged...
The words of Russian great writer Gogol about the Bird-troika – Russia – therefore turned
out to be really prophetic: “Russia, where are you rushing to? Give the answer. No answer”.
2. Material and methods

The main materials for this article was the area: the books, articles and films. The methods of
theoretical research: classification, comparison, analogy, induction and deduction, abstraction and
concretization, theoretical analysis and synthesis; and methods of empirical research: collecting
information related to the research subjects. Effectiveness of such methods has been proven as the
Western (R. Taylor, D. Youngblood, A. Lawton et al.), And Russian (N. Zorkaya, E. Ivanyan,
A. Kolesnikova, M. Turovskaya) researchers. I used also the method of hermeneutic analysis of the
cultural context of media texts (Eco, 1976; Potter, Thai, 2016; Silverblatt, 2001, 2016). This method
connected with the key concepts of media literacy education (media agencies, media categories,
media language, media technologies, media representations, media audiences etc.)
3. Discussion
supernatural, and a consistent orientation toward the most popular plot schemes. Their
metaphorical appeal is not to the rational but to the emotional, through identification with the
magic power of heroes and standardization of ideas, situations, characters and so on in
American critic Richard Corliss noted that for the creators of many Hollywood movies plot is
a thing of past, and these movies are more thrilling than satisfying. Their main impact on most of
the youthful public lies in the expect special effects making spectators gasp in surprise or freeze
with fright. This dynamic cinema, according to Corliss, put higher demands on viewers, because
we have to follow every frame of a shot waiting for the trick (Corliss, 1990). These features of mass
culture reveal themselves in some favorite movies of the Russian audience. They are clear
embodiments of the above-mentioned phenomenon of mass success tendencies.
The action in these films moves form one short episode to another (in order not to be boring
to viewers) with sensational informativeness: event take place at various exotic locations in a cruel
world of pirate’s drug dealers, Mafia men, racketeers and prostitutes. Psychological pressure is
active – throughout the stories the idea that sly enemies (inner and external) are scheming is
repeated over and over. Now something mean is planned, now somebody is robbed; now positive
heroes are attacked...
The main hero of these movies is an almost magical, fairy-tale character. Cute, strong and
526
smart, he comes out of al supernatural situations safe and sound (an excellent motif for
identification and compensation). Many episodes’ touch human instincts and emotions (such as
fear). There's even continuity, as each story supposes an endless number of sequels. In spite of an
absence of technical shine and the presence of numerous mistakes of taste or sense, the common
components of these motives are rather professionally presented: fights, chases, shootings, pretty
women, alarming music, strong feelings, a minimum of dialogue, a maximum of movement, and
other attributes of action films. Other favorites of Russian public are made with similar attitudes
and qualities...
Much more firmly than in cinema, these features of mass culture show themselves on
Russian TV. Ideally, television should be various, unobtrusive, rich in visual information, and
pluralistic without dull teaching and officiousness. Only lately has Russian TV started developing
aesthetics for its entertainment packages, rejecting the different demands of the public. There are
some intellectual and game shows – even some mass-culture programming – made on professional
level. But the border between artistic and inartistic is often erased in a tendency toward
documentary, one-day value, “open” formats that reproduce something in its process of becoming
an event. This peculiarity of mass communication is an obstacle in determining the aesthetic
distance. For examples, platitudinous music videos are show all the time on Russian TV; if a viewer
didn't have taste preferences; this could penetrate deep enough into his mind to unconsciously
determine them...
The authors of some research accused popular culture creators that they have used improper
methods of psychological pressure (constant repetition of the facts, regardless of the truth),
distortion of facts and trends, selection of the negative features in the image of political opponents,
“sticking labels”, “rouge guidance”, “playing folksy”, a reference to the authorities in order to justify
a lie, etc. But mass media text creators always been as 1) honest professionals who build their own
stories based on humanistic values, 2) persons who prone to political conformism, and
3) momentary conjuncture artisans.
In fact, media texts relating to the mass (popular) culture, have success is not due to the fact
that they supposedly targeted only at people with low aesthetic taste, subject to psychological
pressure, easy to believing the lie, etc, but because their authors are responsible for real, worthy of
respect and study the needs of the audience, including – information, compensatory, hedonistic,
recreational, moral, etc.
The emergence of the “industrial society with absolute inevitability leads to the formation of a
special type of culture – the culture of commercial, mass, ... satisfying on the basis of modern
technologies a fundamental human need for harmonization of the psychic life of the people”
(Razlogov, 1991, p.10). At the same time, mass culture, inconceivable without the media, it is a
natural component of modern culture as a whole, to which belongs the majority of all works of art
created in the world. It can be considered as an effective way of involving the masses of viewers,
listeners and readers in a variety of cultural processes as a phenomenon born of the latest
technology (first of all – communication), the global integration and globalization (the destruction
of local communities, and the erosion of regional and national borders, and so on).
This definition of mass (popular) culture, in my view, logically fits into the context of the
functioning of the media – the systematic dissemination of information (via the media, print,
television, radio, film, sound / video, Internet) among the numerically large, dispersed audiences
for approval spiritual values and providing ideological, economic or organizational impact on the
estimates, opinions and behavior of the people.
V. Propp (Propp, 1976), N. Zorkaya (Zorkaya, 1981), M. Turovskaya (Turovskaya, 1979),
O. Nechay (Nechay, 1993) and M. Yampolsky (Yampolsky, 1987) have shown convincingly that the
total successful works of mass culture requires the calculation of their creators in the folk style of
aesthetic perception, and “archetypes of fairy tales and legends, and their associated archetypes of
folk perceptions, meeting, give the effect of the integral mass success favorites” (Zorkaya, 1981,
p.116).
Indeed, the success of the audience is very closely linked with the mythological layer of the
product. “Strong” genres” – thriller, science fiction, western – always based on the “strong” myths”
(Yampolsky, 1987, p. 41). Unusual relationship, but the “real” events – one of the fundamental
archetypes (based on underlying psychological structures that affect the conscious and
subconscious) fairy tales, legends, – is very important for many popular media texts. O. Nechay, in
527
my opinion, very correctly noted the important feature of mass (popular) culture – the adaptation
of the forms of folklore in society. That is, if the author's text ideal emerges through reality (in the
center of the plot – the hero-personality), socio-critical text gives a character taken from the life
around (common man), the mass culture are ideal norms in the real environment (Nechay, 1993,
pp. 11-13).
However, the biggest influence on the audience has a TV mass culture, focused on the
creation of large multi-month (or even perennial!) series of programs and serials. There are
“systemically important properties of serial: 1) the duration of the narrative, 2) intermittent him,
3) special story organizations often-series requires a specific identity of their structure and
replication of individual blocks, 4) availability through characters, regular characters (or groups of
such heroes)” (Zorkaya, 1981, p.59). Plus, these specific properties of TV-show organization as
frequency, headings, software, dosing, translational (providing increased sociability).
In addition, the creators of media texts of popular culture take into account emotional tone of
perception. The monotony plot situations often lead the audience to the suspension from contact
with the media text. That's why professionals arise change episodes, causing shock and soothing
reaction, but certainly a happy ending, giving a positive detente. In other words, we can divide of
many popular media texts – easily and painlessly – into blocks (often interchangeable). And these
blocks were linked clearly thought-out mechanism “emotional extremes” – the alternation of
positive and negative emotions caused by the public.
It is worth noting that in many cases, the creators of the mass media texts consciously
simplify, trivialize their life untouched by the material, apparently hoping to bring that part of the
youth audience, which is now enthusiastically develops computer games, built on those or other
actions of the virtual violence. And this, no doubt, has its own logic, because even N. Berdyaev
quite rightly wrote that “the masses not attached to the goods and cultural values, and culture is
difficult for mass audience in the noble sense of the word, but the technique a relatively easy for
them” (Berdyaev, 1990, p. 229).
At the same time, relying on folklore, entertainment, seriality and professionalism of the
authors is not sufficient for the success of a large-scale media text of mass culture, as well as the
popularity depends on the hypnotic, sensual impact. Instead of primitive devices to the tastes of the
masses, professionals guessed “secret subconscious interest in crowd” at the level of “irrational
heroism and intuitive illumination” (Bogomolov, 1989, p. 11).
The same subjects, getting to the ordinary artisan or, for example, to S. Spielberg,
transforming, collect a variety of audiences on the scale. Masters of popular media culture perfectly
use the effect of “layer cake”: the creation of the works for multi-level perceptions, calculated on the
perception of people of various age, intelligence and taste. There are a kind of semi-stylization,
semi-parody interspersed with semi-really with countless allusions to the classic films of past years,
direct quotations, with references to folklore and mythology, etc.
For example, for some viewers the text of Spielberg’s Indiana Jones will be tantamount to the
vision of the classic The Thief of Bagdad. And for the others, more sophisticated in the media
culture – fascinating and ironic journey into the realm of folklore and fairy-tale archetypes,
cinematic associations, unobtrusive parody. The film Frantic might well be perceived as an
ordinary thriller about the disappearance of the wife of an American scientist, who came to the
Paris medical conference, but can be perceived as a kind of rethinking and mischievously stylized
heritage rich tradition of the detective genre, noire thrillers and gangster sagas – from A. Hitchcock
to the present day, and even – as a veiled autobiography, directed by Roman Polanski ...
Thus, one of the distinctive features of the present socio-cultural situation in (addition to the
standardization and harmonization) is the adaptation of a popular media culture specific art house
language. Video clips are the good example for perception characteristic of mass audience. It would
seem that there was a paradoxical situation: music video very often used the opening of the avant-
garde media – whimsical, kaleidoscopic, ragged assembly, complex associative, solarization, the
transformation of volumes, shapes, colors and light, flashbacks, rapids, and others special effects.
But the audience for them (as opposed to an audience of elite masterpieces and the avant-garde) is
very big, mass.
In my opinion, this is not controversial. For example, the youth audience can perceive of
post-modern standards, allusions and associations just in a short duration of the clip, because a
quick change of plans installation, resilient, dynamic audiovisual rhythm is acceptable even for the
528
most inexperienced in the language of the media person. And this is also effect of pluralistic
popular media culture, designed to meet the differentiated audience requests.
The therapeutic effect, the phenomenon of compensation is also important for the success of
mass media texts. Of course, personality often wants to get away the emotion from the film, which
he/she did not have enough in life. And it is absolutely natural. And Sigmund Freud wrote that
“culture must mobilize all its forces to put a limit aggressive primary urges to humans and slow
down their displays by creating the necessary psychological reactions” (Freud, 1990, p. 29).
However, some researchers doubt this compensatory function of mass culture. For example,
American scientists studied the effects of the behavior of young viewers, depending on the
availability of movies viewed in violent episodes, the levels of aggressiveness were measured for
7 days, the analysis of which led researchers to the conclusion that the negative impact of these
tapes (Parke, et al. 1977, pp. 148-153).
But, in my view, another sociological concept looks more convincing: there is no direct
cause-and-effect relationship between movies and crime, although we can see a great impact in
terms of stimulating aggressive tendencies faced by people with unstable or mental disorders, with
a weak intelligence.
4. Results
It is interesting to see how audience preferences changing with respect to one of the most
common media texts – films. Remember how those or other works of different levels and genres
estimated ten, twenty, thirty years ago, some of them became the favorites of the public. I take the
long-term results of the survey of the popular cinema magazine Soviet Screen. I will compare the
most active audience preferences (readers of Soviet Screen) with the average public tastes (box-
office).
At the same time, of course, I must bear in mind the conditional nature of these figures.
Unfortunately, the Russian society in the 1950s -1980s did not open: distortions were characterized
not only reports on the crops of grain and cotton, but also sociological studies, and sociology of
science itself was in the grip of strong ideological dogmatism. It often happened that the tickets
sold, for example, on the French criminal parody Fantomas took place in official documents under
the guise of income from Soviet cinema... But, of course, the excellent box-office of Russian comedy
Brilliant Hand (1969) and action Pirates of the Twentieth Century (1980) it is impossible to
question.
The differences between viewers opinions’ profiles of different decades are substantial. In the
late fifties and sixties, the Soviet audience chooses (in the Soviet Screen’s survey) the best films of
the year is mainly notable works of art (The Fate of Man (1959) by S. Bondarchuk, Serioja (1960)
by G. Daneliya & I. Talankin, Clean Sky (1961) By G. Chuhray, Nine Days in One Year (1962) by
M. Romm, Hamlet (1964) by G. Kozintsev, We'll Live till Monday (1968) by S. Rostotsky).
I am convinced that such a choice audience besides the artistic quality of the films, not least
due to the time uplifting, arose in the era of the “thaw” mass faith young audiences in a final and
irrevocable overcoming past “errors” and “mistakes” in the progressive construction of a “bright
the future”. Although this historical and cultural period was contradictory and inconsistent, film
critics of those years basically gave viewers loyal artistic landmarks, maintaining significant works
of art that in some way reflected in the audience likes and dislikes.
“Thaw” seemed to disclose the true talent of limitless possibilities. Very expanded film
production: 102 films in 1958 instead of 10-12 in the early 1950's. Mikhail Kalatozov (1903-1973),
Sergey Urusevsky (1908-1974), Mikhail Romm (1901-1971) found its second wind in their
cinematic careers. Bright, impressive director debuts of Gregory Chuhray (1921-2001), Marlen
Hutsiev, Georgy Danelia: movies of these debutants received prizes at festivals, the audience and
the press were discussed about. In the early 1960s confidently declared themselves Andrei
Tarkovsky (1932-1986), Vasily Shukshin (1929-1974), Sergei Parajanov (1924-1990), Elem Klimov
(1933-2003), Larisa Shepitko (1938-1979), Andrei Konchalovsky, Mikhail Kalik and Mikhail
Bogin...
But at the same time, the film of Marlen Hutsiev I Am Twenty was banned for several years.
The young characters of this film honestly tried, but naive and romantic, to understand the history,
the present and themselves… The ambiguity of those years there has been, perhaps, all those who
he wrote of “the era of Khrushchev“.
529
Instead, the idea predominated loyalty to the leader began to cultivate the idea of collectivity
as in "lower", and the "higher" spheres of life. Joyous scenes of factory and amicable collective
teams, school classes, families strong, conquerors of virgin lands, workers of district committees
and regional committees flooded the "average" movies late 1950s – early 1960s. Instead, almost
completely extinct historical-biographical genre, like mushrooms after rain multiplied lyrical
comedy, detective, drama and melodrama, thoroughly revived forgotten by the time.
Thrown from the rostrum of the slogan "Our children will live under communism!" implicitly
or directly defined the ideological orientation of many films. Of course, the authors of these
pictures trying to avoid the extremes of the previous years – the apparent distortion of facts,
outright lies, etc. But still in the course of "sticking labels", "guidance rouge", and "vulgar games"…
One of the ideas dominated considerable number of films that time was intended to assure
the audience that in order to "catch up and overtake" remains only one last effort, the existing
minor flaws can be corrected as soon as possible "healthy team." Cinema conveyor 1960s
(especially their first half), followed by its predecessor the 1930's and 1940's was infused with
propaganda exalted ideals of universal enthusiasm, determined struggle, cheerful and quick to
overcome any difficulties and obstacles. The enemy, however, was different: instead of "enemies of
the people", pests and spyware sixties film heroes fought mainly from the harsh environment,
easily removable disadvantages in everyday life. It was not easy to imagine the entertainment
picture, devoid of this ideological "stuffing"...
As in previous decades, to mass culture in the late 1950's - early 1960's was characterized by
political confrontation, clearly noticeable even in such seemingly exotic picture as Amphibian Man
(1962), the authors of which, along with the spectacular underwater camera did not forget about
the criticism of the "cruel laws of bourgeois society."
With the advent of Leonid Brezhnev began a gradual pullback to the "thaw" position. A solid
"shelf" of banned talented films (Electricity Homeland by L. Shepitko, Angel by A. Smirnov,
The Commissioner by A. Askoldov, Andrei Rublev by A. Tarkovsky, Assya's Happiness by
A. Konchalovsky) formed by the end of the 1960's. Kremlin campaign of "pacification" of the
Czechoslovak democracy (1968-1969) followed by a tightening of censorship and a new blow to the
"unreliable" intellectuals. Such famous filmmakers as H. Gabay, M. Kalik, M. Bogin emigrated from
Russia... Perhaps, 1968 year became a kind abroad, leaving behind the hope for reform, set back in
fear of the "Prague Spring". This was the beginning of a powerful offensive of the conservative
forces in all directions.
In fact, a film needed a society that is slowly but surely went on extensive way to the socio-
political and cultural crisis? Cinema of problems of "moral anxiety"? Cinema, satirically presents
abominations life? Enough joking... Of course, Soviet cinema of 1970s needed a very different
model of "manual", obedient superiors movie, ready for all the most reckless call "from above"
obsequious to take the salute. Cinematograph of 1970s, how it was understood by the then leaders,
desperately needed the film coming out of the servile principle of "What would you like?"
By that time, promise on building by 1980 the material and technical base of communism
were recognized voluntarist. Stopped in mind an explicit "limes" exaggerated slogans calling in a
few years to overtake America in all major economic indicators. Prospects were pushed into the
indefinite future. By the end of the 1970s it came down to the "winged" thesis everywhere are
reminded that the economy of "mature socialism" must be economical...
But it would be wrong to say that Soviet popular culture of 1970d - first half of the 1980s
entirely consisted of conformist films. A. Tarkovsky, V. Abdrashitov, E. Klimov and some others try
to say their independent words in cinema art.
But as in previous years, Soviet mass culture flourishes in a historic theme. Total ideological
trend towards straightening sharp corners, transforming the story into an endless series of
victories, used well-proven in the past reception "figure of silence" (or, in other words, "selection",
the selection of only winning a propaganda term trends). At that time, there were so-called "closed
zone", which was not accepted even mention. For example, many real historical figures are
automatically excluded from the film-plots. A similar fate was with problems associated with mass
repression during collectivization, 1930s-1940s, etc. The attempt to understand the story without
retouching, openly and honestly (Test on the Road by A. German, The Commissioner by
A. Askoldov) met while in the dense bureaucratic-reinsurance bayonets.
In a strong documentary Star of Vavilov (1985) by S. Dyachenko A. Borsyuk the first time in
530
Russian cinema lifted the veil of silence surrounding the vicious activities of Academician Lysenko
and his supporters dearly cost the country's agriculture. Alas, all the previous years, the movie
carefully avoiding the subject, producing iridescent films on how the personal initiative of energetic
young business man executives breaks down any barriers (A man in his place, 1973; With joy and
courage, 1974).
The curious metamorphosis there have been on the Russian screen and in the interpretation
of the theme of Stalinism. The anti-stalinist film by Gregory Chuhraja Clean Sky (1961) won the
main prize of the Moscow Film Festival and earned success with the audience, but... in 1970s has
been securely hidden on the shelf - away from cinemas and television screens. Since the mid of
1960s any mention of the bloody crimes of Stalinism practically disappeared in the Soviet cinema.
The image of Stalin from film to film became more and more impressive and solidity, which
eventually led to Victory (1985) by E. Matveev and Battle for Moscow (1985) by Y. Ozerov.
Almost until Gorbachev's perestroika some film directors seeking to reflect the story without
gloss front, objectively and truthfully, it was necessary to build many of their works on line hints
and allegories, and even in parabola form. A classic example of the historical and political
overtones – the wonderful film My Friend Ivan Lapshin (1981) by A. German, which tells the
dramatic time of 1930s.
But the most bitter truth, as we know, is much more expensive than a sweet lie. Trouble
Russian historical cinema previous decades was that instead of talking about what had happened,
he was all the time trying to dream on what could happen in an ideal circumstances, issuing these
dogmatic fantasy for reality.
So, although the ordinary mass culture film implies (and usually does) rather significant box
office success, it does not pretend to be mandatory laurels rolling leader. Moreover, I will take the
liberty to say that there is even a non-cash mass culture - an inevitable consequence of the
desperate lack of professionalism and creative authors of insolvency.
At first glance, there is a clear contradiction here: how is it - mass culture and without a mass
audience? But in practice, everything is easier: opus, originally conceived as a mass culture,
actually turns helplessly as dull and boring, that suffers a financial collapse. In the West, this also
occurs quite often...
Of course, it would have been very naive view of the relationship "media - audience" in a
unilateral way: the audience tried to view of Andrei Tarkovsky and Alexei German, but Ministry of
Cinematography gave the way for popular culture only. For example, the concentration of the
audience senses to love experiences had a kind of therapeutic sense, allowed to transfer to the
authorities that permitted the channel all the negative emotions that have accumulated in real life
(especially the female half of the audience).
But do they themselves did not have the audience craving for this kind of vivid, emotional
spectacle?
The fact of the matter is that we need sometimes for strong emotional shocks - whether on a
detective or love story. However, it is believed that the mass success of the messages and the
success of true preferences - things sometimes different. Millions can read, listen to some media
text, but the positive appreciation of these media text is another thing. Or, on the contrary, the
opinion of a specialized readers may not be the benchmark for the overall situation, since not all
people read newspapers and have such a steady commitment to culture, to fill out forms and send
them to the editor.
This is partly true. For example, the film chronicles the lead in the questionnaire does not
mean the same championship in the Russian box office, where the first place firmly hold the film
entertainment plan. And it is natural, because the profile of the best films of the year meet, as a
rule, the most active viewers.
However, the total rental statistics confirm the randomness of readers ratings of Soviet
Screen. Almost all (with few exceptions) the leaders of the Russian screen of 1960s - 1980s in some
manner entered the top twenty according to the survey of the magazine. Thus, the Pirates of the
Twentieth Century (1980) by B. Durov, become a truly champion (86.7 million spectators for the
first year), took to the eleventh place in a magazine profile. Melodrama Moscow Does Not Believe
in Tears (1980) by V. Menshov, which has sold over 84 million tickets, - in the first place. Comedy
of L. Gaidai Prisoner of the Caucasus (1967) and The Diamond Hand (1969), collected on
76 million fans turned out in the seventh and eighth places. A dozen leaders were operetta
531
Wedding in Malinovka (1967) by A. Tutyshkin (74 million viewers and eighth place in the
magazine's readers), Crew (1979) by A. Mitty (71 million) and Shield and Sword (1968) of V. Basov
(68 million), got the second place in a poll of readers. The same can be said about the Headless
Horseman (1976) by V. Vaynshtok (68 million viewers), The Dawns Here Are Quiet (1972) by
S. Rostotsky and Amphibian Man (1962) by V. Chebotarev and G. Kazanski (65 million viewers).
In general, the results of the total rental entertaining movies since the late 1960s, more and
more often become leaders. And in all these years, the most popular genres has always been
comedy Gentlemen of Fortune (1972) by A. Sery (65 millions), Ivan Vasilyevich Changes
Occupation (1973) (60 millions) by L. Gaidai, Afonya (1975) by G. Daneliya (62 millions), Office
romance (1976) by E. Ryazanov (60 millions); adventure, detectives, Crown of the Russian Empire
(1974) by E. Keosayan, Tavern on Pyatnitskaya (1976) by A. Faintzimmer (54 millions), Petrovka
38 (1980) by V. Grigorev (53 millions). Ten Little Indians (1988) by S. Govoruhin (33 millinons);
melodrama Stepmom (1973) by O. Bondarev (59 millions), Queen of the Gypsies (1976) by
E. Lotjanu (64 millinons), Guys (1982) by I. Babich (38 millions), etc.
As a result, it can be concluded that the Soviet Screen’s viewers-readers’ preferences
sufficiently representative reflect the tastes of the general audience. And in terms of genre, "cash"
and "personal" leaders are very similar: since the late 1960's to 1980's the comedy, action
adventure and melodrama dominated regardless of the change of years.
However, there are significant differences. Among the box-office favorites the films of high
artistic level were very rare, but we can see a lot of original works of art in the list of the prize-
winners of Soviet Screen.
Here is interesting evolution of personal preferences of the public. In the 1960's in the top ten
of Soviet Screen includes such outstanding works as Welcome, or No unauthorized entry is
prohibited (1964) by E. Klimov, The Road (1954) by F. Fellini and Ashes and Diamonds (1957) by
A. Wajda...
Since the beginning of the 1970 tastes of the audience, of course, began to change in a
different way - in the first place in Soviet Screen’s film winners are increasingly mediocre
artistically tape (Stepmother, Young wife, Guys and others.). Serious cinema (The Beginning by
G. Panfilov, The Red Tent by M. Kalatozov, Monologue by I. Auerbach, Red Kalina by V. Shukshin,
Romeo and Juliet by F. Dzeffirelli, They Shoot Horses, Don't They? by S. Pollack) takes the lead
much less.
My twenty years of experience in Youth film club and a special course on media culture in
several universities, suggests that, at least since the mid 1970s, the preferences of young viewers
were just close to leaders of Soviet Screen: Irony of Destiny (1976), Office Romance (1978),
Railway Station for Two (1983), A Cruel Romance (1984) by E. Ryazanov, Young Wife (1979) by
L. Menaker, Moscow Does not believe in tears (1980) by V. Menshov, You cannot dream... (1981)
By I. Frez...
By the way, the success of movie of I. Frez is explained by the fact that for decades the
Russian films on the so-called youth theme almost always had considerable success with audiences,
but with them, and there were all sorts of metamorphoses. Alas, in some pictures about young
people (Minors, This is What We Do Not Pass, Found Guilty, My Anfisa and others) did not even
attempt to approach the analytic drama of M. Osepyan Three Days of Victor Chernyshev (1968).
The second half of the 1980's - early 1990's drastically changed the theme of the youth
cinema. If the well-known film by J. Raizman And if this is love? (1962) affirmed the right of
students to friendship and love, not overshadowed by petty-bourgeois gossip, then in the late
1970's - early 1980's this right was already the undisputed (At the end of the world, Draw, School
Waltz, You cannot dream...). It was about the diversity, the complexity of thought and feeling
young, their contradictory relationship with each other, to adults, to the first independent steps,
victories and defeats. And finally, the "perestroika" and Little Vera (1988) by V. Pichul became the
first sign in a series of subsequent films defending the right to freedom of young sexual relations.
But, as they say, not a single sex: in a shot in the second half of the 1980 Outsiders by
S. Bodrov openly spoke of society's fault for crippled lives of young characters, you feel useless
freeloaders. Faced with spiritual callousness and bureaucratic world of adults, children from the
provincial amateur ensemble willy-nilly trying to adapt to the world, and paid him the same
indifference...
Breaking the barriers of censorship provoked a stormy tide exposing and convictions of films
532
on youth theme, Russian cinema has tried to catch up. The story of those years (Arsonists, Accident
- daughter of cop, etc.) were transferred from the latrine in the cooler, from dilapidated barn – in
the darkness of the cellar. Violence, drug addiction... Scene motives of the famous Stuffed (1983) by
R. Bykov also been put on stream and perfected, as they say, "one hundred percent". School-
exposing the subject enlarged picture Blackmailer, Temptation, Publish, Dolly, etc.
The appearance of this kind of new conjuncture in the films about youth, in my opinion, was
quite natural: the filmmakers who have received long-awaited opportunity to speak openly about
their everyday concerns, hastened to shout, throw on the screen all that bothered them for years.
Alas, in most cases it was a superficial journalism, made up of collections of similar scenes, moving
from one film to another, which negates the critical pathos declared straightforward ideas.
As a result, in the mid 1990s came the inevitable tide of youth film wave.
About two dozen "youth" films annually came out on Russian screens in 1989-1991. And in
1992 - even thirty. But since 1993 a gradual decline occurred.
Among these films met sometimes worthy of the work of talented artists (Dyuba-dyuba by
A. Hwan, Love by V. Todorovski, Nastya and Heads and Tails by G. Danelia), but overall, I think,
found the desire to reorient youth topic in the direction of pure entertainment, you know,
unfortunately, not at the level of Robert Zemeckis (Back to the future), or Claude Pinoteau (Boom),
and in the spirit of kitsch.
When the Russian political and economic system of the 1970s - 1980s tried to mask the
numerous cancers demagogic talk and promises, it caused a massive rejection, especially among
young people. The mood of frustration, passive, often not fully aware of the silent protest of young
looking output. And found his passion in the "no" rock music, entertainment films, immerse the
viewer in a fabulous and fascinating world with active, purposeful, suffering and finds happiness
heroes...
If on the screen and appear problematic movies, they often found themselves in a situation
"least favored" as in the box office. As a result, the following happened: the critic has lost the
confidence of the reading Film viewers. And, choosing between dull, ponderous "custom-made"
films and entertainment, even a low level, the audience inevitably inclined to the latter.
What movies have received the lowest scores of spectators? In the 1970s worst were called
films, in fact, very weak (Last Days of Pompeii (1973), Hello. River (1979). Boring and bad work is
not saved by the rolling and the questionnaire the failure of even a spectacular and entertaining
genre...
From 1980 to 1985 Soviet Screen did not dare to publish a "black list" of audience dislikes.
This break, in my opinion, is not accidental. At the turn of the 1970s - 1980s most sharply
delineated cinema crisis and the rental system. During the seven seals were data on circulation
patterns and their assigned categories of quality, extremely sparingly published sensations...
Then in the top ten of the magazine editorialized profiles settled tape-burning, more than
superficially reflect the real political and historical events (Event of 36-80 Square, Victory, etc.).
And if each new series about the adventures of the beautiful Angelique gathered about forty
million viewers, it became a real box-office champion "soap" Mexican melodrama Yesenia (1971),
attended by about a hundred million viewers for the first year of the demonstration. She is ahead of
even such acclaimed champions as Pirates of the Twentieth Century and Disco Dancer.
Of course, typical of popular culture phenomenon of compensation - a natural result of the
viewer's contact with art make up the missing human feelings and emotions. This popular movie
differentiated and is designed for people with different tastes. Sometimes the impact of the next
blockbuster based on the professionalism of the director, the actors, the operator, composer, artist,
able to create a bright, attractive shape sight. Or so, at first glance, paradoxical option: the film is
bad and has been forgotten, and the music is so good to him that continues to be performed and
the public likes.
However, the general trend of viewing thrust to mass culture, no doubt, and remained at the
turn of the twenty-first century. Just out of cinema audience moved to the home screen.
5. Conclusion
So, on the basis of the foregoing, it can be concluded that the media texts of popular culture
533
References
1. Berdyaev, N.A. (1990). The destiny of man in the modern world. New World. № 1, 207-
232.
2. Bogomolov, Y.A. (1989). Movies on every day... Literary Gazette. № 24, 11.
3. Corliss, R. (1990). Dina-movies attacking. Video-Ace Express. N 1, 8.
5. Freud, S. (1990). Dissatisfaction of culture. Cinema Art. № 12, 18-31.
6. Nechay, O.F. (1993). Film education in the context of literature. Specialist. № 5, 11-13.
7. Parke, R.D., Berkowitz, L., Leyens, J.P., West, S.J., Sebastian, P.J. (1977). Some Effects
of Violent and Nonviolent Movies on the Behavior of Juvenile Delinquents. Advances in
Experimental Social Psychology. N.Y. Academia Press, № 10, 148-153.
8. Potter, W.J., Thai, C. (2016). Conceptual Challenges in Designing Measures for Media
Literacy Studies. // International Journal of Media and Information Literacy, 2016, Vol. (1), Is. 1,
pp. 27-42.
9. Propp, V.Y. (1976). Folklore and Reality. Moscow: Art, 51-63.
10. Razlogov, K.E. (1991). Paradoxes of commercialization. Screen and Stage. № 9, 10.
11. Sherkovin, Y.A. (1973). Psychological problems of mass communications. Moscow:
Thought.
12. Shestakov, V.P. (1988). Mythology of XX Century. Moscow: Art.
14. Silverblatt, A. (2016). Reflections on Information Literacy. International Journal of
Media and Information Literacy, 2016, Vol. (1), Is. 1, pp. 54-71.
15. Turovskaya, M.I. (1979). Why does the viewer go to the movies. Genres of Movie.
Moscow: Art, 319 p.
16. Usov, Y.N. (1993). Basics of screen culture. Moscow: New School.
17. Usov, Y.N. (1995). In the world of screen arts. Moscow: SVR-Argus.
18. Yampolsky, M. (1987). Polemic notes about the aesthetics of the mass of the film.
Transcript of the meeting of the "round table" of film critics. Moscow, 31-44.
19. Zorkaya, N.M. (1981). Unique and Replicate. Moscow: Art.
УДК 37
Кинематограф: фавориты аудитории
Aлександр Федоров а
а Ростовский государственный экономический университет, Российская Федерация

ул. Инициативная, 48, Таганрог, Ростовская область, 347936
Аннотация. Cовременное искусство экрана над своим успехом обязано

использованию фольклора, мифологии, синтезу естественного и сверхъестественного и
последовательной ориентации на наиболее популярные сюжетные схемы, обращением не
только к рациональному, но и к эмоциональному (в том числе – посредством
идентификации с волшебной силой героев), стандартизации идей, ситуаций, характеров и
т.д.; а в качестве компенсации не реализованных в жизни желаний, возможно, иллюзорный,
534
но счастливый конец. В фильмах, телевизионных шоу и музыкальных видео ритмическая

организация зрительских чувств находятся под влиянием быстрой смены событий.
На основании вышеизложенного, можно сделать вывод, что медиатекстам массовой культуры
свойственны разнообразные факторы успеха. К ним относятся: зависимость от фольклора и
мифологических источников, постоянство метафор, наиболее устойчивых сюжетных схем,
синтез естественного и сверхъестественного, призыв, скорее, не к рациональному, а к
эмоциональному, через идентификацию, магическую силу героев, стандартизацию
(тиражирование, унификацию, адаптацию) идей, ситуаций, персонажей и т.д., мозаику,
серийность, компенсацию, счастливый конец; использование такой ритмической
организации фильмов, телевизионных шоу, клипы, где на чувства аудитории влияет порядок
смены кадров; интуитивное угадывание подсознательных интересов аудитории и т.д.
Ключевые слова: исследование, герменевтический анализ, советские, СССР, России,
экран, зрители, фильм, аудитория.
535
International Journal of Media and Information Literacy, 2016, Vol. 1, Is. (2)

E-ISSN: 2500-1051
Vol. 1, Is. (2), pp. 75–107, 2016
DOI: 10.13187/ijmil.2016.2.75
www.ejournal46.com
Western Cinema in the Mirror of the Soviet Film Criticism *
Abstract
Film criticism was prestigious job in the USSR. At that time there was no Internet and critic
can be published only on paper. And this was due to: 1) a professional status of the author (in this
case it had to be, as a rule, a graduate film critic, art historian, journalist, or have higher education
in the humanitarian field); 2) with a rigid selection and censorship of texts and themes.
The author analyzes how western cinema was reflected in the mirror of the Soviet critics (for
example, thematic books’ collection of Myths and Reality: 1966-1989). This, in particular,
problems of ideological struggle, and the political censorship in the socio-cultural context of the
1960s–1980s and on how Soviet critics, specializing in foreign films, to respond to these factors.
The author concludes that were characteristic of the official Soviet cinema studies, facing the
material foreign movie: 1) sympathetic support "progressive western filmmakers", 2) sharp
criticism of "bourgeois tendencies and perversions", 3) criticism of bourgeois society.
The eleventh edition of the collection Myths and Reality showed, finally, that the Soviet film
studies of the late 1980s was ready for deprived ideological bias in analysis of foreign cinema. This
line was continued in the post-Soviet years, no longer in the Myths and Reality, but on the pages of
scientific journals Film Criticism Notes and Cinema Art, in the film encyclopedia devoted to the
western screen, in numerous monographs, the authors of which have become and authors of Myths
and Reality.
Keywords: film criticism, USSR, USA, France, Italy, cinema, movie, cold war.
1. Introduction
Status of Soviet critics who wrote about the western movies
Film criticism was prestigious job in the USSR. At that time there was no Internet and critic
can be published only on paper. And this was due to: 1) a professional status of the author (in this
case it had to be, as a rule, a graduate film critic, art historian, journalist, or have higher education
in the humanitarian field); 2) with a rigid selection and censorship of texts and themes.
But if even all journalists (including from regional newspapers) could write (and willingly
wrote) about the western movies on the Soviet screen, only the selected Russian film critics could
write about western films not purchased for the Soviet film distribution. Here criteria are much
stricter because before the era of video (i.e., almost to 1980) only very few Soviet film critics could
watch USA or French films not purchased for the Soviet film distribution, for example, at foreign
film festivals. And these were those few Soviet film critics who belonged to a particular elite caste:
75
government film officials, as a rule, members of the Communist Party, "morally and ideologically
stable persons."
From this point of view is very significant architectural structure of Soviet film critics, for
nearly a quarter of a century (1966 to 1989) to publish their articles in the special subject books’
collection about western movie called Myths and Realities (11 issues: 1966; 1971; 1972; 1974; 1976;
1978; 1981; 1983; 1985; 1988; 1989).

The main materials were: the books, articles of Russian film critics about Western cinema.
The methods of theoretical research: classification, comparison, analogy, induction and deduction,
abstraction and concretization, theoretical analysis and synthesis; methods of empirical research:
collecting information related to the research subjects.
The effectiveness of such methods has been proven as the Western (R. Taylor,
D. Youngblood, A. Lawton et al.), and Russian (N. Zorkaya, A. Kolesnikova, M. Turovskaya)
researchers. I used also the method of hermeneutic analysis of the cultural context of media texts
(Eco, 1976; Silverblatt, 2001).
3. Discussion
‘Myths and Reality’: Issue 1 (1966, put in a set in October 1965)
The first issue of Myths and Reality collection has been put in a set in October 1965 (already
in power times of L. Brezhnev). The appearance of this collection seems to have been the result of
not only the regular sharpening confrontation between the USSR and the West (the Cuban missile
crisis, the Vietnam War), and the current regulations of the Communist Party Central Committee
"On measures to improve the management of the development of artistic cinema" (July 1962) and
"Immediate Tasks of party's ideological work" (June 1963). It was clearly stated that "the party will
continue to wage an uncompromising struggle against any ideological vacillation, preaching
peaceful coexistence of ideologies, anti-formalist trickery, dullness and craftsmanship in art, for the
Party and the People's Soviet art - the art of socialist realism" (Immediate..., 1963).
Table 1. Main political events in the world (1961-1965 years), important for the development of
relations between the USSR and the West, including cinema
1961 USSR sent a note of protest related to the anti-Castro landing in Cuba: April, 8.
USSR successfully launched the world's first spacecraft with a man on board: April,
12.
The construction of the Berlin Wall, August, 13.
XXII Congress of the Soviet Communist Party: October, 17-31.
1962 Resolution of the Communist Party Central Committee "On measures to improve
the management of the development of artistic cinema": July, 19.
Cuban Missile Crisis ended with evacuation of Soviet missiles from Cuba in
exchange for a US promise to abandon its occupation: Oct.-Nov.
1963 Treaty between the USSR and the USA on the establishment of a "hot" telephone
line between Moscow and Washington: June, 20.
Resolution of the Plenum of the Communist Party Central Committee "Immediate
Tasks in Party's ideological work": June.
USSR temporarily (1963-1968) weakened jamming broadcasts Voice of America,
BBC and Deutsche Welle in Russia.
The murder of US President John F. Kennedy in Dallas: November, 24.
1964 US entry into the war in Vietnam: August, 2.
N. Khrushchev lost of power at the plenum of the Communist Party Central
Committee. L. Brezhnev elected (on the same plenum) the first secretary of the
Soviet Communist Party: October, 14.
1965 Soviet Union in the framework of a confrontation with the United States put North
Vietnam Missiles: April, 5.
76
The first issue of Myths and Reality was a response to the appeals of the Communist Party
for "uncompromising fight against any ideological vacillation, preaching peaceful coexistence of
ideologies" and "corrupting influence of the bourgeois cinema". The article by the then first deputy
chairman of USSR State Committee for Cinematography V. Baskakov had the eloquent title "Battle
of ideas". The text of this article gives many quotations from the works of Western film critics and
directors, but without reference to the source. And further (already without any quotes) he quite
radically stated that "bourgeois theorists put equal signs between cowardice and heroism, between
truth and falsehood, between revolutionary activity and philistinism, between nobility and
baseness. No one can prove the absoluteness of moral criteria: everything is relative, everything is
conditional, all unstable and shaky, they claim, denying, in essence, humanism art. Many films are
made in accordance with the views of these theorists. ... We can see an interesting cinematic
solutions, achieve virtuosity in the shooting, the depth and subtlety of acting performance. But the
search itself, the purpose of it, the true content of the film is very far from the serious social and
purely human problems that exist in everyday life, in reality. ... It's a shame that the great potential
of artists aimed primarily at autopsy and investigation of the strange particulars of human
anomalies and psychological abysses, not social and moral conflicts of the society in which the
characters live. ... That's the idea of running these movies: "Every evil brings a new evil, and in vain
to deal with it." "Human nature is flawed, is low-lying and is incurable." "Progress and civilization
bring people only suffering. Any public act of senseless" (Baskakov, 1966: 17-18).
Accused Western cinema on the "theoretical level", V. Baskakov have tried to confirm the
analysis of his reflections on examples of movies such masters as M. Antonioni, I. Bergman,
J.-L. Godard, C. Chabrol, A. Varda. And here he has not stinted on the critical charge: "Antonioni
fails to understand phenomena and social contradictions of life, which he is likely to see.
Fragmentation of vital relationships, rigorous analysis and gravitas in the depiction of small,
minor, and maintenance of an important, significant: that is, perhaps, more characteristic for the
entire work of this talented director" (Baskakov, 1966: 21). "Carefully, with cruel naturalistic
pressure Bergman depicts sex scenes, and seeking to link with the overall mood of the film:
everything is bad in this life, all the ugly, and above all the ugly and disgusting man himself, his
nature. Bergman uses the whole arsenal of graphic tools of cinema, which he owns, for purposes
not great. To illustrate the idea of leading the modern decadence of baseness, vulgarity and
insignificance of human nature, this is hardly needed such a thin and highly professional
agents"(Baskakov, 1966: 25).
Reserved praised Umbrellas of Cherbourg by Jacques Demy, Married Life by André Cayatte,
Tom Jones by Tony Richardson, Room at the Top by Jack Clayton, films of Stanley Kramer
(Baskakov, 1966: 9-11, 29), Baskakov found the Western countries, where it was possible to detect
not only the bourgeois but also a progressive movie: "The progressive Italian art still lives and
develops, although some of the artists who put movies about Italian people living in the
surroundings of the boycott of progressive art in an atmosphere of hype about "economic miracle"
has moved to the rails of bourgeois cinematography (with its pseudo-historical movies, dramas and
contemporary sex films). The most fundamental artists associated with the life and struggle of the
people, continue to strengthen the tradition of realistic cinema. Best picture "old men": Zavatinni
and De Sica, Visconti and De Santis, Castellani and Rossellini, Germi and Comencini; young
directors: Rosi and Loy are vivid evidence. ... And if the pictures of decadent directors raised by
bourgeois criticism on a pedestal as the prophets and new roads in art, permeates the thought of
the futility of any action, any manifestation of activity, the futility of the struggle for the happiness
of man, the beating pulse of life in the films of progressive directors and in some cases, the pulse of
the struggle for a better future of man and society" (Baskakov, 1966: 5-6).
This reliance on the "progressive cinema in Italy" let V. Baskakov do quite standard for the
Soviet press of that time concluded that "the development of world cinema still more clearly
confirms the decisive role for the prospects for its art of socialist as well as art of the artists of the
capitalist countries, who cast their lot with the most advanced ideas of the century, involved in the
struggle for social transformation of the world, believe in the person who let another do not always
consistently and consciously, but claim the ideals of peace and humanity and denounce the
morality of a society based on oppression and suppression of human" (Baskakov, 1966: 31).
Being on the Soviet cinema’s top leadership, V. Baskakov, undeniably brilliant oriented in the
ideological conjuncture of time. His article can probably be regarded as a reference for
77
understanding the official Soviet cinema studies, facing the material foreign cinema: 1) sharp
criticism of "bourgeois tendencies and perversions", 2) sympathetic support "progressive western
filmmakers," that is, those in whose work can be it was observed that the criticism of bourgeois
society, which does not contain at the same time anti-Soviet, naturalism, sex and "formalist
trickery."
In a similar vein, an article written of the Secretary of the Board of the Soviet Union of
Cinematographers A. Karaganov, who condemning western movies with scenes of violence and sex
(Karaganov, 1966: 32-33), criticizing the complexity of shapes and pessimism Last year at
Marienbad by Alain Robbe-Grillet and Alain Resnais (Karaganov, 1966: 46-47), supporting Italian
Neorealism (Karaganov, 1966: 49) and Stanley Kramer movies On the Beach and Judgment at
Nuremberg (Karaganov, 1966: 70-72).
Here are concrete examples of the ideological position of A. Karaganov: "In contrast to the
neo-realists Antonioni withdraws person from the historical flow of the real social environment.
Movies of Antonioni (Scream, Adventure, Night, Eclipse) made expertly, this is the product of a
strong and soulful talent. But their life is narrowed to study the content of the soul from the
disunion of human society. Fellini ... is more social in Dolce Vita and Nights of Cabiria”
(Karaganov, 1966: 50, 60).
A similar opinion is held the other author of the first issue of Myths and Reality -
philosopher E. Weizman (1918-1977). Accusing bourgeois cinema in repelling harmful ideas of
existentialism, Freudianism and surrealism, he argued that "the myth of the miserable human
nature obscured reality" (Weitzman, 1966: 88).
A recognized expert in the field of French cinema A. Braginsky very strongly presented to
Soviet readers the results of the French "new wave" cinema, exposing a particularly severe criticism
movies of J.-L. Godard and C. Chabrol. So, in the paragraph dedicated to Cousins, stated that
"ambiguity, inaccuracy of the author's position, manifested in this Chabrol’s film" is general
characteristic of the directors of "new wave" (Braginsky, 1966: 129) and "sadism and cruelty which
allegedly wants to condemn Chabrol, the truth of life, which he allegedly looking through subjects
of his movies, it turns against Chabrol. ... Chabrol’s "true" private observation becomes a lie due to
lack of a clear attitude towards life. The pseudo-philosophers and anarchic attitude replaced the
credibility of the individual parts and the initial position"(Braginsky, 1966: 130).
Since thousands of Soviet readers of the book Myths and Reality, as a rule, had no chance to
see the movies of "new wave", many of them were probably quite easy to convince that "characters
of Godard’s film are only obedient puppets in the hands of its creator. They are infected with the
same nihilism and anarchism, as their creator, and “new wave” is in a severe ideological crisis
network" (Braginsky, 1966: 131, 133)
R. Sobolev wrote about the fashionable in the West cinéma vérité movement more critical.
Based on the analysis of the films "fascist and cynic Gualtiero Jacopetti", he argued that it was
cinéma vérité is a mask for liars, as a sort of sabotage against realism under the guise of
realism"(Sobolev, 1966: 143).
Against the backdrop of all these revelations and accusations of bourgeois cinema article of
V. Nedelin entirely dedicated to the analysis of "complex and contradictory" Fellini 8 ½ looked
serious and contrast (Nedelin, 1966: 205-226).
In the era of socialism, there are not only approved the scheme of ideological approaches to
Western cinema as a whole, but also to write finals relevant books and articles. The degree of
ideological accusations of Western film production can be arbitrarily high, but the ending was sure
to contain at least a paragraph optimistic pathos reminds the reader of the "progressive trends in
world cinema": "Hopefully, the democratic traditions of the French cinematography will prevail,
and we will see films in which the young masters of French cinema truly reflect the lives, hopes,
anxieties, dreams of the people" (Braginsky, 1966: 133). "A progressive cinema bourgeois has a
vivid example of service to high humanistic ideals, the realistic traditions and needs of our time"
(Parsadanov, 1966: 124).
‘Myths and Reality’: Issue 2 (1971, put in a set in September 1970)
Between the output of the first and second editions of Myths and Reality collection took five
long years. During this time many important political events have been in the world (the war in
78
Vietnam and the Middle East, May Revolution in France, the suppression of the "Prague Spring",
the landing Americans on the moon and so forth.).
Table 2. Key political events in the world of 1966-1970, important for the development of relations
between the USSR and the West. Events in the USSR, which had relevance to the cinema
1966 France's withdrawal from NATO's military organization: February, 21.

XXIII Congress of the Soviet Communist Party: March, 29 – April, 8.
French President Charles de Gaulle's visit to the USSR: June, 20 - July, 1.
Start of the "cultural revolution" (1966-1976) in China: August, 8.
1967 War in the Middle East, the Soviet Union break diplomatic relations with Israel: July, 5-10.
Soviet Communist Party Central Committee Resolution "On measures for further
development of the social sciences and enhance their role in the building of communism":
August, 14.
1968 Mass unrest in France (the reason: the dismissal of the director of the Paris
Cinematheque): May.
Renewed Soviet jamming broadcasts Voice of America and other Western radio stations in
USSR: August, 20.
Begin of the Soviet invasion in Czechoslovakia, August, 21.
1969 Resolution of the Soviet Communist Party Central Committee "On increasing the
repertoire": January, 7.
The armed conflict between the Soviet Union and China on the Sino-Soviet border: March.
The landing of American astronauts on the moon: July, 20.
Start of the Soviet-American talks on limiting strategic nuclear weapons: November, 17.
1970 Solemnly-pathetic celebration of the 100th anniversary of the birth of V. Lenin, April, 22.
The signing of the Treaties of the USSR and Germany, Germany and Poland on the
recognition of post-war borders in Europe, August.
Distribution of the Vietnam War on the territory of Cambodia.
Dissident A. Solzhenitsyn was awarding of the Nobel Prize for Literature.
As for the movie, here a significant impact on the development of Soviet critics had a Soviet
Communist Party Central Committee Resolution "On measures for further development of the
social sciences and enhance their role in the building of communism" (1967, August, 14).
However, I believe that Czechoslovakia’s events of 1968-1969 were the most serious impacts
on the situation in the cinema and film studies in the Soviet Union. The attempt of democratization
of social life, the abolition of censorship taken by the Czechoslovak leadership in 1968,
representing a serious danger to the ideological foundations of the Soviet Union and established
strict canons of "socialist realism", in particular.
Of course, the introduction of Soviet troops (or rather, the Warsaw Pact troops) on the
territory of Czechoslovakia and its subsequent "Brezhnevization" socialism seems to be stabilized
in this small country. However, the ideological leadership of the USSR was well aware that "Prague
Spring" is a kind of "thaw", passed in this spring, which with great difficulty managed to freeze.
That is why the events of the "Prague Spring" brought an end to the flow of thaw in the USSR: the
censorship has become even more severe, and the fight against "bourgeois ideology" has become
even more intensively.
Resolution of the Soviet Communist Party Central Committee (1969, January, 7)
"On increasing the responsibility of the heads of the press, radio and television, film, culture and
art institutions for the ideological and political level of the published materials and repertoire" was
another step of censorship. If figuratively keep this resolution in one sentence, you get something
like this: "Now none of the bourgeois mouse does not slip past the implacable Soviet censorship."
A movie where "embellished orders in the modern capitalist world, idealized capitalist way of life
preached by the bourgeois idea of class peace" (Resolution..., 1969) have been entirely banned in
the Soviet Union. Interestingly enough, this embellishment was not just the direct promotion of the
79
"bourgeois lifestyle", but any artistic liberties, including experiments with cinematic form (see
more info: Fedorov, 2012), nudity or coarse mot. The Resolution wrote also about the activities of
"wrong" Soviet artists who "depart from the class criteria in assessing and highlighting the complex
social and political problems, facts and events, and sometimes become carriers of the views that are
alien to the ideology of socialist society" (Resolution..., 1969). The Resolution says that it is
necessary "more acute, with the class and party positions to oppose all manifestations of bourgeois
ideology to actively and efficiently promote communist ideals, the advantages of socialism, the
Soviet way of life, deeply analyze and expose the different kind of petty and revisionist currents."
(Resolution..., 1969).
So, the ideological leaders of Soviet cinema decided that the second issue of Myths and
reality must have more harsh criticism of the bourgeois cinema, and the active support of the
foreign progressive films must be in opposition.
The article of V. Baskakov in this case can be considered as the answer for the Resolution.
He argued that "true art does not compromise with decadence, does not avoid direct and clear
judgments about the phenomena of reality, does not go away from the problems of its people living
in the mystical world of signs, premonitions and associations. ... And if the picture directors-
decadents raised by bourgeois criticism on the podium as models and examples of "innovation",
filled with doubts in favor of any action, any manifestation of activity and preach the futility of the
struggle for the happiness of man, the beating pulse of life in the films of progressive directors and in
some cases, the pulse of the struggle for a better future of man and society" (Baskakov, 1971: 9-10).
And V. Baskakov gave the examples of "socially clear positions" in the western movies: social
drama Battle of Algiers by G. Pontecorvo and Sitting Right by V. Dzurlini (Baskakov, 1971: 29-31).
However, despite the support of a progressive cinema (i.e, close to the Socialist Realism), the
main content of the article was, of course, passages criticizing the bourgeois cinema. First,
V. Baskakov sincerely regretted that "the whole picture of European Screen has transformed in
recent years. Films, which put the real social problems, it becomes smaller. But there were an
abundance of pseudo-realistic movies: they present the appearance of life surroundings, ... but
authentic truth is not in these films" (Baskakov, 1971: 6).
Then film critic gave more specific examples, and even the theoretical generalizations.
Thus he rightly pointed out that "the on-screen world occurred a phenomenon that can be
simplistically called diffusion: the interpenetration of different stylistic techniques, thematic and
ideological and philosophical currents. Diffusion phenomenon takes many different shades:
modernist techniques of cinema penetrate the style of entertainment, the so-called commercial
cinema" (Baskakov, 1971: 17-18).
But then he unleashes his anger on the western masters of the first row, accusing them of
compromises for the sake of the needs and interests of the bourgeois public (Baskakov, 1971: 18).
The analysis of L. Buñuel, P.-P. Pasolini, F. Fellini, M. Antonioni films was the illustration for this
thesis (Baskakov, 1971: 18-28).
V. Baskakov sought to convince readers that "capitalism rots, the whole system is built on lies
and oppression, and the artist, with his microscope, the lens of which fall into a stirring ciliates, it
seems that mankind is rotting" (Baskakov, 1971: 16).
As always V. Baskakov strongly criticized J.-L. Godard, one of the most politicized Western
directors of those years: "In a society that draws Godard, no classes, no social contradictions. There
is a mad world, consisting of patients, distraught individuals. ... This is impressive picture of
deformities, abnormalities bourgeois world, but Godard as crazy gunner, shooting in all directions,
without looking into the essence of phenomena that affect his bullet" (Baskakov, 1971: 12-13).
Of course, many Western authors were accused in "ideological sabotage": "Unique
phenomenon of cinema politicization can be observed along with the boom of sex... It is true that
many of these films are made from the standpoint of the bourgeois. ... Many of the so-called
"political" films contain direct or indirect criticism of socialism from the "right" and sometimes
from the "left" (Baskakov, 1971: 8). For official Soviet film criticism the communist foundations is
the worst in the Western political cinema (for example, Confessions by Costa-Gavras).
G. Kapralov accused M. Antonioni, R. Bresson, M. Bellocchio and S. Samperi in the absence
of social analysis: Blow Up "Antonioni consistently asocial. But precisely because of its asocial it
turns into an image of a certain universal absurdity of human existence in general, reflected a
certain mystification of a comprehensive law on which supposedly lives a modern world"
80
(Kapralov, 1971: 44). G. Kapralov accused of ambiguity and the loss of the social significance of the
drama Fists in the Pocket by M. Bellocchio and Thank You, Aunt by S. Samperi (Kapralov, 1971: 51-
56), and further noted with regret of I. Bergman "complexity of the construction of Persona,
deliberate obscurity, encoding its language" (Kapralov, 1971: 68).
G. Kapralov arguing, without any citation of primary sources, that "the invasion of
schizophrenic characters has a consequence of the objective conditions of life of the modern
bourgeois world, where, according to medical statistics, almost every second or third suffers from a
serious mental disorder" (Kapralov, 1971: 55).
Another well-known Soviet film critic – G. Bohemsky wrote more rigid definitions about
many Italian movies: sadism and pathology (Bohemsky, 1971: 87-90). And therefore "the urgent
task of Marxist criticism is to repulse this wave of Italian screen: pathological cruelty, sadism,
penetration of commercial cinema in the "ideology" (Bohemsky, 1971: 91).
Of course, along the way G. Bohemsky did not forget to praise the "progressive Italian
cinema", for example, Battle of Algiers by G. Pontecorvo Sitting Right by V. Dzurlini and Martyrs
of the Earth by V. Orsini (Bohemsky, 1971: 82). However, the main thesis of his article was the
statement that "the most obvious new trends in Italian cinema are polarization: striking a sharp
division in the frankly commercial, primitive and thoughtless film production, designed for the
most undemanding audience, and on the other hand - the so-called "biased" or "recruited", cinema,
i.e. films that serve certain ideas that carry a certain charge and now have a predominantly political
overtones" (Bohemsky, 1971: 71).
After articles of film critics generals the book Myths and Reality gave the place for the article
of another film critic (and co-author of M. Turovskaya and M. Romm in the documentary script
"Ordinary Fascism") Y. Khanutin (1929-1978). Responding to V. Baskakov and G. Kapralov,
Y. Khanutin boldly expressed his opinion about the "asocial Swedish cinema": "Yes, it records more
often than analyze, yes, its artists just do not see the positive social decision-making, as well as
their characters; a criticism limited in scope, does not rise to the radical revolutionary conclusions.
But this criticism, this revelation is the truth" (Khanutin, 1971: 149).
The article of film critic V. Turitsyn also was without Soviet ideological stereotypes. This is
very positively analysis of the works of British director T. Richardson (Turitsyn, 1971: 175-198).
But really very stranger in this book (as a kingdom of "celebration of the ideological
struggle") was the text of I. Janushevskaya and V. Demin called "Formula adventure"
(Janushevskaya, Demin, 1971: 199-228), mainly devoted to French actor Alain Delon. This was
brilliantly written article which is palpable vivid imagery style of one of the most prominent soviet
film critic Victor Demin (1937-1993). No words about “Resolutions” and “Ideology”... That is why
there is nothing surprising in the fact that this Demin’s publication was only one in the all 11 issues
of Myths and Reality...
‘Myths and Reality’: Issue 3 (1972, put in a set in February 1972)
The third issue was released about a year after the second. However, during that time, there
were two important events for the Soviet Union in the political life: the XXIV Congress of the Soviet
Communist Party and the Resolution of the Soviet Communist Party Central Committee
"On Literary Criticism", directly related to the film criticism.
Table 3. The main political events of 1971-1972 years in the world that are important for the
development of relations between the USSR and the West. Events in the USSR, which had
relevance to the cinema
1971 105 Soviet diplomats accused of spying in United Kingdom.

XXIV Congress of the Soviet Communist Party March, 30 – April, 9.
1972 Resolution of the Soviet Communist Party Central Committee "On Literary Criticism":
January, 21.
The Resolution of the Soviet Communist Party Central Committee "On Literary Criticism"
(1972) stated that "the level of the criticism is not fully meets the requirements, which are
81
determined by the increasing role of artistic culture in communist construction. ... Criticism debt it
is depth analysis of the phenomenon, trends and patterns of contemporary art process in every
possible way promote the strengthening of Leninist principles of nationality and party
membership, to fight for the highest ideological and art levels of Soviet art, consistently oppose
bourgeois ideologies" (Resolution ..., 1972).
Even the appearance of such Resolution indirectly talked about the fact that the effects of
previous Resolutions of the Soviet Communist Party Central Committee, relating to culture and
ideology, were not recognized by the authorities fully effective. It took more time to indicate the
professional critics (including film critics), they are still not sufficiently follow the "party line"
strictly criticized inadequate cinema "decadent West."
Well, the Communist party said: "You must!" And Soviet film criticism official leaders said:
"Yes, We will do!" Most texts of the third issue of Myths and Reality were about the ideological
struggles with Western cinema. No texts V. Demin and Y. Khanutin in the book. The main authors
were the film critics, proven in the ideological battles.
A. Karaganov claimed with directness of ideological front soldier that "now there literature and
press is not a single policy, a single front of the ideological struggle: American bourgeois cinema
directly serving the foreign policy and the US propaganda department. ... Hollywood is working on a
well-defined theses of anti-Soviet propaganda: President by Lee Thompson, Topaz by A. Hitchcock,
The Kremlin Letter by J. Huston. The "characteristic of modern art of the American bourgeoisie is
commercially fair and salon-use entertainment cruelty motives" (Karaganov, 1972: 6-7, 15).
A. Karaganov made it clear that not everything is so simple even authorized to the Moscow
Film Festival fiction movie 2001: A Space Odyssey: "Kubrick created a work fancifully combines
features of Hollywood commercial thriller and philosophical works, in which the criticism of
bourgeois reality becomes decadent character" (Karaganov, 1972: 21). In my opinion, this
Karaganov’s phrase gave a clear answer to the puzzled questions of some naive viewers do not
understand why the film adaptation of the novel of A. Clarke never reached the Soviet screens...
However, A. Karaganov did not forget to praise the "progressive realistic films": They Shoot
Horses, Don’t They? by S. Pollack and The Liberation of L.B. Jones by W. Wyler (Karaganov, 1972: 7).
A. Karaganov went from the American movie to the French cinema. First, according to the
established in the Soviet elite film studies tradition, he sharply reminded that "schismatic position,
throwing Godard from one position to another, the substitution of revolutionary consciousness
conglomerate anarchist, Maoist and Trotskyist ideas lead to the devaluation of the opposition to
the bourgeois system, which proclaims Godard, to the emasculation of the revolutionary arguments
about "proletarian cinema" (Karaganov, 1972: 25). And then Karaganov moved on to a much more
dangerous trend of open and consistent anti-communism, which became the core of the famous
film Confession (1970) by Costa Gavras, because it "helps bourgeois slander communism. It should
be added that Yves Montand and Simone Signoret play the main role in the Confession. But they
recently come to the Moscow film festivals with words of friendship and love for the Soviet Union,
and now carefully trampling their past statements" (Karaganov, 1972: 30).
Moreover, when Moscow publishing house "Rainbow" released in 1984 a translation of the
book French Cinema. Fifth Republic (1958-1978) by J.-P. Jancolas, which contained an impressive
volume of the filmography of famous French film directors (1950s - 1970s), the names of Yves
Montand and Simone Signoret were simply blacked out of the lists of films, where they played (as a
rule, the main roles). It is clear that the Confession was not in the filmography also.
A. Karaganov made far-reaching conclusions that the "bourgeois propaganda in every way
diminishes the accomplishments and inflates shortcomings in practical builders of socialism: the
tends are to deprive the workers of hope and faith, to make their growing disillusionment with the
bourgeois lifestyle disappointing total, turn it into a disbelief in the position drooping hands"
(Karaganov, 1972: 29). And the "sexual revolution" of the bourgeoisie is the result of their aspirations
and attempts to "underclass" the consciousness of the working people, to devalue human"
(Karaganov, 1972: 27), the "mass culture in the hands of bourgeois often, very often turns out to be a
dangerous and dark force. It shapes man model bourgeois philistine: it makes being spiritless,
obedient slave of capital" (Karaganov, 1972: 4).
V. Baskakov wrote: "The silver screen has opposing forces and trends. The best films of the
socialist countries, marked a vital truth, a high and effective humanism, product of progressive artists
of the capitalist West, scourging capitalism ugliness and full of sympathy for the working people,
82
their needs, and aspirations of the young cinematography of developing countries confront a wide
and muddy stream of poison bourgeois film production... With regard to the Western
cinematography would be more correct to speak not of "commercial" and "non-commercial" cinema,
but about the different types of the same bourgeois cinematography" (Baskakov, 1972: 75, 81).
As A. Karaganov, V. Baskakov devoted several paragraphs of his article to the anti-Soviet
subject, arguing that the "anti-Soviet films produced more than before. ... It should be noted here
that influential directors and actors of the bourgeois cinema trapped in the anti-Soviet orbit, ... the
films with reactionary, anti-communist content" (Baskakov, 1972: 76-77).
Next V. Baskakov in his typical manner wrote that "the departure of many artists of the
bourgeois world of the urgent problems of public life, the subordination of the political and
commercial interests of the propertied classes have not been to the Western Film Arts in vain:
Western cinema began to turn away from the mass audience" (Baskakov, 1972: 78).
And here the desired explicitly passed for real: the causes of falling box-office in the West in
1970s, of course, were different: not "waste of many artists of the bourgeois world from the
pressing social problems of life" and their commercialization, but the rapid development of multi-
channel color television and the entertainment industry generally have reduced cinema attendance.
A high films’ box-office in the USSR in 1960s – 1970s was caused by precisely the relative
underdevelopment of both entertainment, and television (the maximum number of Soviet
television channels in 1970s was three, and Western films were shown there extremely rare).
And that shortage of fun directs the flow of Soviet viewers in cinemas. As soon as the second half of
the 1980s, video has come to the USSR, and expanded opportunities for recreation, cinema
attendance began to fall...
V. Baskakov turned to his usual business: he accused eminent foreign cinema masters
(Fellini, Pasolini, Bergman, etc.) of "biologism" and detachment from social problems: "Seeing in
the surrounding life moral ugliness, vulgarity, hypocrisy, senseless cruelty, but without being able
to see the social roots of all evil, they begin to ascribe to vices inherent in bourgeois society, the
biological nature of man, thus declaring them unavoidable, eternal. ... Of course, Bergman's work
reflects some real processes occurring in the modern bourgeois world. But his cinematic gaze
turned to the man of estrangement, break away from the world in which he lives. Vicious,
unconscious, strange becomes the main and for this director with a great artistic potentialities.
A similar fate befell many other figures of the western movie, began his artistic life with severe,
progressive films, but found themselves captive to bourgeois ideas" (Baskakov, 1972: 82, 84).
V. Baskakov was unhappy with the interpretation of anti-Nazi themes proposed in the films
The Damned by L. Visconti and The Conformist by B. Bertolucci as "brutality and arbitrariness of
Nazi leaders, or submission to the ordinary person of the state machine are supplied in terms of
research subconscious complexes, overwhelmed by individuals belonging to a particular situation.
It is often a pretext for actions and deeds (murder, betrayal, blackmail) are traumatized,
homosexuality, schizophrenia, masochism. There is a substitution of concepts and objects. There is
a consistent care from attempts to stigmatize Fascism past and present as a degradation product of
the capitalist system" (Baskakov, 1972: 88).
Yes, Western filmmakers used the "personal and physiological factors" in social and political
processes, and as a rule, the official Soviet cinema critics considered it a negative factor. Although,
again, not always. For example, the sarcastic Italian detective Investigation of a Citizen Above
Suspicion not only received a positive assessment from V. Baskakov, but also came out (albeit in a
cropped version) on the Soviet screens. Although, if desired, Investigation... could be accused of
"substitution of concepts", as the main hero of the film inherent in schizophrenia, and masochism,
and "sexual licentiousness".
The line between permissible and impermissible was with nuances in the Soviet screens.
For example (particularly in relation to the Italian filmmakers) Soviet censorship considered the
authors' affiliation with the Communist Party, their attitude toward the Soviet Union, critical
thinking about the state system of Western countries, etc. Thus, the lead actor in the movie
Investigation of a Citizen Above Suspicion Volonte was a member of the Communist Party of Italy,
he had anti-bourgeois attitudes, etc. And Soviet censorship encouraged many of his films for
distribution on Soviet screens.
Praising the "progressive works by Italian filmmakers" (Investigation of a Citizen Above
Suspicion, Metello, People Against) V. Baskakov in search of "progress" appealed to the American
83
cinema, noting that "the movie Arthur Penn (The Chase, Bonnie and Clyde) and John Schlesinger
(Midnight Cowboy) not very deep, but still quite clearly reflected the crisis of the social system that
spawned the cult of violence, mass crime, militant racism, arbitrariness of the authorities and the
indifference of the inhabitants" (Baskakov, 1972: 92-93, 95).
In the end of his article V. Baskakov came to triumphantly optimistic conclusions, worthy to
be a part of any Resolution of the Communist Party Central Committee: "The crisis, which is going
through western cinema is ultimately a crisis of bourgeois ideology, evidence of its bankruptcy,
failure to nurture the development of a genuine, realistic art, the art great truth of life. ... Class
battles are in all continents. All the more clearly reveals the historical doom of capitalism with its
inevitable companions: the exploitation of workers, national oppression, wars of conquest. Every
people can see the clear perspective of the social and spiritual renewal of the world, which will
bring a victory of communism" (Baskakov, 1972: 102, 108).
The article of G. Kapralov was concentrated around "progressive tendencies" of the Western
screen. He sincerely praised films Sacco and Vanzetti and God with Us by G. Montaldo, Keymada
by G. Pontecorvo (1919-2006), People Against by F. Rosie (1922-2015), Recognition of police
Commissioner to the prosecutor of the republic by D. Damiani (1922-2013), Investigation of a
Citizen Above Suspicion by E. Petri (1929-1982), Joe Hill by B. Widerberg, Bless the Beasts &
Children by S. Kramer (1913-2001), Little Big Man by A. Penn (1922-2010) (Kapralov, 1972: 174-
200): "If not all the films, which were discussed above, can be attributed to the elements of socialist
culture, they are all, of course, are the elements of a democratic culture" (Kapralov, 1972: 201).
The final of Kapralov’s article was no less pathetic than that Baskakov’s conclusion:
"In recent years, the progressive democratic cinema from capitalist countries intensified, gained
new strength, expanded its front, resolutely denounces dilapidated bourgeois myths and everything
closer to the truth that in this age: all roads lead to communism" (Kapralov, 1972: 201).
Yes, A. Karaganov, V. Baskakov and G. Kapralov were masters of ideological fight! Their
articles were perhaps the best practical implementations of the urgent recommendations of the
Resolution of the Soviet Communist Party Central Committee "On Literary Criticism".
That is why the article of E. Gromov (1931-2005) seems to be less ideological. On the one
hand, he wrote that "the Western screens leads and dominates the cinema of mass culture, the
upper floors which fill pseudo philosophical speculative movies. The aesthetics of these films has a
corrupting effect on both mind wide audience, and, alas, bourgeois cinema crisis continues
unabated on the work of other great artists" (Gromov, 1972: 74). "Godard’s characters can talk on
any topic, to listen to all sorts of philosophical speech, but in reality they are interested in the life of
one thing: at the maximum or minimum comfort sex with a pathology or not. Religious, Marxist,
Maoist, Gaullist ideas are just phantoms allusions for Godard" (Gromov, 1972: 37).
But on the other hand, "even audience, the highly educated, intelligent, but brought up in the
spirit of classical art traditions, has difficulties for deeply understand the aesthetics of Antonioni
because of his inner secret, the mediation complex philosophical categories and concepts"
(Gromov, 1972: 46). "Zabriskie Point is a fundamental phenomenon in the work of Michelangelo
Antonioni. This film has a sharp social character; in their aesthetics he focused not on a narrow
elite, but the masses audience: the language of on-screen images of Antonioni has now become
more clear, simple and accessible… Along with Satyricon by F. Fellini, Zabriskie Point is the
biggest film internally significant for Western cinematography late 1960's - early 1970’s" (Gromov,
1972: 52).
On the one hand, E. Gromov habitually claimed that "Hitchcock, as well as other authors
pseudo psychoanalytic films, simplifies and vulgarized Freud" (Gromov, 1972: 62), and "Tarzan
movies, Fantômas, even James Bond, are drug although strong action" (Gromov, 1972: 63).
But on the other hand, he soundly reminded that "we have often written about the cult of
violence, which is preached bourgeois cinema, primarily American. This cult is evident. However, it
is not always expressed in roughly a straight line. Moreover, practically difficult, if not impossible,
to name a relatively significant film, which openly called for burning, torture, kill. The directors do
not forget to punish the criminals and condemn their evil deeds, even in those gangster movies
where blood flows like a river and almost every frame shot or cut" (Gromov, 1972: 64).
The rest of the books’ articles "fought with a bad bourgeois ideology" with "local sections of
the front." G. Bohemsky, for example, thinking about the Italian commercial cinema, arguing that
"if we analyze the Italian cinema production for the past year or two, you see that the 90 % are just
84
pictures of mass consumption... Neorealism expelled the falsity, vulgarity, rhetoric, banal ready
samples and phrases from Italian cinema for some time, but in less than ten years, bourgeois
cinema took revenge on the screen" (Bohemsky, 1972: 108-111). G. Bohemsky sharply criticized the
erotic genre, the movies "about rogues and thugs" and "homegrown westerns". At the same time
readers receive a warning: "Italian Westerns are dangerous for the audience. ... because cruelty and
violence ... In addition to the inhumanity also obvious taint of racism and plenty of naturalistic
detail" (Bohemsky, 1972: 114-122).
O. Teneyshvili wrote about French cinema, unsubstantiated arguing that "sexuality and
pathology prevails in recent films Chabrol and Truffaut" (Teneyshvili, 1972: 146), and that Second
Wind by J.-P. Melville is "a magnificent example of excellence, aimed at the end just to satisfy the
most questionable instincts and tastes" (Teneyshvili, 1972: 151). O. Teneyshvili also scolded film
Rider on the Rain by R. Clément: "It is clear that this is a product not only free from bad
influences, but also deliberately inhumane or degrading" (Teneyshvili, 1972: 152).
Thus, instead of analyzing the flow of ordinary French commercial cinema, O. Teneyshvili
somehow chose the main target of his critical arrows the talented works of French screen classics...
J. Markulan (1920-1978) criticized another famous French film director - Claude Lelouch.
In the second half of 1960s C. Lelouch, director of melodrama Man and Woman, crowned Palme
d'Or at Cannes and Oscar, was known as the undisputed favorite of the Soviet audience and film
critics. But the Soviet press began to reconsider their attitude to Lelouch in 1970s. And J. Markulan
hurried to convince the Soviet readers that the Man and Woman "is not a work of art, but the
mechanism: a cunning, clever, well made up as an art form. This is a typical product of modern
bourgeois mass culture, with its extensive system of moral speculation, the ideological effects of
emotional stimulus. ... Creativity of Claude Lelouch, especially the on-screen trilogy, is a dangerous
phenomenon, because it contains not only the aesthetic demagoguery, but also simplified,
conformist view of life. It is an art reduced to the commerce" (Markulan, 1972: 218, 233).
Thank God, Claude Lelouch not able to read these angry lines...
Only V. Dmitriev (1940-2013) and V. Mikhalkovich (1937-2006) wrote their article on B.
Bardot early career without any heavy critical artillery (Dmitriev, Mikhalkovich 1972: 234-249).
The book, of course, included a very friendly articles about progressive cinema from
"developing countries": Africa (Chertok, 1972: 278-299), India (Sobolev, 1972: 300-324) and Latin
America (Melamed, 1972: 325-342)...
‘Myths and Reality’: Issue 4 (1974, put in a set in February 1973)
The next issue of Myths and Reality was published in 1974: during this time there was a
significant improvement in relations between the USSR and the United States, gave rise to the so-
called "discharge" that lasted until the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan, and the Resolutions of the
Soviet Communist Party Central Committee "On the Literary Criticism" (01.21.1972) and “On
measures for further development of Soviet cinema" (08.02.1972).
Communist Party once again reminds that "cinema is expected to actively contribute to the
formation in the broadest masses of the Marxist-Leninist ideology, the education of people in the
spirit of selfless dedication of our multinational socialist motherland, the Soviet patriotism and
socialist internationalism, the approval of the Communist moral principles, uncompromising
attitude to bourgeois ideology and morality, petty-bourgeois remnants, everything that hinders our
progress" (Resolution... On measures..., 1972).
Of course, the Soviet film studies was obliged to respond to these two Resolutions. And the
complete removal of images (frames from foreign films) from the books Myths and Reality № 4
(1974) and № 5 (1976) was the simplest and most intuitive reaction to them.
85
Table 4. Key political events 1972 in the world, important for the development of relations
between the USSR and the West. Events in the USSR, which had relevance to the cinema
1972 Resolution of the Soviet Communist Party Central Committee "On Literary Criticism":
January, 21.
US President R. Nixon's visit to the USSR. An agreement between the USSR and the
United States on the limitation of anti-missile defense and joint space program "Soyuz" -
"Apollo": May, 22-30.
development of Soviet cinema": August, 2.
The trade agreement between the USSR and the US: October, 18.
The fact that Soviet readers are no longer able to see not only "harmful" Western movies, but
even photos of them was (of course, from the point of view of increased censorship), is
commendable, but it was necessary to show also more "uncompromising attitude" to the bourgeois
screen. That is why (sincere or not) V. Baskakov decided to condemn Federico Fellini. According to
V. Baskakov, Fellini “deprives viewers of any hope for the possibility of any radical decisions"
(Baskakov, 1974: 113).
Further, he certainly kept for the "progressive balance" and gave the compliments to the films
Sacco and Vanzetti, Keymada, Recognition of police Commissioner to the prosecutor of the
republic (Baskakov, 1974: 115-118), since "these films are openly opposed not only commercial
cinema, mass bourgeois culture. They oppose decadence, for offering a very different conception of
man: the man is not a grain of sand in the whirl of life, not being possessed by a subconscious
complexes; man is social, it can and must fight for their future, for the future of
mankind"(Baskakov, 1974: 115).
And then followed the stereotypes V. Baskakov wrote the article’s final: "The facts say that
the progressive tendencies will inevitably strengthen the cinema world... and many talented artists
who are still looking for a way out of the spiritual the crisis finally freed from the captivity of the
reactionary bourgeois ideas... And in this new proof of the inexhaustible strength and energy
realism" (Baskakov, 1974: 118).
However, I would like to draw readers' attention that the pathos of this final was not so
bravura and super optimistic as in the book in 1972. In any case, "the prospect of social and
spiritual renewal of the world, which will bring him a victory of communism", apparently lost the
clarity for V. Baskakov, and he decided not to mention it...
But G. Kapralov was more ideologically strong (Kapralov, 1974: 188). Deeply confident that
"a truly progressive democratic filmmakers oppose anarchic, Gauchists and snobbery intellectual
modernism" (Kapralov, 1974: 206), Kapralov praised the political drama The Mattei Affair by
F. Rosie, however, adding that "the class nature of the activities of Mattei remains as it braces for
the film, and the fore its alleged common humanistic character" (Kapralov, 1974: 187).
But he obviously did not like bitingly satirical A Clockwork Orange by S. Kubrick. According
to the critic, "the author of this film exposes satirically modern bourgeois civilization, its manners,
morals, and at the same time leaning helplessly before her passing lunging against the whole of
humanity" (Kapralov, 1974: 200).
The article of E. Kartseva (1928-2002) also was in the concept of "ideological struggle":
"Many researchers wrote about mass culture as preaches complex ideological and moral values
inherent townsfolk... Workers, the poor, ethnic minorities and other "unpleasant" man of social
groups there is almost does not happen, and if they appear, in the roles of negative characters. ...
Mass culture also produces ideological and artistic stereotypes dulls spoils the taste, it eliminates
human experiences. All this taken together does not contribute to the development of bourgeois
society as the human personality" (Kartseva, 1974: 81, 99). However, E. Kartseva while rightly
emphasized that popular culture often serves as a guide not only to "low-brow art crafts, but
original works of art" (Kartseva, 1974: 72).
Another Soviet film critic of those years – V. Golovanov – also contributed to the fight against
"the corrupting influence of the West": "A massive invasion of pornography in the modern bourgeois
cinema is not accidental. Sex has become a social special effects tool” (Golovanov, 1974: 32).
86
G. Bohemsky, analyzing the political cinema of Italy, surprisingly entered into an explicit
discussion with V. Baskakov and G. Kapralov. He gave the positive opinion about "progressive films"
(Sacco and Vanzetti, Recognition of the Police Commissioner to the prosecutor of the Republic,
People Against, Investigation of a Citizen Above Suspicion), and praised Zabriskie Point by M.
Antonioni and even (!) The Conformist by B. Bertolucci (Bohemsky, 1974: 254-270).
G. Bohemsky analyzed a bright bouquet of Italian political films, and came to the brisk
conclusion that "new political films are evidence that luxuriantly overgrown weeds commercial
cinema could not drown out the germination of those seeds that were once thrown to the ground of
the Italian cinematography Neorealism ... In place of the passive character of neo-realist films, where
the rebel ... brooked quite natural defeat, gradually comes the active character linked with the
masses, more or less conscious fighter who wants to build a new, just society" (Bohemsky, 1974: 270).
Film critic S. Chertok (1931-2006) also wrote with great sympathy to all progressive French
films with a strong social issues and characters of working professions (Time to Live, Beau masque,
Elise, or Real Life).
Interesting, that R. Sobolev avoided the sharp ideological overrun. For example, he wrote
about D. Hoffmann that his screen image is "character of middle America", and this is perhaps the
most simple explanation for his acting successes" (Sobolev, 1974: 56). R. Sobolev wrote about Jane
Fonda: "I want to say only one thing: she became one of the greatest actresses of the American
Psychological movie after the film They Shoot Horses, Don’t They?" (Sobolev, 1974: 69). And about
Faye Dunaway: "She is the actress; perhaps one of the most outstanding actresses of the Hollywood
history" (Sobolev, 1974: 64).
Apparently, this article of R. Sobolev became evident official Soviet cinema criticism reaction
to "detente" between USA and USSR.
‘Myths and Reality’: Issue 5 (1976, put in set in December 1975)
The fifth book of Myths and Reality was released in 1976. The political "detente" between the
West and the Soviet Union is still going on. Moreover, in August 1975, the Soviet Union, along with
35 other countries, signed Helsinki Agreements. However, the ideological front has not been
canceled (this is evidenced, for example, Alexander Solzhenitsyn and Andrei Sakharov is widely
supported by West).
Table 5. Major political events in 1973 - 1975 years in the world that are important for the
1973 Armed revolt in Chile. Chilean President Salvador Allende was killed. General
A. Pinochet came to power in Chile: September.
The war in the Middle East: October.
Increase in world oil prices.
Paris edition house published the first volume of the anti-Soviet / anti-communist book
of A. Solzhenitsyn - The Gulag Archipelago: December.
1974 A. Solzhenitsyn expelled from the USSR: February, 13.
US President Richard Nixon's visit to the USSR. He signed an agreement on the
limitation of underground nuclear tests: July, 3.
The impeachment of US president Richard Nixon: August, 8.
The visit of new US President Ford in the USSR: November, 23-24.
1975 USSR renounced trade agreement with the United States in protest against the
statements of the American Congress about Jewish emigration: January, 15.
The end of the Vietnam War: April, 30.
USSR, together with 35 countries signed the Helsinki Final Act of the Conference on
Security and Cooperation in Europe: August, 1.
USSR again stop jamming Western radio stations (except for Radio Liberty): this is a
result of the signing of the Helsinki Final Act.
The joint Soviet-American space flight: July.
Academician A. Sakharov was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize: October, 9.
87
So the elite of the Soviet cinema criticism, although with undoubted into account the
"detente", continued the ideological fight.
G. Kapralov scolded for pessimism and gloom punctuated by show of aggression and violence
in Leo the Lasts, Deliverance, Zardoz by J. Boorman and Straw Dogs by S. Peckinpah (Kapralov,
1976: 9-16). Once again he reproached the author of the drama Cries and Whispers I. Bergman
because he "does not come from the social characteristics, but from the biological or psychological
essence of person" (Kapralov, 1976: 22).
But the most difficult critical Kapralov’s hit reserved for the sensational melodrama
The Night Porter by L. Cavani. He accused Cavani of consideration “the history of the Nazi
criminals murderers and their sacrifices in the light of "erotic impulses" and "research hangman-
sacrificial systems"(Kapralov, 1976: 28).
G. Kapralov traditionally praised for a "democratic and progressive social orientation" movies
(We loved Each Other, The Mattei Affair, Giordano Bruno, Beau masque) (Kapralov, 1976: 30-32)
and passed to the final pathos: "Social film is increasingly attracting the attention of leading
Western cinema artists today. It is expanding and its viewership. Historical optimism that
distinguishes these works, finds its support in the actual development of the world revolutionary
process, unbeatable driving forward the progressive forces of the world" (Kapralov, 1976: 32).
V. Baskakov was in full agreement with the categorical opinion of G. Kapralov about The
Night Porter: "The philosophical message of this film avoids the very essence of the concept of
fascism, because the phenomenon of social class and it turns into a psychological phenomenon"
(Baskakov, 1976: 89).
V. Baskakov criticized The Exorcist by William Friedkin for mysticism (Baskakov, 1976: 70-
71). He insisted that in The Godfather by F.F. Coppola "intricately intertwined different streams:
the naturalistic image of cruelty and violence, and poetic image for mafia and at the same criticism
of a society based on corruption and blackmail" (Baskakov, 1976: 82).
But V. Baskakov praised another film of F.F. Coppola – Conversation. He implicitly
acknowledged "progressive phenomenon of American Art. ... Films like Conversation, is now being
done in Hollywood are not so many, but they are: The Last Detail, with his relentless criticism of
militarism, and Alice Does not Live Here Anymore, realistically showing the life of the American
province" (Baskakov, 1976: 82-83).
Not only The Night Porter by L. Cavani, but the Last Tango in Paris by B. Bertolucci was at
the center of film critics’ discussions. This explains why A. Karaganov has given a special place in
his article for Bertolucci’s movie. He believed that "by the author's intention, Last Tango in Paris is
a fight & rebellious film, designed to ensure that shock the bourgeois audience, expose bourgeois
morality, to show that the putrefaction of capitalist society and its immorality manifested primarily
in the rot and immorality of human generated by this society. But the actual content of the film, so
to speak, "texture" screen action can not withstand such a load of ideological and philosophical.
It comes down to showing the sexual life of the hero and heroine. The sex scenes are
extraordinarily detailed, show the variety of techniques, some of them are playful, while others are
just disgusting, and everything is very naturalistic. In the film there is a certain thrill of sex,
frankness, which is characteristic of pornographic films bourgeois "commercial cinema"
(Karaganov, 1976: 51).
It is clear that such "ideological machinations" had necessarily to oppose something
"progressive." And here again the titles of "progressive" foreign films: Sacco and Vanzetti,
Recognition of the Police Commissioner to the prosecutor of the Republic, People Against,
Investigation of a Citizen Above Suspicion, The Mattei Affair, Tverico-Torino, We want the
colonels (Karaganov, 1976: 42-48).
Moreover, the earlier some Soviet film critics scolded of film The Working Class Goes to
Heaven, but A. Karaganov found positive significance in this film, noting that there is a "dramatic
tension, the sharpness, is the image and narrative motifs, very succinct in its life content and social
meaning. This film has a lot of truth, and the Italian working life is shown in real difficulties,
unvarnished" (Karaganov, 1976: 40).
And therefore the end of this article was quite logical: "The progressive cinema in Italy is
gaining momentum, despite the harassment by the authorities... And a very important part of this
process is the development of modern neo-realism tradition” (Karaganov, 1976: 66).
88
A. Braginsky’s article about French political cinema was built by a similar scheme. It was
again anti-Godard: "He has deeply flawed tactics of struggle against the bourgeoisie, the criticism
of the Communist Party, the General Confederation of Labour... The political chatter and juggling
"Marxist-Leninist" phraseology is only the cover" (Braginsky, 1976: 96). After that A. Braginsky
highlighted the “realistic progressiveness” of movies The most tender confessions, Crime in the
name of order, Assassination, Elise, or Real Life, Time to live, Beau masque (Braginsky, 1976: 101,
111-112).
G. Bohemsky built his article in a similar spirit: "Despite the fact that the Italian screen is still
more sweeping avalanche of vulgar and empty shows constituting 90 % of the Italian film
production, another films have the general shift to the left in the political and cultural life of the
country" (Bohemsky, 1976: 151). These findings were supported by favorable analysis of films Sacco
and Vanzetti, Metello, Tverico-Torino, Short Breaks, Bread and Chocolate (Bohemsky, 1976: 114,
133, 139-150).
“Metello is a broad canvas of national life the beginning of our century, which bears many
specific features of the Italian. This film, like the novel, lyrical, permeated with the spirit of a kind
of populism, the naive and sentimental" (Bohemsky, 1976: 133). "Most important of all Italian films
about workers is the film Sacco and Vanzetti by Giuliano Montaldo. Firstly, it is one of the few
films in the world from the history about the international labor movement; Secondly (and this is
important), this film is deeply internationalist in spirit, with real image of the worker leader,
conscious revolutionary. Sacco and Vanzetti are the characters, which has long experienced a need
for progressive Italian cinema" (Bohemsky, 1976: 144).
I. Belenky, once again returning to the critical analysis of S. Kubrick's A Clockwork Orange
and violence topic (Belenky, 1976: 186). And O. Surkova did not give a glowing assessment of
I. Bergman: "That is why his best films, no matter how they were burdened by lack of faith in the
person and the hyper individualism... Of course, this opposition to mass culture is not productive
because, although on a different level altogether, Bergman’s cinema also suppresses the desire in
people to see something approaching its real problems, something which helps to understand and
overcome the structure of the consumer society" (Surkova, 1976: 168).
V. Mikhalkovich’s academic text What is a thriller? was very different to all articles of the
fifth edition of the book Myths and Reality. A thoughtful film critic, contrary to stamps well-
established in the Soviet film criticism, argued that "if the director or the writer uses the thriller is
not just, and not exclusively to shake the nerves or to promote to the masses next bourgeois myth,
and for conscious suggestion socially meaningful thought, this genre can be (and is in some cases) a
progressive phenomenon" (Mikhalkovich, 1976: 214).
‘Myths and Reality”: Issue 6 (1978, put in a set in March 1978)
Table 6. Major political events in 1976 – 1977 years in the world that are important for the
1976 XXV Congress of the Soviet Communist Party: February, 24 – March, 5.

The USSR and the United States signed a treaty banning underground nuclear
explosions for peaceful purposes capacity of over 150 kilotons: May, 28.
1977 Opening of the Belgrade Conference to monitor the implementation of decisions of the
Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe: October, 4.
Any special Resolutions of the Soviet Communist Party Central Committee about the cinema
and (film) criticism did not go over the past between the fifth and sixth editions of collection of
Myths and Reality. The detente process continue in the international arena, however, the
ideological confrontation, of course, has not been canceled. Therefore, V. Nesterov & A. Kamshalov
quite reasonably wrote: "Western films dedicated to European battles, silenced the heroic struggle
of the Soviet Army. It seems that Europe was liberated only by American and British troops"
(Kamshalov, Nesterov, 1978: 7).
89
Berated the previous decade, F. Fellini unexpectedly received good evaluation from V. Nesterov
& A. Kamshalovs: Amarcord was included in the list of "progressive democracy" films, like Sacco and
Vanzetti, The Mattei Affair, Murder of Matteotti (Kamshalov, Nesterov, 1978: 16-17).
But R. Yurenev, alas, could not see the talent and irony of Woody Allen, and (in my opinion,
unjustly) accused parody comedy Love and Death in all conceivable sins: "It was unbearable to hear
patriotic music by Prokofiev for Alexander Nevsky superimposed on pornographic scenes. And in
some scenes ... I can see not just anti-Russian, but also anti-Soviet notes" (Yurenev, 1978: 35).
He also sharply criticized the film Marriage by Claude Lelouch, "which seemed a mockery of
criticism by the French anti-Nazi resistance movement” (Yurenev, 1978: 41).
G. Bohemsky was very critical to the current Western cinematic process (for example, Italy).
In particular, he talked about the wrong political orientation of Paolo and Vittorio Taviani:
"Ambivalence Taviani brothers' film, in particular its results leftist and ideological impasse".
Alonsanfan "is back to the vagueness of the general philosophical position of generously gifted film
directors" (Bohemsky, 1978: 88). But we must pay tribute to Bohemsky’s film studies instinct: he
noticed that "It exists the danger of mystification spectators in the Italian cinema, when some
movies do not help to understand the political issues, but falsifying it and misinformed under the
guise of political cinema" (Bohemsky, 1978: 69).
V. Shestakov wrote rather not film studies, but sociological article about Hollywood.
He praised such outstanding films as Three Days of the Condor, The Way We Were, Network, The
Last Detail, Shampoo, Day of the Locust, Alice does not live here anymore, Taxi Driver, Badlands,
MASH, The Long Goodbye, Thieves Like Us, Nashville, Conversation (Shestakov, 1978: 104, 110-
111, 115-121). In particular, V. Shestakov rightly pointed out that Taxi Driver is "sad and tragic film
about violence in America and on the consequences that has left in the life and psychology of the
Americans during the Vietnam War" (Shestakov, 1978: 116).
It is clear that the article by V. Shestakov could not be composed of only one positive opinion
about American cinema. Therefore, he noted that "modern Hollywood movies attempting to adapt
and use, mainly for commercial purposes, a number of ideas borrowed from fashionable currents
of Western philosophy. A particularly Freudianism has a strong influence on American cinema"
(Shestakov, 1978: 105), and the "New Hollywood" is nothing more than a common term, a kind of
metaphor, does not reflect reality, as the ideological nature and social role of Hollywood are still
the same: regardless of the changes occurring in it Hollywood, as before, is a phenomenon of
bourgeois culture" (Shestakov, 1978: 132).
V. Kolodyazhnaya (1911-2003) wrote more tightly about American cinema, focusing on
themes of occultism. After analyzing the Rosemary's Baby by R. Polanski and Exorcist by
W. Friedkin, she concluded that "the devil was never shown on the screen in such a formidable and
powerful. Current trends is a special phenomenon, reflecting the growing interest in the occult and
turned inside out religion – to Satanism" (Kolodyazhnaya, 1978: 172).
G. Kapralov, in keeping the spirit of the "detente", refused inherent passages previously
optimistic about the inevitable collapse of the bourgeois system and a soon triumph of communist
ideas. But a detailed analysis of the Jaws by S. Spielberg became occasion for a conclusion that "it
is reasonable to assert once again that the film itself without the whole system more impact on the
Western audience ... might not be such a total resounding" (Kapralov, 1978: 51).
The rest of the collection of articles dedicated to the works of great masters of Western
screen: Volonte (1933-1994) (E. Victorova wrote about this actor-communist in a very positive way)
and P.-P. Pasolini (1922-1975).
V. Baskakov wrote about the famous film director, screenwriter and writer P.-P. Pasolini
(who was killed November 1, 1975): “The Italian cinema has lost a great artist, whose work is
inconsistent reflect and burning rejection of the bourgeois way of life, bourgeois morality, and the
search for alternatives to this bourgeois... Pasolini was an analyst, accuser, and at the same time a
victim of bourgeois consciousness" (Baskakov, 1978: 152).
‘Myths and Reality’: Issue 7 (1981, put in a set in August 1980)
International events 1979-1980, preceding the birth of the seventh edition of Myths and
Reality collection were turbulent: the “detente” died after the intervention of Soviet troops in
90
Afghanistan, the confrontation between the USSR and the West back to cold war peak. And then
the fire of the Polish anti-Communist rebellion movement "Solidarity"...
Table 7. Key political events 1978 - 1980 in the world that are important for the development of
relations between the USSR and the West. Events in the USSR, which had relevance to the cinema
1978 The coup d'etat in 1978 in Afghanistan, supported by the Soviet Union: April, 17.
1979 Resolution of the Soviet Communist Party Central Committee "On further improve the
ideological and political education work": April, 26.
Conclusion of the agreement between the USSR and the USA on the Limitation of
Strategic Offensive Arms: June, 18.
The second coup d'etat in Afghanistan, again supported by the Soviet Union:
September, 16.
Soviet invasion of Afghanistan, the beginning of the Afghan war - December.
1980 In response to the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan, the United States suspended the
ratification of the Strategic Arms Reduction. USA declared a boycott of the Olympic
Games in Moscow and an embargo on the Soviet Union in modern technologies and
grains: January, 4.
Academician Sakharov was exiled to Gorky. He was deprived of the title three times
Hero of Socialist Labor, and Stalin (1953) & Lenin (1956) Awards: January, 22.
The Olympic Games in Moscow: July, 19 – August, 3.
USSR resumed jamming Russian language broadcasts "Voice of America" and other
Western radio stations in the Soviet Union: August, 20-21.
"Solidarity" movement in Poland was gaining strength.
Resolution of the Soviet Communist Party Central Committee "On further improve the
ideological and political education work" (April, 1979) was before the start of a new phase of the
"cold war". As in similar documents of previous years, Resolution was emphasized that "imperialist
propaganda ... continuously conducts a fierce attack on the minds of the Soviet people, it is
committed to using the most sophisticated techniques and advanced technical means to poison the
minds of their slander Soviet reality, denigrate socialism, embellish imperialism and its predatory,
inhuman policies and practices. All set in motion: perverted information and biased coverage of the
facts, silence, half-truths and lies just shameless. Therefore, one of the most important tasks of
ideological education and outreach is to help the Soviet people to recognize the utter falsity of the
defamatory propaganda, in a clear, specific and convincing manner to expose its devious methods,
to give people the ground truth about the world's first country of victorious socialism. This should
always be remembered that the weakening of attention to the coverage of the actual problems, lack
of efficiency, the questions left unanswered, the only benefit our class enemy" (Resolution ..., 1979).
K. Razlogov’s article "New Conservatism and Cinema of the West in this context was a
natural reaction to the worsening of the "cold war": "In 70s years ... came the era of "Counter-
Reformation", ... "counter-culture." This ideological trend - new conservatism - was a product of
the ideological and political crisis of capitalism. ... "New conservatism" to some extent paved the
way for the deployment of another anti-communist and anti-Soviet companies and return the
forces of imperialism to a policy of “cold war”. ... It was the result of the desire of the bourgeois
ideologists turn back the course of history, to set new obstacles in the way of socialism, the national
liberation movement, the workers' struggle for their rights in the capitalist countries. But the positive
developments in the international arena, the struggle for peace, social progress and freedom of the
peoples continue to define the forward movement of history" (Razlogov, 1981: 41-42).
K. Razlogov argued that "the problem of violence is certainly one of the most pressing in the
bourgeois world. In contrast to the typical trend of the previous period to identify the social roots of
crime, "new conservatism" considers crime as an anomaly of inferiority of individuals or of human
nature in general" (Razlogov, 1981: 49-50). As an example, K. Razlogov used the film Death Wish
(Razlogov, 1981: 55). However, the article final was more optimistic: Julia, The China Syndrome,
"as well as a number of other films, shows the constancy of democratic tradition in the US film
industry, successfully resisting the "new conservative wave" (Razlogov, 1981: 61).
91
M. Shaternikova in search of positive developments in the American cinema, wrote that "a
certain part of the Afro-American filmmakers chose a path of truth and realism, all the way to a
deeper and more accurate picture of life, suffering and hopes of its people" (Shaterinikova, 1981: 161).
G. Kapralov wrote that the number of Western films (Sacco and Vanzetti, Recognition of the
Police Commissioner to the prosecutor of the republic, Investigation of a Citizen Above Suspicion,
Zabriskie Point, Keymada, Little Big Man, They Shoot Horses, Don’t They?, Easy Rider and
others) criticized the wars of conquest, colonial expansion and extermination of Native Americans,
the persecution of trade unionists, racist intolerance, anti-labor policy lies justice, and police
terror" (Kapralov, 1981: 25). But G. Kapralov also had not optimistic positions for the future:
"It can be expected that the coming years will give a new rise and further development of this
critical combat cinema. However, the collapse of a ‘lefts’ illusions of 1968 led to the spread among
the intelligentsia of the decadent moods, and even in the United States to strengthen the
conservative or, as they call them, the "new" conservative tendencies. This affected the cinema.
His political activity, though, and continued for some time to be quite high, soon began to wane"
(Kapralov, 1981: 25).
G. Kapralov was convinced that Hollywood began to appear such "vicious anti-Soviet" films
as The Deer Hunter, whose "imaginative, emotional structure ... expresses extreme dislike to
Vietnamese" (Kapralov, 1981: 37). Moreover, The Deer Hunter, "not only slandered the heroic
people of Vietnam, but also trying to revive the very same illusions about US exceptionalism"
(Kapralov, 1981: 40).
As always, G. Kapralov did not forget to criticize the European screen masters. He wrote
About Casanova that "undoubtedly the critical charge of the film can not hide the fact that the new
work of Fellini bears the imprint of painful fatigue, some psychological collapse, whose vice
spectacle of decay, rotting and disgusting and the same time has a certain charisma" (Kapralov,
1981: 9). The films Bye Bye Monkey by M. Ferreri and Truck by M. Duras were rated more strictly:
"the characters of Ferreri’s film have flesh and blood, while the characters of Duras’s are the
phantoms" (Kapralov, 1981: 19).
Two articles were devoted to French cinema. The leading Soviet specialist in the field of
French cinematography – A. Braginsky, began his article with the condemnation of sexual and
porn cinema revolution (Braginsky, 1981: 180-183). And after that he made a more detailed critical
analysis of films by C. Lelouch, C. Zidi, J. Derey, J. Jaeckin, F. Labro, A. Verneuil, A. Corneau
(Braginsky, 1981: 183-191). Some Braginsky’s opinions manifestly unreasonable: "Zidi is a reliable
bulwark of commercial cinema "digestive-wing" ... "Zidizm" as a specific phenomenon is a direct
threat to French cinema comedy, reducing its level, its credibility" (Braginsky, 1981: 186).
A. Braginsky retain to his strict attitude about F. Truffaut and C. Chabrol: "Truffaut’s recently
films, unwittingly reflect the mood of the French artistic intelligentsia, more precisely, the part that
often looks back and rarely looks forward" (Braginsky, 1981: 193); "Chabrol’s films ... deeply
pessimistic, with efforts to disclose only the dark side of the human soul" (Braginsky, 1981: 193-194).
The article was written by N. Dyachenko in a similar vein. She criticized for the wrong
political stance The Chinese in Paris by J. Yann, Nada by C. Chabrol, Lacombe Lucien by L. Malle,
Good and Evil by C. Lelouch. For example, the film Good and Evil was accused of mixing "actions
of the Resistance fighters and collaborators, traitors and honest people" (Dyachenko, 1981: 69).
The finals of both articles were, however, optimistic. A. Braginsky praised for the acute social
films of A. Cayatte, I. Boisset, B. Tavernier (Braginsky, 1981: 195-199). He was confident that "the
dialectic of social development is relentless. The future of French cinema, where are taken into
account the interests of the nation and the people, for those filmmakers who put their art at the
service of the people" (Braginsky, 1981: 203). N. Dyachenko’s conclusions was a little less
pretentious: "We can watch in the French cinema the phenomenon of commercialization,
speculative use of political themes. At the same time, we can see the cinema, expressing a critical
attitude toward capitalist reality, an attempt to expose the bourgeois apparatus of power"
(Dyachenko, 1981: 68).
G. Bohemsky dedicated his article to political detectives and thrillers. He reviewed the films
of D. Damiani, E. Petri, F. Rosi in a positive context, pointing out that "the very notion of "political
film" should be considered differentiated. On the one hand, it means the really progressive trend in
bourgeois cinema today; on the other hand - political film is only used as a disguise for fight against
the Lefts" (Bohemsky, 1981: 115).
92
G. Krasnova’s article of about German cinema was in the “detente” key. She very friendly
analyzed the movies of Fassbinder, Schlöndorff and Herzog. Article’s conclusion was also major:
"Youth cinema in West Germany had known dark days, periods of frustration, depression and
decline. However, recent works of these filmmakers give reason to hope that the "young cinema"
will continue to be the main bulwark of progressive cinematography"(Krasnova, 1981: 114).
R. Sobolev’s paper Cinema and Comics got entertainment mission in this film studies
collection. And ardent fans of comics culture certainly can not agree with the abrupt withdrawal of
a film critic that "comics are the production not for the man with intelligence, but a baby" (Sobolev,
1981: 178).
‘Myths and Reality’: Issue 8 (1983, put in a set in September 1982)
Events 1981-1982 years preceding the publication of the eighth book Myths and Reality in
general (despite the economic cooperation between the USSR and the Federal Republic of
Germany and France, connected with gas supply) developed at the height of the "cold war."
Table 8. The main political events of 1981–1982 period in the world that are important for the
1981 XXVI Congress of the Soviet Communist Party: February, 23 – March, 3.

Cancel the US embargo on grain shipments to the Soviet Union: April, 24.
Start of neutron weapons production in the United States.
The signing of the contract between the USSR and the Federal Republic of Germany to
supply Siberian gas to West Germany: November, 20.
The introduction of martial law in Poland: December, 13.
Statement by US President Ronald Reagan against the USSR interference in the affairs
of Poland, new sanctions against the USSR: December, 29.
1982 Signing of the contract between the USSR and France to supply Siberian gas: January,
23.
British-Argentine armed conflict in the Falklands: March-April.
Resolution of the Soviet Communist Party Central Committee "On the creative
connections literary magazines with the practice of communist construction": July, 30.
So it is not surprising that the last year of the L. Brezhnev power was marked by the release of
the Resolution of the Soviet Communist Party Central Committee "On the creative connections
literary magazines with the practice of communist construction” (1982). In it, in particular, stated
that "appear on the pages of magazines of literary history and literary-critical works, the authors of
which ... show ideological confusion, inability to consider social phenomena historically, with a
clear class positions" (Resolution ..., 1982).
I do not think that this criticism directly was to the author's collections of Myths and Reality
(although the lack of "clear class positions" can be detected, if desired, for example, in the "free"
articles of V. Demin and Y. Khanutin). But the conclusions were made: ideologically outdated
"detente" approaches were rejected. And V. Baskakov wrote: "Anti-humanism of bourgeois culture
and art, and an attack on humanity, leading and the right and left: all these shows the urgent need
to create a united front of real Marxist humanism" (Baskakov, 1983: 36-37).
Such a flow of "real humanism" V. Baskakov attributed movie Man on his Knees by
D. Damiani, Christ stopped at Eboli and Three Brothers by F. Rosi, Seven Days in January by
H.A. Bardem (Baskakov, 1983: 12-19). Moreover, he claimed: "Movies Christ stopped at Eboli and
Three Brothers proves a mighty force and the prospects of social art, exploring issues of national
life, the arts great truth and mighty power of realism" (Baskakov, 1983: 17).
G. Kapralov echoed of V. Baskakov, assuring his readers that "we cannot see in the frames of
bourgeois consciousness the road in the real future" (Kapralov, 1983: 64).
G. Kapralov analyzed such outstanding films as Leap into the Void, Terrace, Please Asylum,
My American Uncle, All That Jazz, City of Women and regretted that the main motive of most of
93
them is "fatigue, bewilderment, frustration, despair" (Kapralov, 1983: 38). G. Kapralov saw in the
City of Women "traditionally bourgeois approach ... and again, with a noticeable shade of
biologism, which in this case takes the form of sexual complexes and phantasmagoria" (Kapralov,
1983: 54). He had mixed feelings about All That Jazz: “On the one hand, the director makes admire
Gideon’s irrepressible, violent fantasy, feel it as a strong, powerful creative personality. And on the
other hand - the creative act is reduced to a simple physiological origin" (Kapralov, 1983: 63).
E. Victorova wrote that "Ferreri is not so much as a critic of modern bourgeois vices of
civilization, but as a man who does not bear responsibility for the fate of the world. He does not
believe in the possibility of change, in the possibility of a better, more just order of society"
(Victorova, 1983: 167).
The same film criticism melody towards Western cinema sounded in the E. Kartseva’s article,
which stated that "the 1970s are characterized by not only the continuity of anti-bourgeois ideals
and values of 1960s, but also strengthening of conservative sentiment. ... And myths
manufacturers, sensing the growing discontent, seeking to convince people mythological, not based
on the analysis of the social interpretation of the events. The growing politicization of social
consciousness leads to the politicization of the mythology" (Kartseva, 1983: 86). In this context, she
scolded American films Rocky, Telephone and praised China Syndrome, Three Days of the Condor
and Network (Kartseva, 1983: 90-101).
Film critic L. Melville, noting that "actually increased role of women in bourgeois society is in
sharp contradiction with the various forms of discrimination and oppression of Western woman"
(Melville, 1983: 136), suggested that "feminism is (on the screen and in the life of the modern
West) a phenomenon very difficult, ambiguous. ... Tomorrow we will see what will happen to this
remarkable phenomenon of Western political and cultural life. One thing is clear: the prospects for
it are associated with the opening of a socialist alternative, with the rejection of the excesses of the
feminist ideology and appeal to a realistic understanding of women's issues. Meeting with the
political and cultural experience of real socialism can play a crucial role" (Melville, 1983: 159).
As we can see now, the first part of this thesis (about the complexity and ambiguity film
feminism) it was correct, which can not be said about "socialist alternative"...
M. Shaternikova, as film critic fighter for the rights of the American working class, pleased
the movie Norma Rae by M. Ritt because this film returned to the US shield forgotten "character –
a man of labor, collectivist, in the fight against defending themselves and others their human
rights. It proves its viability progressive tradition of cinematography USA. ... The true meaning of
the word "humanism" return the honest artist, who expresses in his work the aspirations of the
working class, who takes his side in the fight. These artists were in the American movie ever.
They will come with each new generation" (Shaternikova, 1983: 134).
One article is entirely dedicated to the Spanish cinema (for the first time in Myths and
Reality): O. Reisen rightly praised End Time and Seven Days in January, National Gun and Trout
(Reisen, 1983: 186-192), although she noted that C. Saura cinema has "some confusion of images.
Mixing fantasy, dreams and reality, endless flipped in time and space, repetition, associative
montage are methods by which he reproduces a stream of consciousness" (Reisen, 1983: 195).
"Myths and Reality": Issue 9 (1985, put in a set in May 1984)
World events that occurred between the release of the publication of the eighth and the ninth
series, Myths and Reality were stormy. L. Brezhnev’s death did not impact on the degree of boiling
the "cold war." Moreover, with the advent of the Y. Andropov (1914-1984) attention to the issues of
ideological struggle only intensified. Y. Andropov’s death and the equally short power of
K. Chernenko (1911-1985) not made the significant changes in the situation.
94
Table 9. The main political events of 1982–1984 years in the world that are important for the
1982 Death of L. Brezhnev: November, 10

The coming of short power of Yuri Andropov (1914-1984).
US lifting of sanctions imposed against the Soviet Union in connection with the events
in Poland: November, 13.
1983 France expelling 47 Soviet diplomats accused of spying: April, 5.
Resolution of the Soviet Communist Party Central Committee "Topical issues of
ideological and mass political work of the Party": June.
German Chancellor H. Kohl visited Soviet Union: July 4-6.
Soviet Union shot down a South Korean civilian aircraft: September, 1.
Y. Andropov made a statement directed against the deployment of missiles "Persching-
2" in Europe, and lifted a moratorium on the deployment of medium-range nuclear
missiles: November, 24.
1984 The opening of the Stockholm Conference on Disarmament in Europe: January, 17.
The death of Y. Andropov. K. Chernenko's rise to the short power: February, 9.
Resolution of the Soviet Communist Party Central Committee "On measures to further
improve the ideological and artistic quality of films and strengthen the material and
technical basis of cinematography": April, 19.
Statement by the Soviet Union to boycott the Olympic Games in Los Angeles: May, 8.
Y. Andropov, speaking at the plenary session of the Soviet communist Party Central
Committee (dedicated to topical issues of ideological and mass political work), stressed that "there
is a struggle for the hearts and minds of billions of people on the planet. And the future depends
largely on the outcome of this ideological struggle. This explains how it is vital to be able to
communicate in a simple and convincing manner the truth about socialist society, its advantages,
its peaceful politics to the broad masses of the people all over the world. Equally important skill: to
expose the false, subversive imperialist propaganda" (Andropov, 1983).
The resolution of the Soviet Communist Party Central Committee "Topical issues of
ideological and mass political work of the Party" (1983) signaled that, in the opinion of the Soviet
leadership, the previous decisions of a similar nature have been found to be ineffective in the new
"cold war" acute outbreak between the USSR and the West.
This is also evidenced by the Resolution of the Soviet Communist Party Central Committee
"On measures to further improve the ideological and artistic quality of films and strengthen the
material and technical basis of cinematography" (1984). In 1983-1984 the Soviet press and the
official film critics increasingly began to use the word "counter-propaganda".
Flag bearer of ideological struggle with bourgeois cinema V. Baskakov answered for political
party calls in the article Screen Aggression (Baskakov, 1985: 3-26). He expressed his indignation at
the fact that the West "seeks to instill an audience of millions of television movies and cult of
violence, cruelty, sophisticated sensuality. The strategic direction setting of this screen aggression
is an effort to impress the mass consciousness of irresponsibility for the fate of humanity and a
sense of apathy in the face of actions of the imperialist circles. Publishers, writers, film makers and
television, using a variety of, often masking agents, readers and viewers impose the cult of force,
romanticizing of cruelty, perverse amorality. Militant anti-humanism has become the heart of the
vast majority of films produced by the capitalist movie monopoly from US and several European
countries" (Baskakov, 1985: 18).
As always this kind of theses supported striking examples: from the movies The Night Porter
and Skin by L. Cavani, Nicholas and Alexandra by F. Schaffner, The Deer Hunter by M. Cimino,
Fire Fox by C. Eastwood (Baskakov, 1985: 20-24). He said the most negative about S. Peckinpah’s
film Cross of Iron, "openly celebrating the Wehrmacht. In the center of the plot is charming,
"humane" and fearless Nazi" (Baskakov, 1985: 22).
However, contrary to all previous negativity, V. Baskakov found the strength to make a
radically positive conclusion: "Anti-communism and anti-Sovietism on the screen are feverish,
95
hysterical and hopeless attempts to slow down the steady process of development of the
revolutionary forces, oppose the realization of the masses (including the intelligentsia) the futility
of the capitalist system" (Baskakov, 1985: 23).
The article of G. Kapralov has been sustained around the same spirit. He accused for the
promotion of violence and the anti-Soviet many movies: Class of 1984 by M. Lester, Conan the
Barbarian by J. Milius, The Deer Hunter by M. Cimino, Fire Fox by C. Eastwood, Superman by
R. Donner (Kapralov, 1985: 30-44) and made a sad conclusion that Western cinema has "the desire
for psychological and ideological influence to the masses audience, showing the madness, crime
and wildest violence" (Kapralov, 1985: 44).
L. Melville, noting that "the bourgeois media, deciding under obvious pressure from the
Reagan administration to divert the attention of the Western public from the real causes of the
rampant terrorism, unleashed an anti-Soviet group about the "involvement" of the Soviet Union to
"international terrorism" (Melville, 1985: 70).
The young (at that time) film critic A. Plakhov warning readers that "the movie and television
can ... go on about the most primitive tastes cultivated reactionary ideas, amorality, sow harmful
illusions and destroy the person, as it often happens in practice bourgeois mass communications"
(Plakhov, 1985: 135). Turning to the analysis of German cinema, G. Krasnova expressed something
similar to the recommendations for the "progressive German filmmakers": "The struggle against
the Hollywood expansion should be done from the standpoint of humanity, acute social criticism.
Otherwise it loses its high ideological and artistic meaning and the place of the American
commercial cinema takes more conformist, more miserable products West cultural industries"
(Krasnova, 1985: 180).
G. Bohemsky’s article was also in the sad tone. He wrote about Italian mass culture cinema
("red-light movie", horrors and comedies) and gave angry passage: Caligula is a typical product of
"supranational" commercial cinema, "mass culture" in a consumer society. The film is inextricably
merged unheard of cruelty and unbridled sex" (Bohemsky, 1985: 92). However, as film critic noted,
"the impression that the recession, stagnation, the crisis in Italian cinema in general, are universal,
would be incorrect. ... Let a few, but bright and bold works strongly suggest that as the
commercialization of Italian cinema and the mood of despair and escapism covered not all"
(Bohemsky, 1985: 111).
E. Kartseva (Kartseva, 1985: 46-66) and K. Razlogov (Razlogov 1985: 181-202) wrote in a
neutral and academic manner. E. Kartseva, for example, is quite appreciated Cabaret by B. Fosse,
Julia by F. Zinnemann, Parallax by A. Pakula, and Domino Principle by S. Kramer (Kartseva,
1985: 50-65).
T. Tsarapkina quite in the spirit of the recent "detente" gave a very positive assessment of the
development of cinema in Canada, because "unlike the dream world the Canadian screen appeared
the real life, sometimes full of drama, despair, inhabited by people who are generally unhappy that
rarely overcome depressing their circumstances, but find the strength to defy destiny" (Tsarapkina,
1985: 229).
A. Braginsky’s article about French cinema was also quite low-key tone. Analyzing films of
B. Blier, A. Téchiné, K. Miller and other directors, Braginsky (Braginsky, 1985: 137-156) came to
the conclusion that "the general Western crisis (ideological, economic) is reflected in the current
film industry all the major capitalist countries. French filmmakers find him in these circumstances,
turn the power wheel, to change the course of events to remember the glorious tradition - time will
tell..." (Braginsky, 1985: 160).
Well, time really showed, and A. Braginsky in the 1990s has published a series of remarkable
books about the masters of French cinema, where already was not "ideologically" lines...
"Myths and Reality": Issue 10 (1988, put in a set in November 1987)
The tenth edition of the book Myths and Reality was put into the set and went out of print in
a very substantially changed the world and intra situation. The coming to power of M. Gorbachev
in 1985 and soon declaration of new Soviet policy of "perestroika and glasnost", the subsequent
rapid warming of relations between the USSR and the West, led to a significant revision of the
existing over decades of "ideological struggle."
96
Table 10. The main political events of 1984–1987 years in the world that are important for the
1984 The visit to the Soviet Union of French President F. Mitterrand: June, 21-23.
USSR expressed protest against the American military program "Star Wars": June,
29.
M. Gorbachev visited the UK and met with UK Prime Minister M. Techer: December,
15-21.
1985 The death of K. Chernenko, M. Gorbachev's rise to power: March.
The resumption of negotiations on arms limitation in Geneva: March, 12.
Meeting of M. Gorbachev and R. Reagan in Geneva: November, 19-21.
1986 XXVII Congress of the Soviet Communist Party: February, 25 – March, 6.
The accident at the Chernobyl nuclear power plant: April-May.
Film director E. Klimov elected the leader of the Union of Cinematographers: May.
Resolution of the Soviet Communist Party Central Committee "On the shortcomings
in the practice of the acquisition or rental of foreign films": 4 June.
Three-fold drop in world oil prices (from 29 to 10 dollars per barrel), increased
sharply the economic crisis in the USSR: June.
M. Gorbachev began of "perestroika" in the Soviet Union: June.
Visit to the USSR of French President F. Mitterrand: July, 7-10.
Meeting of M. Gorbachev and R. Reagan in Reykjavik: October, 11-12.
Opening of the Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe in Vienna:
November, 4.
Return of Academician A. Sakharov from exile to Moscow: December.
1987 M. Thatcher's visit to the USSR: March, 28 - April, 1.
Cancel Soviet jamming of most Western radio stations on its territory: May, 23.
German amateur pilot M. Rust committed illegal flight from Hamburg (via Helsinki)
to Moscow (with landing almost on Red Square): May, 27.
Low world oil prices, contributing to a further decline of the Soviet economy and the
living standards of its population.
The analysis of the content of the tenth issue of Myths and Reality collection (1988) shows
that the Soviet film criticism was the example of the ideological inertia: the texts were without real
responds to the radical changes occurring in the world and in the USSR...
Here are just some of the final conclusions from the articles of leading Soviet film critics in
the tenth edition of the collection:
- "Illusory nature of attempts to restore justice in the framework of an antagonistic society...
They do not open before the audience really revolutionary perspective of overthrowing the system
of exploitation: the historical mission of the proletariat" (Razlogov, 1988: 93)
- "Different incarnation of the bourgeois intellectual consciousness, dwelling in a state of
deep internal crisis. Ways out of it are outside of this consciousness: they are actively participating
in the actual social processes on the side of democratic forces of progress" (Melville, 1988: 38).
The article of L. Mamatova (Mamatova, 1988: 94-121) and N. Savitsky (Savitsky, 1988: 122-
142) are quite traditional for the Soviet cinema studies 1970s – 1980s reviews of the films festivals
1983. But the mere fact that the collection, released in print in 1988, included articles written in
1983, spoke not only about the slowness of the publishing house "Art", but also the sheer inertia of
the Soviet official film criticism.
So do not be surprised that the rest of the article at this tenth collection of ideological pathos
is not so very different from the ninth collection.
V. Baskakov habitually abused anti-Soviet Hollywood films Fire Fox, Red Dawn, Gorky Park
and others (Baskakov, 1988: 7-9). He was also very unhappy with the fact that L. Cavani in the The
Berlin Affair connected in a complex knot "pathology, sexy and outrageous policies, even signs of
anti-fascist topic" (Baskakov, 1988: 16).
97
G. Bohemsky regretted that Italian political cinema "failed the test, fell under the blows of the
crisis" (Bohemsky, 1988: 61), and L. Cavani’s Skin, “might have sounded condemnation of the war,
but has become a series of scary rides; show the horrors of war became an end in itself" (Bohemsky,
1988: 67).
N. Dyachenko once again reminded that "the notorious commercial boom of French cinema
and its current focus on traditional forms of cinema show deal a blow to the progressive, social-
critical towards cinema. The most actively operating force of the national film industry remains
entertaining pseudo-realistic cinema, which is trying to attract viewers to take subjects and topical
phenomena of social and political life" (Dyachenko, 1988: 145).
Analyzing the movie Moon, Twentieth Century, The Conformist by B. Bertolucci and The
Damned by L. Visconti, A. Plakhov (Plakhov, 1988: 162-168) melancholy stated that Freudianism
captures even artists in general realistic warehouse (Plakhov, 1988: 168).
Referring to the plot of the film A. Verneuil Thousand billion dollars, K. Razlogov quite in the
spirit of "stagnation era" claimed that "in this and other similar films, there is no word about the
class forces do oppose the bourgeoisie, and ... life and struggle of the proletariat" (Razlogov, 1988:
85). But here's another Razlogov’s phrase, unless, of course, for greater generality and universality
remove from it the word "imperialism" and "bourgeois", in my opinion, is still very relevant:
"No doubt, the independence of the media under imperialism is illusory and relative, and this is
also evidenced by cinema screens. ... Magic irrational belief in "free speech", daily and hourly
refuted the practice of the bourgeois media, is especially weighty support a unilateral interpretation
of events" (Razlogov, 1988: 82).
And only E. Kartseva’s article about American cinema looked quite "perestroika stream."
She wrote that S. Lumet's Serpico, "demanded by their creators a huge civic courage. To its credit, it
should be noted: in this highly realistic narrative they allowed themselves to any action to diversify
fights or chases, usually inherent police movie, no hitting in the obvious melodrama" (Kartseva,
1988: 46). French Connection by W. Friedkin was ranked as "semi-documentary story told by the
director with a great sense of humor, and the dynamics of the art", although it "skillfully avoided or
veil the fundamental shortcomings of the work of the American police," (Kartseva, 1988: 53).
‘Myths and Reality’: Issue 11 (1989, put in set in December 1988)

The eleventh book Myths and Reality, which was released in print in 1989, alas, was the last.
Perestroika reached its peak, the Soviet Union and the West's relations continued to improve, and low
world oil prices continue to quenched the Soviet economy, which inevitably resulted in a drop in the
standard of living of the population and the desire of the most active part of it to emigrate to the West...
Table 11. The main political events of 1987 - 1988 in the world that are important for the
1987 Mikhail Gorbachev's visit to Washington. Signing the agreement on the elimination
of intermediate-range nuclear missiles: December, 1-10.
Western world announces M. Gorbachev “Man of the Year”.
living standards of its population.
1988 Start of the withdrawal of Soviet troops from Afghanistan: May, 15.
Meeting M. Gorbachev and R. Reagan in Moscow: May, 29 – June, 2.
German Chancellor H. Kohl visited to the USSR: November, 25-26.
Cancel Soviet jamming of radio station "Free Europe" on its territory: November, 30.
M. Gorbachev visited New York (United Nations). His statement on the reduction of
the Soviet armed forces and the beginning of the withdrawal of Soviet troops from
Eastern Europe. December, 6-8.
living standards of the population and the desire of the most active part of it to
emigrate to the West.
98
Only now, in the year of preparation of last issue of the collection Myths and Reality
(December 1988) the Soviet elite film critics decided to join perestroika trends.
G. Kapralov rightly scolded the low artistic qualities and cold war ideology of American
Adventure Rambo 2, Fire Fox, Red Dawn, Invasion U.S.A. (Kapralov, 1989: 4-14) admitted that
"already after this article was written, from the Soviet country sounded a bold voice, proclaimed the
new thinking. And no matter how difficult it is the development of modern social and political
situation, encouraging occur, sometimes almost fantastic changes in the world. The sense of the
new reality take on not only the president but also entire nations. As with all democratic forces, US
filmmakers, and other capitalist countries destroy "karma" of false images and encourage people to
take action in defense of human rights in a peaceful future for the preservation of peace in the
unique planet called Earth" (Kapralov, 1989: 27).
Saving the World in a situation of "new thinking" was the key topic of the L. Melville’s article.
She wrote that "the images of scary and "unthinkable" that threatens humanity, appears in
different ways on modern screens. But more often than not here sound sincere concern for the fate
of the world" (Melville, 1989: 46).
Solid analysis of film history without ideological pinch contained in the articles by L. Alova
(Alova, 1989: 110-129), E. Gromov (Gromov, 1989: 130-147), N. Nusinova (Nusinova, 1989: 263-
282) and E. Kartseva.
E. Kartseva reasonably recalling that "American cinema has many faces ... Throughout the
history of its development appeared and continue to appear ... great critical works using Hollywood
topic for serious reflection" (Kartseva, 1989: 65). G. Krasnova wrote in a similar vein about the
female subject in American cinema (Krasnov, 1989: 86). The article of G. Bohemsky was also away
from exposing pathos: "The creative treatment of the classics, to the great literature and its
national traditions gives Italian cinema the new forces, reveals yet unused opportunities"
(Bohemsky, 1989: 262). A. Braginsky correctly observed that in the French films "on the one hand
there are entertainment. On the other - the cinema of thought and heart, which meets great
difficulties" (Braginsky, 1989: 108).
Thus N. Sawicki, in my opinion, is absolutely true reminded readers that "commercial
cinema" is generally not a synonym for film production of the lower class and the epithet of
"entertainment" is not an exhaustive description of the picture, and stereotypes definitions such as
"entertaining commercial movie" are a substantially zero information" (Savitsky, 1989: 148-149).
A. Plakhov made a deep analysis of L. Visconti art, noting that "the mythological beginning,
increases in the work of Visconti ... and sometimes comes into very conflicting relationship with the
realistic direction of his art, reaches its climax in The Damned, and in this film the history of
interaction and the myth is the most productive. Later mythology continues to function in the
structure of Visconti’s movies, identifying some of their formal features. However, the nature of the
life of the material, and a method of treatment of late Visconti suggest above all the profound and
all strengthens the sense of history" (Plakhov, 1989: 213).
Contrary to previous reproaches addressed to Federico Fellini, printed in Myths and Reality,
E. Victorova wrote that "today it is so important for us and for Fellini, that this artist is still true to
himself: true humanistic pathos of his work, his transforming power that can change a lot in our
complex than ever the world" (Victorova, 1989: 233).
Myths and Reality finally drew attention to the relatively new phenomenon for the time:
video. M. Yampolsky wrote: "The main feature of this new media can be considered unstable,
unformed bodies, tending to constant change and renewal. For artists who are concerned with the
fate of the world, it would be an unforgivable mistake to stand aside, arrogantly ignoring the
complex processes taking place in this area. Stop video development is impossible. That's why you
should take an active part in the unfolding struggle for its destiny" (Yampolsky, 1989: 187).
4. Results
So, 125 articles (an average of 11 articles in each of the 11 books) published in Myths and
Reality from 1966 to 1989. The authors of these texts (in most cases) were film critics relating to
the above-mentioned elite category:
1. Prof. Dr. Vladimir Baskakov (1921-1999) was a member of the Communist party. In 1963-
1973 he held the post of first deputy chairman of the Soviet State Committee for Cinematography,
and in the years 1973-1987 he was the director of the Research Institute for History and Theory of
99
Cinema. This high status enabled V.E. Baskakov regularly travel to the largest film festivals in the
world. His articles published in Myths and Reality, became the basis of his books: Dispute
Continues (1968), Cinema and Time (1974), The struggle of ideas in world cinema (1974),
The contradictory screen (1980), In the rhythm of time (1983), Aggressive screen of the West
(1986).
2. Dr. Georgy Bohemsky (1920-1995) was a member of the Communist party. He was in the
staff of Institute of History and Theory of Cinema. His articles published in Myths and Reality,
became the basis of his book Cinema of Italy today (1977).
3. Dr. Georgy Kapralov (1921-2010) was a member of the Communist party. He held the
prestigious post of deputy head of Department of Literature and Art in the main Soviet newspaper
Pravda. As the correspondent of Pravda, he also regularly visited the major international film
festivals. In addition, G. Kapralov from 1962 to 1986 headed the Moscow section of the film critics
of the Soviet Union of Cinematographers, and he held the post of vice-president International
Federation of Film Critics (FIPRESCI) in 1967-1974. From 1976 to 1979 he was the anchorman of
the popular soviet TV show Cinema Panorama. His articles published in Myths and Reality,
became the basis of his books: The game with the devil and the dawn at the appointed hour
(1975), The Man and the Myth. The evolution of the hero of the Western movie (1984), Western
cinema: supermen and People (1987). He was editor of the books’ collection Myths and Reality
from the first to the fifth edition (1966-1976).
4. Dr. Romil Sobolev (1926-1991) was a member of the Communist party. His articles
published in Myths and Reality, became the basis of his books: The West. Cinema and Youth
(1971), Hollywood. 60s (1975).
5. Alexander Braginsky (1920-2016) was a member of the Communist party. His articles
published in Myths and Reality, partly formed the basis of his series of books about the French
cinema. He was the laureate of the Prize of Russian Film Critics Guild (for a series of books about
the masters of French cinema) (1999).
6. Dr. Elena Kartseva (1928-2002) was a member of the Communist party. She worked in the
State Film Fund, the Institute of Philosophy. From 1979 to 2002, he was a research fellow and head
of Department of Research Institute for History and Theory of Cinema. Her articles published in
Myths and Reality, became the basis of her books: Popular culture in the United States and the
problem of identity (1974), The ideological and aesthetic foundations of bourgeois 'mass culture'
(1976), Kitsch, or celebration vulgarity (1977), Hollywood: contrast 70s (1987).
7. Dr. Ludmila Melville (born in 1948) was a member of the Communist party. She worked at
the Institute of cinematography. Her articles published in the books Myths and Reality, became
the basis of her monograph Cinema and the aesthetics of destruction (1984).
8. Dr. Marianna Shaternikova (born in 1934) was a member of the Communist party.
She worked at the Institute of Art History, Research Institute for History and Theory of Cinema
and the Institute of Cinematography. Her articles published in Myths and Reality, became the
basis of her monograph Blue Collar on US screens (Working man in American cinema) (1985).
She was the editor of Myths and Reality from 5 to 11 issues (1976-1989). M. Shaternikova
emigrated to the United States in 1990, a year after the publication of the last book Myths and
Reality.
9. Elena Victorova worked at the Research Institute for History and Theory of Cinema.
Her articles published in Myths and Reality, became the basis of her book Gian Maria Volonte.
Love and Fury (1990).
10. Prof. Dr. Alexander Karaganov (1915-2007) was a member of the Communist party.
From 1965 to 1986 he was secretary of the Soviet Union of Cinematographers. He was the professor
at the Academy of Social Sciences. His articles published in the books Myths and Reality, became
the basis of his monograph Cinematography in the struggle of ideas (1974).
11. Dr. Garena Krasnova (born in 1945) worked at the Research Institute for History and
Theory of Cinema. Her articles published in Myths and Reality, became the basis of her
monograph German Cinema (1987).
12. Dr. Andrei Plakhov (born 1950) was a member of the Communist party. He was a
journalist in Pravda newspaper in the years 1977-1988. His articles published in Myths and
Reality, partly included in his book The struggle of ideas in modern Western cinema (1984) and
100
Northwest screen: the destruction of the personality. Characters and concepts of Western art
(1985).
13. Prof. Dr. Kirill Razlogov (born in 1946) was a member of the Communist party. From
1969 to 1976 he worked in the State Film Fund. From 1977 to 1988 he was the adviser to the
Chairman of State Committee for Soviet Cinematography. Since 1972 he taught at the Higher
Courses for Scriptwriters and directors, from 1988 - in the film studies faculty of Institute of
Cinematography. His articles published in the books Myths and Reality, partly included in his
book The conveyor of dreams and psychological war: the cinema and the social and political
struggle in the West, 1970s-1980s (1986).
14. Dr. Nikolay Savitsky (born in 1939) was a member of the Communist party. He worked as
a head of department in the journal Cinema Art.
Initially, some foreign film critics (K.T. Toeplitz, E. Plazewski, A. Werner, et al.), mostly from
socialist countries, published from the first to the fourth Myths and Reality books’ collection. But
since the fifth edition (1976) publication of the articles of foreign authors stopped once and for all.
Apparently, the Soviet censors decided to completely protect readers from foreign opinions...
Table 12. The main authors of thematic books’ collection

‘Myths and Reality’ (1966-1989)
№ Names of film critics, The number of The number of Frequency of

most often published articles published articles published presence of articles of
in books’ collection by these film critics by these film critics these film critics in
Myths and Reality in books’ collection in books’ collection each of the books
Myths and Reality Myths and Reality Myths and Reality
(%) (%)
1 V. Baskakov 9 7,2 81,8
2 G. Bohemsky 9 7,2 81,8
3 G. Kapralov 9 7,2 81,8
4 R. Sobolev 6 4,8 54,5
5 A. Braginsky 5 4,0 45,4
6 E. Kartseva 5 4,0 45,4
7 L. Melville 4 3,2 45,4
8 M. Shaternikova 4 3,2 45,4
9 E. Victorova 3 2,4 27,3
10 A. Karaganov 3 2,4 27,3
11 G. Krasnova 3 2,4 27,3
12 A. Plakhov 3 2,4 27,3
13 K. Razlogov 3 2,4 27,3
14 N. Savitsky 3 2,4 27,3
Circulation and photos in ‘Myths and Reality’ collection
In the Soviet era of the books’ deficit even film critics’ books had large circulations:
a collection of Myths and Reality was launched in 1966 with a circulation of 10 thousand copies.
From 1971 to 1974 printed edition of this collection had 30 thousand, and from 1976 to 1988 –
25 thousand copies. Copies of the last book, released in 1989, had 28 thousand.
The illustrations (they were mainly shots from foreign films in black and white) did the
articles more interesting for readers. The first issue of the collection, which had the full name of
Myths and reality: the bourgeois cinema today (1966) had 47 photos, 11 (23.4 %) of them was with
the frivolous for the Soviet-Puritan times scenes (kisses, half-dressed women) from films Seduced
and Abandoned, Yesterday, Today and Tomorrow, Divorce Italian, Dolce vita, Tom Jones, Rocco
and his brothers, Night. Plus two frames (4.2 %), depicting scenes of violence (Hands over the
City, Rocco and his Brothers).
However, such freedom is apparently not passed censorship and vigilant citizens (including
the top of the Communist party apparatus). The editor of the collection G. Kapralov could not
101
ignore the directives contained in the resolution of the Communist Party Central Committee
"On measures for further development of the social sciences and enhance their role in the building
of communism" (14.08.1967) and "On increasing the responsibility of the heads of the press, radio
and television, film, culture and art institutions for the ideological and political level of the
published materials and repertoire" (07.01.1969), as well as the struggle of the USSR leadership
with liberalism of "Prague spring".
Hence it is clear that in the second issue of Myths and reality: the bourgeois cinema today
(1971) had 38 pictures, and frivolous (kisses, half-dressed heroine) photos could be considered
already only 6 (15.8 %): from the films Blow up, Thank you, Auntie, Oh, damn watermelon!,
Masculine, feminine, Belle de Jour and Satyricon. Three photos (7.9 %) were the illustrations of
footage from the film depicting scenes of violence (Salvatore Giuliano, Bonnie and Clyde,
Weekend).
In this five-year interval between the release of the first and the second issue of the collection
eloquently that the respective governing authorities felt the need to clear doubts about the release
of such publications, telling Soviet readers about the bourgeois films, not purchased to showcase in
the USSR.
It seems that everything has been taken into account: the level of frivolous illustrations in
1971 was significantly reduced in 1971. But strict tone Resolution of the Communist Party Central
Committee "On Literary Criticism" (21.01.1972), calling for even greater vigilance in relation to the
capitalist West, led to a radical change in the situation illustrated in further editions of collection:
in the issue 3 (1972) was only 19 pictures (with zero of frivolous pictures and only one frame
(5.3 %) depicting scenes of violence (Weekend). And the issues 4 (1974) and 5 (1976) have been
printed without any illustrations...
In the third edition of the collection was another significant change: the word "bourgeois"
was replaced with "foreign". This is explained by the fact that it is now part of the collection were
included articles about cinema of "developing countries" (in Africa, Asia and Latin America), of
course, not revelatory, but sympathetically and approving. This name has remained unchanged
until the end of completion in 1989.
M. Shaternikova became co-editor of G. Kapralov in 1976. And since 1978 she edited Myths
and Reality until his last, 11th edition. She re-emerged the illustrations. But everything was under
control: up to the beginning of perestroika (1985) was not any pictures a frivolous frame, and each
of the 9, 10 and 11 issues had only a couple of such illustrations (The Taming of the Shrew,
Saxophone, The Marriage of Maria Braun, Love in Germany, The Name is Carmen, An
Unmarried woman). Photos, which contain scenes of violence, distributed as follows: in the sixth
issue were four of them, i.e. 6.2 % (Taxi Driver, Chinatown, Investigation of a Citizen Above
Suspicion, Oedipus Rex). In the seventh – only one, that is, 1.7% (Investigator Nicknamed Sheriff),
in the eighth - three, i.e. 5.4 % (Canoe, Get out of Here, Telephone), in the ninth – five, 9.8 %
(Zombie Horror, The King of Comedy, Investigator Nicknamed Sheriff, Nosferatu the Vampire,
Knife in the Head), in the tenth – three, 3.9% (Gandhi, Dirty Harry, Gunfire), in the eleventh -
zero.
Table 13. Distribution of illustrations with frivolous content and scenes of violence in thematic
collection of ‘Myths and Reality’ (1966-1989)
Collection’s Year of Number of photos in Number of photos Number of photos

issue issue the issue (total) with frivolous with scenes of
content (%) violence (%)
1 1966 47 23,4 4,2
2 1971 38 15,8 7,9
3 1972 19 0,0 5,3
4 1974 0 0,0 0,0
5 1976 0 0,0 0,0
6 1978 64 0,0 6,2
7 1981 60 0,0 1,7
8 1983 55 0,0 5,4
102
9 1985 51 3,9 9,8

10 1988 76 2,6 3,9
11 1989 59 3,4 0,0
5. Conclusion
Problems of ideological struggle, and the political censorship in the socio-cultural context of
the 1960s - 1980s were reflected of Soviet critics, specializing in foreign films, in the many factors
context. The main characteristic of the official Soviet cinema studies, facing the material foreign
movie: 1) sympathetic support "progressive western filmmakers", 2) sharp criticism of "bourgeois
tendencies and perversions", 3) criticism of bourgeois society.
The eleventh edition of the collection Myths and Reality showed, finally, that the Soviet film
studies of the late 1980s was ready for deprived ideological bias in analysis of foreign cinema.
This line was continued in the post-Soviet years, no longer in the Myths and Reality, but on the
pages of scientific journals Film Criticism Notes and Cinema Art, in the film encyclopedia devoted
to the western screen, in numerous monographs, the authors of which have become and authors of
Myths and Reality (A. Braginsky, E. Kartseva, A. Plakhov, K. Razlogov, and other well-known
Russian film critics).
6. Acknowledgements
and Economics.
References
Alova, 1989 – Alova, L. (1989). The image of Sicily in contemporary Italian cinema. Myths
and Reality. Foreign cinema today. Vol. 11. Moscow: Art, pp. 110-129.
Baskakov, 1966 – Baskakov, V. (1966). The battle of ideas. Myths and Reality. Bourgeois
cinema today. Vol. 1. Moscow: Art, pp. 3-31.
Baskakov, 1971 – Baskakov, V. (1971). The complex world and its commentators. Myths and
Reality. Bourgeois cinema today. Vol. 2. Moscow: Art, pp. 5-36.
Baskakov, 1972 – Baskakov, V. (1972). The crisis of bourgeois ideology and the fate of
cinematography. Myths and Reality. Foreign cinema today. Vol. 3. Moscow: Art, pp. 75-106.
Baskakov, 1974 – Baskakov, V. (1974). Destiny of Neorealism. Myths and Reality. Foreign
Baskakov, 1976 – Baskakov, V. (1976). Cinematic America. Myths and Reality. Foreign
Baskakov, 1978 – Baskakov, V. (1978). Exposer and sacrifice. Myths and reality. Foreign
Baskakov, 1983 – Baskakov, V. (1983). Moscow International... Myths and Reality. Foreign
Baskakov, 1985 – Baskakov, V. (1985). Screen aggression. Myths and Reality. Foreign
cinema today. Vol. 9. Mosocw: Art, pp. 3-26.
Baskakov, 1988 – Baskakov, V. (1988). Yesterday and today. Myths and Reality. Foreign
Belenky, 1976 – Belenky, I. (1976). Violence and responsibility. Myths and Reality. Foreign
Bohemsky, 1971 – Bohemsky, G. (1971). Italian cinema: Light and shadow. Myths and
Bohemsky, 1972 – Bohemsky, G. (1972). Cinema of "consumer society" (Reflections on the Italian
commercial film). Myths and Reality. Foreign cinema today. Vol. 3. Moscow: Art, pp. 107-137.
Bohemsky, 1974 – Bohemsky, G. (1974). A political film in Italy. Myths and Reality. Foreign
Bohemsky, 1976 – Bohemsky, G. (1976). The working class goes on the screen. Myths and
Reality. Foreign cinema today. Vol. 5. Moscow: Art, pp. 114-151.
103
Bohemsky, 1978 – Bohemsky, G. (1978). Political cinema: the threat of a hoax. Myths and
Bohemsky, 1981 – Bohemsky, G. (1981). Italian political thriller. Myths and Reality. Foreign
Bohemsky, 1985 – Bohemsky, G. (1985). Cinema show takes revenge (Italian commercial
cinema). Myths and Reality. Foreign cinema today. Vol. 9. Moscow: Art, pp. 87-111.
Bohemsky, 1988 – Bohemsky, G. (1988). The most exciting theme (Italian films about the
war). Myths and Reality. Foreign cinema today. Vol. 10. Moscow: Art, pp. 59-79.
Bohemsky, 1989 – Bohemsky, G. (1989). World Pirandello in the screen mirror. Myths and
Braginsky, 1966 – Braginsky, A. (1966). Yesterday and today, the "new wave". Myths and
Reality. Bourgeois cinema today. Vol. 1. Moscow: Art, 1966. pp. 125-138.
Braginsky, 1976 – Braginsky, A. (1976). French political cinema. Myths and Reality. Foreign
Braginsky, 1981 – Braginsky, A. (1981). Two points of reference. Myths and Reality. Foreign
cinema today. Vol. 7. Mocow: Art, pp. 179-203.
Braginsky, 1985 – Braginsky, A. (1985). Changing of the Guard: New names, old problems
(French cinema 1970s). Myths and Reality. Foreign cinema today. Vol. 9. Moscow: Art, pp. 136-160.
Braginsky, 1989 – Braginsky, A. (1989). Two streams in a "system." Notes on the modern
French cinema. Myths and Reality. Foreign cinema today. Vol. 11. Moscow: Art, pp. 87-109.
Chertok, 1974 – Chertok, S. (1974), French cinema about working class. Myths and Reality.
Foreign cinema today. Vol. 4. Moscow: Art, pp. 144-155.
Dmitriev, Mikhalkovich, 1972 – Dmitriev, V., Mikhalkovich, V. (1972). The birth of the myth.
Myths and Reality. Foreign cinema today. Vol. 3. Moscow: Art, pp. 234-249.
Dyachenko, 1981 – Dyachenko, N. (1981). Before choosing (Political trends in modern
cinema France). Myths and Reality. Foreign cinema today. Vol. 7. Moscow: Art, pp. 62-80.
Dyachenko, 1988 – Dyachenko, N. (1988). The police film. Myths and Reality. Foreign
cinema today. Vol. 10. Moscow: Art, pp.143-161.
Fedorov, 2012 – Fedorov, A. (2012). "The Little School Orchestra'': A Sample of the
Hermeneutic Analysis of Media Texts in Student Audience. European Researcher. 2012. Vol. 32,
№ 10-2, pp. 1804-1810.
Galanov, 1966 – Galanov, B. (1966). What does the "cinema-eye"? Myths and Reality.
Bourgeois cinema today. Vol. 1. Moscow: Art, pp. 151-158.
Galanov, 1972 – Galanov, B. (1972). When gods die (Note about Cannes film festival, 1971).
Myths and Reality. Foreign cinema today. Vol. 3. Moscow: Art, pp. 202-215.
Galanov, 1974 – Golovanov, V. (1974). Hollywood: Economics and Politics. Myths and
Gromov, 1972 – Gromov, E. (1972). At the end of the sixties. Myths and Reality. Foreign
Gromov, 1989 – Gromov, E. (1989). The range of possibilities. Myths and Reality. Foreign
Jancolas, 1984 – Jancolas, J.-P. (1984). French Cinema. Fifth Republic (1958-1978).
Moscow: Rainbow, 406 p.
Janushevkaya, Demin, 1971 – Janushevkaya, I., Demin, V. (1971). Formula of adventure.
Myths and Reality. Bourgeois cinema today. Vol. 2. Moscow: Art, pp. 199-228.
Kamshalov, Nesterov, 1978 – Kamshalov, A., Nesterov, V. (1978). World Cinematography
against fascism. Myths and Reality. Foreign cinema today. Vol. 6. Moscow: Art, pp. 3-22.
Kapralov, 1971 – Kapralov, G. (1971). Hoax widescreen. Myths and Reality. Bourgeois
Kapralov, 1972 – Kapralov, G. (1972). The destruction of the myth, the truth. Myths and
Kapralov, 1974 – Kapralov, G. (1974). Screen, politics and Clockwork Orange. Myths and
Reality. Foreign cinema today. Vol. 4. Moscow.: Art, pp. 175-206.
Kapralov, 1976 – Kapralov, G. (1976). Social film with variations. Myths and Reality. Foreign
cinema today. Vol. 5. Mosocw: Art, pp. 3-32.
104
Kapralov, 1978 – Kapralov, G. (1978). "Jaws": myth, politics, business. Myths and Reality.
Kapralov, 1981 – Kapralov, G. (1981). Deadlocks desperate maze of illusions and hopes of the
road. Myths and Reality. Foreign cinema today. Vol. 7. Moscow: Art, pp. 3- 40.
Kapralov, 1983 – Kapralov, G. (1983). By spiral leading down. Myths and Reality. Foreign
Kapralov, 1985 – Kapralov, G. (1985). Cinema Demons of violence and virtue in American.
Myths and Reality. Foreign cinema today. Vol. 9. Mosocow: Art, pp. 27-45.
Kapralov, 1989 – Kapralov, G. (1989). "Loss" and the acquisition of real. Myths and Reality.
Kapralov, 1966 – Kapralov, G. (Ed.) (1966). Myths and Reality. Bourgeois cinema today.
Vol. 1. Moscow: Art, 228 p.
Kapralov, 1971 – Kapralov, G. (Ed.) (1971). Myths and Reality. Bourgeois cinema today. Vol.
2. Moscow: Art, 264 p.
Kapralov, 1972 – Kapralov, G. (Ed.) (1972). Myths and Reality. Foreign cinema today. Vol.
Kapralov, 1974 – Kapralov, G. (Ed.) (1974). Myths and Reality. Foreign cinema today. Vol.
Kapralov, Shaternikova, 1976 – Kapralov, G., Shaternikova, M. (Eds.) (1976). Myths and
Reality. Foreign cinema today. Vol. 5. Moscow: Art, 232 p.
Karaganov, 1966 – Karaganov, A. (1966). Between truth and falsehood. Myths and Reality.
Karaganov, 1972 – Karaganov, A. (1972). Commerce, politics, the arts. Myths and Reality.
Karaganov, 1976 – Karaganov, A. (1976). Italian filmmakers. Myths and Reality. Foreign
Kartseva, 1974 – Kartseva, E. (1974). Cinema of the "mass culture", system. Myths and
Kartseva, 1983 – Kartseva, E. (1983). Under the sign of the politicization. Myths and Reality.
Kartseva, 1985 – Kartseva, E. (1985). From Nazi to ultra. Myths and Reality. Foreign cinema
today. Vol. 9. Moscow: Art, pp.46-66.
Kartseva, 1988 – Kartseva, E. (1988). People in blue. Myths and Reality. Foreign cinema
today. Vol. 10. Moscow: Art, pp. 39-58.
Kartseva, 1989 – Kartseva, E. (1989). Hollywood on Hollywood. Myths and Reality. Foreign
Khanutin, 1971 – Khanutin, Y. (1971). Behind the facade of the "universal well-being" (Notes
of a young Swedish film). Myths and Reality. Bourgeois cinema today. Vol. 2. Moscow: Art,
pp. 124-149.
Kolodyazhnaya, 1978 – Kolodyazhnaya, V. (1978). Occult, fideism and modern American
cinema. Myths and Reality. Foreign cinema today. Vol. 6. Moscow: Art, pp. 169-191.
Krasnova, 1985 – Krasnova, G. (1985). The search for alternatives: German Cinema against
the expansion of Hollywood. Myths and Reality. Foreign cinema today. Vol. 9. Moscow: Art,
pp. 161-180.
Krasnova, 1989 – Krasnova, G. (1989). Challenging ... Women theme in American cinema
70s-80s. Myths and Reality. Foreign cinema today. Vol. 11. Moscow: Art, pp. 66-86.
Krasnova, 1991 – Krasnova, G. (1991). Social problems in the German "young cinema". Myths
Makarov, 1972 – Makarov, G. (1972). Ups and downs of a musical. Myths and Reality.
Mamatova, 1988 – Mamatova, L. (1988). "Parade of Stars" in Venice. Myths and Reality.
Markulan, 1972 – Markulan, J. (1972). Love, life, death for Lelouche. Myths and Reality.
Materials of the Plenum, 1983 – Materials of the Plenum of the Soviet Communist Party
Central Committee. 14-15 June 1983, Moscow, 1983, pp 7.
105
Melamed, 1972 – Melamed, L. (1972). New Latin America cinema. Myths and Reality.
Melville, 1983 – Melville, L. (1983). Feminism on the screen. Myths and Reality. Foreign
Melville, 1985 – Melville, L. (1985). Terrorism in the Western screens. Myths and Reality.
Melville, 1988 – Melville, L. (1988). "Discreet Charm" of intellectual. Myths and Reality.
Melville, 1989 – Melville, L. (1989). Movies about the "unthinkable". Myths and Reality.
Mikhalkovich, 1976 – Mikhalkovich, V. (1976). What is a thriller? Myths and Reality.
Nedelin, 1966 – Nedelin, V. (1966). A Confessions of an artist in a terrible world. Myths and
Nusinova, 1989 – Nusinova, N. (1989). Francois Truffaut: the history of cinema as an
autobiography. Myths and Reality. Foreign cinema today. Vol. 11. Moscow: Art, pp. 263-282.
Parasadanov, 1966 – Parasadanov, N. (1966). Movies and bourgeois aesthetics. Myths and
Plakhov, 1985 – Plakhov, A. (1985). Caution: TV! Myths and Reality. Foreign cinema today.
Vol. 9. Moscow: Art, pp. 112-135.
Plakhov, 1989 – Plakhov, A. (1989). In the side of myth and history in depth. Myths and
Razlogov, 1981 – Razlogov, K. (1981). The "new" conservatism and Western cinema. Myths
Razlogov, 1985 – Razlogov, K. (1985). The Church and the cinema in the West: the conflicts
and interactions. Myths and Reality. Foreign cinema today. Vol. 9. Moscow: Art, pp. 181-202.
Razlogov, 1988 – Razlogov, K. (1988). Outsider or demiurge? (The image of the journalist in
modern western movie). Myths and Reality. Foreign cinema today. Vol. 10. Moscow: Art, pp. 80-93.
Reisen, 1983 – Reisen, O. (1983). Light at the end of the tunnel (about some tendencies of
contemporary Spanish cinema). Myths and Reality. Foreign cinema today. Vol. 8. Moscow: Art,
pp. 183-203.
Resolution of the Soviet, 1972 – Resolution of the Soviet Communist Party Central
Committee "On Literary Criticism" (1972). The Soviet Communist Party in Resolutions and
Decisions of Congresses, Conferences and Central Committee plenums. Moscow: Politizdat, 1986.
Vol. 12, pp. 170-173.
Savitsky, 1988 – Savitsky, N. (1988). Movies in the flow of time (from the program "Fest-
83"). Myths and Reality. Foreign cinema today. Vol. 10. Moscow: Art, pp.122-142.
Savitsky, 1989 – Savitsky, N. (1989). "All genres ... except boring." On the problem of
"commercial cinema". Myths and Reality. Foreign cinema today. Vol. 11. Moscow: Art, pp. 148-168.
Shaternikova, 1981 – Shaternikova, M. (1981). The black shadows on the silver screen. Myths
Shaternikova, 1983 – Shaternikova, M. (1983). Return of the Forgotten Hero. Myths and
Shaternikova, Ed. 1978 – Shaternikova, M. (Ed.) (1978). Myths and Reality. Foreign cinema
today. Vol. 6. Mosocw: Art, 238 p.
today. Vol. 7. Moscow: Art, 247 p.
today. Vol. Moscow: Art 10, 240 p.
106
Shestakov, 1978 – Shestakov, V. (1978). "New Hollywood": tactics and strategy. Myths and
Praeger,
Sobolev, 1966 – Sobolev, R. (1966). Two face of "verite". Myths and Reality. Bourgeois
Sobolev, 1974 – Sobolev, R. (1974). Metamorphoses of "star system". Myths and Reality.
Sobolev, 1981 – Sobolev, R. (1981). Movies and Comics. Myths and Reality. Foreign cinema
today. Vol. 7. Moscow: Art, pp. 162-178.
Sobolev, 1983 – Sobolev, R. (1983). In the style of "disco" (notes about the movie "B"
category). Myths and Reality. Foreign cinema today. Vol. 8. Moscow: Art, pp. 226-244.
Soviet Communist Party, 1969 – Soviet Communist Party Central Committee Resolution "On
increasing the responsibility of the heads of the press, radio and television, film, culture and art
institutions for the ideological and political level of the published materials and repertoire"
(1969). Moscow, 1969.
measures for further development of the social sciences and enhance their role in the building of
communism" (1967). The Soviet Communist Party in Resolutions. Moscow, 1986. Vol. 11, pp. 237-251.
measures for further development of Soviet cinema." (1972). The Soviet Communist Party in
Resolutions. Moscow, 1986. Vol. 12, pp. 263-268.
Surkova, 1976 – Surkova, O. (1976). Metamorphosis of Swedish cinema. Bergman and
Wideberg. Myths and Reality. Foreign cinema today. Vol. 5. Moscow: Art, pp. 152-168.
Teneyshvili, 1972 – Teneyshvili, O. (1972). Everyday French commercial cinema. Myths and
Tsarapkina, 1985 – Tsarapkina, T. (1985). Canada Cinema: First Steps. Myths and Reality.
Tsyrkun, 1988 – Tsyrkun, N. (1988). "New Right" in Hollywood. Myths and Reality. Foreign
Turitsyn, 1971 – Turitsyn, V. (1971). Modern England in films Tony Richardson. Myths and
Victorova, 1978 – Victorova, E. (1978). Phenomenon Volonte. Myths and Reality. Foreign
Victorova, 1983 – Victorova, E. (1983). Man and civilization: two views of reality. Myths and
Victorova, 1989 – Victorova, E. (1989). Memories of the Future! Myths and Reality. Foreign
Weizmann, 1966 – Weizmann, E. (1966). The Myth of the person. Myths and Reality.
Yampolsky, 1989 – Yampolsky, M. (1989). Video: commerce, aesthetics and ideology. Myths
Yurenev, 1978 – Yurenev, R. (1978). The past, present and future. Myths and Reality.
107
Media Culture
Polish cinema in the mirror of the Soviet and Russian film critics
Abstract. The peak of the Soviet Union interest to Polish cinema took place in the 1960s. And this is
understandable: in the first place, unlike the situation in the 1920s - 1930s, the friendship and cooperation between
USSR and Poland actively supported at the state level in 1960s; secondly, the so-called "Polish Film School" was
very famous in Europe for those years (the second half of the 1950s to mid-1960s), thirdly, Polish films had a
significant share on the Soviet screens.
This explains why dozens of articles and five books about the Polish films have been published in 1960s.
The emergence Polish films of the "moral anxiety" led not only to a decrease in the share of Polish films on the
Soviet screens, but also to a decrease in the publications of Soviet critics about Polish cinema 1970s.
The collapse of the Soviet Union almost immediately resulted in the liquidation of the existing system box
office. Russian film / video screens were filled with American film production. The Russian cinemas 1990s had no
place not only for Polish films, but also for the Russian cinema. Polish films have failed to win a place on Russian
screens in the XXI century... As a result, not so many fans see Polish films in the Poland cinema weeks, on satellite
television or the Internet.
Keywords: film critic, film studies, film history, film, cinema, movie, Poland, USSR, Russia.
* This study carried out with the grant support of the Russian Scientific Fund (project №14-18-00014) in Taganrog
Institute of Management and Economics. Project Title: "Synthesis of media education and media criticism in the
process of preparation of future teachers."
Introduction.
The peak of the Soviet Union interest to Polish cinema took place in the
1960s. And this is understandable: in the first place, unlike the situation in the
1920s - 1930s, the friendship and cooperation between USSR and Poland actively
supported at the state level in 1960s; secondly, the so-called "Polish Film School"
was very famous in Europe for those years (the second half of the 1950s to mid-
1960s), thirdly, Polish films had a significant share on the Soviet screens.
This explains why dozens of articles and five books about the Polish films
[Chernenko, 1965; Markulan, 1967; Rubanova, 1966; Sobolev, 1965; 1967] have
been published in 1960s. The emergence Polish films of the "moral anxiety" led
not only to a decrease in the share of Polish films on the Soviet screens, but also to
a decrease in the publications of Soviet critics about Polish cinema 1970s. For
example, I. Rubanova’s books about documentary filmmaking in Poland, well

known Polish actor Zbigniew Cybulski (1927-1967) and film director Andrzej
Wajda (1926-2016) never reached the readers due to impediments censorship [see
about this: Rubanova, 2015]. The situation worsened in connection with the
attempt of the Polish "Solidarity" movement to oppose the communist regime: the
many Polish filmmakers (including A. Wajda) became unstated corollary to the
Soviet press until perestroika times ...
The short revival wave came in the end of 1980s is the beginning of the
1990s. It was a time when the Soviet press free from censorship. But ... the
collapse of the Soviet Union almost immediately resulted in the liquidation of the
existing system box office. Russian film / video screens were filled with American
film production. The Russian cinemas 1990s had no place not only for Polish
films, but also for the Russian cinema. Polish films have failed to win a place on
Russian screens in the XXI century... As a result, not so many fans see Polish
films in the Poland cinema weeks, on satellite television or the Internet.
R. Sobolev (1926-1991) and M. Chernenko (1931-2004) died, and Russian
critics began to write about the Polish cinema less and less, although today there is
a Russian film critics-polonists (including T. Eliseeva, O. Rahaeva, I. Rubanova,
and D. Viren).
What was possible and what was impossible?
I. Rubanova, one of the best connoisseurs of Polish cinema, said with

knowledge of the matter that Poland after 1956 was "territory allowed freedom...
Censorship regulated films content very tightly, including specific topics (e.g., the
relationship with the Great East Neighbor, as the current and historical), but
poetics, stylistic decisions of Polish movies were given at the discretion of the
artists" [Rubanova, 2000, 2015]. D. Viren [Viren, 2015, p.10] agrees with I.
Rubanova. Moreover, D. Viren says (and I agree with him) that "Poland, in terms
of censorship, was perhaps the most liberal (as that word is applicable in this
context) the country (among socialist states – A.F.) for artists, and not only the
filmmakers" [Viren, 2013, p. 98].
However, O. Rahaeva writes in this regard that the Polish authorities until
1956 "quite sharply reacted to the absence of the Soviet characters in the movies:
the film Forbidden Songs (Zakazane piosenki, 1946) was adopted only after the
amendments (including the show the leading role of the Soviet soldiers in Warsaw
liberation). Wanda Jakubowska wanted to avoid censorship accusations of incorrect
interpretation of the events in the film The Last Stage (Ostatni etap, 1947), and at
once two Russian characters were in a concentration camp among the others
protagonists. Another example is the movie Unconquered City (Miasto
nieujarzmione, 1950), which, after long vicissitudes of the scenario, the attempts of
Soviet soldiers establish contact with the insurgents in Warsaw 1944 were added to
the plot. Sometimes the personal involvement of the Soviet comrades was the
correct ideological guarantee: Marshal Rokossowski was the consultant of the film
Soldier of Victory (Żołnierz zwycięstwa, 1953)" [Rahaeva, 2012, p. 227].
De-Stalinization and Khrushchev’s Thaw have led to significant changes:
"Polish cinema proved exceptionally creative semi-freedom conditions. Artificial
framework imposed from above always leads to complication of the noble form,
and the state censorship provides a complex shape connotation for hungering
audience"[Gorelov, 2011]. In particular, this "semi-freedom" is well illustrated by
I. Rubanova about how Poland censorship made preventive measures in relation to
Ashes and Diamonds (Popiół i diament, 1958): this film "released on the screens,
but showing abroad banned. However, the then head of the cinematography Jerzy
Lewinski, proud of the fact that Polish cinema has managed to create such an
excellent film under his strict and flexible guidance, secretly brought it to the
Venice festival... And the film began to march through the screens of the world
and is now considered an ornament centennial history of world cinema"
[Rubanova, 2000].
Features of Soviet cinematic censorship were different: both in movies and
in film studies could not be:
- to have an alternative to official interpretation of the Polish-Russian-Soviet
relations (for example, the Soviet-Polish war of 1920, the Second World War
1939-1945, the entire post-war period, including, of course, assess the "Solidarity"
movement);
- a positive attitude to formal experimentation in the field of cinematic
language and form;
- positive use of erotic, religious and mystical topics;
- favorably assess the creativity of Polish filmmakers who have emigrated to
the West (or later: filmmakers who supported the "Solidarity").
USSR had such prohibitions until the beginning of "perestroika", but
although at 1960s-1970s some Soviet film critics could barely get around (for
example, they could write something positive about the mystical film Lokis by
Janusz Majewski).
Fearing revisionism...
R. Yurenev’s (1912-2002) article with the characteristic title The influence

of revisionism in the Polish cinema [Yurenev, 1959] was perhaps the first
prominent Soviet film studies work about Polish cinema. In spite of the supposed
onset the political "thaw", R. Yurenev clearly manifested rigid ideological
tendencies of the Stalinist era. He wrote about the key Polish films of the second
half of 1950s and generally rendered them very strict sentence. For example, he
rebuked Andrzej Wajda - the director of the most famous works of "Polish film
school Ashes and Diamonds (Popiół i diament, 1958) – and then asked
rhetorically, ideologically question: "Does Wajda read Lenin's article on party
literature in which a conquering force proved that, trying to get out of the class
struggle, the artist inevitably sinking into a swamp of reaction?" [Yurenev, 1959, p.
97].
R. Yurenev was slightly warmer to A. Wajda's war drama Canal (Kanał,
1957), because "young director made many of episodes talented, sincere and
strong". But the film critic remarked "deliberateness, the influence of
expressionism, painful attention to the suffering, to the horrors of slow deaths"
[Yurenev, 1959, p.96].
R. Yurenev was very strict to ironic film Eroica (1957) by Andrzej Munk.
Standing at that time on the solid positions of socialist realism, film critic stated:
""For me, one thing is clear: a deliberate, conscious anti-heroism in this film
objectively leads to slander of the Warsaw Uprising..."[Yurenev, 1959, p.94].
Turning to the analysis of contemporary issues in the Polish cinema, R.
Yurenev was no less strict and vigilant, treating The Eighth Day of the Week (Ósmy
dzien tygodnia, 1958) as "a film slanderously drawing Polish youth and Polish
modernity. ... Communist Aleksander Ford, the recognized leader of the Polish
cinematography, who created a series of strong and truthful films, embarked on the
path of revisionism, naturally, albeit against his will, was used as a weapon in the
struggle against their socialist homeland" [Yurenev, 1959, p.102].
R. Yurenev gave a poor rating for A. Munk’s film Man on the tracks
(Człowiek na torze, 1956), where the "international singing scene was just
insulting" [Yurenev, 1959, p. 92] and for the drama The Loop (Pętla, 1957) by
Wojciech Has where "modern Poland is the infinitely gloomy, sad and hopeless"
[Yurenev, 1959, p. 100].
Thus, R. Yurenev’s article, in fact, was a real verdict of the best movies of
"Polish film school." And who knows, perhaps it is this publication and this
particular opinion formed the basis for the adoption of "censorship conclusions",
and Eroica, The Loop and The Eighth Day of the Week were not admitted to the
Soviet screens at all, and Ashes and Diamonds although it came out, but after a
long delay.
And I must say that the R. Yurenev was not alone in these charges. Well-
known Soviet film critic J. Markulan (1920-1978) put it more crudely: Polish
"Black Series" marked, in fact, an appeal to the aesthetics of naturalism"
[Markulan 1967, p. 206].
Other prominent Soviet film critics spoke about Polish films of the second
half of 1950s in a somewhat milder version, but equally ideologically loaded: "As
is often the case in the dispute about the false and dogmatism of the past years,
some filmmakers went to the other extreme - began to reflect only the negative
side of life, and their films gave a distorted view of reality. No coincidence that
many movies of that time were called "black"... Polish cinema in the late 1950s has
experienced some influence of Western aesthetic concepts. We can find a number
of films with motifs decadent philosophies, pessimistic view of life and human
solitude"[Sobolev, 1967, pp. 17, 28].
"Many Polish features films of the second half of the 1950s were
determined by direct response to the schematic and smoothing the contradictions
inherent in many movies of the previous period. In the heat of polemic film
masters are now concentrated attention on the negative aspects of reality. ... The
tragic hopelessness and death were the main dominant in the representation of war
and occupation. It should also be noted that there have been several films in which
a new reality in this period was to blacken. This is explained by the fact that at
some time in the theory and practice of Polish cinema was to penetrate the effect of
the reaction of the bourgeois cinema ... grim, one-sided view of the world, lack of
faith in man... However, the defenders of the "black series" assured that this is the
atmosphere of hopelessness it encourages the viewer to active combat, but it's not
true. ... In some feature films this kind of influence could be seen then part of the
bourgeois cinema fashionable existentialist themes: miscommunication, the
individual's helplessness before the absurdity of life, etc. ... This topic was specific:
the content of the "Polish film school" was a hopeless story, the tragic fate of Poles
during the war and occupation, or depicted in exaggerated form the shortcomings
of contemporary Polish reality" [Kolodyazhnaya, 1974, pp. 26, 45, 47].
It follows from the above quotations, the main targets of Soviet criticism of
Polish films of the second half of the 1950s were "pessimistic", "hopeless,"
"darkness," "non-class approach", "slander," "libel", "revisionism", "exposure to
Western influence" and other factors, perceived as extremely negative from the
standpoint of socialistic realism. And I must say that official Soviet film critics
accused in such sins and some of films created in the Soviet Union or with the
participation of the USSR (Eastern Corridor by V. Vinogradov, The Red and the
White by M. Jancso, et al.).
Andrzej Wajda as the central figure of Soviet and Russian Studies of Polish
Films
Undoubtedly, some Soviet critics, who have devoted a considerable part of

their works to the Polish film (I. Rubanova, M. Chernenko et al.), tried to protect
Andrzej Wajda and his colleagues from the rough attacks. However, they were
forced to act very carefully - within the framework of what is permitted by the
censor.
In particular, they supported the official Soviet version of the alignment of
political forces in the Poland 1939-1945 and the first post-war years:
"The falsity of the bourgeois order and official ideology, actively engrafted
sanation masters of Poland discovered with the brutal certainty in 1939... Later,
when it became impossible to count on the defeat of the Soviet Army, Armia
Krajowa degenerated into armed gangs"[Rubanova, 1966, pp. 8-9].
"The political program put forward by the Armia Krajowa was determined in
the early thirties, the slogan of "two enemies": Germany and the Soviet Union. In
fact, this slogan meant a focus on German Nazism against the Soviet Union"
[Chernenko, 1965a].
"The war, heroism, duty and patriotism - these topics have become dominant
in the Polish cinema. And most powerfully embodied in Ashes and Diamonds. This
film tells on the tragedy of Polish young men, deceived reactionary underground,
turning weapons against the Polish Communists and Soviet soldiers, their senseless
deaths"[Chernenko, 1965b]. "The reactionary leadership of the Armia Krajowa,
Polish government in exile in London sent hundreds of thousands of young men to
a senseless death "[Chernenko, 1965a].
"Not without reason, "Ashes and Diamonds" is the highest achievement of
Polish cinematography, the most complete expression of the Polish Film School.
This talented product with extraordinary artistic power and integrity disclosed the
basic conflict of so-called "Polish drama": doom, sacrifice in the name of false
ideals of witnesses. ... The reason for the success was in the fact that the relentless
and sincere Wajda’s film said the first time the truth about those that had caused
the death of these young character from Armia Krajowa, this film opened the anti-
popular nature of the Polish government in exile, was selling the interests of
Poland, made a deal with the Nazis and provoking fratricidal struggle" [Markulan,
1967, pp. 80, 91-92].
"Actor (Zbigniew Cybulski – A.F.) tried to translate the emotional
biography of the generation to which he belongs, and of which he, with
extraordinary clarity and completeness played in his best film - Ashes and
Diamonds. ... The actor plays both guilty and innocent of his hero. This character is
guilty, because it missed the story, because he was blind and deaf to it. But he is
innocent, because using patriotic feeling, he had been deceived and betrayed by the
bourgeois leaders of the movement" [Rubanova, 1965, pp. 136, 140].
In search of analogies, understandable and acceptable to the Soviet regime,
M. Chernenko and V. Kolodyazhnaya tried to lean on the novel And Quiet Flows
the Don by M. Sholokhov: "Maciek Chelmicki tragedy very close to the fate of
Gregory Melekhov. Let the different circumstances of time and place, and different
biographies of the characters, but they are united by the guilt in front of his people,
which can only redeem death" [Chernenko, 1964].
"Maciek confused as Gregory Melikhov, turned out to be a victim of
circumstances and people around him, vaguely feel their mistake and paid for it
with life. However, Maciek is national Polish hero type, ready to do adventurous
things without thinking about their practicality and their ideological meaning"
[Kolodyazhnaya, 1974, p.34].
R. Sobolev arose the same analogy: "The tragedy of death Maciek is the
same obvious truth that he dies deceived and confused, although his true place is in
the ranks of the builders of the new Poland. If we look for parallels, then the same
tragic fate of Gregory Melikhov" [Sobolev, 1967, pp. 40, 43].
Disagreeing with their conservative opponents, the author of a monograph
on the military theme in the Polish Film I. Rubanova rightly wrote that "Ashes and
Diamonds is the film is not only a political one. Its content is broader than just the
specific analysis of the political situation. And this situation, and its interpretation
away from history. ... And Ashes and Diamonds is historic film in the same extent
that the modern" [Rubanova, 1966, p.112].
In the post-Soviet 1990s, M. Chernenko returned to the analysis of the most
famous film by Andrzej Wajda: "Ashes and Diamonds immediately became a part
of our cinematic culture in the late 1950s - early 1960s, and probably we cannot
find a Soviet film director who would not see this movie in State Film Fund. And
today many years later, we can see Ashes and Diamonds’ quotations in many of
Soviet and Russian films… We remember this wonderful plastic, the general
atmosphere of the film, a striking mixture of sadness and hopelessness, despair and
joy of biological life, inexorable historical destiny and chance of human choices..."
[Chernenko, 1992].
T. Eliseeva appreciated Ashes and Diamonds with modern look, free of
censorship "The main character, a brave young Pole, ready to sacrifice themselves
"for the cause", who fought during the Nazi occupation for the liberation of his
country, is faced with the fact that his homeland liberated people an alien ideology.
Maciek belonged to the army, which was fighting for other Poland, ... He wants to
live in the best Poland, and it's his right"[Eliseeva, 2009, p. 99].
As mentioned above, the Canal by A. Wajda generally been met Soviet
criticism positively [Rubanova, 1966, pp. 89-99]. For example, it was noted that
this work is "about people who were doomed from the first frame of the film, and
the film did not cheat, he warned about it at once, in the credits, people who have
lost everything except the human dignity that could not win and we knew it, but
went to their death, because death was the only that he belonged in life that they
can choose on their own, on my own. And they made this choice in the name of
freedom, in the name of independence, in the name of the victory of those who
survive" [Chernenko, 1974].
Soviet film critics paid attention to the figurative language of this
outstanding work: Soviet film critics paid attention to the figurative language of
this outstanding work: "Canal is tough and courageous film. Many scenes are
solved here with the ascetic rigor, their strength - in the expression. There is no
trace of admiration... Light, noise, mobility nervous camera, density and sharpness
of darkness light accents, dissection of our attention, ... creation of emotional
intensity of our feelings, a sense of extraordinary poetic power of the climate
pattern. Screen image gives us not only the state of mind of the people of the
doomed unit, but also as it materializes stuffy smelly canals, instability of each step
on the slippery rocks, and infinite despair of this tragic labyrinth" [Markulan, 1967,
pp. 77-78].
V. Kolodyazhnaya rightly wrote that Canal’s acting was very low-key and
subtle in expression brought to the extreme feelings. Plastic mode of action,
documentary and sharp accuracy. Laconic and unusual expression of composition,
angles, beams of light aimed into the darkness, emphasized the tragedy of action,
always reliable and often metaphorical" [Kolodyazhnaya, 1974, p.33].
However, this positive assessment of Canal was sometimes with a spoon of
ideological tar: "The Warsaw Uprising was adventurous action government in
exile, which had the aim to return the power of the bourgeois-landlord circles"
[Sobolev, 1967, p. 31]. Although the Canal and Ashes and Diamonds were
delivered with talent, but "both films did not contain deep philosophical
understanding of history, they have given more emotional reflection of the tragic
fate of ordinary soldiers of Armia Krajowa. Political, economic and social aspects
of the processes were without the object of analysis. Wajda touched these problems
in passing" [Kolodyazhnaya, 1974, p. 37].
Bright, emotional Lotna was met with a Soviet film studies even more
critical: this Wajda’s film was accused of formalism [Markulan 1967, pp. 102-
110]. And even such a fan of A. Wajda, like M. Chernenko, wrote that "referring to
Eisenstein, Wajda repeat the mistakes of this master, and, realizing this, he rushed
to other side – to Luis Bunuel, saturating the film with bloody and violent images
that lie on the edge of surreal nightmares. ... As a result, the movie was
supercharged autonomous characters, stylistically fragmented, difficult to
understand. [Chernenko, 1965a].
M. Chernenko not spared and Wajda’s film on a contemporary topic,
arguing that the "characters of Innocent Sorcerers (Niewinni Czarodzieje, 1960)
are antipodes trilogy heroes. It is significant that Wajda in his first film about the
present refers to characters that lie on the periphery of reality. It's clear. Wajda not
comprehended artistically main problems of modern time, he was afraid to be false
in the main. The falsity in the periphery it seemed less risky. For the first time
Wajda afraid of risk. And inevitably loses. The character of Innocent Sorcerers for
internal disorder, shutting among snobbish attitudes, could not be a hero of truly
dramatic conflict" [Chernenko, 1965a].
But Soviet film criticism has positive reaction to the confessional Wajsa’s
film Everything for Sale (Wszystko na sprzedaż, 1968): "Wajda, the most romantic
Polish director, seemingly, forever doomed to search and find just the tragedy and
defeat in the last of his people, even Wajda shoots in the late sixties the amazing
self-criticism, ironically to himself film Everything for Sale, which exposes the
ruthless revision of everything that was done to them for fifteen years in the movie,
which brought worldwide fame: and he himself and the Polish
cinema"[Chernenko, 1974]. Everything for Sale "became a film not only about
Cybulski, but became a film about the cost of human individuality, gives himself
to others, profess to people and for the people" [Chernenko, 1970].
And I agree with M. Chernenko: it is difficult for the artist "to overcome
itself (success, style, drama, mental stereotypes)" To do this, Andrzej Wajda "had
to turn himself inside out, to endure the death of Cybulski, to experience it as their
own, to "pushed" by the tragic death of the co-author of his masterpiece, ... to
make a ruthless assessment of own temperament and intelligence, a brutal revision

of ethics and aesthetics, emotional and artistic services" [Chernenko, 1971].
In this context, elegiac The Birch Wood (Brzezina, 1970) was perceived by
the Soviet film studies as a kind of respite wizard: "The Birch Wood completely
lost everything that made the strength and nerve of Wajda’s movies: fierce, non-
cancellable ownership painful problems of human history, its neuralgic points and
nodes"[Chernenko, 1972]. "Private family history becomes for him a new occasion
for reflection on the inseparable, inevitable, the absolute connection between man
and his country" [Rubanova, 1972, p. 151].
It is worth noting that Landscape after battle (Krajobraz po bitwie, 1970)
received also positively opinions from the Soviet film critics [Kolodyazhnaya,
1974, pp. 51-55; Chernenko, 1971; 1972 1978].
Of course, Soviet censorship was hostile to the anti-stalinist social drama
Man of Marble (Człowiek z marmuru, 1976) by A. Wajda, but soviet film critics
could to write about the movies of Andrzej Wajda until the era of "Solidarity". For
example, a large-scale drama Promised Land (Ziemia obiecana,1974) by A. Wajda
received a wide positive response in the Soviet press [Chernenko, 1977;
Rubanova, 1977, p. 176].
But Andrzej Wajda actively supported the "Solidarity" movement, and the
Soviet journal Cinema Art published an editorial under the characteristic title
Andrzej Wajda: what's next? [Surkov, 1981]. And soon the name of Wajda was
struck off for several years of the Soviet press.
I. Rubanova very precisely wrote about: "Andrzej Wajda was deleted away
from the Soviet screen, it was forbidden to use his printed name of last ten years.
And these events gave the myths. Two versions of the legend was most widely
used: a popular and official. The first is that the creator of Ashes and Diamonds is
poet of the generation historical tragedy... Version two: he is a demagogue,
instigator, opportunistic, having exchanged his poetic talent at a flat politicking
(see anonymous article Andrzej Wajda: What Next?, placed – alas, alas - in the
pages of Cinema Art, 1981, n 10!)" [Rubanova, 1989, p.155].
Film critic S. Lavrentiev reminded of further developments: "The USSR had the
revolution in cinema. Incendiary bold speech pronounced and the forbidden films one
by one came out on the screens. The very dense reactionaries realized that Buñuel and
Bergman, Coppola and Foreman were great masters. The debate about erotica on
the screen already inflamed... But Wajda’s question is not even raised for
discussion. Wajda was guarded as the last besieged fortress... Many of his fans
refused to believe in what he set foot on Moscow earth and November, 1, on the
eve of the Master arrived" [Lavrenov, 1989]. But Wajda came, spoke in the debate,
gave an interview. Thus began his return...
However, the films of the late Wajda called opposition not only from the
Soviet officialdom. Even in the XXI century there are Russian critics who believe
that "Wajda’s speculative use stories from the recent tragic Polish past (Korczak
and Katyń) were doomed to failure"[Kirillov, 2011]. As you can see from the
above text, M. Kirilov speaks sharply, categorically, however, not backing up (to
my opinion) at least some convincing arguments...
D. Gorelov write more radically: "All Polish directors dived into the
proletarian environment in the period of "Solidarity", and it was a massive betrayal
of the idea of Polish cinema. ... Wajda, who is filming about the impact
construction and shipyard, there are muddy prostitution matter, for people's power
to do it, or against it" [Gorelov, 2011].
But maybe it is worth to listen to S. Lavrentiev: "After all, what is a Man of
Marble? Equally masterful as it film research of detailed mechanism of infernal
machine actions to transform the human person in the "cog". The more valuable
that the object of diabolical experiments presented here as a worker" [Lavrentiev,
1989]. ... Mirrored the situation Man of Marble, Man of Iron told that at the present
stage of development of society a person can to resist the diabolical mechanism,
but also to survive in this struggle. People here believe that the direction of history
may depend on their actions. ... No major and minor characters, famous historical
figures and unknown citizens. Everything is important. At any moment the balance
of power may change... Maybe I'm wrong, but the creation of such a film-image
seems to me a manifestation of the highest skill of directing"[Lavrentiev, 1989].
Of course, after the "rehabilitation" of Wajda's film Soviet/Russian critics
began to reflect without any censorship restrictions: "What does the Man of
Marble? ... This film the opened space for the activities of Wajda’s younger
colleagues, and Man of Iron exhausted motives, character, style of "cinema of
moral anxiety". Refusal of pathos, metaphorical peaks from multiple layers and
multiple meanings of cinematic image, the rate on its direct sound direct
manifestation of reality, which itself raised to the reality of the rank of historical..."
[Rubanova 1989, pp. 158-159, 163].
M. Chernenko succinctly expressed the significance of the great Polish
director for the Soviet audience: Wajda was alive, inflexible, intractable ...
indication that somewhere very near, almost in the same conditions in the same
suffocating atmosphere, there is the art of cinema, which is not simply engaged in
a dialogue on an equal footing with the surrounding reality, as elusive as the
opportunity to dream our filmmakers, but this reality imposes its own language, his
manner of speaking, its own system of values. In other words, this is a dialogue
with the past and present, with national myths and illusions, with lies and slander
as a way of thought and life. And wins a victory, though not always those who
seek to directly, but always making the next required, the next step is to target the
ultimate and only to the freedom of every human person, because without it, as it is
known, cannot be freedom for all the other"[Chernenko, 2001].
Russian film studies (and I think rightly) highlights the Katyń (2007) from
all of post-Soviet Wajda's films: "One way or another, but we can admit that the
87-year-old patriarch of Polish cinema is the only one in the world cinema master
who feels true the scale of the tragedy and has the gift to convey it to the audience"
[Rubanova 2013].
Thus, despite all the inconsistencies, Andrzej Wajda has been and remains a
major Polish Cinema figure for the Russian film criticism.
Wanda Jakubowska: Critical Consensus
Soviet film critic did not have any disagreements about movies of Wanda
Jakubowska (1907-1998). W. Jakubowska was a member of the Communist Party,
a former prisoner of Nazi concentration camp. Her drama The Last Stage (Ostatni
etap, 1947) about the horrors of Auschwitz. Soviet film critics evaluated this film
immediately and permanently positive [Sobolev, 1967, pp.10-11; Markulan, 1967,
pp. 25-38; Kolodyazhnaya, 1974, pp. 6-7].
And while the rest of Jakubowska’s films was without special films criticism
interest, The Last Stage began in the Soviet Union as a benchmark of the Polish
anti-Nazi film: "Jakubowska has the purpose: to show how people sneaking hope,
retained the ability to fight through violence and abuse. Chronicle cannot afford to
show the will of the people, their ability to resist non-decreasing. It could only
make a feature film" [Rubanova 1966, p. 63].
Aleksander Ford: with a fair wind to the West ...
The situation with the work of another famous Polish director - Aleksander
Ford (1908-1980) - was much more difficult. While he was a communist and was
shooting Boundary Street (Ulica Graniczna, 1948), Soviet film critics praised him
[Markulan, 1967, pp. 38-49]. On the other hand, A. Ford significantly tarnished its
reputation in the eyes of official Soviet film criticism with "revisionist" film The
Eighth Day of the Week (Ósmy dzien tygodnia, 1958). However, R. Yurenev’s
article containing harsh accusations against this film, has been published in highly
specialized publications [Yurenev, 1959, p. 102] and, consequently, was available
mainly to specialists. And most importantly: the next Ford’s work - a large-scale
color historical epic Crusaders (Krzyżacy, 1960) he returned to acceptable Soviet
context.
This explains why J. Markulan, not even including the Eighth Day of the
Week in her book Cinema of Poland, but noted with satisfaction that "at a time
when there were anti-heroism trends was in the Polish art, Ford made the movie,
frankly extols the heroism as an eternal category, enduring the most powerful"
[Markulan, 1967, p.49].
Even a polemical sharp war drama First Day of Freedom (Pierwszy dzien
wolnosci, 1964) by A. Ford received almost ecstatically evaluation: "Finally, one
more victory. More than once we heard the voice of the end of the Polish school of
full inflation of military themes. But A. Ford makes the film First Day of Freedom
and turns the course of debate. Even ardent opponents recognize not only the
legitimacy of recourse to "waste" the topic, but also an extraordinary freshness and
modernity solutions military theme. Furthermore, even ardent opponents recognize
the philosophical and aesthetic kinship latest of this movie with the best creations
of the Polish Film School" [Markulan 1967, p. 49].
R. Sobolev wrote about First Day of Freedom also in the positive context,
noting the brilliant play of the Polish star Beata Tyszkiewicz: "Watch Beata game
it is enjoy what you always get when meeting with genuine art" [Sobolev, 1966, p.
168].
But... J. Markulan and R. Sobolev published their opinions until 1969, when
Aleksander Ford decided to emigrate to the West. But after 1969, according to the
censorship tradition, Soviet film critics almost did not mention about A. Ford...
The discussion about the work of Andrzej Munk
Andrzej Munk (1921-1961) died in a car accident in early 1960s, so, unlike
Aleksander Ford, he was persona grata for Soviet censorship. although, of course,
the official Soviet criticism had the negative attitude to many of his films
[Yurenev, 1959, p. 94].
But R. Sobolev, for example, liking all the movies of A. Munch [Sobolev,
1967]. M. Chernenko reacted positively to the Bad Luck (Zezowate szczęście,
1959): "Polish filmmakers are able to look at the tragic past of the other eye,
ruthless, not only the enemy, but also to their own weaknesses, absurdities,
disadvantages" [Chernenko, 1974]. Soviet film critics wrote very positive and
about last Munk’s film The Passenger (Pasazerka, 1963) [Rubanova, 1966, pp.
165-178; Kolodyazhnaya, 1974].
The polemical A. Munk’s film Eroica was the main point of contention in
the Soviet film studies about Polish movies:
"Eroica is built in the image of the war and the not typical events and
characters, or rather paradoxes on heroism" [Kolodyazhnaya, 1974, p. 39]. "Eroica
has not protest, not struggle, there is only a religious fanatic faith in a miracle, a
legend, a myth, as the only deliverance" [Markulan 1967, p. 119]. I. Rubanova
noted that the main miscalculation of the authors of the film "is not to rethink the
historical realities. It is a complex phenomenon that history consciously them only
in part, without taking into account connections and weaves disparate laws"
[Rubanova 1966, p. 119].
And here is the opinion of the Russian film criticism of the post-Soviet era:
"Munk raises questions that many times were set in the history of Poland: how to
survive in captivity, how to cope with the humiliation, how to keep hope alive. ...
And although Munk’s film if the voice against mythologizing the heroism, it is not
directed against the very heroism" [Eliseeva, 2009, p.25].
Wojciech Has: disappeared from sight...
Soviet film criticism as a whole negatively [Yurenev, 1959, p. 100] met W.

Has’ grim drama Loop (Pętla, 1957), critics indicated relations to the so-called
"black series" of Polish cinema: "deeply flawed movie", "aggressive nihilism"

[Kolodyazhnaya, 1974, p.27]. A positive attitude to the Loop [Rubanova, 1966, pp.
146-148] seemed discordant in this background. However, the yield on Soviet
screens W. Has’ films How to be loved (Jak być kochaną, 1962) and The
Manuscript Found in Saragossa (Rekopis znaleziony w Saragossie, 1964) did his
work in the USSR is quite legitimate, therefore, Soviet film critics could write
about this director with open sympathy.
Tragicomedy How to be loved was rated by the Soviet film studies
particularly warm [Rubanova, 1966, pp. 148-151]. M. Chernenko wrote about this
sad and ironic film like this: "If I were a historian, I would have to say that
Zbigniew Cybulski played his role in this film as distinct parody of his role in
Ashes and Diamonds. And the whole drama did not hide his parody in relation to
the "Polish Film School". But then, after seeing the film, I remained a striking
actress Barbara Krafftówna, poignant story of her heroine, sacrificed himself for
the sake of love, she led survive in spite of all disappointments" [Chernenko,
1974].
A film critic J. Markulan summarized film director’s artistic signature: "W.
Has, perhaps, the most difficult director of Polish cinema. Not so easy at times to
get through to the essence of his creatures, to understand the hidden meaning.
Sometimes it seems that he mystifies the audience and issues of ambiguity, if not
empty, then something is very elementary. And then comes the suspicion that he
was just having fun form, with virtuoso dexterity builds stunning designs of
cinematic construction materials. But it is difficult, sometimes impossible to
understand what will be the structure. Consistently, a human stubbornness,
knowing the truth, it creates a bizarre world, a little similar to the one in which we
live and inhabit his people too strange, manic obsessed with one passion (no idea,
namely passion). His characters are always put in the position of exclusive, most
often they are isolated from the environment, they are deprived of the case and feel
minimal communication with the public. W. Has’ camera is like a microscope, a
magnifying observation object to epic proportions, as if it is moving away from
everything that does not belong to the lens" [Markulan, 1967, p. 208].
However, after the release of the Doll (Lalka, 1968), his subsequent works
have disappeared from sight Soviet critics. The reason for this is well noted by D.
Viren: "Surreal imagery grew from film to film in the works of Wojciech Jerzy
Has" [Viren, 2015, p. 16], which was absolutely unacceptable to the Soviet
censorship of the 1970s - the first half of 1980s. Only in post-Soviet times, after
W. Has (1925-2000) death, T. Eliseeva published the first in the Russian film
criticism review about Has’ surrealistic masterpiece - Sanatorium under the
Hourglass (Sanatorium pod Klepsydrą, 1973): "It's a beautiful, elegant and
picturesque ribbon, the protagonist of which is nostalgia for the departing time,
outgoing and a vanished culture of the eastern regions of Poland, where it was
already a strong Jewish element, but as a presentiment of impending terror era
concentration camp crematoria..."[Eliseeva 2009, p. 123].
Jerzy Kawalerowicz (initially) the darling of the Soviet Box Office
In the Soviet films box office of the 1960s, Jerzy Kawalerowicz (1922-2007)
occupied a special place: almost all of his work, set them up to 1966, were
successfully shown in the USSR. Colored historical drama Pharaoh (Faraon,
1965) had the particular success with Soviet audiences.
However, not all Soviet critics treated with reverence to the films E.
Kawalerowicz. So J. Markulan claimed that "Train (Pociag, 1959) just a wonderful
sketch. Poverty cannot be overcome by anything dramatic, and all the director’s
Herculean efforts broke on the script of emptiness, his sketchy and sometimes
banal" [Markulan 1967, p. 195].
A. Sokolskaya wrote about Mother Joanna of the Angels (Matka Joanna od
Aniołów, 1961) that this "film is without a doubt, is opposed to religious world.
But it is not just about religion. It is all about the lack of freedom, of prohibitions,
gravitating over man. About thirst of action, which is stronger than fear, on the
nature of activity. One of the Polish critics called it a product of the modern Faust.
About Faust, who is the devil and God in him." [Sokolskaya, 1965, p. 65].
J. Markulan supported Sokolskaya’s opinion: "Ideological and aesthetic
searching of Kawalerowicz led to the creation of monumental philosophical
Mother Joanna of the Angels. In this complex film Kawalerowicz remained
faithful to its basic principles: here there is "hunger feeling" that put their
characters into a frenzy and rebellion, and here the richness and complexity of
psychology expressed in terms of the actor, through the plastic, the music: the
harmony of all the language components" [Markulan, 1967, p. 196].
Mother Joanna of the Angels is perhaps the case that the views of the Soviet
and post-Soviet critics almost coincided. So, T. Eliseeva argues that there is "love
and faith have faced in conflict. Kawalerowicz primarily concerned with the
eternal problem of human freedom borders, the problem of human nature to the
relationship undertaken voluntarily or imposed from outside prohibitions. There
are the universal problems. Duration also conditionally ... that can happen anytime,
anywhere. ... Picture is perfect, mature reflection on the conflict of faith and love,
the nature of man, look at the madness and demonic as an attempt to revolt against
the hypocrisy of the world"[Eliseeva, 2009, p. 71].
Since 1966, only one new film by Jerzy Kawalerowicz was in the Soviet
screens. The reason for this can probably be found in the fact that "Kawalerowicz
has a feature: each of his new film like cross out everything that has been achieved
in the previous year. He is always on the lookout, because his every film can be
called experimental"[Sobolev, 1967, p. 15].
And if his experiments of the 1950s - the first half of 1960s were allowed to
for the Soviet censors, the postmodernist Game (Gra, 1968) and Maddalena (Italy-
Yugoslavia, 1970) already does not fit into the aesthetics socialistic realism. Soviet
censorship considered The Death of the President (Śmierć prezydenta, 1977) and
Austeria (1982) too politicized.
Soviet censors did not forbid for Soviet film critics write something about
E. Kawalerowicz, but his films after 1966was almost unknown in the USSR...
Tadeusz Konwicki: outside the Soviet screens
None of the six movies of famous Polish writer, screenwriter and film
director T. Konwicki (1926-2015) did not in the Soviet Screens. However, oddly
enough, soviet film critics quite lively and in a positive context, were discussed
about the first three of his films [see, for example: Markulan 1967, pp. 230-234].
The directorial debut of T. Konwicki - The Last Day of Summer (Ostatni
dzien lata, 1957) had the special interest for Soviet film criticism. I. Rubanova
wrote that "melancholy atmosphere of isolation, almost cosmic emptiness recreated
in the film with great skill. The authors ascertain the alienation of characters, but
they do not seek to explain it. And for this explanation they refer to the past"
[Rubanova 1966, p. 137]. I agree: this is "one of the most poetic and lyrical works
of Polish cinema, but it is perhaps also the saddest movie, in which the topic of
loneliness sounded hopeless, hysterically" [Markulan 1967, p. 223].
V. Kolodyazhnaya clarified the cause of the Soviet film critics’ interest to
films of T. Konwicki 1950s – 1960s: "Konwicki pioneered new content and new
means of movie expression, he reflect the complex intimate, lyrical world of man,
the spiritual life of those areas that were previously considered belonging to only
one literature." [Kolodyazhnaya, 1974, p. 63].
V. Kolodyazhnaya’s article was published in 1974 when T. Konwicki has
directed his chief, shrill confessional film How far from here, how close (Jak
daleko stąd, jak blisko, 1971). However, V. Kolodyazhnaya preferred not even to
mention the film. Similarly done and L. Muratov [Muratov, 1976], the author of
the work of Gustaw Holoubek, did not mention How far from here, how close too,
though this actor played a key role in this film. The reason for this, as is the case
with E. Kawalerowicz’s films Game and Maddalena, was also the aesthetic as
"central pattern of the director." How far from here, how close "are fully consistent
with the canons of surrealism: her action is based on the intersection of the past
and present, dreams and memories, dreams and waking" [Viren, 2015, p. 17].
As a result, T. Konwicki’s films of 1970s – 1980s was a phantom, not only
for the Soviet public, but also for Soviet film criticism...
Jerzy Skolimowski: from criticism to taboo
No work of film director Jerzy Skolimowski was not in the Soviet screens.
However, before his emigration to the West, which occurred in the late 1960s,
Soviet critics eagerly wrote about his movies.
J. Markulan acknowledged that "Skolimowski is certainly a talented director.

Rysopis is the film with amazing sincerity and accuracy of direction. ... Although
Walkover appeared raid affectation, a sort of coquetry. ... A lot of vulnerabilities
exist in Skolimowski’s objectivism, in his view of character, as it were from the
outside and, above all, the rejection of any kind of conclusions" [Markulan 1967,
p. 235]. R. Sobolev was more positive: "The sophisticated viewer may notice that
... Skolimowski style - it's something stunning, unusual. Of course, his style has
been prepared with all those quests of the past decade, what happens in the movie.
Of course, Skolimowski has absorbed the experience of Polish filmmakers, and the
French "new wave", opening Godard and Antonioni, instructive failures "verite"
and more [Sobolev, 1967, p. 98].
E. Skolimowski’s departure to the West, of course, radically changed the
vector of critical statements of the Soviet critics. V. Kolodyazhnaya wrote that
Skolimowski "lack of faith in spiritual values, including in the spiritual values of a
socialist society", she asserted that "Skolimowski’s characters live by Western
existentialist schemes, they are deeply alien to the contemporary Polish life.
Skolimowski ... trying to get in the position "outside observer", but there is no
doubt that the spiritual poverty of characters, the lack of contacts between them
and the tragic absurdity of life seem to him essential features of the universe"
[Kolodyazhnaya 1974, p. 77].
This film expert position in strict Soviet censorship is not surprising. More
surprising that this position finds support among some Russian film critics of the
XXI century. For example, M. Kirilov and now believes that "the films
representing in Poland the style of "new wave", filmed just two people: Roman
Polanski and Jerzy Skolimowski. Skolimowski’s movies were absolutely
cosmopolitan... His characters are taken out of the environment, they live by their
own laws, perpendicular to society. ... Skolimowski left "socialist paradise", which
he deeply despised, but as a director simply degraded, taking worthless and devoid
of fancy crafts" [Kirillov, 2011].
Roman Polanski: only one film
Debuting a series of short films, Roman Polanski has put in socialist Poland,
only one full-length film - Knife in the Water (Nóż w wodzie, 1962). As "the first
surrealist short film Two people with the cabinet (Dwaj ludzie z szafa, 1958), his
feature debut, Knife in the Water is psychodrama with sadomasochistic break, this
film differed sharply from the Polish film production in those years and were
perceived in Europe as a socio-romantic Slavic exoticism"[Plakhov, 1999, p. 31].
This allowed R. Polanski after his emigration very fast (since 1963) to adapt the
West ...
Hence, in general, it is clear why R. Sobolev negatively assessed the
nominated for "Oscar" Knife in the Water: "This is not an easy film: something is
undoubtedly truthful and analytic, and somewhat one-sided and narrow in thought.
Some people said this is a snobbish film. Maybe. However, first of all this film is
made with cold hands, a film director can be very talented, but apparently
indifferent to people's joys and sorrows. I have two indisputable conclusions after
viewing Knife in the Water: a) the author despises people and b) people are
contemptible"[Sobolev, 1967, pp. 88-89].
J. Markulan wrote about Knife in the Water in a similar vein: "All this can
be understood in two ways. Whether the filmmakers are protesting against "small
stabilization", ridiculed both sides of the middle class - a frank and disguised, or
seriously consider the inevitability and universality of philistine dishonesty. The
film looks like an elegant paradox, designed for amusement"[Markulan, 1967, p.
244]. V. Kolodyazhnaya echoed: "The main features of all the characters are
selfishness, petty vanity, lack of spirituality... People were depicted insignificant in
its nature and existence in general appeared as meaningless" [Kolodyazhnaya,
1974, pp. 76-77].
The verdict of the official Soviet cinema criticism was strict and merciless:
"there was nothing surprising in the fact that Roman Polanski and Jerzy
Skolimowski fled in the capitalist world. Here they began staging entertaining
movies preserving the old philosophical essence. Both directors depict crime
perverse biological nature of man and the tragic absurdity of the universe"
[Kolodyazhnaya, 1974, p. 78].
But here it is worth noting that in the XXI century Russian film critic M.
Kirillov, in fact, remained faithful to the traditions of Soviet film criticism about
the Knife in the Water: "Roman Polanski, as it turned out, was basically a stranger
to whatever ideology. He was a skilled and talented impersonator, instantly adapts
for the style that was in vogue in this particular moment. ... Knife in the Water has
something common with Chabrol experiments, but the Polish director lacked the
Frenchman’s anger and sarcasm, he had only imitated the psychological thriller"
[Kirillov, 2011].
But I like T. Eliseeva’s view about Knife in the Water: Roman Polanski "is
not just opposed secured layman and a representative of the younger generation,
brought up in accordance with certain moral and social principles. He sarcastically
proved that these principles are worth nothing, generating only envy and greed.
Although the director has created a universal situation that exists outside of time,
are not connected with any country or with the era, human allusions were read and
learn easy"[Eliseeva, 2009, p. 82].
Krzysztof Zanussi and film of moral anxiety
Krzysztof Zanussi is one of the few bright examples of a positive

assessment of Polish cinema from both Soviet and post-Soviet times’ film critics.
V. Kolodyazhnaya consistently praised his works at the beginning of his career
[Kolodyazhnaya, 1974, pp. 79-83], noting that "Zanussi showed himself a moralist
in the noblest sense of the word: it stands for good, for a deep comprehension of
the meaning of life, for the ideals" [Kolodyazhnaya, 1974, p. 80].
M. Chernenko wrote about this outstanding master in a friendly manner,
noting, for example, that in the Hypothesis (Hipoteza, 1972), "we can see the open
ironic list of possible variants of human destiny, taken at the crossroads of Europe,
the fate of the beginning of this century" [Chernenko, 1978]. M. Chernenko
equally warm wrote about the Khaki (Barwy ochronne, 1976), one of the central
dramas of Polish moral anxiety cinema: "Rather austere, purely rationalistic moral
incidents, ... instead of "real European" cinema ... we can see a viper satirical film
with well-cut plot, unexpected sense of humor, an elegant dialogue. ... debate about
the immorality of the authorities, the hypocrisy and the arrogance of life owners, a
general demoralization of society..." [Chernenko, 1990].
In fact, Krzysztof Zanussi, the physicist and philosopher, is a "rational
Christian. His every utterance obviously religious and yet calibrated strict Western
rationalism. Rationalist Zanussi often proving to be an idealist. ... His films have
always talked about a special world. More precisely, the two worlds: the ordinary
life with her sometimes unusual problems, and the questions of life and death, truth
and freedom"[Rahaeva, 2007].
I totally agree with T. Eliseeva: "Zanussi thoroughly and dispassionately
translates into the language of the cinema the most fundamental and complex
problems of human existence, are essential for every human being: birth, life,
death, intellect, conscience, soul, faith. For this director the modern world is the
territory of moral conflicts and ethical dilemmas."[Eliseeva, 2002, p. 67].
In 1982, I wrote a rather voluminous article entitled Polish cinema 1970s:
"third generation" and the debut of the youth [Fedorov, 1982] and tried to offer
this text in the main Soviet cinema journals. I believe that censorship alarmed even
the first line of my article begins: "In the 1960s Polish cinema has lost some of its
leading artists of Polish Film School, and young film directors. Director Andrzej
Munk became the victim of a car accident in 1961. Zbigniew Cybulski, Polish
actor № 1, died under the wheels of the train in 1967.
Roman Polanski, "the child prodigy of the Polish screen", left to the West in
1963. Another young film director and actor Jerzy Skolimowski followed him
later, in 1968. One of the best Polish cameramen Jerzy Lipman and film director
Aleksander Ford, talented animators Jan Lenica and Walerian Borowczyk also
moved to the West...
Films of well known directors such as Wojciech Has, Jerzy Kawalerowicz,
Tadeusz Konwicki very rarely appeared on the Polish screens 1970s... It was
much less discussions around the new films of Ewa & Czesław Petelski, Stanisław
Lenartowicz, Stanisław Różewicz, Jan Rybkowski, and other film directors of the
older generation. Only Andrzej Wajda was very active in 1970s...
So, new Polish film directors came in 1970s, many of them were born after
the war, the "third Polish cinema" started" [Fedorov, 1982].
Thus, the article was, as some people say, "out of time", and has been
successfully rejected...
Krzysztof Kieslowski: metamorphosis
Soviet film criticism first became interested in the work of Krzysztof

Kieslowski (1941-1996) after his satirical film Amateur (Amator, 1979) received
one of the main prizes of the Moscow Film Festival. Although a little earlier I.
Rubanova, trying to talk about his "moral anxiety" films in an acceptable for
Soviet censorship form. She wrote that Kieslowski "endowed with an acute artistic
vision, flexible mind of modern intellectual, allow little things to evaluate as part
of a greater whole and does not attract attention" [Rubanova, 1978, p. 257].
As later noted A. Plakhov, "Krzysztof Kieslowski’s international fame
began with the Grand Prix film for Amateur at the Moscow Festival 1979. The
prize was awarded because of the stupidity of Brezhnev's ideological censorship...
It was a sharp reflection of the former documentarian for the dual role of cameras
in general and in the socialist world of double standards, in particular" [Plakhov,
1999, p. 154].
The explanation of this softness of Soviet censorship can be found in E.
Bauman’s treatment entitled The Story of a Hobby. She wrote about the main
character from the Amateur: ''blows of fate rained on our simple-minded hero. And
all because he, perhaps even unconsciously, felt his new occupation as a vocation
in which he chose to be loyal only to his inner voice" [Bauman, 1981, p. 184].
After the Amateur Moscow triumph it was the time of "Solidarity", and the
names of the supporters of this protest movement was in vogue in the USSR only
in the "perestroika" era when "Kieslowski's triumph was the Decalogue (1988-
1989)"[Plakhov, 1999, p. 154].
M. Chernenko wrote about Decalogue: "it is explosive aesthetic and ethical
cocktail explains another director's properties so that it is unique in world cinema:
thinking in cycles, a tendency to unusual, non-canonical epic mindset, the desire to
expand their artistic world beyond the classical subjects and
situations"[Chernenko, 1996]. For example, in Short Film About Killing (Krótki
film o zabijaniu, 1987) K. Kieslowski "opens not revenge, not punishment, but an
empty ritual and conceited, stubborn indisputable dogma consecrated by centuries,
but not sacred, because for the director, a man of Catholic morality, Catholic ethics
murder in the name of the law are as unnatural as murder is against the law, against
man and humanity"[Chernenko, 1990].
At one time (during of the Moscow Film Festival) I was able to not only
see, but also to talk with K. Kieslowski. And I totally agree with A. Plakhov:
"Kieslowski does not fit into the classification of André Bazin, who divides artists
to those who prefer reality, and those who believe in the image. He has no
contradiction between physics and metaphysics. Kieslowski as artist immersed in
the mystery of life, its horrors and its wonders. ... Kieslowski was one of the last
authors in a movie, who treated him not as an attraction or amusement, but as a

moral message. He has overcome the cultural barrier between East and West,
between Europe and America, between classic and contemporary cinema. He made
people end of the XX century listen to yourself"[Plakhov, 1999, pp. 155, 151].
Juliusz Machulski: the darling of the Soviet Screen
If Juliusz Machulski filmed their naughty comedy in 1970s, they will likely
never would have got to the Soviet screens. But ... J. Machulski’s erotic fiction
comedy Sexmission (Seksmisja, 1983), even in a censored version and with a much
more innocent title New Amazons triumph came in the Soviet Screens in the
perestroika times. Criminal retro comedies Va Banque (Vabank, 1981) and Va
Banque – 2 (Vabank-2, 1984) were the champions of the Soviet box office 1980s.
M. Chernenko aptly wrote that J. Machulski is not cinematic messiah, and
social analytic, "in other words, he perfectly knows exactly his place in the movie,
knows that this is the place is his own"[Chernenko, 1990].
Sexmission used "a wandering story about the kingdom of women, which are
transferred from the present day, laced with so many urgent political allusions and
associations" [Chernenko, 1990]. After the huge success of Vabank J. Machulski
made Vabank-2, with "casual elegance and professionalism directing, ... the ability
to build a magical adventure spectacle"[Chernenko, 1990].
Of course, the Vabank can be called "trifle" [Gorelov, 2011], however, this
definition is probably gets most of the films of light genres. But the Kingsajz
(1988) was the fantastic comedy with the clearly satirical components. This film
was a parody of "a very familiar world in which we see things as they are: card
system and the law on the prohibition of drinking alcohol in the workplace, as well
as time off; session of Parliament, investigating traces of sedition in the fairy tales
of the Brothers Grimm; ideological struggle against spreading liberalism, claiming
that there is... And if we would think that all this is too pessimistic, we will see the
local rebels under the banner of "Kingsize for everyone" [Chernenko, 1990].
Unfortunately, Kingsajz became the last J. Machulski’s movie has attracted
interest from Russian film critics. Well, maybe Squadron (Szwadron, 1992)
attracted some attention because it was "an attempt to look at the uprising of 1863
through the eyes of a Russian officer, who falls in love with a beautiful Polish
patriot, but being the enemy, cannot count on reciprocity. ... an echo of the old
Polish stereotype: Russian as passive slaves of the king; or is violent disruptors
comprising faceless, hostile Poles mass or individual conscientious people who,
however, did nothing to change the situation"[Rahaeva, 2012, p. 231].
About the "white spots" of Polish cinema
Many Polish films of the socialist period were almost out the analysis of the
Soviet criticism due to censorship and political reasons. That is why it is so
important that in our time the Russian film studies enters into scientific names of
Polish filmmakers such as Grzegorz Krulikevich. For example, D. Viren writes
about key episodes (the murder of an elderly couple, in which the killers rented an
apartment) of the his most famous movie Bang Bang (Na wylot, 1972): "Indeed,
on the one hand, we are dealing with a documentary, or rather, mockumentary
style, on the other hand, this episode is obvious pastiche of German expressionists’
movies, which is mainly manifested in sharp contrast illumination, as well as some
shots of the composition" [Viren, 2013, p.19]. And then - the shocking the director
position to the main characters (which, apparently, was the reason that Bang Bang
did not overcome the Soviet censorship): "the director tries to present this case
objectively, but at the same time it's hard not to feel: his sympathies clearly on the
side of the murderers (otherwise he probably would not even take on this topic)"
[Viren, 2013, pp. 21].
Extremely interesting D. Viren reflections about the deconstruction of
socialistic realist canon in the Polish cinema 1970s -1980s, when "there was a
parody direction ridiculed the characteristics of life under socialism" [Viren, 2013,
p. 98]: Cruise (Rejs, 1970) and Sorry, there is someone to beat? (Przepraszam, czy
tu biją?, 1976) by Marek Piwowski. For example, thinking of a satirical, pseudo-
detective nature of the film Sorry, there is someone to beat? D. Viren, in my
opinion, leads a very vivid example of how the "game genre is gradually giving
way to a place of social and psychological problems. At the fore as a result of out
the most "moral anxiety", for example, in the episode, when one of the main
characters - a policeman - utters the phrase: "Do not you understand there is no
common ethics for all." The problem is very actual today, is not it?" [Viren, 2013,
p. 98].
T. Eliseeva gives finally granted drama Interrogation (Przesluchanie, 1982)
by Ryszard Bugajski, noting that he "broke into his belt conventional taboos: he
created documented reliable, sinister and naturalistic picture of the functioning of
the security forces unit and moral methods of physical and psychological
destruction of people in the investigation time in Polish prisons in the late 1940s -
early 1950s" [Eliseeva, 2009, p. 37].
D. Gorelov very convincingly writes about the influence of the Polish
movies (even if they were a "white spot" for the ordinary Soviet spectators). For
example, Good-bye, see you tomorrow (Do widzenia, do jutra..., 1960) was not in
the Soviet screen, but this film show up for sure at Moscow Cinema Institute: the
quotes from this movie can be seen in Soviet films My Younger Brother (1962), I
Walking the Moscow Streets (1963), Not a Good Day (1966) [Gorelov, 2011].
Russian-Polish relations in the Polish screen and in the mirror of the Russian film
criticism
It is clear that a strict code of censorship did not allow the Soviet film critics
go into a discussion of what the image of Russia and Russian created the Polish
screen. Research on this topic appeared only in post-Soviet times...
Attentive researcher O. Rahaeva convincingly wrote that the Polish cinema
of the 1960s as a whole had a trend of creating a positive image of Soviet /
Russian, especially in movies about the war: "The most representative of the
opening theme of the military fraternity was the film Where is General? (Gdzie jest
generał?, 1964, directed by Tadeusz Chmielewski) and serial Four tankers and
dog (Czterej pancerni i pies, 1966, directed by Konrad Nalecki). The film Where is
General? presents (for the first time in military contexts) the topic of the Polish-
Russian love" [Rahaeva 2012, p. 228] .
Of course, the Polish cinema trends to Russia and Russian has changed after
the collapse of the Soviet Union and the liberation of Poland from the Kremlin's
attitude. For example, O. Rahaeva believes that the film Ladies and the widows
(Panny i wdowy, 1991) by Janusz Zaorski follows that lines: "Russian dirty,
drunken, brutal and filled with one sole desire - to have polkas. ... Once again, in
1920, we see abuse of Mother-Polka" [Rahaeva, 2012, p. 230].
Post-Soviet political situation collapsed and the main socialist era ban
relating to screen reflection about the Soviet-Polish war of 1920. O. Razhaeva
notes that the stories about how "hordes of Bolsheviks threatened to a free Poland,
(The Gate of Europe / Wrota Europy, 1999, directed by Jerzy Wójcik, Horror in
Wesołych Bagniskach / Horror w Wesołych Bagniskach, 1996, directed by Andrzej
Baranski) ... the principle of enemies images is not moved away from the inter-war
canons: they are wild, violent, and even if individualized (officer in the The Gate
of Europe), are all signs of hostile masses" [Rahaeva, 2012, p .231]. In fairness, I
note that in the key Polish film on this subject - Battle of Warsaw, 1920 (Bitwa
warszawska, 2011) by Jerzy Hoffman - this scheme is not so straightforward.
Of course, new interpretations of the Polish-Russian relations in modern Polish
cinema could not avoid the tragic events of 1939 and the next ten to fifteen years
in the films Scurvy (Cynga, 1991, directed by Leszek Vosevich), Ladies and the
widows (Panny i wdowy, by Janusz Zaorski, 1991), The most important (Wszystko
co najważniejsze, 1992, Robert Glinski), Colonel Kwiatkowski (Pułkownik
Kwiatkowski, 1995, directed by Kazimierz Kutz). O. Rahaeva writes that "Soviet
soldiers on the Polish screen were all the same as in the 1920s and 1930s (perhaps
slightly less caricatured), but the officers are in their brutality more sophisticated
(Ladies and the widows, Scurvy)" [Rahaeva, 2012, p. 231].
Russian military subject was also presented in the Polish-Czech Operation
Danube (Operacja Dunaj, 2009), "where Soviet soldiers again look like the
Bolsheviks in film from 1920s. They are senseless cruel, wild and drunk. Although
the Poles are not too idealized... At the same time it turns out that Poles and Czechs
can perfectly agree, if they have a common enemy - Russian" [Rahaeva, 2012, p.
235].
O. Rahaeva clearly highlights the stereotypical Russian characters in Polish
cinema of the 1990s - early 2000s: "the natives of Russia are a wild people from
the wild country sinking in poverty; Russian are trying by hook or by crook to get
to Poland - a transit point on the way to the West - and here to solve their (mostly
dirty) business. The characters in the movie Debt (Dług, 1999, directed by
Krzysztof Krauze.) are smugglers, criminals, murderers, gangsters and mafia. ...
The prostitutes, pimps... In addition, the fate of Russian women in these films
usually depend almost entirely on the Poles (a kind of symbolic revenge for
historical grievances)" [Rahaeva 2012, p. 232]. In fact, the images of Russian
women are shown in Polish cinema 1990s - 2000s much softer and warmer than
images of men: Sauna (1992), VIP (1991), Daughters of happiness (Córy
szczęścia, Poland, Hungary, Germany, 1999), Love stories (Historie miłosne,
1997), Little Moscow (Mała Moskwa, 2008)...
Analyzing the films of the past 15 years, O. Rahaeva [Rahaeva 2012, p. 233-
234] notices that Polish cinema has a relatively new trend in Russian image - as the
brave and slightly mysterious characters: in the films On the edge of the world (Na
koniec świata, 1999), Master (Mistrz, 2005), Persona non grata (2005) and others.
Polish cinema: predictions for the future
Projections, as is well known, a thankless thing: they very often do not

come true. For example, V. Kolodyazhnaya wrote in 1974, that "all the best in
content and form was further developed in the Polish cinema of 1960s and early
1970s. ... A new fruitful stage began when the Polish cinema in general, freed from
ideological vacillation, by lack of faith in man, from the existential loneliness and
omnipotence of evil" [Kolodyazhnaya 1974, p. 47]. The "ideological vacillation"
of Polish filmmakers not only continued, but also resulted in the late 1970s to a
peak of "cinema of moral anxiety". Of course, this was a "fruitful stage" in the
development of Polish film art, but I'm afraid, is not the same as V.
Kolodyazhnaya had seen, standing on a clear socialistic position...
One of today's most well-known Russian film critics of the liberal wing – A.
Plakhov did not become a better predictor of the trends in the Polish cinema in
1988. He wrote (just three years before the collapse of the USSR) about the
generation of Polish direction, to declare itself in the period of "Solidarity": "Most
of them went into the cinema in the second half of the 1970s, shortly before the
Polish society has undergone an economic and political crisis. ... They have ...
tones of skepticism and pessimism. At the same time, now it is possible to assert
with confidence, they are for the most part did the ideological alliance with the
extremist forces who wanted to orient the country to the West. The so-called films
"under the sign of moral anxiety", which appeared in abundance on the Polish
screens of 1970s - 80s were not aimed at the denial of socialism as such, and in its
criticism really manifested distortions and deficiencies" [Plakhov, 1988, pp. 169-
170].
But the connoisseur of Polish cinema M. Chernenko wrote in 1989 more
accurate text: "Of course, forecasts are always uncertain, especially far from the
stability of the political and economic situation in Poland, but in the normal
evolutionary course of events, it can be easily assumed in future of cinema a sharp
turn to the events of recent history, in the pages of military and post-war life of the
people who were under the censorship ban. First of all, we can expect a cinematic
biography of "Solidarity" and the prehistory of this movement: from the workers'
protests in 1976 and further, deep into the decades - to the events on the Coast in
1970, to the knowledge of the tragedy in 1956, to civil war of 1944-1948 years and
massive repression... In any case, whatever the particular subject is likely to Polish
cinema in the coming years will again become a historic cinema, just as was the
historical cinema "Polish Film School" [Chernenko, 1989].
Russian film criticism and the Polish cinema: what next?
I counted about 60 works related to Polish cinema, published in the USSR

from 1959 to 1991 [Antonov, 1972; Bauman, 1981; Bereznitsky, 1971; Chernenko,
1964; 1965; 1967; 1968 1970; 1971; 1972 1974; 1975; 1976 1977; 1978; 1979;
1980; 1984; 1985; 1987; 1989; 1990; Chizhikov, 1966; Frolova, 1976;
Kolodyazhnaya, 1974; Lavrentiev, 1989; Markulan, 1967; 1968; Mikhalkovich,
1977; Molchanov, 1989; Muratov, 1973; 1976; 1978; Plakhov, 1988; Rubanova,
1965; 1966; 1972 1977; 1978; 1989; Rysakova, 1960; Sobolev, 1965; 1966; 1967;
1970; 1979; Sukhin, 1975; Yurenev, 1959, and others].
In the post-Soviet period (1992 to 2016) I found about forty publications
Russian film critics a Polish movie [Chernenko, 1992; 1996; 2000; 2001; 20012;
2005; Elisseva, 1996; 2002; 2007; 2009; Filimonov, 2008; Gorelov, 2011; Kirillov,
2011; Kudryavtsev, S., 1995; 2003; 2014; Palamarchuk, Zubritskaya, 2007;
Plakhov, 1999; Rahaeva, 2009; 2012; Rubanova, 2000; 2013; 2015; Viren, 2013;
2015; Zadorozhna, 2006, and others]. It seems to be a lot, but ... more than half of
them are small encyclopedic articles belonging to the pen of T. Eliseeva. More or
less mainstream press articles about Polish cinema came in the last quarter century
a very little...
Of course, I have been taken into account (in the Soviet and post-Soviet
period), mainly publication of film critics from Moscow. But if the socialist era
Soviet regional newspapers published many film reviews on the current screen
repertoire (including Polish films)... So, the list of modern Russian film critics,
specifically writing about Polish movie is very short: I. Rubanova, T. Eliseeva, D.
Viren, O. Rahaeva... Well, let's hope that is not a number, but the ability to...
References
Antonov, O. (1972). Magdalena Zavadzka. Actors of foreign cinema. Vol. 7. Moscow: Art, pp.
92-101.
Bauman, E. (1981). The Story of a hobby. Screen 1978-1979. Moscow: Art, pp. 184-185.
Bereznitsky, J. (1971). Tadeusz Łomnicki. Actors of foreign cinema. Vol. 6. Moscow: Art, pp.
78-93.
Chernenko, M. (1964). Andrzej Wajda. Soviet Screen, № 12. http://chernenko.org/009.shtml
Chernenko, M. (1965). Andrzej Wajda. Moscow: Art.
Chernenko, M. (1965). Zbigniew Cybulski. Soviet Screen, № 15. http://chernenko.org/012.shtml
Chernenko, M. (1967). Full speed ahead. Cinema Art, № 12. http://chernenko.org/035.shtml
Chernenko, M. (1967). Tenant. Cinema Art, № 12.
Chernenko, M. (1968). Dancing at Hitler's headquarters. Cinema Art, № 10.
http://chernenko.org/043.shtml
Chernenko, M. (1970). Daniel Olbrychski. Cinema Art, № 3. http://chernenko.org/059.shtml
Chernenko, M. (1971). Familiar and unfamiliar Wajda. Cinema Art, № 8.
Chernenko, M. (1972). Bereznyak. On the world screens, Vol. 4. Moscow.
Chernenko, M. (1974). Ten of the 430. Soviet Screen, № 14. http://chernenko.org/116.shtml
Chernenko, M. (1975). The saga of "Lodzermensh". Cinema Art, № 6.
Chernenko, M. (1976). Maya Komorowska-Tyszkiewicz: Test of loneliness. Screen 1974-1975.
Chernenko, M. (1977). The Promised Land. On the world screens, Vol. № 7.
http://chernenko.org/r015.shtml
Chernenko, M. (1990). Gold Train, № 3, http://chernenko.org/338.shtml
Chernenko, M. (1978). Concert on one string, or a movie Laboratory Zanussi and Żebrowski.
Krzysztof Zanussi & Edward Żebrowski. Television Films. Moscow.
Chernenko, M. (1978). The man from the ashes. Soviet Screen, № 5.
Chernenko, M. (1979). The fatal accident, or Three films by Andrzej Kostenko. Cinema, № 10.
Chernenko, M. (1980). The uniqueness of the national legends, or adventure in Polish and
Yugoslav styles. Adventure movie: ways and searches. Moscow: Film Art Institute.
Chernenko, M. (1984). Styling squared. Cinema Art, № 6. http://chernenko.org/239.shtml
Chernenko, M. (1985). Woman in a Hat. Cinema Art, № 12. http://chernenko.org/263.shtml
Chernenko, M. (1987). Who will throw a stone at him? Cinema Art, № 6.
Chernenko, M. (1989). Poland. Cinema panorama of socialist countries. Moscow: Film Art
Institute. http://chernenko.org/316.shtml
Chernenko, M. (1990). Feliks Falk. Objective, № 4. http://chernenko.org/341.shtml
Chernenko, M. (1990). Juliusz Machulski. Objective, № 1. http://chernenko.org/334-4.shtml
Chernenko, M. (1990). Khaki. Objective, № 3. http://chernenko.org/335.shtml
Chernenko, M. (1990). Kingsize. Objective, № 1. http://chernenko.org/334-3.shtml
Chernenko, M. (1990). The Maids of Wilko. Objective, № 3. http://chernenko.org/340.shtml

Chernenko, M. (1990). Screen Tests. Objective, № 1. http://chernenko.org/334-2.shtml
Chernenko, M. (1990). Short Film About Killing. Objective, № 3,
Chernenko, M. (1990). Stanisław Bareja. Objective, № 3. http://chernenko.org/339-1.shtml
Chernenko, M. (1990). What is truth? Cinema. 1980. № 1. http://chernenko.org/188.shtml
Chernenko, M. (1990). Wojciech Wójcik. Objective, № 1. http://chernenko.org/334.shtml
Chernenko, M. (1990). Wunderkind. Objective, № 3. http://chernenko.org/336.shtml
Chernenko, M. (1992). Ashes and Diamonds. TV Revue, № 13. http://chernenko.org/380.shtml
Chernenko, M. (1996). Sad images. Nezavisimaya Gazeta. 29.03.1996.
Chernenko, M. (2000). Our common Hoffman, Story or top stories. Cinema Art, № 4.
Chernenko, M. (2001). Wieszcz - an untranslatable word. Screen and Stage, № 12.
Chernenko, M. (2002). Agnieszka Holland. Encyclopedia of Film Directors. European Cinema.
Moscow: Film Art Institute, p. 176.
Chernenko, M. (2005). Kazimierz Kutz. Film Studies Notes, № 72, pp. 313-350; № 74, pp. 206-
233.
Chizhikov, M. (1966). Tadeusz Łomnicki. Soviet Screen, pp. 18-19.
Eliseeva, T. (1996). Directors of Polish cinema. Bibliographical reference. Moscow: Film Art
Institute, 90 p.
Eliseeva, T. (2002). Aleksander Ford. Encyclopedia of Film Directors. European Cinema.
Eliseeva, T. (2002). Andrzej Munk. Encyclopedia of Film Directors. European Cinema.
Eliseeva, T. (2002). Andrzej Wajda. Encyclopedia of Film Directors. European Cinema.
Eliseeva, T. (2002). Feliks Falk. Encyclopedia of Film Directors. European Cinema. Moscow:
Film Art Institute, p. 159.
Eliseeva, T. (2002). Janusz Majewski. Encyclopedia of Film Directors. European Cinema.
Moscow: Film Art Institute, pp. 109-110.
Eliseeva, T. (2002). Jerzy Hoffman. Encyclopedia of Film Directors. European Cinema.
Eliseeva, T. (2002). Jerzy Kawalerowicz. Encyclopedia of Film Directors. European Cinema.
Eliseeva, T. (2002). Kazimierz Kutz. Encyclopedia of Film Directors. European Cinema.
Eliseeva, T. (2002). Krzysztof Zanussi. Encyclopedia of Film Directors. European Cinema.
Eliseeva, T. (2002). Wanda Jakubowska. Encyclopedia of Film Directors. European Cinema.
Eliseeva, T. (2002). Wojciech Has. Encyclopedia of Film Directors. European Cinema.
Eliseeva, T. (2007). Directors of Polish cinema. Bibliographical reference. Moscow: Mainland,
128 p.
Eliseeva, T. (2009). Ashes and Diamonds. Encyclopedia. European Cinema. Moscow: Film Art
Institute, pp. 99-100.
Eliseeva, T. (2009). Illumination. Encyclopedia. European Cinema. Moscow: Film Art Institute,
pp. 54-55.
Eliseeva, T. (2009). Interrogation. Encyclopedia. European Cinema. Moscow: Film Art Institute,
pp. 37-38.
Eliseeva, T. (2009). Knife in the Water. Encyclopedia. European Cinema. Moscow: Film Art
Institute, p. 82.
Eliseeva, T. (2009). Man of Marble. Encyclopedia. European Cinema. Moscow: Film Art
Institute, pp. 153-154.
Eliseeva, T. (2009). Mother Joanna of the Angels. Encyclopedia. European Cinema. Moscow:
Film Art Institute, p. 71.
Eliseeva, T. (2009). Sanatorium under the hourglass. Encyclopedia. European Cinema. Moscow:
Film Art Institute, pp. 122-123.
Eliseeva, T. (2009). The heroism. Encyclopedia. European Cinema. Moscow: Film Art Institute,
pp. 24-25.
Eliseeva, T. (2009). Wedding. Encyclopedia. European Cinema. Moscow: Film Art Institute, pp.
123-124.
Fedorov, A. (1982). Polish cinema 1970s: "third generation" and the debut of the youth.
http://kino-teatr.ru/kino/art/kino/4083/
Filimonov, V. (2008). "That is not a thing – to kill the crook...". As we watched Polish movie.
Historian and artist, № ½, pp. 289-308.
Frolov, E. (1976). Pola Raksa. Actors of foreign cinema, Vol. 10. Moscow: Art, pp. 120-137.
Gorelov, D. (2011). Sink or swim. In memory of Polish cinema. Theatre. № 5, pp. 136-140.
http://oteatre.info/libo-pan-libo-propal/#more-560
Kirillov, M. (2011). Forgotten native Polish cinema. http://kinogramma.ru/polish-cinema/
Kolodyazhnaya, V. (1974). Cinema of the Polish People's Republic (1945-1970). Moscow:
Institute of Cinematography, 89 p.
Kudryavtsev, S. (1995). Krzysztof Kieslowski. The double life between the Decalogue and the
"Tricolor". Video Ace Premiere. 1995. № 28.
Kudryavtsev, S. (2003). He does not like movies, and cinema. Andrzej Wajda - the artist, returns
conscience. The first of September. № 30. http://ps.1september.ru/article.php?ID=200303027
Kudryavtsev, S. (2014). Illumination. http://kinanet.livejournal.com/674748.html
Kudryavtsev, S. (2014). Knife in the Water. https://www.stihi.ru/2014/05/16/412
Lavrentiev, S. (1989). Andrzej Wajda. After forgetting. Soviet Screen, № 3.
Markulan, J. (1967). Cinema of Poland. Leningrag-Moscow: Art, 292 p.
Markulan, J. (1968). Aleksandra Śląska. Actors of foreign cinema, Vol. 4. Moscow: Art, pp. 57-
69.
Mikhalkovich, V. (1977). Stanisław Mikulski. Actors of foreign cinema, Vol. 11. Moscow: Art,
pp. 150-167.
Molchanov, V. (1989). Movies of socialist Poland: creation, destiny. Moscow.
Muratov, L. (1973). Bogumił Kobiela. Actors of foreign cinema, Vol. 8. Moscow: Art, pp. 66-79.
Muratov, L. (1976). Gustaw Holoubek. Actors of foreign cinema. Vol. 10. Moscow: Art, pp.
138-155.
Muratov, L. (1978). Barbara Brylska. Actors of foreign cinema, Vol. 12. Moscow: Art, pp. 6-23.
Palamarchuk, N., Zubritskaya, E. (2007). Polish cinema: history and modernity. Studia
polonica. Kaliningrad, 2007, pp. 84-91.
Plakhov, A. (1988). Plaine reflection and romantic note. Screen 1988. Moscow: Art, pp. 169-
174.
Plakhov, A. (1999). Total 33. World Star Film Directors. Vinnitsa: Aquilon, 464 p.
Rahaeva, O. (2007). Krzysztof Zanussi: between "ideal" and "reality". Films Studies Notes, №
81, pp. 218-251.
Rahaeva, O. (2012). Russian motifs in the Polish cinema. Films Studies Notes, № 100-101, pp.
222-237.
Rubanova, I. (1965). Zbigniew Cybulski. Actors of foreign cinema, Vol. 1. Moscow: Art, pp.
135-149.
Rubanova, I. (1966). Polish cinema. Films about the war and occupation. Moscow: Science, 212
p.
Rubanova, I. (1972). Birch Poland. Screen 1971-1972. Moscow: Art, pp. 151-153.
Rubanova, I. (1972). What are we?. Notes about the films of young directors in Poland. Soviet
Screen, № 7, pp. 14-15.
Rubanova, I. (1977). Black and red of Andrzej Wajda. Screen 1975-1976. Moscow: Art, pp. 174-
176.
Rubanova, I. (1978). New names in Polish cinema. Screen 1976-1977. Moscow: Art, pp. 255-
261.
Rubanova, I. (1989). What about Poland? What about movie? Cinema Art, № 1, pp. 129-138; №
2, pp. 154-163.
Rubanova, I. (2009). Gdynia 2009. Polish Film Festival. Cinema Art, № 10.
Rubanova, I. (2013). The temptations and pitfalls. Seance, № 57-58.
http://seance.ru/blog/polish_film_rubanova/
Rubanova, I. (2000). The man with the "Oscar". Results, № 13.
Rubanova, I. (2015). Romance with Polish cinema (conversation with D. Viren). Culture.pl.
http://culture.pl/ru/article/irina-rubanova-roman-spolskim-kino
Rysakova, S. (1960). Art of the Polish film director Aleksander Ford. Cinema and Time,Vol. 1.
Sobolev, R. (1965). Jerzy Kawalerowicz, movies, style, method. Moscow: Art.
Sobolev, R. (1966). Beata Tyszkiewicz. Actors of foreign cinema. Vol. 3. Mowcow: Art, pp.
155-173
Sobolev, R. (1967). Meeting with Polish cinema. Moscow: Bureau of Soviet Cinema
Propaganda, 104 p.
Sobolev, R. (1970). Andrzej Łapicki. Actors of foreign cinema, Vol. 5. Moscow: Art, pp. 18-37.
Sobolev, R. (1979). Ways to Polish cinema. Our friends’ cinematography. Moscow: Knowledge,
p. 78.
Sokolskaya, A. (1965). Lucyna Winnicka. Actors of foreign cinema, Vol. 2. Moscow: Art, pp.
54-66.
Sukhin, G. (1975). Barbara Krafftówna. Actors of foreign cinema, Vol. 9. Moscow: Art, pp. 90-
103.
Surkov, E. (1981). Andrzej Wajda: what next? Cinema Art, № 10.
Viren, D. (2013). Bang Bang by Grzegorz Królikiewicz: experimental film language manifesto.
Herald of Chuvash State Pedagogical University. № 4 (80). Part 3, pp. 17-22.
Viren, D. (2015). Experimental trends in the Polish cinema of the 1970s. Grzegorz Królikiewicz
and others. Ph.D.Dis. Moscow, 2015. 162 p.
Yurenev, R. (1959). On the influence of revisionism in the Polish cinema. Questions of
aesthetics, Vol. 2, pp. 83-110.
Zadorozhnaya, E. (2006). Polish filmmakers, their heroes and antiheroes. Culture Observatory,
№ 5, pp. 46-48.
Media Culture
Soviet film critics about Soviet cinema:

from censorship to Gorbachev's perestroika

Abstract
Moscow publishing house Art began to produce in mid-1960s annual book collection Screen, which was to
reflect the most important cinematic events in the USSR and the world. The first collection of this kind - Screen
1964 - was printed edition of 45,500 copies. The circulation of the next two collections were 30-35 thousand copies.
From 1968 to 1985 the Screens were annually with a circulation of 50 thousand copies. Screen 1987 circulation has
been increased to 75 thousand, but the rest of the collection issues have returned to the circulation of 50 thousand
copies. Each book is illustrated with black-and-white frames of the movies and photos masters of the screen.
Yearbooks Screen became a mirror of the Soviet criticism of the 1960s - 1980s, reflecting all ups and downs,
forced to default figures, ideological passages, thaw and perestroika hope... From the time of the fisrt to last annual
output has been a quarter century. Soviet film criticism changed significantly.
The main materials for this article was articles of Soviet film critics about Soviet cinema in Screen
yearbooks. The methods of theoretical research: classification, comparison, analogy, induction and deduction,
abstraction and concretization, theoretical analysis and synthesis; methods of empirical research: collecting
information related to the research subjects.
Keywords: film critic, film studies, Soviet, USSR, film, movies, cinema, censorship.
* Article was written as part of research with the financial support of the grant of the Russian Scientific Foundation
(RNF). Project № 14-18-00014 «Synthesis of media education and media criticism in the process of preparing future
teachers," performed at the Taganrog Institute of Management and Economics.
Introduction
Moscow publishing house Art began to produce in mid-1960s annual book

collection Screen, which was to reflect the most important cinematic events in the
USSR and the world. The first collection of this kind - Screen 1964 - was printed
edition of 45,500 copies. The circulation of the next two collections were 30-35
thousand copies. From 1968 to 1985 the Screens were annually with a circulation
of 50 thousand copies. Screen 1987 circulation has been increased to 75 thousand,
but the rest of the collection issues have returned to the circulation of 50 thousand
copies. Each book is illustrated with black-and-white frames of the movies and
photos masters of the screen.
However, based on the stated theme, our analysis is limited to only articles
about Soviet feature films (Such collection had 15-20 about). I have not analyzed:
1) interviews; 2) reports from film sets; 3) articles written not by film critics; 4)
articles about the documentary, animation and foreign films (how foreign cinema
was reflected in the mirror of the Soviet critics, please, see: Fedorov, 2016).
So, these Yearbooks published (from 1965 to 1990) over four hundred
articles on the Soviet cinema.

The main materials for this article was articles of Soviet film critics about
Soviet cinema. The methods of theoretical research: classification, comparison,
analogy, induction and deduction, abstraction and concretization, theoretical
analysis and synthesis; methods of empirical research: collecting information
related to the research subjects. The effectiveness of such methods has been proven
as the Western (R. Taylor, D. Youngblood, A. Lawton et al.), and Russian (N.
Zorkaya, M. Turovskaya) researchers. I used also the method of hermeneutic
analysis of the cultural context of media texts (Eco, 1976; Silverblatt, 2001).
Discussion
Screen 1964 (published in 1965, put a set in April 1965)
The first issue of the yearbook’ collection - Screen 1964 - was distinctly
"thaw", although its materials, of course, influenced the guiding line of the Soviet
Communist Party Central Committee Resolutions: "On measures to improve the
management of the art of cinematography development" (1962), "Immediate Tasks
party's ideological work" (1963) and "On the "Mosfilm" (1964). The latter
document, for example, said that filmmakers should "produce movies that reveal
the Soviet way of thinking and acting, the Soviet way of life; recreate on screen
the story of the struggle of the Communist Party and the Soviet people for the
victory of socialism and communism in our country; produce films, exposing the
bourgeois way of life, to help the party in its struggle for the triumph of
communist ideology" [Resolution..., 1964].
However, Screen 1964 in general looked quite balanced despite all these
Resulutions: the materials of the Soviet cinema combined with a large, saturated
section of foreign films, festivals and stars, and even with the polemical articles.
For example, very noticeable at the time critics E. Surkov and M.
Kuznetsov were the authors of reviews about the film Chairman by Y. Nagibin and
A. Saltykov. Actor Mikhail Ulyanov very imressive played the role of Trubnikov -
the chairman of one of the post-war collective farms. And E. Surkov (1915-1988)
claimed that "those who conciders Trubnikov on the ideal of modern standards of
the collective farm manager, is unlikely to do the right thing. ... In order to
understand Trubnikov, we must not forget that he is a man, not some ideal
personification of some abstractly formulated virtues" [Surkov, 1965, p.36].
M. Kuznetsov (1914-1980) to argue with positive view of E. Surkov: "It is
very difficult to understand how such a talented writer as Y. Nagibin ... have lost
all sense of proportion, and gave himself entirely to the power of the illustrative
flow? And why is the young director Alexey Saltykov, whose work is very rough,
but sometimes shows a clear talent, too, succumbed to this?" [Kuznetsov, 1965, p.
42].
Here I must say that have not been yet untouchable Soviet "cinematic
generals" with untouchable "state significant topics" in the 1960s. Therefore, it was
possible (of course, within the ruling ideology) relatively freely express their
opinions. So E. Surkov, even positively assessed Chairman, noting that " the first
part of the film is especially good, solid and perfected, but the second part,
unfortunately, is not so equivalent. Especially towards the end of the film when the
director and screenwriter, wanting to show the changes that have occurred on the
farm, do it purely illustrative externally. ... I felt in the final episode of the film
even some complacency, as if the authors would have us believe then that all the
problems now resolved" [Surkov, 1965, pp. 38-39].
M. Semenov’s article about the film Space Alloy by the future “cinematic
general of era of stagnation” T. Levchuk (1912-1998) was very caustic and (rightly
so!) absolutely ruthless: "The appearance of the film was preceded by broadcast
advertising. It was emphasized that it is not a simple cinematographic, it is a plan
of how the hymn "glorious working class." But we can see instead the weak song,
even with fake notes. ... No real life, not living people. Instead, we meet with
mannequins” [Semenov, 1965, p. 66-67, 71].
Probably, the title The Regional Secretary of Communist Party would be a
strong anti-critical indulgence for any film, even the lowest professional level in
the 1970s - the first half of the 1980s. But at the beginning of the Brezhnev’s era,
"the party-ideological" title and topic has not been saved opportunistic opus by V.
Chebotarev (1921-2010) from the just verdict of V. Kardin (1921-2008). This critic
accused this film in the absence of the real life’s traces [Kardin, 1965, p. 69-72].
The yearbook scolded (and again - for good reason) and movies on the so-
called historical-revolutionary theme. For example, K. Scherbakov ironically
remarked that films Mandate and In the Name of Revolution exploit the “moves
and situations, images and techniques of expression, which are now, repeating
many times, become empty, jaded, commonplace. ... I am far from being able to
accuse the authors of Mandate and In the Name of Revolution of plagiarism ... But
the lack of their own vision of art sometimes brings such bitter fruit, which does
not know and direct borrowing" [Shcherbakov, 1965, pp. 86-87].
It is curious that, thanks to the "thaw", the critic J. Warsawsky (1911-2000)
was still able to tell the yearbook the readers even that film I am 20 years has
undergone alterations and, therefore, did not immediately came out on the screen:
"I've seen all the options this film, and the early and final. What is the essence of
reshoots? ... Of course, as always with the alterations do not guard themselves
against losses, more or less offensive. Perhaps the most annoying is too cut scene
performances of poets at the Polytechnic Museum" [Warsawsky, 1965, p.45].
Analyzing this film of M. Khutsiev, film critic used fairly typical for the
1960s protective method: a reference to the faithfulness of goodies "light Leninist
ideals" [Warsawsky, 1965, p.50].
However, realizing that even this ideological link, perhaps, not at all will
make an impression, J. Warsawsky completed his article one more polemical
thesis: "You do not agree with me, dear reader? Let us not rush to conclusions,
let's see it again, make sure what impact it on our young cinema, on the minds of a
new generation of artists and audiences. This film has slow, but powerful steps"
[Warsawsky, 1965, p.52].
And J. Warsawsky, as time has shown, proved to be completely right: M.
Khutsiev’s talented film, in fact, turned out to be "long-playing", designed for
decades of thinking about the thaw era...
Bright and figuratively review was written by N. Zorkaya (1924-2006) about
the satirical comedy by E. Klimov Welcome, or No Trespassing. N. Zorkaya
reasonably argued that many of the "troubles come from dogmatism and lack of
talent, who are always together and prop each other, although apparently not
similar, although dogmatism important inflated, pretends to be a scientist... The
film Welcome, or No Trespassing is talented, cheerful and mischievous work of
like-minded artists. ... Professional hand, precise installation, master's sense of
material: it's all there in Klimov's film" [Zorkaya, 1965, pp. 52-55].
M. Kvasnetskaya (1925-2008) wrote a good review about Competition:
"This film is not only creative debut of young director B. Mansurov, and the
approval of his peculiar talent - clever and poetic" [Kvasnetskaya 1965, p.63]. And
I. Levshina (1932-2009) was convinced that Competition is not only deserves
accolades, but this film is so rich and complex, so difficult for the viewer's
perception that the conversation about him should go to some fundamental
questions. I saw in the Competition deeply national cinema" [Levshina, 1965, p.60-
61].
M. Kuznetsov wrote very warm and shrewdly article about the directorial
film debut of V.Shukshin This Guy Lives: "Not all perfect in this film, there is
something to reproach not only actors, but above all the author, even reproach, but
from all admiring heart. However, this uneven film has an amazing, rare integrity,
and in addition, V. Shukshin achieved victory in such a difficult area as the
problem of the hero. ... That's why this debut is not only successful itself, but
promises even more in the future. I think not mistaken to predict that we will
happy to meet V.Shukshin and on the pages of magazines and books, and in the
cinema" [Kuznetsov, 1965, p.137, 142].
The next section of the book dealt with the creative portraits of filmmakers.
For example, I. Solovyova wrote that "Innokenty Smoktunovsky’s play in
Hamlet leaves a wonderful feeling: it seems that the role is changing from time to
time, as it can not be changed in the movie, and as happens only in the theater"
[Solovieva, 1965, p. 99].
Perhaps the only discordant note in a very successful book, was the boring
article of D. Pisarevsky (1912-1990), the chief editor of Soviet Screen magazine,
who wrote that Vasilyev brothers’ Chapaev "is one of pictures-titans, in which
each new generation of viewers and artists draws spiritual riches and opens its
consonant with time. He became part of the lives of the people, a true companion
generations" [Pisarevsky, 1965, p.219].
Screen 1965 (published in 1966, put in a set in October 1966)
The well-known film critic M. Bleyman (1904-1973) published in 1970 the

article Archaists or innovators? [Bleyman, 1970], which served as a pretext for
Soviet film bosses defeat of Ukrainian poetic cinema. But Screen 1965 could still
to publish a positive article about the film S. Parajanov (1924-1990) Shadows of
Forgotten Ancestors. This masterpiece was evaluated as "explosion of many
canons, disturbing many hardened tastes and concepts. And so I want to believe
that this is not a coincidence, but a brilliant beginning of a new stage in the life of
Ukrainian cinema. ... Talent director Parajanov finally found their true value,
slipped to a truly artistic expression. It seems that reel of film will not sustain such
a frenzied pressure of the director/operator’ fantasy, but this is artistic revelationin.
... Director of Photography Y. Ilienko deserves the highest praise for the highest
measure accurate, ubiquitous, bottomless ingenuity. Union of director and
cameraman in this film is so indivisible that it is difficult to imagine a more
"ground-in" in modern cinema" [Drach, 1966, p. 29, 32].
A number of books’ articles was devoted to the poetic cinema. Critics
pointed out that in V. Derbenev’s Last Month of Autumn "reigns light lyrical
intonation and it is all full of poetry" [Ignatieva, 1966, p.52], and Girl and the
Echo has a different artistic purpose than preaching: be able to see the world grow
a purity and transparency of the soul, and then everything will open and you will
respond ... The film does not proclaim anything, but this is a miracle of
poetry"[Inovertseva, 1966, p.35]. And the article’s title about poetic parable M.
Kobakhidze The Wedding was, in fact, an exhaustive: Small Masterpiece
[Semenov, 1966, p.138-139].
This, of course, does not mean that the annual book automatically Screens
the poetic cinema of critics zone. For example, I. Rubanova rather sternly wrote
about the debut work of B. Grigoriev (1935-2012) and Y. Shvyrev (1932-2013)
First Snow and the Clean Ponds by A. Sakharov (1934-1999) [Rubanova 1966, p.
68].
And Z. Paperny (1919-1996) was not thrilled with the movie of A.
Manasarova (1925-1986) Twenty Years Later: “A good picture, a professional job.
Just an example of a purely "cinematic" movie, which says on its "brutal"
language, not only listening to the language of the writer" [Paperny, 1966, p.117].
The polemic yearbook’s section included the debate about the comedy
genre. B. Medvedev (1920-1969) did not skimp on praise for the comedy of
K.Voinov (1918-1995) Bal'zaminov’s Marriage, admitting that his "dream-
pantomime conquered, drew courage director" [Medvedev, 1966, p. 95].
E. Kholodov (1915-1981) forcefully argued with him, regretting that "fine man
replaced by the movie theme of the little man" [Kholodov, 1966, p.97].
The satirical comedy 33 displeased Soviet cinema officials. But T.
Khloplyankina not afraid to speak out in defense of thes comedy: "This is a film
that is the first time in many years, does not hesitate to be a satire and does not
apologize for the fact that this is a satire. Negative characters in it much more than
positive… It is very sharp and angry film, but where and when satire've been
good? It is, finally, a film that boldly uses hyperbole, exaggeration, but where and
when the satire of rejected it?" [Khloplyankina, 1966, p.105].
She also highly appreciated the eccentric comedy of Leonid Gaidai (1923-
1993) Operation ‘Y’: "Comedy seemed to be shook off the fatigue acquired during
the years sitting in a society uninteresting people. … It can revive old and show a
cascade of mind-blowing tricks, but it is oriented perfectly in modern interiors. It is
capable of equipping their goodies uncanny ease and ruthlessly confound negative,
but both of them did not seem to us conditional figures" [Khloplyankina 1966, p.
100].
Another well-known film critic G. Kremlev (1905-1975) was fully agree
with T. Khloplyankina: "In order to put the comedy, and even more so - the comic,
not enough to be a good director, you must have a special calling. But this is not
enough. It was necessary to have the quality of a religious fanatic, martyr. All these
qualities are happily combined in Leonid Gaidai" [Kremlev 1966, pp. 109-110].
V. Orlov devoted his article to comedies Give Me a Complaints Book and
Sleeping Lion, rightly arguing that "the everyday life presents new conflicts and
new clothes evil… But these comedies are still struggling with the cartoons in
gabardine raincoats" [Orlov 1966, p.114].
Articles of I. Lishchinsky and G. Kapralov (1921-2010) were about the film
by G. Kalatozov (1903-1973) and S. Urusevsky (1908-1974) I am Cuba. I.
Lishchinsky noted that "the camera in the hands of Urusevsky free and is animated.
She took from the operator of his impetuosity, his emotion, his impulse. The
viewer taken away immutable point of view of the observer. The camera leads him
along. Every second frame can enter something new and unexpected. The audience
watching the movie in the rhythm of the film. The audience must be active for the
movies of Kalatozov & Urusevsky" [Lishchinsky, 1966, p.80].
But the opinion of G. Kapralov was much more restrained: "I remember the
previous film of Mikhail Kalatozov and Sergey Urusevsky - Unsent Letter. The
criticism, polemics around the movie ultimately correct answer to the question why
such a remarkable direction with which we met in some episodes of this work, and
a brilliant cinematography, which marked virtually every frame, suddenly triggered
largely in vain: the film there was no real drama. And in the new Kalatozov &
Urusevsky’ work we see the same error... It is very disappointing for me that I am
Cuba with all brilliant fireworks skill did not work in the artistic scale, which of it
was to be expected"[Kapralov, 1966, p.82, 84].
It seems that these two views are quite representative of the perception of I
am Cuba, not only for film critics but the ordinary audience: today this movie is
also controversial...
It is interesting today to read the discussion of the O. Efremov’s long-
forgotten drama Build Bridge. I. Levshina considered that "theater has come to the
cinema not for that, to show filmmakers how to make movies. The theater went to
the cinema to get a platform to express their beliefs, and brought with them a
culture of its theatrical thinking. With its artistic and civil credo, his method of
thinking, you can agree or disagree, but to ignore them you can not" [Levshina,
1966]. And this is more convincing opinion of B. Kardin: "I do not think that the
authors of the film Build Bridge consciously wanted to refurbish old plot... leaning
on life, they missed something in life" [лardin 1966, p.90].
The Screen 1965 published an interview with A. Tarkovsky (1932-1986) on
the set of Andrei Rublev. This film for several years has been put "on the shelf".
But this interview was possible in 1965...
Yaerbook published also the article about A. Konchalovsky's The First
Teacher. N. Lordkipanidze (1925-2014) wrote that it is "difficult due to the
complexity of the organic material. And sometimes deliberately hindered by virtue
of congestion symbolic imagery. ... It has all the luxuries debut, perseverance in
the "statement of self", coming from the fear of being trivial. But the film is serious
in the main. And it is indeed the new artist coming into the art" [Lordkipanidze
1966, p.137].
D. Pisarevsky’s assessment was basically positive about the drama Hello, It's
Me! By F. Dovlatyan (1927-1997): "Can be heard accusations of unreliability of
certain episodes. To some extent they are valid. But this is not important, because
the whole movie is a bold exploration of modern theme. It's real art. Truthful,
intelligent, emotional" [Pisarevsky, 1966, p.140].
And as usual, the Yearbook presents readers benevolent portraits of Russian
filmmakers: A. Volodin [Warsawsky, 1966, p.124-132], I. Lapikov [Zelenko,
1966, p. 56-58], V. Receptor [Kolesnikova, 1966, pp.144-145], and others.
Screen 1966-1967 (1967, put in a set in April 1967)
XXIII Congress of the Socien Communist Paty, held in March and April
1966, did not have a noticeable effect on the content of Screen 1966-1967: a time
when the yearbook will publish articles officious critics, interspersed with
quotations from the speeches at Communist party congresses, it was yet to come...
But an unprecedented event was in the life of Soviet critics in the late 1966:
forty of them were sent a questionnaire, which were asked to choose: the best
Soviet film, director, cameraman, actress, actor in 1966 [Screen 1966-1967, pp. 12-
15].
Here is the list of these film critics: L. Anninsky, M. Augstkali, V.
Baskakov (1921-1999), T. Bachelis (1918-1999), L. Belova (1921-1986), M.
Bleyman (1904-1973), V. Bozhovich , I. Weissefeld (1909-2003), A. Vartanov, J.
Warsawsky (1911-2000), M. Zak (1929-2011), N. Zorkaya (1924-2006), N.
Ignatieva, A. Karaganov (1915 -2007), B. Kardin (1921-2008), G. Kapralov (1921-
2010), N. Klado (1909-1990), N. Kovarsky (1904-1974), I. Kozenkranius, L.
Kopelev (1912-1997), I. Levshina (1932-2009), N. Lordkipanidze (1925-2014),
M. Maltsene (1924-2014), J. Markulan (1920-1978), A. Macheret (1896-1979), L.
Parfenov (1929-2004), D. Pisarevsky (1912-1990), L. Pogogeva (1913-1989), A.
Romitsyn, S. Rassadin (1935-2012), K. Rudnicky (1920-1988), I. Solovyova , D.
Teshabayev, K. Tsereteli, V. Shalunovsky (1918-1980), V. Shitova (1927-2002), I.
Schneiderman (1919-1991), S. Freilich (1920-2005), Y. Khanyutin (1929 -1978),
R. Yurenev (1912-2002).
For greater clarity, I counted the number of votes for each category and
identified by three films and filmmakers who have received the maximum number
of votes of forty critics in each category.
Table 1. Top films, directors, cameramen, actors and actresses in 1966,

according to critics of the Soviet *
Place in the Best film The number of votes The number of votes
1 Ordinary Fascism 20 50,0
2 Nobody Wanted to Die 7 17,5
3 The First Teacher 4 10,0
Place in the Best director The number of votes The number of votes
1 V. Žalakevičius 9 22,5
2 S. Yutkevich 9 22,5
3 A. Konchalovsky 8 20,0
Place in the Best director of Photography The number of votes The number of votes
1 L. Paatashvili 13 32,5
2 J. Gricius 10 25,0
3 V. Derbenyov, D. Motorny 6 15,0
Place in the Best actors The number of votes The number of votes
1 R. Bykov 14 35,0
2 I. Smoktunovsky 11 27,5
3 D. Banionis 8 20,0
Place in the Best actress The number of votes The number of votes
1 M. Bulgakova 29 72,5
2-3 N. Mordukova, I. Makarova, 2 5,0
L. Savelieva
* some film critics as their favorites specify multiple movies and / or filmmakers.
Alas, this was only one interesting experiment without further

continuation… Apparently, someone "above" thought that the opinions of film
critics and film experts can very clearly be different from the preferences of the
authorities and the "choice of the masses"... And further questioning of Soviet film
critics were forbidden until the era of "perestroika", when in the second half of
1980 the newspaper Week dared to publish a table, where the leading film critics
exhibited "star" for movie current repertoire.
But the polemical Yearbook’s section still existed some years. And in the
Screen 1966-1967 film critics argued about the films Your Son and Brother by V.
Shukshin (1929-1974) and Long and Happy Life by G. Shpalikov (1937-1974).
L. Anninsky with his usual deep insight into film context wrote that
"cinema has revealed in the works of Shukshin deep moral theme running through
all that it does. Shukshin’s cinema has made clear to us the psychological and
stylistic opening pertaining to our general psychological condition" [Anninsky
1967, p. 102].
But this does not convince experienced polemicist N. Klado (1909-1990).
He cautiously admitted: "The world of the village depicted in this film, for me, is
terrible. After all, Vera is the brightest in the village. But she was silent. She can
not tell people. She did not want to hear" [Klado 1967, p.100].
I. Levshina’s article about the film Long and Happy Life was no less
controversial. This article began with a sudden sharp outburst against the very
popular lyrical comedy Walking the Streets of Moscow: "I do not like this film (by
director G. Danelia and screen writer G. Shpalikov. I do not like mainly due
Shpalikov, because of the fact that the playwright, making the demonstration of
his creative manner, and the film builds narcotic pagan sense of thoughtlessness as
the standard of happiness ... I feel closer to Shpalikov "Happy Life", because here
he grows up. He thinks in his manner, not giving a succinct breakdown. I support
the idea that the viewer is invited to think, and as often as possible" [Levshina
1967, p.111].
Well, film critic not only rejects the "cult" thaw masterpiece Walking the
Streets of Moscow, but also openly urged to think - filmmakers and the audience! I
suppose, such film critic passage is almost impossible in the Soviet press in the
1970s - the first half of 1980s...
J. Warsawsky argued I. Levshina, because he (as, indeed, many of the

Soviet viewers) frankly did not like “Antonioni’s style of Long and Happy Life:
"But if it's a comedy, why the screen is so boring? And because the ‘comedy of
errors’ occurred with the author. He did not understand that he wrote. And as a
director, introduced in the film boring gravitas. ... Imaginary poetic form are now
often penalized for shield contacts with the audience" [Warsawsky, 1967, p.110-
111].
M. Bleyman (1904-1973), in fact, completely joined Warsawsky’s opinion:
"Мery capable writer G. Shpalikov directed the film Long and Happy Life. This is
a story about how a person loses his happiness as he was afraid of it. This is a
simple story and simple, even an elementary idea. But he wore a surprisingly
meaningful form, in the form of an abstract, which lost for the living subjects of
our time, live data" [Bleyman 1967, p.168].
I. Lishchinsky actually continued Bleyman’s reasoning, choosing, however,
a different target - a film lyric Two by M. Bogin: "Simulation of modernity is not
the only function of cinema Art Nouveau. ... "Modern" style tasked to facilitate
people's lives, to heal the wounds. ... The drama is absorbed by the comfort of the
Riga cafes, light music and tasteful clothing" [Lishchinsky, 1967, p. 172].
Today Lishchinsky’s opinion seems the archaism of ‘socialist logic’: if a
love story has been shown not in a cozy European Riga, but somewhere in the
Russian provincial town, then, of course this story will be good...
Going from author cinema to cinema genre, the compilers of the Yearbook
once again turned to comedy. Here E. Bauman wrote that "movies with the duty
bureaucrats would not want to give his position on the screen. They immerse the
viewer in the atmosphere of his fictional life, they create their own, special world,
frozen in depressing immutability. And this artificially film comedies have bad
taste, vulgarity and feigned cheerfulness... Yes, stereotypes coming from the film
to film... They do not want to go and liberate places. And yet the breath of life
bursts into the comedy genre, destroying stamps, sweeping circuit. Proof of this is
talented, intelligent and funny comedy Adventures of a Dentist, 33, Beware of the
Car” [Bauman 1967, p.173, 175].
K. Shcherbakov wrote the article about the weaknesses of Soviet film
detectives. In particular, he correctly noted that Game Without a Draw, "has
foreign spies, which look too obviously foreigners and spies. Soviet colonel,
talking with his subordinates as if teaches classes at a school for disabled children.
... And execution of an innocent twist in the film is regarded as a moral failure,
which to treason at hand" [Shcherbakov, 1967, p.177].
At the same time, keeping in mind the relevant guidelines of Soviet Party
Resolutions, K. Shcherbakov not forget to link the arguments with ideological
struggle on the screen: "Of course, the tasks of Soviet detective and detective
bourgeois are fundamentally different. But why do we often put up with the fact
that the bourgeois detective better fulfills its objectives, than our, Soviet"
[Shcherbakov, 1967, p.176].
In this regard, M. Bleyman thinking about stereotypes entertainment genres

highlighted "detectives in which incredibly insightful scouts can easily cope with
the incredibly clumsy spies, and comedy, in which the characters behave so
stupidly that is lost even a minimum standard of compliance to the real characters.
I will not list these movies. The fact that they are stereotypes, do not need to
explain. This can be seen with the naked eye. Stereotype helpful and offers turnkey
solutions, when the artist is not able to analyze the complex phenomenon of life.
Stereotype insinuating, he invades the work unnoticed, when the artist is not fully
aware of his purpose. Stereotype helpful and easily pretend to be art. ... But one
thing is clear: the basis of the stereotype is the laziness of the artist, the inability or
unwillingness to think about the vital phenomena that he describes and analyze"
[Bleyman 1967, pp.169-170]. N. Lordkipanidze (1925-2014): also wrote about
annoying clichés [Lordkipanidze 1967, c.181].
Many of the authors of the yearbook were unhappy and current adaptations
of Russian classics.
S. Rassadin (1935-2012) wriote with all critical rigor about comedy Uncle's
Dream by K.Voinov (1918-1995), because this is the simple vaudeville, but not
Dostoevsky’s world [Rassadin 1967, p.191].
And then the critic moved to, alas, then forbidden bitter satire Nasty
Anecdote by A. Alova (1923-1983) and V. Naumov: "The authors do not play with
the audience in the giveaway, their unexpected, inexhaustible, very talented means
of expression designed for learning. And the authors do not always take into
account the possibility of our perception. Even experienced. And we can not drink
the pure essence, and it would be desirable solution. Overloaded ... Film and
symbols are algebra art. This excessive algebraization pointedly, appealing to
reason rather than to the heart, leading to harsh rationalistic" [Rassadin, 1967,
p.192].
Analyzing The Tale of Tsar Saltan M. Dolinsky and S. Chertok noted with
regret that, "how far A. Ptushko’s film of tales by A. Pushkin. Pushkin’s
incompatible ease, swiftness of his verse, the perfect simplicity of shape, finally,
the logic of creative thinking are absolutely not suitable for heavy-handedness of
film design" [Dolinsky, Chertok, 1967, p. 208].
A. Dubrovin was very critical of the film adaptation of A Hero of Our Time
by S. Rostotsky (1922-2001): "This film there are shots under the naturalism and
‘modern’… As a result, the film disappeared Lermontov’s intelligence,
Lermontov’s pain, Lermontov’s depth" [Dubrovin 1967, p.203].
V. Ivanova (1937-2008) was dissatisfied with the screen adaptations of A.
Tolstoy’s Viper by V. Ivchenko (1912-1972) [Ivanova, 1967, p. 200]. Equally
negative she said about Hyperboloid of Engineer Garin by A. Ginzburg (1907-
1972): "We saw an amazing meticulousness in his dull spectacle. ... Something
from A. Tolstoy's scathing sarcasm shone only in the final for a moment. Peeped
out and ... And in the hall light went on"[Ivanov, 1967, pp.199-200].
Unfortunately, V. Ivanova apparently did not notice the exquisite visual

solution of black and white of this film adaptation of Hyperboloid of Engineer
Garin (1965), made in the spirit of film noir: the play with light and shade line in
night scenes and contrasting extremes of black and white in the daytime scenes and
the use of wide-angle lens, unusual camera angles, etc. I believe that the director
A. Ginzburg, a former cameraman, deliberately put such a task before the talented
cameraman A. Rybin (1935-2016). The visual style of the film was also a
dynamic-nervous, the music is sometimes ironic. I think that the jury of the
International Festival of Fantasy Films in Trieste (1966) was primarily evaluated
these audiovisual solutions and originality and awarded the film A. Ginzburg main
prize...
G. Kapralov presented maybe the most positive article about current
adaptations of this time. Assessing the Daily Stars by I. Talankin, is based on the
diaries of O. Bergholz, G. Kapralov wrote: "I predict that the ratio of this film will
be contradictory. It has reticence and infringement of proportions. Comparison
with ‘open diary’ with the richness of his thought and association gives one more
reason for criticism. But I think the director, who is also the author of the script,
had a right to their reading of the book, its subject, and what he said, it is said with
piercing force" [Kapralov 1967, p.20].
Of course, analyzing the current repertoire, authors of Screen 1966-1967
could not get past the films lead the aforementioned film critics’ rating. Wings,
The First Teacher, Nobody Wanted to Die received a positive evaluations
[Warsawsky, 1967, p.24; Zinoviev, Markov, 1967, pp. 74-78; Pisarevsky, 1967,
pp. 66-68].
For example, J. Warsawsky, reflecting on the drama Wings, wrote: "Larisa
Shepitko came to an early mastery. Each frame of the film in its subordinate
thoughts, develops the idea. It reminds us that the art director is primarily a
thought..." [Warsawsky, 1967, p. 24].
The Resolution of the Soviet Communist Party Central Committee "On

measures for further development of the social sciences and enhance their role in
the building of communism" [Resolution..., 1967] full of standard phrases about
the need to "increase" and "strengthen"... But pathetic celebration of the 50th
anniversary of the 1917 revolution was the most important political event in the
USSR preceding the release of Screen 1967-1968.
Yearbook Screen 1967-1968 was put in a set in March 1968, i.e. a few
months before the August invasion of Soviet troops in Czechoslovakia. But the
"Prague Spring" is already in full flourish democratic hopes... And these hopes, I
think, were the key to change the structure of the yearbook. Rigid administrative
arm discarded any film critics’ ratings, but gave way for ideologized materials.
For example, D. Pisarevsky stacked enthusiastic ode to the restored version

of the film October (1927): "No, this film is not old, not lost the explosive power
of this revolutionary art fiery epic! ... October sings the glory of victorious
working class people and Leninist party" [Pisarevsky, 1968, pp.19-20]. And then
D. Pisarevsky snobbish glorified "panorama of national heroism" in the "historical
and revolutionary" film Iron Stream by E. Dzigan (1998-1981) [Pisarevsky, 1968,
p. 23].
Jubilee Yearbook, of course, could not pass films about Lenin. V. Baskakov
highlighted the "talent embodied the image of the genius of the revolution"
[Baskakov, 1968, p.72] in the film Lenin in Poland by S. Yutkevich (1904-1985).
But in general, the compilers of the Yearbook still managed to keep film
studies level and published, for example, of two wonderful articles of L. Anninsky.
In his review of the film G. Poloka (1930-2014) "The Republic of SHKID"
L. Anninsky accurately wrote that "the theme of the film - Chekhov's hero, a man
of the XIX century, an intellectual and humanist, caught in a situation of Sodom
and Gomorrah. ... Old-fashioned competition, defenseless Culture with a young
and ingenuous naivete takes ruthless nature of mutual mystification "[Anninsky,
1968, p.55].
L. Anninsky wrote a significant article about M. Khutsiev’s masterpiece
July Rain. The critic asked a very sharp at the time the question: "M. Khutsiev
listen to the rhythm of the modern soul at the decisive moment of choice. The artist
talks about spiritual culture, trust, humanity. … In essence, Khutsiev continues
the meditation, which was first performed in the movie I am 20 years old. But
now with a little more alert. Why?" [Anninsky, 1968, p.34].
L. Anninsky, of course, could not to answer this question directly,
indicating director’s feeling of ‘thaw’s collapse, for censorship reasons. Therefore,
instead of a direct answer last sentence of Anninsky’s review was truly a model of
allegory [Anninsky, 1968, p. 34]...
S. Freilich (1920-2005) published a positive review about Your
Contemporary by Y. Raisman (1903-1994): "This film it is a real battle, opponents
do not play in the giveaway, there are broken destinies of people" [Freilich, 1968,
p. 14].
Yearbook continued support of poetic cinema. I. Lishchinsky wrote about
Umbrella by M. Kobakhidze that "the Georgian cinema is rich in young talent. In
this ensemble M. Kobakhidze has original voice and its own melody: mocking,
ironic, a little sad, but it is clearly distinguishable, and it is necessary to listen"
[Lishchinsky, 1968, p. 63]. N. Lordkipanidze generally supported the poetic debut
of E. Ishmuhamedov - Tenderness: "The picture is made with obvious, undisguised
focus on people susceptible - and mentally, and artistically. If this susceptibility is
not, you probably will be bored" [Lordkipanidze, 1968, p.61].
M. Bleyman’s article about an eccentric in a movie (Beware of the Car,
Operation ‘Y’," Prisoner of the Caucasus, 33) [Bleyman 1967, p. 80-82] looks
boring and banal today. But the article by Revich (1929-1997) on the fantasy genre
[Revich 1967, p. 82-86], in my opinion, has not lost a polemical fervor.

Box office champion and audience favorite, Amphibian Man by G. Kazansky
(1910-1983) and V. Chebotarev (1921-2010) was the first critic’s object for attack:
"What about a A. Belyaev’s novel? This is about tragedy of disillusionment in the
society of businessmen and shopkeepers. What are the ideas of the film? Political
kept to a depressing straightness, and the art became a melodramatic love triangle
and tasteless Ichthyander-Tarzan walks on the roofs" [Revich 1968, p.83].
Here it is the typical anti-genre approach of ideologically socialist
orientated critics, when Soviet criticism demanded a class-political conclusions
from exotic folk and fairy tales, mixed with the bright melodramatic stories. As D.
Gorelov correctly noted that Amphibian Man became "the first post-Stalin era
super-blockbuster. ... A competent producer could see that ocean of gold ... But
Chebotarev & Kazansky were in the wild, ugly, ruthless world of freedom, equality
and fraternity, where financial profit meant nothing... Critics scolded them for their
lightness and attraction... Soviet Screen Journal for the first time blatantly falsified
the results of the annual reader's opinions, giving primacy gray and long since dead
drama ..." [Gorelov, 2001].
V. Revich addressed all the same working class and political reproach to
Hyperboloid of Engineer Garin by A. Ginzburg: "the novels’s most powerful
scientific, and social aspect is the mechanics of bourgeois relations, speculation,
capitalist economy and morality. But the social side completely dropped out of the
detective movie" [Revich, 1968, p.83].
V. Revich buckled the theme of the ideological confrontation with the West
and in the article about the film Mysterious Wall because "the faith in the
possibility of contact between all sentient beings is opposed to the concept of
fashion in the West disunity people and spiritual isolation of man" [Revich 1968,
p.84].
Film critic A. Svobodin (1922-1999) positive appreciated the adaptation of
Leo Tolstoy's novel Anna Karenina directed by A. Zarkhi (1908-1997) [Svobodin,
1968, p.40].
The remaining number of pages of the yearbook, as always, took portraits of
filmmakers: N. Mikhalkov [Zinoviev, Markov, 1968, p. 64-66] O. Iosseliani
[Dolinsky, Chertok, 1968, p.41-45], S. Ursky, A. Batalov, P. Aleynikov, D.
Banionis, T. Doronina, R. Bykov [Levshina 1968, p. 76-79].
A secret resolution of the Soviet Communist Party Central Committee "On

increasing the responsibility of the heads of the press, radio and television, film,
culture and art institutions for the ideological and political level of the published
materials and repertoire" [Resolution ..., 1969] was adopted in response to the
liberal events of the "Prague Spring": "Print workers, writers and artists must have
more acute class and party positions to oppose all manifestations of bourgeois
ideology, they must actively and efficiently promote communist ideals, the
advantages of socialism, the Soviet way of life, deeply analyze and expose the
different kind of petty-bourgeois and revisionist currents. Meanwhile, some
authors, and directors depart from the class criteria in assessing and highlighting
the complex social and political problems, facts and events, and sometimes become
carriers of the views that are alien to the ideology of socialist society. Attempts
have been made unilaterally, subjectively evaluate the important periods of the
history of the party and the state...
Some managers of publishing houses, press agencies, radio, television,
institutions of culture and art do not take appropriate measures to prevent the
publication of a false ideological works, do not work well with the authors, show
flexibility and political unscrupulousness in matters of publication ideologically
perverse material. ... The soviet Communist Party Central Committee considers it
necessary to stress the special responsibility of the heads of organizations and
departments and editorial teams for the ideological orientation" [Resolution…,
1969].
Yearbook Screen 1968-1969 was put into set in February 1969, a month
after this decision, and six months after the Soviet invasion in Czechoslovakia.
Therefore, the books’ compilers just had to take into account the current political
situation. However, they still managed broad panorama the most striking
phenomena of the national film industry.
The tighter censorship on the pages of the yearbook, of course, remain. For
example, in the section Close-up [Screen 1968-1969, pp. 91-93] were initially
placed reflections A. Konchalovsky about his film Asya’s Happiness. But then,
apparently due to pressure from "above" and shelf destiny of this movie, this text
have been replaced by an article about actress A. Demidova. The film Asya’s
Happiness initially [Screen 1968-1969, p. 110-115] was in the discussion chapter
Controversy, but later this material was sealed the black stars in the table of
contents [Screen 1968-1969, p. 317] and replaced by the discussion about the film
Running on Waves by P. Lyubimov (1938-2010).
It is clear there was no way to avoid ideological pathos in the yearbook. The
book once again reminded to readers that Mother by V. Pudovkin “brought to the
cinema powerful influence of socialist realism, merged the power of images
Gorky's prose with the realistic performance of the actors, the highest
achievements of film culture" [Pisarevsky 1969, p.19], and The Sixth of July is a
major new step in the development of the Leninist theme. ... This victory is all the
more important that the last time there were many films and performances, where
most topics in the result only untalented performance compromise. The Sixth of
July is not just a historical picture. It is living our present time. And today's
struggle for communism requires reflection attacks rr-revolutionary demagogues,
for the sake of playing phrases left the fate of nations" [Freilich, 1969, p.63].
On the other hand, only a few months left before the super-officious
journals Communist and Ogoniok published sharply accusatory articles about The
Sixth of July by M. Shatrov (1932 - 2010), and J. Karasik (1923-2015)
The Sixth of July was clearly on the side of "socialism with a human face."
And the conservative Ogoniok wrote: "We are convinced that the film The Sixth of
July does not serve the education of viewers. … Historical truth is not on the side
of film's authors. … This film violated historical truth: the main focus is not on
Lenin’s activity, but on the Left Socialist-Revolutionary rebellion, and their leader
M. Spiridonova. We believe that the film The Sixth of July does not deserve Lenin
Prize" [Savinchenko, Shirokov, 1970, p.25]
But the Screen 1968-1969 supported not only The Sixth of July, but also a
much more daring movie No Path Through Fire by G. Panfilov unvarnished spoke
about civil war ruthlessly divided the nation into "red" and "white". This film "is a
strong, very strong, and most importantly - this film is very impressive"
[Rakhmanov, 1969, p.64].
T. Khloplyankina wrote on other notable film about civil background –
There Were Two Comrades (writers Y. Dunsky and V. Fried, director E. Karelin)
also very warmly. However the author did not say anything about a bitter essence
of this wonderful film, practically openly speaking against the fratricidal civil
war…
The analysis of films on "historical and revolutionary themes" (Mysterious
Monk, Emergency Order, The First Courier, Nikolay Bauman, The Seventh
Companion, There Were Two Comrades, The Sixth of July) in the article by A.
Vartanov [Vartanov, 1969, pp. 134-138] was given in traditional for this time style.
Screen 1968-1969 was able to afford to support again the Ukrainian poetic
cinema, this time - Evening on the eve Midsummer by Y. Ilienko (1936-2010):
"This is the scope of the director's fancy - fancy, inventive in each frame. … large,
generous, sophisticated. ... The strong temperament of the master, even involuntary
and unavoidable mistakes he has in many cases can be converted into victory,
turned into discoveries" [Drach, 1969, p.88].
Yearbook’s polemic section this time was devoted to films Women Power
by Y. Nagibin (1920-1994) and A. Saltykov (1934-1993), The Golden Calf by M.
Schweitzer (1920-2000), and (instead of Asya’s Happiness) Running on Waves by
P. Lyubimov.
After seeing Women Power, K. Shcherbakov come to the harsh conclusion:
"Given an order to tell about the hard fate of the female, to portray life as it is,
without fear of its cruel side, the authors, it seems to me, not imagined what
outcome they want to extract. And artistically unselected, unthought
conglomeration of naturalistic, difficult-to-eye episodes begins to avenge himself,
turns the moral unscrupulousness and deafness, leads to a distortion of what we are
accustomed to understand by the words "popular character" [Shcherbakov, 1969, p.
99].
N. Ilyina argued with K. Shcherbakov, insisting that the artistic quality of

this film is quite high: "Naturalism? Some people say this about the film. … But if
you hold the primordial meaning of the word, referring to "naturalism" rough and
mechanical copying from nature, the work that is touching and shocking, can not
be called naturalistic. ... The film Women Power has advantages and
disadvantages. But one thing it is not - the indifference and lethargy" [Ilyina, 1969
pp. 103-104].
B. Galanov (1914-2000), of course, could not yet assume that the sad
comedy of M. Schweitzer The Golden Calf deservedly become a kind of Russian
"cult film" of our day, and, I think, did not understand the depth of this brilliant
movie. Therefore B. Galanov complained that (unlike the eponymous book of I. Ilf
and E. Petrov) "the laughter, if not completely disappeared, but turned slightly to
drama on the screen. And Ostap Bender himself as the face of a dramatic, gained
some importance. ... Whether or not whether to submit the rogue as a "great
strategist" intellectual, a man with the eternal sad eyes?" [Galanov 1969, p.105].
In this context, M. Dolinsky & S. Chertok gave clear and reasoned response
to B. Galanov: The Golden Calf presented "Bender outstanding, talented person
who is at odds with the times and have chosen this path, can be as just because of
this disorder. ... Crashing superior man. Is this funny? And M. Schweitzer rights,
which, by sacrificing some fun stakes, giving up many winning situations, created
the film, not only equipped with wit, but also imbued with sadness" [Dolinsky,
Chertok, 1969, p.109].
Literary critic V. Turbin (1927-1993) was unhappy with the adaptation of
A. Green’s novel Running on Waves. He insisted that "Green’s novel is easy, laid-
back, and the film is heavy, full of massive suggestiveness" [Turbin, 1969, pp.110-
111]. However Y. Khanyutin (1929-1978) was on the side of the authors of this
film: "Much of the script and the film was not so, as in Green’s novel, but, I think,
more interesting ... In short, a tragedy has already unfulfilled in the film has turned
out sharper than the happiness of searches that can still happen" [Khanyutin, 1969,
pp. 113-115].
M. Bleyman’s article also was dedicated to film adaptations. The film critic
thought that the "creative challenge for adaptation is to find stylistic originality
means to realize other art on the screen" [Bleyman, 1969, p. 147].
And A. Macheret (1996-1979), basically agreeing with M. Bleyman, came
to the conclusion that I. Pyrev managed to adequately approach to the novel The
Brothers Karamazov: "Pyrev’s personal creative features properties of artistic
talent found in the film adaptation of the great Dostoyevsky's most fertile, mate
them to the basis for its higher manifestations" [Macheret, 1969, p. 150].
I. Levshina wrote consistently negative review on the adaptation of the play
by E. Radzinsky 104 pages about love. She very convincingly argued that "artistic
and moral potential of the film Once Again About Love and remained at the level
of everyday history. The huge box-office success does not prevent this film
become for us an example of failure in art. ... The reasons for the failure of the
film are the complete absence of at least some independent thought, at least some
of the image, at least some of the director's attempts, cinematic reading of the play"
[Levshina, 1969, pp.148-149].
Specialist in the analysis of science fiction and adventure, V. Revich this
time published an article about the spy cinema: "The main complaint, which is
usually presented "detective" movies, is that the frantic pace of the action, the rapid
twists, in which captures the spirit of the audience, press down psychology,
characters, images. And if the hero can do to show individuality in such
conditions? I must admit that, perhaps, no other kind of film genre not put his
character in such a rigid framework. Most of the time he is in exceptional
psychological situation - on a knife edge. Of course, the story sharpness about the
man who all the time is under threat of death is very essential aspect of the film,
but the sharpness is worth nothing if we can not see the interesting character. ...
The human image creation on such a narrow space surround is always difficult
artistic task, and the list of failures is much higher than the premium sheet"
[Revich 1969, p.140].
V. Revich wrote in this context about extremely popular at that time
adventure war film Shield and Sword: "The authors often put their characters in a
situation clearly implausible. Hard to believe that Soviet aircraft could have easily
landed and take off in wartime Germany, and underground groups, in broad
daylight, could have grab the train and prison" [Revich, 1969, p.141].
As always, a large number of pages of the yearbook was dedicated to the
topic of contemporary cinema. And here it is possible to note a positive review N.
Lordkipanidze devoted to the analysis of one of the most acute social Soviet films -
Three Days of Victor Chernyshev (writer E. Grigoriev, director M. Osepyan). Of
course, this article is not touch to the serious social generalizations relating to
talented critical interpretation of the image “representative of the working class”.
N. Lordkipanidze dared only to write that "passivity is the main thing that will not
accept the authors in his character; passive attitude towards certain phenomena of
reality" [Lordkipanidze, 1969, p.85], but she did not go farther inland (most likely,
for censorship reasons)...
J. Warsawsky wrote his review of the school drama We'll Live Till Monday
(screenwriter G. Polonsky, director S. Rostotsky) in a similar spirit. The film
earned a warm assessment, but without any attention to all the possible sharp edges
of Soviet school problems...
L. Anninsky, I think, revealed the creative concept of Triangle by G. Malyan
(1925-1988) more deeply and convincingly, stressing that "the essence of the film
is not in the traditional life, but in the sense of the uniqueness of the life, its
irreplaceable uniqueness" [Anninsky, 1969, p.81].
This Yearbook was released in the year a centenary "leader of world

proletariat" V.I. Lenin, therefore, the first forty pages of text were filled with a
collection of most tedious officious materials dedicated to this date.
But after that Yearbook returned to the usual format: deservedly praised
poetic melodrama Lovers by I. Ishmuhamedov [Kazakova, 1970, p.44] and sad
comedy Do not worry! by G. Danelia [Lipkov, 1970, p. 46-49]. In particular, A.
Lipkov (1936-2007) claimed with good reason that "it is the same Danelia, who
knows how to treat his characters with a smile, to forgive their weaknesses, admire
their merits, in short, who knows how to love their heroes and infect his love of the
audience. Properties of the artist's talent has always embodied that it creates. In the
film Do not worry! We can see the main feature of the authors: generosity"
[Lipkov, 1970, p.46].
Critics praised the film adaptation of novels of Chingiz Aitmatov (1928-
2008). A. Zorky (1935-2006), analyzing the film Running Pacer by S. Urusevsky,
answered for this question: "How still relate to each other and the film and story of
Chingiz Aitmatov? So, as the lyric poem may be related to the social novel. A
lyrical poem written by the hand of a talented like-minded" [Zorky, 1970, p. 55].
A. Troshin (1942-2008) was very positive to the movie Jamila by M.
Poplavskaya (1924-2012): "Sincerity tone is one of the qualities of Aitmatov's
prose, which the film adaptation found in of cinematic equivalent" [Troshin, 1970,
p. 58].
D. Pisarevsky wrote good review about the best L. Gaidai (1923-1993)
comedy Diamond Hand: “genre fusion experiment was a success. Color and
widescreen movie is action and entertaining, funny and ironic. ... The film is fun,
mischievously, in a rapid pace with literally staggering cascades of plot surprises"
[Pisarevsky, 1970, p.58].
But Yearbook struck suddenly (as we recall, earlier Screen positively
evaluated of poetic genre) on the poetic parable Eastern Corridor by V.
Vinogradov (1933-2011). The article of T. Ivanova was not written specifically for
the Yearbook, but reprinted from the December issue of the magazine Soviet
Screen [Ivanova, 1969]. Therefore, T. Ivanova, in my opinion, was rhe first Soviet
film critic who wrote the harsh criticism about poetic parable cinema. However, I
do not think that T. Ivanova wrote an article under the direct influence of some
censorship "decisions" and "valuable suggestions". But cinema authority skillfully
used this article (as M. Bleyman’s article) for their own censorship’s purposes.
T. Ivanova claimed that the "difficulty", "incomprehensible" film language,
widely used, is the quality seemed to be self-valuable, "necessary" a sign of good
cinematic tone. And Eastern Corridor it seems almost standard in this regard. ...
From the very beginning of this film V. Vinogradov introduces the viewer to a
special circle in a special atmosphere. The authors make every effort not only
exacerbate, but also complicate the subject, action, conflict… Eastern Corridor is
one of those movies, after watching that there is a need to look into the abstract: to
understand the sequence of events, just to find out what's what. As if some simple
picture is cut into many pieces, large and small, carefully mixed, shaken and put a
new curlicue puzzle. This is the general compositional structure and is the same
solution, even a purely visual, every single episode. … The puzzle in the puzzle,
… the cruel mixture of naturalism and graphic sophistication prevails on the
screen. … This if abundance of cruel effects and extravagant entourage. This if
sophisticated operator skill. All taken together this is aestheticization naturalism.
But there is and the ethical aspect. It seems that people are acting in this film live
in a unique country and terrible world, swept away by their feelings, strung up,
crushed, they themselves hysterically and tragically exalted. And there comes a
time when pumped emotional temperature of the film begins to give birth to a
protest" [Ivanova, 1970, p. 93-94].
I think this piece of article strongly suggests that T. Ivanova did not
understand the essence of vivid imagery this outstanding film-parable. In my
opinion, cinemateque quotes (early motifs from films of A. Wajda and M. Jancso,
andthe Czech "new wave") organically entered in the film of V. Vinogradov. Plus
philosophical, religious and visual originality of this movie (more about Eastern
Corridor you can read in the articles: Gershezon, 2011, pp. 136-144; Fedorov,
2011, pp. 110-116)...
By the way, the negative reaction of the Soviet critics of Vinogradov’s film
and many famous movies of the Czech "New Wave" of the 1960s on the war topic
was very similar. For example, S. Komarov wrote about Diamonds of the Night
(1964) by Czech director J. Nemec: "Surreal world of Kafka is embodied with a
more impressive force. Operators J. Kucera and M. Ondrzhichek invested in this
work an important contribution. … This film won wide acclaim from critics of the
capitalist countries, and a number of awards at international festivals, but there
crush sober voice, expressing his surprise at the creation of the film in one of the
socialist countries" [Komarov, 1974, p. 62].
Against this background, it is surprising that the Eastern Corridor still came
out (albeit briefly) in the Soviet cinemas...
But back to T. Ivanova’s article. Having finished with the Eastern Corridor,
she moved to the poetic parables of Y. Ilienko (Evening on the eve of Ivan Kupala)
and T. Abuladze (Prayer): "The need to be understood, inherent in every person,
especially for an artist. … It is difficult to make "difficult" films. And Prayer and
Evening on the eve of Ivan Kupala preserve traces of the difficult art of searching
and overcoming. But one thing seems to have been abandoned by the authors
neglected: searches for clarity” [Ivanova, 1970, p.95].
Perhaps T. Ivanova’s article was one of the most polemical sharp in the
Screen yearbooks’ history. Other materials of Screen 1969-1970 were much more
ordinary...
In 1970, the USSR was celebrated not only the 100th anniversary of V.I.
Lenin, but also the 25th anniversary of victory over Nazi Germany. Hence it is
clear that this yearbook published many articles on the military film topic. For
example, V. Fomin did not stint on the praise for the remarkable film It was the
month of May by M. Khutsiev: "This film, organically combining in-depth with
the scale of the image is psychological, modest grounded narrative style with an
open and emotional pathos" [Fomin, 1971, p.27].
Several articles were devoted to the films about the Civil War. Here Y.
Warsawsky initially quite reasonably wrote that "the civil war is main topic a lot of
movies. But these films often written and directed as adventurous. Reds…
Whites… What decides the victory in such films? Who will outwit. Who shoots
better, faster rides on horseback. ... and then the dramatic events of the civil war
turned only amusing adventure" [Warsawsky, 1971, p.92].
But then the critic, alas, went on to openly communist propaganda: "Lenin
wrote on the festive energy revolution! ... There are new generations of viewers,
they should see a revolution on the screen and emotionally survive, like
commissars: wise, pure, honest, fai" [Warsawsky, 1971, p. 92].
A. Karaganov (1915-2007), a very influential at that time film critic, wrote
the article devoted to one of the most remarkable films about the civil war - Run by
A. Alov and V. Naumov. He stressed that "movie camera "sees" Russian
landscapes through the eyes not only of those who are fighting for a new life, but
also those who are in love with the old life, fighting for it" [Karaganov, 1971, p.
60].
But then (like J. Warsawsky) A. Karaganov followed by communist
ideologically passage: "In many of the current foreign films corruption of human
characters are portrayed as a process and as a state that expresses the total human
defeat, his eternal depravity, a fatal inability to live like human beings. But
dehumanization of man stands concretely and historically and socially in Run. The
characters are exposed deformation caused by violation of organic links with their
homeland, butchery against the people, the service for historically unrighteous
case" [Karaganov, 1971, p.62].
The yearbook positively evaluated and other famous film on the topic of
civil war - The adjutant of his excellency. V. Revich wrote about the innovative
approach of the authors to the image of the White Guard General: "Kovalevsky is
far from the popular image of "Whites". He is smart, intelligent, gentle and kind,
even to the extent possible for the military" [Revich 1971, p.104].
... Red spy Koltsov, intelligent and clever, at the White Guard General
Kovalevsky. The psychological duel between Koltsov and General Kovalevsky
also the smartest and intelligent... This situation was unusual story for the
audience, educated Chapayev, where Whites (or their sympathizers) was the cruel
enemies... Of course, The adjutant of his excellency (directed by E. Tashkov)

primarily attracted detective intrigue. But having a partner-opponent such as
General Kovalevsky, Koltsov, undoubtedly gaining extra points at a mass
audience. General was imposing, impressive, clever, ironic. I would say more,
Kovalevsky even then, at the end of 1960, aroused sympathy and empathy.
A. Lipkov also gave the positive opinion for another film about civil war -
The White Sun of the Desert by V. Motyl: "The history of real events - revolution,
civil war in Central Asia - represent only the background of the events, they left
behind the scenes, but the narrative and fiction triumphs of this film is good ironic
comedy” [Lipkov, 1971, p. 94].
As usual, the yearbook analyzed the most notable movies. For example, the
film Crime and Punishment by L. Kulidzhanov (1923-2002): "The director read F.
Dostoevsky’s novel seriously, quietly, carefully. ... Read without any attempts to
modernize the problems... This is a talented, serious and deep film. ... Maybe the
director and the actors let something controversial, but highly interesting"
[Pogozheva 1971, p.78, 83].
A. Lipkov was stressed the originality of King Lear by G. Kozintsev: "This
film is not trying to improve Shakespeare, retouch the world of his tragedy. The
director is faithful and does not fit into any canonical frameworks" [Lipkov, 1971,
p. 64].
Ther biographical drama Tchaikovsky received a more critical assessment,
although the film critic noted at the same time that "I. Talankin in the best scenes
of the film showed the taste and skill of the director" [Ryzhov, 1971, p. 90].
The Beginning by G. Panfilov earned the highest praise (and absolutely
deserved) between the films on contemporary topics: "Reading the press on The
Beginning, you see that 99 percent of it consists of admirable actor’s work I.
Chourikova. You may think that The Beginning it is just Churikova. But with all
our surprise the brilliant performance of this extraordinary actress, The Beginning
is primarily G. Panfilov" [Sobolev, 1971, p.72]. Y. Khanutin and A. Troshin also
wote about the mastery and talent of G. Panfilov and I. Churikova [Khanyutin,
1971, pp. 116-122; Troshin, 1971, pp. 75-77].
Another very acute at the time of 1960s was the crime drama Accused of
Murder by B. Volchek (1905-1974). And Yearbook published very impornent
conclusion: "This film is strongly convinces us that man, trampling the rights of
others, to humiliate him, not reveres his dignity, condemns himself to an animal
existence, deprives himself of the right to be called a man" [Ostrovsky, 1971,
p.87].
The detailed article of A. Vartanov was devoted to television language
[Vartanov, 1971, pp. 128-134].
The most influential actions of these times were The XXIV Soviet
Communist Party Congress (1971) and the year of the 50th anniversary of the
USSR. And new censorship requirements in relation to the Soviet film and
literature press were in the new Resolution of the Soviet Communist Party Central
Committee On Literary Criticism (January 21, 1972), which was in unison with
Resolution of the Soviet Communist Party Central Committee "On increasing the
repertoire" [Resolution..., 1969].
This is the significal part of this new Resolution: "The state of the criticism
has not yet fully meet the requirements, which are determined by the increasing
role of artistic culture in communist construction. ... Soviet critics sometimes
published materials, which gives the wrong picture of the history of Soviet and
pre-revolutionary art... Criticism is still not active and consistent in approving
revolutionary, humanistic ideals of the art of socialist realism, in exposing the
reactionary nature of the bourgeois "mass culture" and decadent currents in dealing
with various kinds of non-Marxist views on literature and art, revisionist aesthetic
concepts. ... The duty of criticism is deeply analyze the phenomenon, trends and
patterns of contemporary artistic process, and to help strengthen the Leninist
principles of party and nation, to fight for a high ideological and aesthetic level in
Soviet art, consistently oppose bourgeois ideology. Literary and art criticism is
intended to contribute to the expansion of the ideological outlook of the artist and
the improvement of his skills. Building on the tradition of Marxist-Leninist
aesthetics, Soviet literary and art criticism must combine precision ideological
evaluations, depth social analysis aesthetically exacting, careful attitude to the
talent to be fruitful creative research"[Resolution ..., 1972].
Of course, the Yearbook could not ignore these guiding instructions.
However, the Screen 1971-1972 was set in March 1972, that is only a few months
after the publication On Literary Criticism and, therefore, essentially composed in
1971. Hence it is clear that a polemical column survived (although the last time in
the pre-perestroika era), and in the ratio of pages’ number allocated for materials
about the Soviet and foreign films, the latter percentage was "seditious" (but also
the last time) is overvalued (47% articles about foreign films vs. 44% articles about
soviet films).
However, crowded of propaganda and ideological cliches A. Karaganov’s
article under the eloquent title Responsibility of criticism was real respond to
Comminist Paty Resolution: "The good film critic review, actively and skillfully
conducting the Party's line, it may be an effective means not only aesthetic, but
also the political education of the working people, a powerful weapon of
ideological struggle; Party purposeful, smart, aesthetically soulful conversation
about the film helps a person to know better, deeper understanding of art, life,
politics, helps the formation of communist convictions, the education culture of
feelings and thoughts. ... Criticism is designed to consistently assert the Leninist
principles of party and nation, determining the direction of cinematography
socialist realism. … It is impossible not to see that our film critic has not yet risen
to the level of the tasks dictated by modernity. The press still often publish articles
about movies that lack of party principles, the class approach to the realities of art
and life, combat offensive spirit in the fight against a hostile ideology and its
influence. ... Our film critic insufficiently active in the fight against the ideological
and artistic marriage" [Karaganov, 1972, pp. 92-93].
Overall, however, the inertia of the publishing industry has affected the
Screen 1971-1972 positive content. Moreover, V. Fomin’s courageous article The
sublime and the earthly, in fact, opposed the official criticism hounding a poetic
parable and cinema. V. Fomin wrote: "Movies of Parajanov, Abuladze, Ilienko,
Mansurov in its stylistic decision defiantly opposed the the usual rate, polemically
rejected the authenticity of aesthetics. The expressive figurative form openly stands
out sharply at in these films with lush and sophisticated system of imagery, lyrical
and romantic actions" [Fomin, 1972, p.98].
Contrary to the Resolution's wishes "to support movies about the working
class", V. Revich, criticized the "working class" movies Night Shift, Anthracite,
Cool Horizon, remarking that "the filmmakers would be very easy live if the
seriousness of the plan could at least to some extent compensate for the weakness
of films" [Revich, 1972, pp. 85-86].
Film critics argued in the polemical section about the comedy 12 Chairs by
L. Gaidai and melodrama About Love by M. Bogin.
V. Shitova severely (and, I think, too harshly) summarized that "colorful
film directed by Leonid Gaidai is none other than the dummy's novel. That is to
say, a body without a soul. … And as a result of film 12 Chairs as a spectacle
sluggish, and sometimes simply boring" [Shitova, 1972, pp. 70-71]. But G.
Kozhukhova insisted that "Gaidai is the master of eccentric and entertaining
comedy" [Kozhukhova, 1972, p.73].
Speaking about the film About Love, T. Khloplyankina generally very
warmly reacted to this exquisitely lyrical works with latent intonation of "moral
anxiety": "May be this line expressed not as loud as it should be: the author does
not burst, no anger, no pain, but only a certain melancholy. That is why the film
has several monophonic melody, reminiscent of the sad motif consisting of a repeat
of the same musical phrase. But it is not false. … And, really, we need to listen to
this music..." [Khloplyankina, 1972, p.77].
But A. Zorky, in my opinion, was not able to penetrate into the fine M.
Bogin’s poetic watercolors: "Man in the elegant environment… It is still a symbol,
not transported in life" [Zorky, 1972, p.79].
An article E. Gromov (1931-2005) was devoted to personal aspect in
modern topic on the screen: The Beginning and Near the Lake "is touched a very
important topic, which is in the air. This is the theme of emotional wealth of
personality, intellectualism and rationalism in an age of rapid scientific and
technological progress" [Gromov, 1972, p.88]. But in the Young By N.
Moskalenko (1926-1974) is example of a "characters’ depersonalization. None of
them, not only is not a person, but not even it tends to become" [Gromov, 1972, p.
91].
Unfortunately, E. Gromov unable to appreciate the artistic level of Urban
Romance by P. Todorovsky (1925-2013): "The director P. Todorovsky and
screenwriter F. Mironer groped acute actual conflict situation. But, alas, the ore did
not turn into metal. Drama turned into a melodrama" [Gromov, 1972, p.89].
The section devoted to adaptations presents Carousel by M. Schweitzer,
Uncle Vanya by A. Konchalovsky and The Seagull by Y. Karasik.
A. Lipkov wrote that sad comedy Carousel built "easily and gracefully,
exactly freely addressing ironic stylisation, parody, cartoon extravaganza,
grotesque. But this rainbow heap husked comedy arsenal at the viewer from the
first frame appears and starts louder sound painfully poignant note" [Lipkov, 1972,
p. 37]. And then he the bright and vividly spoke about the film adaptation of the
play Uncle Vanya: "Konchalovsky reads Chekhov not only as a thin and quivering
lyricism, not as sad contemplative human ills, and certainly not as a chronicler.
Chekhov for his tragic artist, furious, desperate diseases tormented century. Heroes
of Uncle Vanya inflamed unquenchable thirst for love, complicity, big present
case" [Lipkov, 1972, p. 44]. The Seagull by Yuri Karasik was fairly valued much
lower [Borodin, 1972, p. 45-46].
Chief editor of Soviet Screen D. Pisarevsky shared with readers arguments
(and now not lost its relevance) about the results of the traditional competition in
which the readers of the magazine evaluated the films of the year: "Movement of
films and spectators to each other is a complex and dialectic process. And may
increase the aesthetic tastes of the audience, pulling backward to the advanced
level (and those, in turn, to a new, higher level), contributes to the real study of the
audience and the entire system of educational work with the mass audience. It will
be a school, and film club, and the mass cinema. But first and foremost, of course,
by the works of film art" [Pisarevsky, 1972, p.103].
The authors of the yearbook also wrote positive articles about the films
Attention, Turtle! [Levshina, 1972, pp. 36-38], The End of Ataman [Sulkin 1972,
pp. 28-32], We and Our Mountains [Vartanov, 1972, pp. 47-49].
This Yearbook was the last compiler’s work of S. Chertok. Then the cinema
bosses apparently decided that his editorial policy to take a significant conflict with
the Resolution of Soviet Communist Pary Central Committee On Literary
Criticism (1972) and no longer corresponds to the current trend. Starting with the
Screen 1973-1974, the foreign section of the yearbooks was the decline in volumes
and articles on Western movie stars gradually gave way to the "stars" of the "third
world"…
Medvedev’s article Fifty-firstYear was full of the ideological fervor in the
spirit of Resolution: "When I remember the films 1973, I think that this year
started in the joyful and exciting days of our holiday: the golden jubilee of the
Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. New battle Kremlin chimes alerted the world
about the beginning of a new history of half a century of unprecedented
community of people, whose name - the Soviet people" [Medvedev, 1975, p.86].
Further there was a great quote from the report of L.I. Brezhnev On the 50th
Anniversary of the USSR. No one critic had not allowed himself to this kind of
quotes in the Screen Yearbooks...
But on the whole yearbook still trying to keep film studies brand.
For example, analyzing a film A Bad Good Man by I. Kheifits (1905-1995), A.
Lipkov wrote: "Chekhov saw the task of art is "to squeeze out of the slavery of
man - drop by drop." Kheifits’ film inspires the same hatred of slavery - to rid the
person of abstract ideas dogma, violence, physical and moral terror philistine
environment. Man, with all its weaknesses and imperfections, fortunately, it is still
not an ant, no termite, no beetle. He is a human. Bad or good, or even that more
difficult - the 'bad good', but man" [Lipkov, 1975, p. 26].
I. Levshina heartily praised adaptation of Mark Twain's novel Adventures of
Huckleberry Finn, set by G. Danelia titled Hopelessly Lost: "unexpectedly slow,
achingly sad – this film seems deliberately circumvents many of the adventures"
[Levshin, 1975, p.32].
V. Demin (1937-1993) favorably reacted to freestyle adaptation of the play
by Mikhail Bulgakov: the comedy Ivan Vasilievich changes his occupation by L.
Gaidai: "Today, our comedy can not boast a lot of luck... This alarming joke of L.
Gaidai is unconditional and remarkable success" [Demin, 1975, p.81].
The Yearbook also singled out the most important films on contemporary
topics: Happy Go Lucky by V.Shukshin and Monologue by I. Averbach.
V. Fomin wrote: "Shukshin still faithful to his character, he actively
empathizes... Shukshin enamored looks at his Ivan Rastorguev, admires them and
then quite ruthlessly punishes him for his obvious failures and weaknesses inherent
in the nature" [Fomin, 1975, p.30].
But R. Yurenev was more strict in relation to the film Monologue because
of Western influences: "The love of the people, attention to him, attention to the
most seemingly ordinary and insignificant everyday problems - the priceless
quality of the script E. Gabrilovich, well understood and generally successful
implementation by I. Averbach. ... In the scene of the meeting of the old
academician with ageless love of his youth I seen the influence of I. Bergman; in
boys trumpeter – F. Fellini…" [Yurenev, 1975, p. 21].
After paying tribute to the actor's talent of M. Ulyanov (1927-2007), L.
Pogozheva (1913-1989) wrote fairly restrained about his director's work The Last
Day, noting that "the plot of this film is not new and is not original, but it is
interesting to watch. I think this is mainly due to the presence on the screen M.
Ulyanov. His game is very well thought-out, very precise and absolutely reliable"
[Pogozheva, 1975, p. 23].
A similar verdict was about the film Hot Snow by G. Egiazarov (1916-
1988) [Bocharov, 1975, p. 15]. In my opinion, extremely complementary reviews
have been published on the films Deep [Sulkin, 1975, pp. 35-38], Herkus Mantas
[Borodin, 1975, pp. 41-43], Melodies of Veriysky Quarter [Lordkipanidze, 1975,
pp. 44-47], And then I said: no... [Gerber, 1975, pp. 39-40].
The Yearbook has not forgotten about the action movies. V. Revich rightly
criticized feature weakness of detectives Shah Queen of Diamonds and The Black
Prince [Revich, 1975, pp. 92-94.].
R. Sobolev (1926-1991) wrote a positive, but too traditional and boring
review of the detective TV-series Seventeen Moments of Spring [Sobolev, 1975,
pp. 52-54] by T. Lioznova (1924-2011).
Maybe the editor S. Chertok could venture out to reprint a brilliant review
Lessons ‘Moments’ by V. Demin, published earlier in Soviet Screen [Demin, 1973,
p9. 4-5]. But, firstly, D. Pisarevsky, the editor in chief of Soviet Screen, lost his job
in 1975 because of "ill-advised" the publication of this brave article. And secondly,
as the saying goes, better safe than sorry...
Although readers it would be useful to reflect on the following V. Demin’s
phrase: "The swastika, rituals fires and torchbearers, skulls as emblems - fascism
was not averse to flirt eerie black symbols… The film does not indulge these
claims. … What is there? There people crippled fascist order, accustomed to trust
"the system" more than himself. But all the same people, not monsters. This is
intriguing, and this is also should not be underestimated" [Demin, 1973].
T. Hloplyankina drew the attention of readers, that "films flirting with
melodrama and at the same time carefully concealing this flirtation pretentious
dialogue, speculation on the topic of modern film language, appear on the screen
quite often. And it's a pity, because this genre, of course, the audience favorite, and
always urging him feeling good, worthy of better treatment" [Hloplyankina, 1975,
p. 96].
And D. Pisarevsky, yet not dismissed from his position, referring to the
results of the survey of Soviet Screen readers, reasonably stated that "mass surveys
the audience once again confirmed that box office and their true value and
evaluation audience are very different things. Films that have received the highest
evaluation of the audience, not all cases can be found in the box office top list, and
the comedy and adventure movies that have gathered of millions audiences, often
missing in the list of the best films of the year" [Pisarevsky, 1975, p. 99].
Yearbook changed the editor. The new editors E. Bauman and G.

Dolmatovskaya were assigned instead fired S. Chertok (by the way, in one year
with D. Pisarevsky). And Screen 1974-1975 not only reduced the presence of
foreign materials to an all-time low (19% of the total volume of materials
collection), but also got rid of such talented, but "too free-thinking" authors like L.
Anninsky, V. Demin, Y. Khanyutin, N. Zorkaya and I. Levshina...
In 1975, USSR celebrated the 30th anniversary of the victory over Nazi
Germany, so the bulk of the material on the Soviet cinema was devoted to films
about the war. Firstly Liberation by Y. Ozerov (1921-2001) and They Fought for
Their Motherland by S. Bondarchuk (1920-1994).
V. Baskakov wrote: "Deep, bold, talented director Sergei Bondarchuk,
wonderful actors, the whole shooting team embodied on the screen the ideas and
images of Mikhail Sholokhov's novel They Fought for Their Motherland"
[Baskakov, 1976, p. 24]. And A. Karaganov wrote that "S. Bondarchuk created a
movie, endearing courageous truthfulness" [Karaganov, 1976, p.12]. But even he
could not afford to respond as super positive about the rather loose and strained
pathos of Liberation: "This film is not free of errors. ... But on the whole ... this is
a remarkable work, endearing honesty and recreation events scale, purposefulness
directorial solutions, carrier and the actor's art" [Karaganov, 1976, p. 11].
It seems that the updated Yearbook tried to show their loyalty to the
precepts of the Resolution of the Soviet Communist Party Central Committee of
the On Literary Criticism: Screen 1974-1975 wrote positively even such mediocre
movie on the military theme as Ballad of Kovpak [Kudin, 1976, pp. 38-42], Flame
[Shatsillo, 1976, pp. 42-46] and High Rank [Kazarinov, 1976, pp. 46-48].
Although all three reviews noted for the sake of decency "minor deficiencies", they
always stressed that these films "have become a notable event"...
But T. Ivaniva’s article about L. Bykov’s wonderful film Only old men go to
fight interesting to read. And it is difficult not to agree with the fact that "the
director seems to not want to work it is required to look original, relishing the
unexpected turns in the threads or exclusively modern film language. Apparently,
he is not afraid to appear neither too traditional nor too sentimental" [Ivanova,
1976, p.49].
The Yearbook was again under the influence of On Literary Criticism
reviewing working class drama The Hottest Month [Egorov, 1976, p.87]. But V.
Mikhalkovich had a more sober view of the films on the working class topic
[Mikhalkovich, 1976, p. 116-120].
The main part of the modern section of the Yearbook was given to the
analysis of Red Kalina by V.Shukshin, Romance for Lovers by A. Konchalovsky,
and Daughters and Mothers by S. Gerasimov and other notable works of the
screen.
G. Kapralov’s article was correct: "In the interpretation of the history of
Red Kalina could become commonplace and criminal chronicle and cheap
melodrama. But V. Shukshin raises it to the height of moral and philosophical
thoughts about life, its true and false values" [Kapralov, 1976, p.76].
L. Belova was no less convincing in his argument: "The heroic soul, ready to
exploit in the name of goodness and justice, Olga Vasilyeva from the movie
Daughters and Mothers in the same time is not a standard of positivity. ... The true
value of her nature is dialectical, because its manifestations Olga also draws as
little scary ... This film give us the chance to think" [Belova, 1976, p. 92].
E. Gromov wrote that the film Romance for Lovers "a truly talented and
significant. This is a deeply poetic meditation on love and duty, the meaning of
life" [Gromov, 1976, p. 82].
E. Bauman equally appreciated ironic parable Jackass By E. Shengelaja:
"This film has many many unusual, striking the imagination and eccentricity
paradoxical situations, characters, dialogue, unexpected plot and thinking of the
author. This is a comedy in which intertwine the seriousness of the parable and
slapstick mischief, which is juicy, a visible, tangible and yet inconceivable
fantastic reality coexists with the reliability of a fantastic dream" [Bauman, 1976,
p. 126].
Introducing readers to his reflections on the cinema, M. Zak (1929-2011)
rightly pointed out that the film Until the last minute is "undisclosed political
biography of the hero, because word-gun reduced to the level quotational
journalism" [Zak, 1976, p. 115].
This is another issue, edited by E. Bauman and G. Dolmatovskaya.

XXV Congress of the Soviet Communist Party was held in February-March
1976. This Congress was one of the peaks in the "small cult of personality" of L.I.
Brezhnev. This explains why the "report-inspiring" article by A. Kamshalov
decorated the references to the report of the general secretary [Kamshalov, 1977, p.
28]. A. Kamshalov, in particular, didactically wrote: "A new stage of communist
construction places high demands on literature and art, including the cinema. …
Our party orients writers, artists, composers, filmmakers, television and the theater
workers of the fact that the rich possibilities of art, exciting persuasiveness of
artistic images used for the enrichment of moral people, to improve their spiritual
potential. ... The devotion to communist ideals – that is the main thing that I would
like to see in the way of the worker or collective farmer, a scientist or a warrior,
leader or an ordinary party building a new life" [Kamshalov, 1977, pp. 23, 26].
I think after such a "seed" the quotation from Brezhnev logically looked
and in an article on the movies’ working class subject [Korobkov, 1977, p. 48].
The communist pathos of G. Kapralov’s article about working class film
Prize was in the same key: "Screen offers us a certain model, an example of how
can and should be addressed sometimes some of the issues in a socialist society,
where we have the party criticism and self-criticism. But this "model" is designed
not speculative, not built artificially, but life itself is born... The story of Vasily
Potapov and his team is not the last place in the chain of large and small events of
everyday life that add up to the overall flow of our irresistible movement towards
communism" [Kapralov, 1977, pp. 68-69].
The cinema and Communist party functionary D. Shatsillo spared no
compliments regarding romanticized film biography of one of Communist leaders
– G. Ordzhonikidze (I accept) [Shatsillo, 1977, pp. 87-91].
E. Bauman wrote equally rosy about another deservedly forgotten now film
Time of her sons: "This is the story of the triumph of life, the happiness of peaceful
labor, the great love of his native land. … the main idea sounds distinctly and
clearly: this is the idea of man's responsibility to his country, ahead of its time"
[Bauman, 1977, p.80].
And usually more thoughtful E. Gromov, alas, could not resist the praise of a
mediocre film Earthly Love, which was shown "a man of modern times, the era of
socialist, a communist, was acutely aware of the enormous challenges that were
then in front of the party and the country" [Gromov, 1977, pp. 86-87].
But N. Sumenov (1938-2014) did not dare to sing a solemn hymn to
working class drama From dawn to dusk by G. Egiazarov. Film critic rebuked this
movie in edification, smoothing out conflicts and problems [Sumenov, 1977, p.75].
The rest of the annual reviews were written in a more analytical manner.
For example, V. Vilchek (1937-2006) gave an interesting analysis of the
letters of moviegoers (especially on the comedy Afonya by by G. Danelia), which
were not only clearly marked with different levels of perception, audience analysis
of the film, but also stressed that the "naturalistic perception is a perception,
dictated by lazy, consumer life experience; People just covered (truly deceiving
himself) didactic reasons, they just want do not destroy their peace of minds"
[Vilchek, 1977, p.62].
As a result, V. Vilchek reasonably come to the conclusion that "We need
the concept of "integral film". That is, a film for everyone, able to satisfy the most
different, even polar groups of the audience. It is anticipated that this film should
have a multi-layer structure, so that each group of viewers might find it that
searches and understands the art of one: interesting plot, the second: a fine plastic
or of their idols, and others: deep philosophy, etc." [Vilchek, 1977, p. 63].
Yearbook praisedbook the film Hundred days after childhood by S.
Soloviev. T. Ivanova wrote that “the very sophistication plot of this film, the game
with motifs of classical works, lurked danger: to consider the region bookish
reminiscences in the frame of quite closed experiment. The filmmakers were able
to overcome this danger" [Ivanova, 1977, p. 95].
A historical and romantic melodrama The Captivating Star of Happiness by
V. Motyl received a positive assessment from Y. Turin (1938-2016) [Turin, 1977,
pp. 96-102]. Film critic L. Rybak (1923-1988) supported screen experiment of M.
Schweitzer, who, the first time in the director's biography, turned to the genre
fiction parable in the film Escape of Mr. McKinley: "This unusual movie built on
extreme aesthetic principles; its action steeped in reality, this story is woven of
fantastic events. … We see something unbelievable, inconceivable from the
standpoint of ordinary logic in realistic circumstances, but it is quite convincing as

an artistic metaphor, true to his moral (or immoral) nature" [Rybak, 1977, p. 105].
Screen 1976-1977 (1978, put in a set in January 1978)
This Yearbook changed one of the editors. New editors (until the last issue)
became Y. Turin and G. Dolmatovskaya.
Of course, the diamond jubilee of the Soviet regime (1977) and the
Resolution of the Soviet Communist Party Central Committee On working with
creative youth (October, 1976) played a important role in Soviet film criticism
process. V. Baskakov [1978, pp. 29-35] and M. Alexeev [Alexeev, 1978, p. 50]
wrote about clearly and directly. N. Sumenov wrote: “Liberation by Y. Ozerov
clearly reflected as a strike force of world imperialism were broken, met on his
way a monolithic multi-ethnic state of workers and peasants who defended the war
the freedom and independence of their country, Lenin's motherland, the
motherland of the Great October. … Soldiers of Freedom shows not only the
successes but also the dramatic pages of the people's liberation struggle. … And
very good episode of this film, where L.I. Brezhnev (actor E. Matveev) speaks
about communism with simple Czech workers. This episode is capacious and
extremely important for the expression of the author's concept of dialogue as it
sums up the film as a work of political cinema" [Sumenov, 1978, pp. 78-80].
It seems that everything has already been said in this "critical" passage...
But, no: N. Sumenov with skillful pen of communist functionary added cold war
sentence: "Bourgeois propagandists used up a lot of pages, arguing that the
national liberation struggle, the people's democratic and socialist system in Europe
was planted against the will of the peoples of these countries. Accessing historical
facts refutes the malicious lies. In carrying out their internationalist duty, the
Soviet Army liberated from fascism, not only his country, but also the people of
other European countries that have chosen the democratic path of development.
Our ideological opponents, ideological means fighting against the socialist
community of nations now rely on inciting nationalist sentiment. They are trying to
drive a wedge between the peoples, to oppose one another nation, to split the unity
of our country. That is why today is so important political picture, excitedly and
earnestly preaching the ideals of proletarian internationalism. It is no exaggeration
to say that internationalism becomes the main theme of the film Soldiers of
Freedom, its most important task" [Sumenov, 1978, p.83].
The articles about Leninist films Trust [Zaitsev, 1978, pp. 84-86] and
October [Pustynsky 1978, pp. 132-133] were additional plus to Soviet anniversary.
The alternative approach to the official analysis of war films was presented
in M. Zak’s article. He, not fearing the religious foundation, gave the high praise
for L. Shepitko’s masterpiece Ascension: "The director is harsh and intransigence
in the image of suffering, intransigence in relation to the viewer's perception,
which has its own thresholds. She leaves nothing behind the scenes, and the
spectators run with the hero all painful path… Mythological paint gradually slides
over the screen. … the evangelical omposition openly establish themselves in the
frame" [Zak, 1978, p. 68].
But M. Zak somehow confused realistic textures in the film Twenty Days
Without War, typical of the director's style of A. German: "The efforts of the
director sometimes seem excessive, particularly in the field of decorative arts"
[Zak, 1978, p. 66].
The films on contemporary topics was also in focus of the Yearbook:
Mimino, Own Opinion, The White Ship, Only You, Hoax and Word of Protection.
A. Zorky wrote about one of the best G. Danelia’s film:
"Mimino has everything which you can want in good movie: humor, honesty,
simplicity, seriousness, the great script, mature craftsmanship, beautiful duet of
actors" [Zorky, 1978, p. 209].
N. Savitsky quite convincingly argued that the Own Opinion "main
character is too self-confident, the winner from the start. He appeared not to study,
but teach. He almost does not make mistakes, and I can’t trust him. ... This film has
absolutely predominant declarative tone, journalistic style, emotionally depleted"
[Savitsky, 1978, p. 96].
K. Rudnicky (1920-1988) was dissatisfied with the imbalance of a characters
in a film of screenwriter A. Mindadze and director V. Abdrashitov Word for
Protection because "the fate of main heroine Kostina, like a powerful magnet
attracts all interest and takes in all the excitement of the audience. Conceived (and
contrived!) parallel movement of the two female roles in the living reality of the
film is replaced by a powerful movement of a single Kostina’s drama" [Rudnicky,
1978, p.124].
Speaking about the melodrama Only You by I. Kheifits (1905-1995) M.
Kuznetsov (1914-1980) was, in my opinion, overly didactic, emphasizing "how
important it is for our contemporaries have the own culture of senses… And this
controversial, somewhat uneven, but very interesting film devoted to this area of
moral life" [Kuznetsov, 1978, p.104].
Reviewing musical melodrama about the school and school children Hoax,
T. Kukarkina began with praise: "V. Menchov has chosen for his first directorial
work of dynamic form of the narrative, catchy, bright, spectacular. Pop-music,
beautiful person, elegant interiors, the plot tension overshadowed psychological
thoroughness. The director focused on the incessant emotional impact. It is
promoted and given rhythm and unique scene transitions, and the absence of
general plans and panoramas. All large, brightly. And the film looks in one breath,
he excites and makes empathize heroes" [Kukarkina, 1978, p.119]. But then T.
Kukarkina made the negative conclusion, in my opinion, unreasonably harsh: "The
stated problem, moral collision blurred, scattered in different semantic series,
replacing the regulatory rules of ethics. ... The idea of the playwright essential to
solve problems is obvious, but simplified to elementary commandments"
[Kukarkin, 1978, p.121].
The main article in the portrait gallery of the yearbook (articles about the
work of actors Y. Solntseva, R. Adomaitis, I. Churikova, G. Burkov, E. Simonova)
was the text of R. Yurenev. Remembering the Kuban Cossacks by I. Pyrev, film
critic wrote that "of course, all the circumstances of this picture is not shown of
collective life. There was no criticisms, no objective assessment of the life
difficulties. But it was fun and joyful chanting of the collective-farm labor, a new
morality, friendship and ardent love in the conventions of the genre of musical
comedy and operetta" [Yurenev, 1978, p. 139]. But "modern dramatic Pyrev’s
movies Our Mutual Friend, Light of Distant Star were weaks, and quickly got off
the screen"[Yurenev, 1978, p.139].
R. Yurenev thought the main Pyrev’s artistic achievement The Brothers
Karamazov where director "boldly sacrificed many lines, many novel ideas,
focusing on the problem of realization of its main characters. And here and he
showed courage, and taste, and a very deep and subtle understanding of the
individual characteristics quite similar to each other actors" [Yurenev, 1978, p.
142].
Screen 1977-1978 continued the theme of the 60th anniversary of the

Sosialist revolutionary. A. Novogrudsky (1911-1996) wrote an article under the
eloquent title Under the Sign of the October Revolution: "Why is the bourgeois
film researchers praise the first Soviet revolutionary cinema masterpieces (even
emasculating their ideological content and focusing on the purely aesthetic
categories)? The answer is quite simple: to build the anti-scientific scheme of
"attenuation" of Soviet cinema, to belittle the significance of such great works as
Chapaev, a trilogy about Maxim and other outstanding films, declared "non-
existent" creative achievements of Soviet filmmakers after 1920s. The Western
cinema books repeated this false scheme with the dogmatic obstinacy
pseudoscientific treatises ... Another false is the accusation of socialist realism in
the canons of censorship"[Novogrudsky, 1979, p. 28].
It is clear that the Novogrudsky’s arguments look mildly, unconvincing,
because the Western festival movement and Western film studies, actually
rejecting the ideology of "socialist realism" (like the 1930s and subsequent years),
always supported talented Soviet movies of post-Stalin era (including many films
of M. Kalatozov, A. Konchalovsky, S. Parajanov, A. Tarkovsky, G. Chuhraj, M.
Khutsiev and other masters).
A. Medvedev presented his article The feat of the people, the fate of the
People, which he wrote about very mediocre "socialist realism" films Carpathian
Mountains ... by T. Levchuk and Destiny by E. Matveyev: "Much of these works is
debatable. However, I would like to emphasize the important thing in the film
chronicle of the national artistic feat of new lines are written, enriching our
memory, spreading its horizon" [Medvedev, 1979, p. 46].
N. Savitsky published anoter positive-boring article about the drama on the

workin class topic - Feedback by V. Tregubovich [Savitsky, 1979, pp. 87-92].
Reflecting on the movie Call me in the distance light by S. Lubshin and G.
Lavrov, E. Bauman wrote that "the film carefully and clearly conveyed Shukshin’s
intonations, Shukshin’s thoughts. And a huge credit for this belongs to the
ensemble cast"[Bauman, 1979, p. 102].
But Y. Turin very severely appreciated the talented drama Wounded Game
(The Orphans) by N. Gubenko: "The main character fell apart in every sense of the
word into two parts: his childhood was promised a great personality, but the
maturity has been deprived of concreteness, the flesh. Here the main failure of the
movie. Bartenev was forty years in the present tense only eyewitness and
participant in the events does not unlike Bartenev-child wounded" [Turin, 1979, p.
97].
Surprisingly, but the Screen 1977-1978 dared (and I think rightly) criticize
S. Rostotsky, logged by this time the cohort of "untouchables directors". His
adaptation of the novel White Bim Black Ear had a huge success with audiences,
but the Yearbook published the following opinion: "The filmmakers removed the
the air, breath of prose. Hard film in some of its parts has become cruel, almost
tortured nerves of the audience" [Marchenko, 1979, p. 101].
Portrait Gallery of Screen 1977-1978 was extensive [Zakrzhevskaya 1979,
pp. 114-120; Lagina, 1979, pp. 121-126; Yurenev, 1979, pp. 145-147; Krivitsky,
pp. 147-153; Tarasenko, 1979, pp. 136-141; Khanyutin, 1979, pp. 131-136;
Vladimirova, 1979, pp. 154-157].
Summarizing the results of a creative way of film director I. Talankin (1927-
2010), E. Vladimirova rightly noted that "diversity is the main quality of his work,
his films is open for the emotionality, for the viewer's heart" [Vladimirova, 1979,
p. 157].
Y. Khanyutin (1929-1978) wrote one of his brilliant articles: "N. Mikhalkov
made his debut in directing as a secular dandy on Opening Day, with noisy, fun,
dazzling cascade of film techniques. His first film At Home Among Strangers… has
fairy-tale characters, act according to the laws of natural justice and faith in their
triumph. And the director also believes with them. Negative character desperately
asks: "My God, my God, why are you helping this cretin, not me?". "Because
you're a greedy", - meets the positive hero of this film. As in fairy tales: brave and
noble hero wins and punished negative character" [Khanyutin, 1979, pp. 131-132].
Turning to the analysis of the second work of N. Mikhalkov, Y. Khanyutin
gave an exhaustive answer to the question of why the Slave of Love had no total
box-office success: "The director chose exactly the genre corresponding to the
subject: melodrama. But, it seems, he made a fatal mistake in relation to the
selected genre. He puts the film with a certain ironic distance towards the
character. And the romance can not tolerate distance, she can not live without the
immediacy and simplicity. And the lack of sensitivity are not compensated by the
exquisite interiors, an elegant stylized fashion and costumes and even a soft smile
of the author in relation to the figures of the cinema. Perhaps the lack of
spontaneity prevented the Slave of Love to win the success with the audience"
[Khanyutin, 1979, p. 132].
Mikhalkov's Unfinished Piece for Mechanical Piano (on motives of the
early play of Anton Chekhov, known as Platonov) received the highest evaluation
from Y. Khanyutin: "He started (in At Home Among Strangers… and Slave of
Love) in easy and artistic author's style with elegant and slightly retro. But now
cutesy shell of the century is replaced by the director of a thoughtful and unhurried,
develops relationships of characters, exposes the complexity of their relationships,
the depth of subtext. ... Mikhalkov away from traditional interpretations of
Chekhov, from the elegiac, muted emotions, halftones. This film presents Chekhov
sarcastic, bitter, merciless, built on the dramatic tension, catastrophic drops,
breakdowns from tragedy to farce. ... The film unfolds slowly, there is a feeling
that his exposition, where it turns out "who's who" tightened. There are the shock
episodes, designed for immediate impact, that were in the first Mikhalkov’s film.
But gradually you enter into the world of movie, and this film powerfully addictive
you. This is one of those works of art that have a strong impact in the end and
leave a long period of "aftertaste", the desire to think about the film and its
characters. Probably, this is the quality of this serious work. No, not dapper
professional, not a brilliant actor gets out of the frame of the film. This is the
artist’s deep penetratition into the essence of phenomena, the invitation the viewer
to thinking" [Khanyutin, 1979, p.132, 136].
Screen 1978-1979 (1981, put in a set in July 1980)
Yearbook Screen 1978-1979 was put into set in July 1980, after the Soviet
invasion of Afghanistan, in response to which the United States has announced a
boycott of the Moscow Olympics, and an embargo on the Soviet Union in modern
technologies and grain. And Soviet communist Party Central Committee
Resolution "On further improve the ideological and political education work"
(April 1979) adopted a year earlier: "The Communist Party organizations, agencies
of culture, ideological institutions, creative unions have the task of improving
ideological and political Marxist-Leninist education of the artistic intelligentsia"
[Resolution ..., 1979].
In short, a "discharge" policy was ended and new peak of the cold war
started. And only one month left before resuming jamming broadcasts Voice of
America and other Western radio stations in the USSR (20-21 August 1980)...
Article of V. Drobashenko (1921-2012) [Drobashenko, 1981, pp. 11-17] and
Y. Cherepanov [Cherepanov, 1981, pp. 72-75], N. Zaitsev [Zaitsev, 1981, p. 77,
80], N. Sumenov [Sumenov, 1981, pp. 80-83] were the responses to the
Communist Party Resolution.
In particular, Y. Cherepanov, without the slightest shadow of a doubt, wrote
that all in the film The taste of bread "taken from life, everything is authentic, all
carefully calibrated almost scientific precision, especially for the reader who is
familiar with L.I. Brezhnev's book Virgin Lands” [Cherepanov, 1981, p.72].
The most interesting part of this Yearbook was devoted to a school topic in
the movie. Here E. Gromov correctly noted that "we can see the school life mostly
on the side of the adult position. … Oh, what are they bold and uninhibited! The
creators of the films about school are often lose critical, realistic view relevant to
the younger generation. … It is, however, a long-standing problem of our children
and youth film: no one had achieved the severity level of youth estimates that
existed in the film Three Days of Victor Chernyshov" [Gromov, 1981, pp. 33, 36].
However, further critic convincingly argued that the situation in the
children's and youth film at the turn of the 1980s, "in many ways better, more vital
than existed a few years ago, when the main charge of emotion and admiration
spent on teachers... And otherwise, a negative image of the teacher often met with
hostility. Now, the teachers began to show a wide variety: from very good, almost
perfect, to the purely negative. Sometimes a critical attitude to the teacher even
prevails over the claim that is also not terrible. No need to worry too much about a
strictly balance, if the cinema school has vivid teachers personalities in the films
Diary of School’s Director, Aliens Letters, Betrayed ... We are proud of its
achievements in the field of youth and children's movies. But also see their
weaknesses and unsolved problems" [Gromov, 1981, p.35].
E. Gromov rather sharply criticized the talented film The key is not
transferable By D. Asanova (1942-1985), insisting that "one way or another, but
the teacher Marina Maximovna consciously unconsciously creates a closed
microcosm for only a gifted, bright, intelligent students. But what about those who
are not talented? ... Talented Marina Maximovna, focusing only on the talented
guys, perforce brings them pride, of which she is not deprived. From it only a step
to the arrogant neglect of a rough, everyday work, and ordinary people" [Gromov,
1981, pp. 34-35]. And there are the final E. Gromov’s conclusions: "The film
touches on the difficult teenage problems are not easily solved, they hurt"
[Gromov, 1981, pp.37-38].
The remaining sturdy and extensive positive reviews in the yearbook were
devoted to films Strange Woman [ Gromov, 1981, p. 92], Declaration of Love [Zac
1981, pp. 92-95], Nahapet [Medvedev, 1981, pp. 95-97], Biryuk [Nedelin, 1981,
pp. 97-99], Centaurs [Shilova, 1981, pp. 83-87], Price's death ask the dead
[Belova, 1981, pp. 87-89], Man, that was lucky [Kuznetsov, 1981, pp. 99-102],
Father Sergius [Bauman, 1981, pp. 149-151], Rise [Kapralov, 1981, pp. 188-190].
Screen 1979-1980 put in to the set in November 1981, i.e. after the last
Brezhnev’s XXVI Congress of the Soviet Communist Party, which was once again
told that "the manifestation of lack of ideology, ideological promiscuity, a
departure from the clear class assessment of individual historical events and figures
can damage creativity even gifted people. Our critics, literary journals, creative
unions and especially their Communist Party organizations should be able to
correct those who puts in one direction or another. And, of course, the active
principle to act in cases where there are works that damages our Soviet reality.
Here we must be uncompromising. The Communist Party has not been and can not
be indifferent to the ideological orientation of our art" [Proceedings of XXVI
Congress of the soviet communist Party, 1981, pp. 61-63].
However, only one of all Soviet film critics dared to speak in the pages of
the yearbook with a genuine Communist ideological position. It was tireless V.
Baskakov with the article about film Karl Marx. Young Years by L. Kulidzhanov:
"This film enriches our understanding about the life of the founder of scientific
communism, it gives ample food for serious thought about the most important,
most essential in the fate of mankind. ... Marx is the great thinker, scientist, leader
of the world proletariat, he first pointed out the right path of revolutionary
transformation of the world" [Baskakov, 1982, pp. 84, 88].
The rest of the film critics did not support this Communistic pathos,
preferring to remain in traditional reviews.
Arguing about the image of the screen character, E. Gromov came to the
right conclusion that "the history of art clearly shows that the vital credibility and
the strength of the aesthetic impact of the image of the hero, in essence, almost
independent of the presence or absence and his character shortcomings and
weaknesses"[Gromov, 1982, p. 57].
E. Stishova dedicated her article to Soviet film debuts: "Historical events
connected with the revolution, civil war, and even the World are increasingly
becoming for the present generation of filmmakers the only reason for the creation
of the adventure movies, where history easily sacrificed riot of imagination of the
author and spectator demand for exciting dynamic spectacle" [Stishova, 1982, p.
78].
R. Yurenev was olso strict, by only in relation to Five Evenings by N.
Mikhalkov: "I dare to accuse the director of the film in theatrical compositions. …
It is necessary to destroy gravitating to the dramatic unities theatrical composition,
build a free cinematic composition with multiple places of action" [Yurenev, 1982,
p. 102].
A. Medvedev published one of his best reviews about the sad comedy
Autumn Marathon by G. Danelia: "This is a pleasing example of the harmony of
all its beginnings: drama, director, actor, visual, musical. It's all happily found each
other and each is fully expressed himself" [Medvedev, 1982, p. 89].
L. Melville generally supported the poetic parable Babylon-XX by I.
Mykolaychuk (1941-1987): “Fine fragmentary structure of the film at first glance
may surprise… But we can see more and more that its creators based on eternity of
life and folk culture. ... Babylon-XX’s stylistic is aesthetic principle of popular
culture, its moral and artistic syncretism. Beautiful is always good, and the good is
the way to beautiful. ... We know the age-old tradition of native culture, always
beautiful and good. The film keeps these traditions" [Melville, 1982, pp.112, 114].
Socio sharp detective Interrogation [Freilich, 1982, pp. 92-95], dramas
Early Cranes [Zak, 1982, pp. 103-106] and Several interviews on personal matters
[Sumenov, 1982, pp. 106-109] also received the support from the authors of the
Yearbook.
Y, Turin’s article about great Russian actor A. Solonitsyn (1934-1982) was
the best among the actors' portraits. Here, perhaps, for the first time, the Yearbook
so vividly and clearly published the analysis of the works of this outstanding actor,
the main actor of A. Tarkovsky (1932-1986). Y. Turin wrote that Stalker "was for
Solonitsyn and Tarkovsky a fantastic environment material, the nature of the
mysterious, unknown world. … in general, purely earthly problems as a matter of
priority: to heal the soul, a disturbed conscience, fix the personal balance. ... The
film brings to the indissoluble triangle regulations humanism, technocracy and
faith..." [Turin, 1982, pp.139-141]. And here Y. Turin rightly argued that the high-
rise Trakovsky’s film compositions "resemble the crystal structure: proportionality
and indispensability of each item, mathematically calculated harmony of all the
parts" [Turin, 1982, p.138].
July 30, 1982 was the time of the Soviet Communist Party Central
Committee Resolution On the creative connections literary journals with the
practice of communist construction, where Communist Party once again called for
the tightening of ideological censorship and nuts.
Screen 1980-1981 has been put in set in December 1982, already under the
reign of Y. Andropov (1914-1984), so Yearbook’s content was probably one of the
most boring and unsuccessful.
I. Rachuk (1922-1985) was crowded of false pathos about politically
conjunctural film From Bug to the Vistula by T. Levchuk T. (1912-1998): "This is
struggle for communism"[Rachuk, 1983, p.76]. F. Kuznetsov similarly positive
and pathetic wrote about as weak working class drama Horses in midstream is not
by G. Egiazarov [Kuznetsov, 1983, p.68].
E. Gromov also was noted in the margin of the ideological front with
respect to the communist orientated film Your son, the land: "What is the main
result of the film, its principal novelty? A vital and artistically valid ideal hero, the
perfect Communist party worker appeared on the screen" [Gromov, 1983, p.75].
V. Baskakov wrote another pathetic lines: "S. Gerasimov, one of the
founders of the creative method of our cinema, highlights the kinship of this art
with the most humane system of social relations: the system of socialism-
communism. This is an essential feature in the work of this artist" [Baskakov,
1983, p. 120].
Against this background, A. Romanenko’s article looked much more

attractive. First, she rightly wrote about how hard to find "a movie in our cinema,
where talent truthfully described the all-consuming love, poetic and happiness, the
dreams of young and mature people" [Romanenko, 1983, p.32]. And then, she
sadly noted that "screen tale is transformed, changes the appearance, language, and
most importantly - the address. It is increasingly becoming a holiday, which is
fairy tale, but not for children" [Romanenko, 1983, p.34].
Y. Turin was a little more positive, but in relation to the historic theme:
"We can see the existence of cinema, associated with the history of the peoples of
our country. Although the force of inertia is still very high" [Turin, 1983, p.43].
R. Yurenev wrote the article about one of the Soviet box office leaders -
melodrama Guys ..! This article was actively supported the line of the Soviet State
Committee for Cinematography for increasing screen entertainment: "Guys ..!
clear expressed the idea alive and strong characters people and calm, reliable life.
Melodrama win his love of the audience" [Yurenev, 1983, p.84].
Shortly after the solemn celebration of the 60th anniversary of the Soviet
Communist Party Central Committee published the Resolution Topical issues of
ideological and mass political work of the Communist party (June, 1983). It is
clear that the faithful soldiers of the ideological front, like, for example, V.
Baskakov, respond to this demands: "There are vain efforts of the western film
critics who are trying to impose their orientations to the Soviet cinema, their ideas
how to rewrite the history of our new movies. We can do the cinema without the
help of such advisers and well-wishers..." [Baskakov, 1984, p. 7].
Y. Cherepanov was also advocate of the Communist party topic: thinking
about a weak film Hope and Support, he wrote: "This film reflects the topical
problems of modern life, the important issues State Food Program" [Cherepanov,
1984, p.60].
E. Gromov praised very highly the film Lenin in Paris: "This work of our
oldest masters S. Yutkevich and E. Gabrilovich passionately and convincingly
reveals the deep modernity Lenin and Leninism. Lenin in Paris fundamentally
enriches our Leninist cinema" [Gromov, 1984, p. 58].
As usual some Yerabook’s articles dedicated to the military topic. Y. Turin
wrote that the film Fact "extremely reliably demonstrated the bitter, harsh truth of
the war without discounts for a range of events, with no allowances for the time it
takes away even a hint of pacifism, forgiveness" [Turin, 1984, p.64]. And E.
Bauman noted that "Starfall by I. Talankin is a very human and very sad movie.
This film is permeated with bitterness about youth, war, love" [Bauman, 1984, p.
67].
A. Romanenko’s article was about The Night is Short, the film with post-war
childhood topic, where "the theme of domestic growth boy inscribed in the frame a
true story, in harmony with the theme of the post-war renewal of life. ... This film
acquires an epic breath in the final" [Romanenko, 1984, p.74].
E. Stishova presented the highly controversial thesis, arguing that "detectives
and blockbuster, horror and disaster films have lost their absolute power over the
spectators' hearts, but a modest life stories of ordinary, unremarkable women
have, as it turned out, a huge attraction" [Stishova, 1984, p.32].
And, as if confirming this thesis, G. Dolmatovskaya explains the reasons for
the success of melodrama Beloved Woman of Mechanic Gavrilov: "This film was
conceived and written specifically for Ludmila Gurchenko. And she was
generously rewarded for widely show her multi-colored iridescence talent, keeping
a sense of proportion and tact" [Dolmatovskaya, 1984, p.76].
M. Vlasov (1932-2004) dedicated his article to the positive image of film
critic R. Yurenev [Vlasov, 1984, p.103].
Screen 1982-1983 was put in the set already during the brief reign of K.
Chernenko (1911-1985), in August 1984. The Cold War was still in full swing.
And the Soviet Communist Party Central Committee published new Resolution
(April 1984) On measures to further improve the ideological and artistic quality of
films and strengthen the material and technical basis of cinematography.
Surprisingly, but the previously fairly sensitive to the Communist Party
guidance, Yearbook limited the reaction only N. Sumenov’s article Loyalty to the
truth of history [Sumenov, 1985, p.80].
Most of the materials of the Soviet part of the yearbook were devoted to
films on contemporary topics.
Tone M. Zak’s reviews the film Private Life was restrained and neutral. Film
critic point out that this movie "closer to the monodrama, much depends on the
central role of the artist. Ulyanov translates the problem into the character …
when the fate of the human break" [Zak, 1985, p.77].
The tragic film Farewell by E. Klimov got appreciation of Y. Turin: "This
film not turned into a way of idealization of patriarchal heroes, but ... enriched our
common memory, our conscience..."[Turin, 1985, p.89].
Y. Turin (under the pseudonym Samarin) gave same high mark to
wonderful film Boys by D. Asanova: "Asanova is maximalist by nature. … She
loves and knows how to think, to analyze and even risky. She believes in moral
and hence aesthetic value in the spiritual screen power" [Samarin, 1985, p.93].
I. Shilova wrote the deep review about Heiress Straight by S. Solovyov:
"The man in the face of life, people in the face of great culture, a man to himself -
there are Solovyov’s films topics (One hundred days after childhood, Lifeguard).
Soloviev is most ironic in the new work. Time makes its own amendments to the
simple and clear relations, the artist not only feels them, but also offers the moral
changes in his trilogy cardiogram" [Shilova, 1985, p.35].
E. Gromov and M. Kuznetsova devoted their review of the most notable

comedies of those years: Train Station for Two by E. Ryazanov and Native by N.
Mikhalkov.
E. Gromov wrote that Train Station for Two "looks tense, with great
excitement. This is the comedy. Do not lyrical although it has a lyricism; not
satirical, but it has a sarcasm and anger; not tragicomedy, although it has sorrow
and grief. ... This is dramatic and conflict work, by causing laughter and fun high
catharsis: cleansing, enlightenment, faith in life and hope for good luck" [Gromov,
1985, p.85].
M. Kuznetsova went to the Native with a retrospective point of view:
“Previous Mikhalkov’s films were the fireworks talents with the coldness of the
mind. … In the Native director refused many means of cinematic expression: strict
realism, no frills, sophisticated visual metaphors" [Kuznetsova, 1985, p.92].
Screen 1983-1984 (1986, put in a set in September 1985)
Screen 1983-1984 was put into the set in September 1985, already in power
times of M. Gorbachev, in the year of the 40th anniversary of victory over Nazism.
Perestroika was still in its infancy, and so Yearbook could still afford even then
very dubious assertion that Victory by E. Matveev and Duma about Kovpak by T.
Levchuk gave the examples of how "deeper and more objective understanding of
the history of the war in the cinematographic art" [Turin, 1986, p.56].
But in general, the content of Screen 1983-1984 was significantly different
for the better on a number of previous yearbooks.
And today I, of course, agree with the fact that "The film Wartime Romance
by P. Todorovsky has the plaintive lyricism of memories when the wounds still
bleeding in the hearts of people recently graduated from war" [Bauman, 1986,
p.140] .
L. Anninsky appeared after a long absence from the pages of the Yearbook,
in this case – with the analytical article of the film Leo Tolstoy by S. Gerasimov
[Anninsky, 1986, s.82-87].
E. Gromov is not tempted by ideological rhetoric this time. He wrote that the
film Time of Desires has "peculiar comic and satirical tone, which is particularly
felt in the first half. This does not prevent, but rather helps to highlight the
strikingly posed in the picture sharp social and psychological problems. ... As any
Y. Raizman’s film, his new movie is professionally perfect and talent, and most
importantly - without the didactics"[Gromov, 1986, p. 90].
M. Zak compared the films Without Witnesses by N. Mikhalkov and
Epilogue by M. Khutsiev: "There are movies-dialogues on the conflict basis. The
conflict between humanistic positions and moral anomaly" [Zak, 1986, p. 37].
Drama Life, Tears and Love also received the high mark from the Yearbook:
"This film has sophistication and beauty (landscape, music, expressions of human
faces), stylistically underlined. It is generally characteristic of the artistic

handwriting of the director N. Gubenko" [Afanasyev, 1986, pp. 92-93].
A. Gerber wrote an excellent review about the parable The Parade of
Planets: "Cinema world of V. Abdrashitov and A. Mindadze does require active
participation from the audience. Live your life without thinking and without
straining too, of course, possible. But if we remember that we live the last time,
and other such case is no longer imagine involuntarily want to present to him the
requirements higher than the simplest organism... We still belong to the world, and
all the disasters in us. The Parade of Planets, in my opinion, just about it" [Gerber,
1986, p.97].
Young at that time film critic A. Erokhin (1954-2000) published perhaps his
most traditional style review (on the crime drama Joint Offenders): "Do we always
happen are attentive and sympathetic to the family and others? It always give the
right to vote their conscience? Whether always you live as it should, as a decent
man? That's what the film says" [Erokhin, 1986, p.103].
R. Yurenev was extremely strict and harsh against Y. Yevtushenko’s poetic
autobiography Kindergarten: "The main failure of the movie is cluttered,
pretentious script. Its episodes are loosely coupled, multi-style, often imitative,
secondary" [Yurenev, 1986, p.100].
At first glance, it seems strange that Screen 1987 was published right after
Screen 1983-1984. However, in reality everything is explained quite simply: the
compilers of the Yearbook felt that the gap between the year indicated on the cover
of the book and real year sales become too large. For example, Screen 1983-1984
came to buyers only in 1986. Thus, it was decided to "jump" a few years: Screen
1987 arrived in bookstores in 1987.
Yes, Screen 1987 reached readers in rough perestroika in 1987, but this
Yearbook was put into a set in a relatively quiet 1986, and its content is still
reminiscent of Screen 1983-1984.
Of course, the impact of the perestroika are already felt in the pages of
Screen 1987. Obvious signs of this: no servile reactions critics on solutions of
XXVII Soviet Communist Party Congress and the Resolution of the Soviet
Communist Pary Central Committee On the shortcomings in the practice of the
acquisition or rental of foreign films.
Yes, Screen 1987 released the propagandist article of V. Baskakov about
week film Battle for Moscow, arguing that "This movie is actively involved in the
ideological struggle, fighting fakes and insinuations about the second world war,
which threw a lot of screens western film market" [Baskakov, 1987, p. 90].
However, others trends dominated in this times. For example, E. Gromov
published a positive review of the war drama Come and See by E. Klimov (he was
elected the head of the Union of Cinematographers in May 1986): "If you plunge
into the atmosphere of the idea of the film, the more clearly realize the highest
truth of the artist, who has decided to show the suffering of the people, the height
of their spirit and lowlands fall as they were in their stark reality" [Gromov, 1987,
p. 92].
E. Stishova gave the highest praise recently "bookshelf"’s masterpiece My
Friend Ivan Lapshin by A. German, noting that "the density of this cinema world,
such as in the third and fourth viewing, discover new details. The author controls
every piece of cinematic, nothing is "just so". Each plan, each angle, every detail
are associated with the concept, with the plan as closely as possible the past. There
is nothing accidental, nothing official, drawn into the frame as a backup story"
[Stishova, 1987, p.109]. L. Mamatova supported satirical film The Blue Mountains
by E. Shengelaja [Mamatova, 1987, p. 106].
A. Plakhov wrote meaningful and thoughtful article on the relationship
between film and literary classics. Reflecting on the S. Soloviev’s films, A.
Plakhov noted some "curious clash of the "two cultures" of moral and everyday
behavior made in his teen trilogy. Drama emerging young soul is checked each
time in the spirit of the classics, whether Lermontov, Tolstoy or Pushkin. And,
there are (sometimes even contrary to the intentions of the author) reveal the
cultural incompatibility of classic designs and the world hits, jeans, chewing gum"
[Plakhov, 1987, p. 39].
Going further to the analysis of the film A Few Days in the I.I. Oblomov’s
Life A. Plakhov concluded that "this is the most complicated case of experiments
with classics… The artistic consciousness of the director N. Mikhalkov with equal
ease to adapt classical harmony, stylistic elegance of the forms and momentary,
sometimes the surface tension builds. Doing Oblomov, he famously included the
characters of the novel in the epicenter of the current talk about "business
people"… This film is too relevant, in order to preserve the continuity of the thread
with a Goncharov’s masterpiece, but the movie turned out to be one of the possible
interpretations and found novel characteristic of classical perfection" [Plakhov,
1987, p. 43].
In this context, A. Plakhov was convinced that Vassa by G. Panfilov
"especially weighty in recent years confirms the intrinsic value of a specific type of
film adaptation based on the inner, but not on a formal relationship with the
classical primary source" [Plakhov, 1987, p. 43 ].
D. Urnov wrote about the screen versions of Russian classic play much
more severely: criticizing Cruel Romance by E. Ryazanov: "Classic text does not
allow for such treatment themselves. Text dies but does not surrender, and the
"winner" received anything. And at the same time and the audience also left with
nothing" [Urnov, 1987, p. 32].
A. Romanenko, in my view, correctly noted that film We Were Young by M.
Belikov (1940-2012) "is a continuation of his film The Night is Short. But the style
is fundamentally different. If there would be difficult to draw the line between
lyrical feelings of the characters and the author's confession, the author here is not
so fused with their characters, not so frank, not in the least gives himself"
[Romanenko, 1987, p.114].
S. Shumakov exactly defined the genre of comedy Love and Pigeons by V.
Menshov: a tantalizing folk fantasy: “The authors passionately want to please their
audience. ... The simplicity of Love and Pigeons is deceptive. Before us, of course,
a splint, but it is quite modern" [Shumakov, 1987, p. 115].
Screen 1988 was already really the product of perestroika. The first time the
authors of this Yearbook wrote their articles without regard to censorship and even
on the 70th anniversary of Soviet power.
L. Mamatova (1935-1996) gave the sharp critical intonation: "The
landscape of cinema changed in the late 1970s and early 1980s... For example,
about 360 movies on a contemporary topic was filmed in 1981-1985. And how
many of them are phenomena of true art? There may be disputes: 5, 15 or 20. …
The others films escaped from the conflicts, in other words - from the problems of
reality itself…" [Mamatova, 1988, p.20].
N. Zorkaya (1924-2006) presents the remarkable article dedicated to the
main film person of cinema-perestroyka - T. Abuldaze (1924-1994). She
considered his anti-totalitarian parable Repentance in the the frame of
philosophical and poetic trilogy: "Film says convincingly historical and artistic
truth - "evil, which came to power is a dead end." And "social evil is so
destructive, that is able to destroy itself". This is the main idea of the film director.
His creation, Screen terrible and absurd time, illuminated by faith and love, it
inspires, gives a clue of hope" [Zorkaya, 1988, p.118].
K. Scherbakov wriote about another previously banned the film - Tests on
the Roads by A. German: "Bitter that the film lay on the shelf for many years.
Well, it turned out that the breath so long" [Shcherbakov, 1988, p. 90].
E. Gromov published a positive review of "shelving" drama Theme by G.
Panfilov: "This film is unusual for our cinema... The main questions of art are
questions not only aesthetic, but also ethical, ideological, universally valid...
Theme is bold, bright, deeply patriotic film. … Burned ice and fire of truth.
Probably, and now the film there will be opponents. But I am convinced, the
supporters will be immeasurably more” [Gromov, 1988, pp. 95-98].
G. Kapralov praised fantastic antiwar film Dead Man's Letters [Kapralov,
1988, p. 85]. A. Troshin praised the exquisite film Keep me, my talisman by R.
Balayan [Troshin, 1988, p.108]. A. Romanenko highly commended the film
Games for children of school age: "This film not only about the "difficult
children", but also about the difficult fate of teenagers because they need love,
affection and trust" [Romanenko, 1988, p.103].
S. Shumakov unexpectedly gave a sharply critical assessment of Wild
Pigeon by S. Solovyov [Shumakov, 1988, p.101].
It is interesting to note that Screen 1988 has two articles devoted to the
problems of film studies and film criticism.
S. Drobashenko began his article with the criticism of the situation in the
Soviet film studies: "Film Studies has come to us in the mid-eighties as a narrative
branch of knowledge. In fact there is a logic and historical reasons. Cinema science
for a long time has been busy formulating their own methodology, collecting facts.
Problem analysis (as more mature) stage is yet to come... After the war, it was, as
before, with rare exceptions, inert, passive descriptive. ... And ultimately, film
criticism lost a place in the public consciousness... The crisis began... because
Soviet film studies is not trying (and never seriously tried) to identify patterns of
vibrations level feature films in various stages of cinema, discover the causes of
periodically increasing the flow of gray cinema"[Drobashenko, 1988, pp. 143-
144].
Next S. Drobashenko went on to criticize the publishing activities in the
field of cinema: "In 1985 it was about 60 books on cinematography; for 1986 -
about the same. Fundamental research on the fundamental problems of history and
theory of cinema has not been published at all in recent times. ... Film studies
books, designed for professionals, as it turns out, is not profitable to publish: one
continuous losses..." [Drobashenko, 1988, p. 146]. It seems that a lot of this has
been true. But when S. Drobashenko passed to the examples, it is clear that his
criticism was form yesterday's propaganda: "Truly scientific, uncompromising
civic history of the Soviet cinema has not yet been written. ... Out of sight out of
researchers and something more important: … on-screen interpretation of
socialism as the leading, uniting the forces of society. And that's not film studies,
but a serious ideological blunder" [Drobashenko, 1988, p. 145].
M. Zak expressed his opinion about the movie and film studies process,
based on the more advanced position: "We must equally refers directly to the
creative process and to estimates of ready-made films"[Zak, 1988, p.31].
Screen 1989 was put into a set in the autumn of 1988, when perestroika
continued to gain momentum. And Yearbook published the analytical text about
A. Tarkovsky (1932-1986): "His film The Mirror could be called even shorter
word - Home… Home, family, holy trinity: mother, father, child are an echo of the
Andrei Rublev, Tarkovsky’s movie about the destruction, devastation of his native
land, the destruction of the house and its reunification in the frescoes. Man, losing
the house, leaving the house, cut off or break away from home, becomes a blade of
grass in the wind, it blows in the world's oceans, and the oceans too sensitive to
apostasy, to break away from the parental home, to the emptiness of the parental
nest. Recall the final of Solaris: the prodigal son on his knees before his father,
the citation of Rembrandt in the midst of the rebellious ethereal matter, which,
however, return it to pacify his son to his father, his remorse, his request for
forgiveness" [Zolotussky, 1989, p.78].
E. Stishova’s article was the key article in Screen 1989. She wrote: "The
audience began to ignore the social problem films: this fact which needed and
needs to be explained. Film critics, sociologists and cultural studies reserchers
offer different concepts. Some complain of stiffness, the rationality of the director's
thinking, the deficit mentality. Others draw attention to global processes, and
seized us sinners. Yes, the polarization of the tastes and preferences, yes, the
prevalence of younger audiences and the related need for entertainment genres: all
these is true. But is the ability to light up a general social interest, general social
emotions lost forever? And the final burst of romanticism is gone, along with the
1960s? It turned out there, is not lost. Will see very soon" [Stishova, 1989, pp. 31-
32].
E. Stishova tried to summarize the cinema tendencies: "Criticism has not
answered the question, to whom and why it was necessary to uproot from the
cinema all that is connected with the drama of human life in general. Born slang
word "blackness". A new look at the last war is the blackness. The crisis of the
Russian Empire, gave birth to a revolutionary situation in Russia is blackness. The
difficulties of post-war life is blackness. Objective contradictions of modern social
development is blackness. Non conformist talent is blackness ... Cinematography
rescued two factors. Factor of the objective cinema development, which it is
impossible to curb... The second factor is the persistent artists, true to himself...
They are exist, luckily for us... We have to understand the differences and
paradoxes of cinematic development of 1970s-1980s. On the one hand, an
unprecedented drop the zero level. And world-class achievements on the other.
And all this in parallel, in a historical situation" [Stishova, 1989, pp. 33-34].
Thinking about the future of the national cinema, E. Stishova was convinced
that "cinema needed the injection of culture... But this is the problem more
difficult. ... What the viewer is necessary? It is the question of questions. Here it is
necessary to determine in the main, strategic point: whether to go for
cinematography audience, or try to lead him away. The second way is much more
difficult: in contrast to the first, a proven practice of the last decade, there is no
recipe. In addition, this way is long: it is designed for a certain level of culture of
perception" [Stishova, 1989, pp. 34-35].
V. Tolstykh supported the thoughts of E. Stishova: "The relationships
between film and spectator are dialectical. This means that the viewer, being the
customer cinema, at the same time is the object of art education. … The viewer do
not always selective and demanding in their tastes and expectations. … The
problem is probably exists in the nature of the relationships that are emerging and
established between the spectator and the cinema. In fact, usually a "magnetic
field", social and aesthetic, there is between the screen and the viewer" [Tolstykh,
1989, p.142].
Against the background of the current total domination of the entertainment

cinema further arguments of V. Tolstykh read already tinged with nostalgia for the
lost: "Personally, I'm not against entertainment. But when they become the main or
primary spiritual food of millions, the state agree that there is more than strange
and disturbing. … However, another point of view expressed, according to which
each of us is only "employee plus consumer" who is entitled to fun and relax after
a hard day. But this view of man has nothing in common with socialism, but very
satisfied with the bureaucrats. … The idea is unenviable: you did a good job, and I
will give you the opportunity to relax. And then cinema turns to filmmaking
satisfaction of the working masses’ current needs, and the main function of the
film is declared "restoration" of physical and nervous powers of man (more
precisely, the employee). … As soon as the market will begin to penetrate into the
sphere of culture, worsen the problem of humanization of our art and its
relationship to human beings and human needs" [Tolstykh, 1989, p.143].
The bulk of the Yearbook dedicated to national cinema, was re-assigned to
the movies on a contemporary topic. And polemical section again appeared on the
pages of the book: A. Gerber, M. Kuznetsova and S. Shumakov arguing about the
film Plumbum, or The Dangerous Game.
A. Gerber believes that "this film about the destructive power of the social
activity that it carries, is not supported by moral ideals, devoid of moral
guidelines" [Gerber, 1989, p.124].
But M. Kuznetsova was strongly disagrees with this view: "I am afraid that
the younger generation can perceive Plumbum as an example for others to follow"
[Kuznetsova, 1989, p.130].
S. Shumakov was even harsher in his assessment: "Cold outside perspective
in which no sympathy… And as a result the authors are also prisoners of their own
design. The main character sensitively shamelessly manipulates people. It's
immoral. But, proving to us that, the filmmakers have not noticed, as the hero
began to manipulate, have lost their moral guidelines" [Shumakov, 1989, p.131-
134].
A. Romanenko created generalization of interpretations of youth topis in the
cinema: "We need to recognize that the inner life of a young man remained closed
for decades, not because so complex and non-contact our children, but because art
dreaded look into their features, describe their habits, listen to sincere confession.
Because it would require new methods and analysis, and civil courage, and
readiness even to the fact that the film can be forbidden. The obstacles were too
strong for such films and books... Now the art has begun to catch up, but it does
sometimes frantically and quickly penetrates only the top layer of life. Because the
life requires new forms of art and communication, and new analysis tools,
equipment and philosophical and sociological thinking, and the gift of a publicist.
... Even a decade ago it has been widely distributed three points of view on the
current generation of young people. Some have argued that young people have a
great, heroic, almost completely burning enthusiasm. Others have focused on the
negative phenomena in the youth environment, even exaggerated their scale.

Others sneered: two thousand years ago, the world lamented the fall of morals of
young, and this is age-old story. But none was able to grasp the true essence of the
concerns of young people themselves, to feel the guilt and responsibility of the
older generation, to understand the role of the social atmosphere that prevailed in
the seventies and has influenced the spiritual warehouse for young attitude. Today
young people has become a key issue both in life and in art. We found a deep
connection between the issues of education and the need for further
democratization of society in general"[Romanenko, 1989, pp. 43-46].
The article by V. Shmyrov was a kind of illustration of this. Film critic
wrote about Courier by K. Shakhnazarov: "This film is natural doubly: is it
possible to talk about young people, without counting on the complicity of the
audience? In any case, the film does not reduce the level of conversation about real
spiritual values, which, in my opinion, to form his central problem" [Shmyrov,
1989, p.122].
The Yearbook published positive articles about films Lefty by S. Ovcharov
[Turin, 1989, p.102], Sign of Misfortune by M. Ptashuk (1943-2002) [Yurenev,
1989, p. 96] and the creative portrait of film director K. Muratova [Zorky, 1989, p.
157].
Screen 1990 (1990, put in a set in November 1989)
Screen 1990, alas, put the final point in the history of the Yearbook...
Freed from censorship conventions A. Erokhin wrote the brief review of the
history of the Soviet cinema. He noted that the concept of "mass culture" is
universal, not exclusively Western, as it was considered in the Soviet official film
studies. A "mass man" is practically almost the only type of hero of Soviet films,
especially in the 1930s-1940s-1950s. Bouncy hard worker, who enthusiastically
welcomes any communist ordinary appeal: to raise the virgin soil or to shoot the
enemies, to build a Railway or blame the intelligentsia. This character, which is
produced by the official Soviet culture for decades is the ideal of "mass man." In
approaching this ideal in reality, Soviet cinema achieved very great success. "Mass
Man" always willingly going into easily manageable crowd. ... The history of the
Soviet cinema must be rewritten" [Erokhin, 1990, pp. 8-10].
V. Shmyrov also wrote the article about the history of the Soviet cinema. He
insisted that it is necessary to revise the official textbooks on the history of the
Soviet cinema, who praised conjunctural movies (like Communist, Red Bells,
Trust or Lenin in Paris) in favor of the communist regime [Shmyrov, 1990, pp.15-
18].
Addressing by the recent history of the Soviet cinema, L. Elnikova wrote
that even in the most difficult years of stagnation Lenfilm produced such sharp
social films as Old Wall, Prohindiada, Guys, My Friend Ivan Lapshin, Twenty
Days Without War, Dead Man's Letters [Elnikova, 1990, p.28].
Screen 1990 discussion section was set aside for social drama Little Vera by
V. Pichul (1961-2015), one the main sensation 1980s.
V. Bozhovich was one of the many supporters of V. Pichul’s debut film:
“Little Vera it seems to me the work of the most mature and promising. It is
absolutely no stylistic frills, but achieved rare unity between the subject, manner of
narration, visual solutions ... performance of the actors, reaching full compliance
between the situation, gesture, intonation and a replica. Those who do not like the
film (and there are sure to be many), it will throw a reproach to naturalism. I do not
agree with such a reproach. ... The authors of Little Vera do not tend to write off
the human meanness on the household environment. Here the characters are not
opposed to the circumstances, do not suffer under their yoke, but there are with
them in some sluggish agreement. Too candid image of sexual entertainment of
young people angered many. And the other is not outraged? The whole picture of
life, the truth of which can hardly be any doubt, do not make trouble? ... You want
to see life as it is? Go and see Little Vera. If you want something "beautiful",
helped to keep spiritual comfort: no problems, there are a variety of other films, a
complete set of comforting and entertaining surrogates. But I prefer Little Vera
and I hope that it will open in our cinema a new direction: the direction of the
harsh and bitter realism. I think that is exactly what we need now in terms of public
awareness"[Bozovic, 1990, p.128].
Y. Bogomolov was a more restrained, but also positive: "It turned out that
not a cleft between the generations (as one might think, looking at the film
Courier), but the gulf. … Usually the conflict between "fathers" and "children"
embodies of the romantic style. Here, both generations are mired in stagnation and
semi-conscious in a completely mutual exasperation. ... However, the authors'
courage has its limits. It is evident that at some point they could not hold on, not to
smooth the acuteness of collisions. This is reflected in the fact that the "children"
slightly romanticized, i.e. appear more conscious living" [Bogomolov, 1990, p.
129].
But S. Shumakov watched Little Vera from a different perspective: "Alas,
here it is necessary to recognize that the "children" … appear more relaxed and
smarter because the adults look more stupid, primitive, and sometimes caricature"
[Shumakov, 1990, p.131].
Continuing the analysis of the films of the youth topic, M. Kuznetsova
emphasized that Assa by S. Soloviev "was a success, and not just among young
people. The director gave away all the sisters on earrings, each viewer will find in
the picture that corresponds to his preferences and to satisfy the demands of
cinematic spectacle. ... Collage, magic charms, prudently adjusted" [Kuznetsova,
1990, pp. 132-134].
V. Ivanova wrote about Temptation by V. Sorokin. She urged the readers
that this film "inherits the best traditions of our school movie: respect for the
youngest, the conversation is not on different levels, but on an equal footing,
because even the smallest creature scurrying you somewhere underfoot is
personality in the highest sense of this word. That is it, it can be and is already bad,
and already good, but they come to life in society, they have the amount of claims,
but there is also the sum of pledges. ... Yes, some say, it is necessary as soon as
possible to introduce children to the injection of adult life. I do not know. But let's
still be introduced gradually, with anesthesia. And in any case, with love, as in the
Temptation [Ivanova, 1990, p.152].
Extensive articles of L. Anninsky and S. Freilich focused on the difficult
fate of the masterpieces of "thaw" cinematography: The Story of Asya Klyachina
(Asya Happiness) by A. Konchalovsky and I Am Twenty by M. Khutsiev.
L. Anninsky wrote: "Konchalovsky’s films are not connected in a chain,
and it is aware of. He is not like those directors that, like Tarkovsky, Shukshin and
Khutsiev beating at one point whole life, deep into a topic... He's different, he does
not have one world, there is no single solution to it, and in every case the set "the
only solutions." He should look for a new solution for each film, it is necessary to
invent it again, it is necessary to reinvent the wheel. The main thing is not to be
repeated. He was not repeated. Never. Strictly highlighted asceticism of First
Teacher, crumble, elegiac Uncle Vanya, the playful splendor of nostalgic The
Noble Nest and crystallized epic Siberiade with several generations stretched under
the "night star"... The appearance of The Story of Asya Klyachina in this way is one
of the mysteries of art. It really is a miracle: a great film, created as if at the next
formal reception. Then double-double miracle and mystery. Firstly, this movie is
made completely "formless", "out of style", but this film, I am convinced, is
worthy to enter into the history of world cinema as a masterpiece, in which form
and content are one another. And, secondly, it is here, at the junction of receptions
a revelation born, making The Story of Asya Klyachina is not only the best work of
Konchalovsky, but one of the key points in the self-knowledge of a whole
generation, the whole era" [Anninsky, 1990, p.188].
S. Freilich argued that "the process of spiritual revival of the film I Am
Twenty by M. Khutsiev occupies a special place. The film was the fact that not
only art, but also the fact of social struggle. ... Three friends, young characters of
the film, freedom-loving, independent, ironic, straightforward, vulnerable, with a
great sense of dignity, they can not be lackeys, and they were potential opponents
in the eyes of the pillars of the bureaucratic regime" [Freilich, 1990, p.193].
A section of creative portraits of filmmakers was very strong in the Screen
1990. A. Zorky (1935-2006), in particular, wrote about the works of film director
A. Smirnov [Zorky, 1990, p.164], I. Shilova (1937-2011) admired the talent of the
great actor O. Borisov (1929-1994) [Shilova, 1990, p. 177], and L. Zakrzewskaya
appreciated actor V. Gostyukhin [Zakrzhevskaya, 1990, p. 182].
Results
It is interesting to note that Yearbook significantly changed the ratio of

materials about the Soviet and foreign films under the pressure of the political
situation (Table 2).
Table 2. Ratio of materials about the Soviet and foreign cinema in the
‘Screen’ Yearbooks
Yearbooks titles The volume of The volume of The volume of

materials on the materials about information materials
Soviet cinema (%) foreign cinema (%) (filmography, awards,
etc.) (%)
Screen 1964 68 27 5
Screen 1965 63 28 9
Screen 1966-1967 59 29 12
Screen 1967-1968 54 43 3
Screen 1968-1969 62 35 3
Screen 1969-1970 46 45 9
Screen 1970-1971 63 35 2
Screen 1971-1972 44 47 9
Screen 1973-1974 51 44 5
Screen 1974-1975 75 19 6
Screen 1975-1976 62 33 5
Screen 1976-1977 64 29 7
Screen 1977-1978 60 32 8
Screen 1978-1979 57 36 7
Screen 1979-1980 65 29 6
Screen 1980-1981 60 40 0
Screen 1981-1982 67 33 0
Screen 1982-1983 69 31 0
Screen 1983-1984 72 28 0
Screen 1987 59 33 8
Screen 1988 60 31 9
Screen 1989 62 32 6
Screen 1990 66 26 8
As can be seen from Table 2, the amount of material on the Soviet cinema in
the first five years an average of twice the number of pages on the amount of
articles about foreign cinema. However, the Resolutions of the Soviet Communist
Pary Central Committee "On increasing the responsibility of the heads of the press,
radio and television, film, culture and art institutions for the ideological and
political level of the published materials and repertoire" (07.01.1969), "On Literary
Criticism" (21.01.1972) and "On measures for further development of Soviet
cinema" (02.08.1972) played a leading role. In the Screen 1969-1970 and Screen
1971-1972 amount of material on the Soviet and foreign cinema almost on par,
and, starting with the Screen 1973-1974, the volume of articles on Soviet cinema
has always greatly exceeded the amount of foreign materials, reaching the highest
threshold in the Screen 1974-1975 (75% vs. 19%) and Screen 1983-1984 (72% vs.
28%).
The equality between the materials about the film industry of the socialist
and Western countries in the Screens in the light of communist Party Resolutions
this could be equated with the "propaganda of the bourgeois cinema" (with all the
practical consequences ensuing therefrom), and the compilers of yearbooks wwre
apparently sensitive for it. Yearbook listened to the directives of the Resolutions,
where it was clearly stated the necessity to promote the socialist movies with
communist ideology and criticism from all western movies [Resolution..., 1972].
So there is nothing surprising in the fact that, starting with the Screen 1973-
1974, and up to the time of perestroika: the articles on the cinema of the socialist
and developing countries, loyal to the Soviet Union was dominated in the materials
about foreign cinema.
Why informational materials (filmography, information about prizes at
festivals, etc.) disappeared on the threshold of the 1980s, and only appeared in the
Screen 1987? Here it is hard to assume any direct influence of censorship and
Resulutions: lists of the films in the Soviet box office were not secret (at the same
times, they always appear in the December issue of the Soviet Screen). Perhaps the
Screen wanted to save on annual volume of books?
The content of yearbooks were the materials that are already published
previously (in the Soviet Screen, Cinema Art, Soviet Culture, Film Festival
Satellite and others.), some texts written specifically for a particular collection.
Thus, the drafters thought, "screens" were supposed to provide readers not only the
annual panorama of cinema, but also the best, most relevant articles of the Soviet
film critics and film experts. 24 issues of Screen thematic collections were
published from 1965 to 1990. The volume of each of the Yearbook was from 175
to 388 pages. Each Yearbook published dozens of articles, artistic portraits and
interviews relating to both the Soviet and foreign cinema.
Standard Yearbooks’ structure was as follows:
- Section "Close-up" (on the achievements of the Soviet cinema of the
current period);
- "Controversy", "Discussion" (review of Soviet films, caused controversy,
controversial opinions);
- "Reflections and reviews" (theoretical articles that analyze trends, genres
and types of films);
- "Portraits" (creative portraits of Soviet filmmakers);
- "Creative Stand" (articles of Soviet masters of the screen - directors,
actors);
- "Before the film, after the film," "Club of interesting meetings" (interview
with the masters of Soviet cinema);
- "Anniversaries," "People, events, films," "Pages from the history of

cinema" (article to anniversaries screen masters and distinguished films, articles on
the history of cinema);
- "Dating", "Screens of the world", "Meeting", "In the picture, and behind
the scenes" (interview with foreign filmmakers and the articles about the foreign
movie, including topics about the films and guests of Moscow and other
international festivals).
- A reference section (filmographies, film awards, prizes).
From time to time Yearbook had different thematic headings (such as "Man
and War", "Debuts", "Shield and Music", "Classic" and others.).
The compilers of the first yearbooks were critics M. Dolinsky and S.
Chertok (1931-2006). S. Chertok was the only collector from 1970 to 1975. E.
Bauman and G. Dolmatovskaya were the collectors of Screen 1974-1975 and
Screen 1975-1976. Y. Turin (1938-2016) and G. Dolmatovskaya were the Screen
Yearbooks’ collectors since 1978 and up to the last issue.
The authors of Yearbookss, in most cases were well-known Soviet film
critics, many of which occupy leading positions in specialized editions of
magazines and newspapers, in the film instituts (Table 3).
Table 3. The main authors of the ‘Screen’ Yearbooks (1965-1990)
№ The names of film experts, film critics, The number of articles published by
the most frequently published article these film experts, film critics on the
on the subject of the Soviet feature subject of the Soviet feature films in
films in the Screen Yearbook the Screen Yearbook
1 Y. Turin * 17
2-3 M. Dolinsky & S. Chertok ** 15
4 E. Gromov 14
5 L. Zakrzhevskaya 12
6 E. Bauman 11
7 R. Yurenev 11
8 D. Pisarevsky 10
9 M. Zak 10
10 V. Baskakov 8
11 I. Levshina 8
12 T. Khloplyankina 8
13 I. Shilova 8
14 A. Zorky 8
15 L. Anninsky 7
16 V. Ivanova *** 7
17 G. Kapralov 6
18 M. Kuznetsova 6
19 A. Medvedev 6
20 N. Sumenov 6
21 J. Warsawsky 6
* Some Y. Turin’s articles were published under the pen name as Samarin.
* Some articles of M. Dolinsky & S. Chertok also printed under the pen names as M. Zinoviev
and S. Markov. Some their materials are available in the Screen collections without reference to
the authorship.
*** Some V. Ivanova’s articles also printed under the pen name as V. Esina.
1. Dr. Y. Turin (1938-2016), film critic, editor, novelist and screenwriter.

He graduated from the Institute of Cinematography (1962). He worked as an editor
at the publishing house Soviet Russia (1962-1974). Since 1974, he has become a
leading researcher at the Research Institute of Film Arts. He was the winner of the
Award of Union of Cinematographers (1981). Author of several books on the
subject of cinema.
2-3. M. Dolinsky (born in 1930) is journalist, film critic and editor. S.
Chertok (1931-2006) was journalist, film critic, editor. He was the head of
information section in Soviet Screen from 1964 to 1975, the researcher in Research
Institute of Theory and History of Cinema from 1976 to 1979. Author of several
books on the subject of cinema. Since 1979, he lived in Israel, where he
successfully continued his journalistic activities.
4. Prof. Dr. E. Gromov (1931-2005), film critic, screenwriter, film educator.
He graduated from the Moscow State University (1954). He was a member of the
Communist Party. He was the researcher at the Institute of Philosophy of the
Academy of Sciences, State Institute of Art Academy of Sciences, Research
Institute of Theory and History of Cinema. He wrote the scripts for several popular
scientific and documentary films. He was also professor in the Institute of
Cinematography (1967-1969, 1987-2005). Author of several books on the subject
of cinema.
5. Dr. L. Zakrzhevskaya (born in 1940), film criticc and screenwriter. She
graduated from the the Institute of Cinematography. Author of many articles on the
subject of cinema.
6. E. Bauman (born in 1932), film critic, editor. She graduated from
Institute of Theater Art (1955). She was the head of Department of Soviet cinema
in the magazine Soviet Screen for many years.
7. Prof. Dr. R. Yurenev (1912-2002), film critic, screenwriter, film
educator. He graduated from the Institute of Cinematography (1936). He was the
winner of the Award of Union of Cinematographers. He taught the Institute of
Cinematography (1939-2002). He also worked in the magazine Cinema Art (1946-
1948), in the Institute of Art History of the Academy of Sciences (1948-1974),
Research Institute of Theory and History of Cinema (1974-2002). He was the
author of many works on the history, genre and ideological problems of
cinematography. He wrote the scripts of the several documentaries. He was one of
the most influential representatives of the official Soviet film critics, receiving
8. Dr. D. Pisarevsky (1912-1990), film critic, screenwriter and editor. He

graduated from the Academy of Communist education (1934). He was a member
of the Communist Party. He was Chief Editor of Soviet Screen (1961-1975), the
author of several books and many articles on the topic of cinema. He was one of
the most influential representatives of the official Soviet film critics in 1960s –
1970s.
9. Dr. M. Zak (1929-2011), film critic, film researcher. He graduated from
the Institute of Cinematography (1952). He was a member of the Communist
Party. Since 1974 he worked at the Research Institute of Theory and History of
Cinema, has gone from a research assistant to the Deputy Director. He was the
winner of the prize Nika for achievements in the field of film studies (2004), the
author of many books and articles on the theory and history of cinema.
10. Prof. Dr. V. Baskakov (1921-1999), film critic. He was a member of the
Communist Party. He held the post of first deputy chairman of the State
Committee for Cinematography of the USSR (1963-1973), and director of the
Research Institute for History and Theory of Cinema / Motion Picture Arts
Research Institute (1973-1987). Author of many books and articles, mainly
devoted to foreign films and ideological struggle on the screen. He was one of the
most influential representatives of the official Soviet film critics, receiving
11. Dr. I. Levshina (1932-2009), film critic, film educator. She graduated
from the Moscow State University (1954). Author of books dedicated to the works
of leading Russian actors, and problems of film education in schools.
12. T. Khloplyankina (1937-1993), film critic, screenwriter and editor. She
graduated from the Institute of Cinematography (1959). She worked in the Culture
newspaper, Literary Gazette. She was also the deputy editor in Soviet Screen
(1990-1992). She was the author of many articles about cinema.
13. Dr. I. Shilova (1937-2011), film critic, film educator. She graduated
from the Institute of Cinematography (1962). She worked in Research Institute for
History and Theory of Cinema and Institute of Cinematography. She was the
author of many books and articles about cinema.
14. A. Zorky (1935-2006), film critic and journalist. He graduated from the
Institute of Cinematography. For several decades he worked in the Literary
Gazette, Soviet Screen, and Cinema Art. He was the author of many articles about
cinema.
15. L. Anninsky (born in 1934), film critic, literary critic, editor. He
graduated from the Philological Faculty of Moscow State University (1956).
Laureate the prizes of Cinematographers' Union (1980), Literary Russia (1984,
1999), October (1983), Literary Review (1988, 1989), Zvezda (1995), Archer
(1996; 1998), television TEFI (1996). He worked in the magazine Soviet Union
(1956-1957), in the Literary Gazette (1957-1960), in the journal Znamya (1960-
1967), at the Institute of Concrete Sociological Research (1968-1972), in magazine
Friendship of peoples (1972-1991), Literary Review (1990-1992), Homeland

(1992) He is the author of many books and articles on cinema.
16. V. Ivanova (1937-2008), film critic, journalist and editor. He worked in
Moskovsky Komsomolets and Soviet Culture. She was a member of Communist
Party. She was the author of many articles on cinema.
17. Dr. G. Kapralov (1921-2010), film critic, journalist, writer. He was a
member of Communist Party. He held the prestigious post of deputy head of
Department of Literature and Art in the main Soviet newspaper Pravda. As the
correspondent of Pravda he visited regularly at major international film festivals.
He headed the Moscow section of the critics of the Union of Cinematographers of
the USSR (1962-1986). He held also the post of vice-president International
Federation of Film Critics (FIPRESCI) (1967-1986). He was the anchorman of a
popular Soviet TV program Cinema Panorama (1976-1979). He was the author of
several books and many articles on the topic of cinema.
He was one of the most influential representatives of the official Soviet film
critics in 1960s – 1980s.
18. M. Kuznetsova, a film critic, journalist, author of several articles on the
cinema.
19. Dr. A. Medvedev (born in 1938), film critic, editor, film educator. He
graduated from the Institute of Cinematography (1960). Honored Artist of Russia,
twice winner of the Nika Award. He was a member of Communist Party. He
worked in the Bureau of Propaganda of Soviet cinema as a guidance counselor,
head of lecture department, and since 1964 - the director. He was editor of Soviet
Film (1966-1972). Since 1972 he worked as the deputy editor, and (from 1982 to
1984) as editor in chief of the magazine Cinema Art. He was the first deputy
(1987-1989) and chairman (1989-1991) of the State Committee for
Cinematography of the USSR. The top of the career was position of the chairman
of the State Committee for Cinematography of the Russian Federation (1992-
1999). Since 1999 he is President of the International Fund for Film and Television
Development for Children and Youth (Rolan Bykov Foundation). He is the author
of several books and many articles about cinema.
20. Dr. N. Sumenov (1938-2014), film critic, editor, film educator. He
graduated from the Institute of Cinematography. He was a member of Communist
Party, the chief editor of experimental creative association in Mosfilm. He was also
editor maneger in Cinema Art and advisor of the Minister of Culture of the Russian
Federation and member of the State Council, and professor in taught in Institute of
Cinematography. He was the author of many works on the subject of cinema.
21. J. Warsawsky (1911-2000), film critic, screenwriter and editor. He
graduated from Institute of Theater Art (1935). He was a member of Communist
Party. He worked as a deputy editor of Cinema Art. He was the author of many
books and articles on cinema topic.
Conclusios
So, Screen Yearbooks more than a quarter century became a sort of mirror
of the Soviet criticism of the 1960s - 1980s, reflecting its ups and downs, forced to
default figures, ideological passages, thaw and perestroika hopes...
Russian film criticism changed significantly now, but compared to thaw and
perestroika times not always in the best possible way. For example, glamorous and
glossy, often superficial film critics dominate in the press and Internet…
Many of the authors of the Screen Yearbooks for a long time are no longer
alive... Some of the critics have gone into other professions... But life goes on, and
the Russian film criticism, in my opinion, still be able to delight true fans of the
film art deep level of analysis...
References
Afanasyev, A. (1986). Is still much room... Screen 1983-1984. Moscow: Art, pp. 91-93.
Alexeev, M. (1976). Alexander Dovzhenko. Screen 1974-1975. Moscow: Art, pp. 138-140.
Alexeev, M. (1978). Army of the people and the movie screen. Screen 1976-1977. Moscow: Art,
pp. 44-54.
Alexeev, M. (1983). Miraculous power (Sholokhov and movie) // Screen 1980-1981. Mowcow:
Art, pp. 22-27.
Alexeeva, N. (1985). Is not so little - to be a mother... (Lyudmila Zaitseva). Screen 1982-1983.
Moscow: Art, pp.118-124.
Andreev, B. (1987). The road to the title role (Marina Levtova). Screen 1987. Moscow: Art, pp.
135-140.
Anninsky, L. (1965). Exactly what people need. Screen 1964. Moscow: Art, pp. 121-125.
Anninsky, L. (1967). It's not the point, daddy! Screen 1966-1967. Moscow: Art, pp. 98-104.
Anninsky, L. (1968). Eulogy for Vikniksor, connoisseur of Latin. Screen 1967-1968. Moscow:
Art, pp. 53-55.
Anninsky, L. (1968). Thoughts after the film. Screen 1967-1968. Moscow: Art, pp. 27-34.
Anninsky, L. (1969). A Unconventional triangle. Screen 1968-1969. Moscow: Art, pp. 80-81.
Anninsky, L. (1986). Yasnaya Polyana. Astapovo. Eternity. Screen 1983-1984. Moscow: Art,
pp. 82-87.
Anninsky, L. (1990). Asya’s misfortune. Screen 1990. Moscow: Art, pp. 188-192.
Babochkina, N. (1983). In the beginning was the word. Screen 1980-1981. Moscow: Art, pp. 77-
80.
Baskakov, V. (1968). Good work. Screen 1967-1968. Moscow: Art, 1968, pp. 72-75.
Baskakov, V. (1976). They Fought for Their Country. Screen 1974-1975. Moscow: Art, pp. 24-
28.
Baskakov, V. (1982). Life Devoted to humanity. Screen 1979-1980. Moscow: Art, pp. 84-88.
Baskakov, V. (1983). Viability of creativity (the Word of S. Gerasimov). Screen 1980-1981.
Baskakov, V. (1984). Multinational Soviet cinema in motion the development. Screen 1981-
1982. Moscow: Art, pp. 5-12.
Baskakov, V. (1987). Continuity of generations (Notes on young filmmakers). Screen 1976-
1977. Moscow: Art, pp. 29-35.
Baskakov, V. (1987). Pages of History. Screen 1987. Moscow: Art, pp. 86-90.
Baskakov, V. (1990). Yevgeny Zamyatin and cinema screen. Screen 1990. Moscow: Art, pp.
287-290.
Bauman, E. (1967). Bureaucrat, an innovator and a pair of lovers in addition. Screen 1966-1967.
Bauman, E. (1976). Flight Formula. Screen 1974-1975. Moscow: Art, pp. 124-129.
Bauman, E. (1977). Sons of his time. Screen 1975-1976. Moscow: Art, pp. 76-80.
Bauman, E. (1978). Freestyle wind romance. Screen 1976-1977. Moscow: Art, pp. 104-107.
Bauman, E. (1979). What is the happiness of the human. Screen 1977-1978. Moscow: Art, pp.
101-103.
Bauman, E. (1981). Fidelity great writer. Screen 1978-1979. Moscow: Art, pp. 149-151.
Bauman, E. (1986). Time and people (Kiev-84). Screen 1983-1984. Moscow: Art, pp. 139-144.
Bauman, E. (1984). Know where light. Screen 1981-1982. Moscow: Art, pp. 65-67.
Bauman, E. (1987). Link of Times (Minsk-85). Screen 1987. Moscow: Art, pp. 146-151.
Bauman, E. (1988). Tight Knot. Screen 1988. Moscow: Art, pp. 104-106.
Bauman, E. (1990). Passion Office. Screen 1990. Moscow: Art, pp. 138-143.
Beilin, A. (1970). Actor-69. Screen 1969-1970. Moscow: Art, pp. 76-81.
Belova, L. (1976). Mothers and Daughters. Unexpected Hero. Screen 1974-1975. Moscow: Art,
pp. 89-92.
Belova, L. (1981). At all times. Screen 1978-1979. Moscow: Art, pp. 87-89.
Bleyman, M. (1966). Start. Screen 1965. Moscow: Art, pp. 143-144.
Bleyman, M. (1967). Reflections on stamps. Screen 1966-1967. Moscow: Art, pp. 166-170.
Bleyman, M. (1968). Rules. Screen 1967-1968. Moscow: Art, pp. 80-82.
Bleyman, M. (1969). Adaptation. Again ?! Screen 1968-1969. Moscow: Art, pp. 145-147.
Bleyman, M. (1970). Archaists or innovators? Cinema Art, N 7.
Bocharov, A. (1975). Intransigence and impulse. Screen 1973-1974. Moscow: Art, pp. 15-18.
Bogomolov, Y. (1990). ‘Little Vera’. Screen 1990. Moscow: Art, pp. 129-130.
Borodin, A. (1972). The Seagull by Alla Demidova. Screen 1971-1972. Moscow: Art, pp. 45-46.
Borodin, A. (1975). Genocide, the thirteenth century. Screen 1973-1974. Moscow: Art, pp. 41-
43.
Bozhovich, V. (1990). ‘Little Vera’ Screen 1990. Moscow: Art, p.128.
Cherepanov, Y. (1981). The man lives. Screen 1978-1979. Moscow: Art, pp. 72-75.
Cherepanov, Y. (1984). On the rod of life. Screen 1981-1982. Moscow: Art, pp. 58-61.
Chernyaev, P. (1985). Freaks and their faithful wives. Screen 1982-1983. Moscow: Art, pp. 40-
42.
Chertok, S. (1971). Minsk: results and suggestions. Screen 1970-1971. Moscow: Art, pp. 123-
128.
Chertok, S. (1972). Nicholas Olyalin. Screen 1971-1972. Moscow: Art, pp. 60-62.
Chertok, S. (1975). Bolot Shamshiev and his films. Screen 1973-1974. Moscow: Art, pp. 80-82.
Demin, V. (1973). Lessons instantaneously. Soviet Screen. 1973, № 24, pp. 4-5.
Demin, V. (1975). The laughter genre. Screen 1973-1974. Moscow: Art, pp. 48-51.
Demin, V. (1988). Work hard, tormented and do not worry! Screen 1988. Moscow: Art, pp. 119-
124.
Dolinsky, M., Chertok, S. (1965). Babkauskas, which we do not know. Screen 1964. Moscow:
Art, pp. 114-121.
Dolinsky, M., Chertok, S. (1967). Two films based on Pushkin. Screen 1966-1967. Moscow:
Art, pp. 207-213.
Dolinsky, M., Chertok, S. (1968). Metamorphoses. Screen 1967-1968. Moscow: Art, pp. 41-45.
Dolinsky, M., Chertok. S. (1969). Laughter and sadness. Screen 1968-1969. Moscow: Art, pp.
107-109.
Dolmatovskaya, G. (1984). Twenty-four hours in the life of a woman. Screen 1981-1982.

Drach, I. (1966). Opening. Screen 1965. Moscow: Art, pp. 29-32.
Drach, I. (1969). When an artist is generous. Screen 1968-1969. Moscow: Art, pp. 88-90.
Drobashenko, S. (1981). Impressive panorama. Screen 1978-1979. Moscow: Art, pp. 11-17.
Drobashenko, S. (1988). Notes on the contemporary film studies. Screen 1988. Moscow: Art, pp.
143-148.
Dubrovina, I. (1967). And that Pechorin? Screen 1966-1967. Moscow: Art, pp. 202-203.
Egorov, A. (1976). The Hottest Month. About difficult simpletons. Screen 1974-1975. Moscow:
Art, pp. 83-87.
Elnikova, L. (1990). Creed. Screen 1990. Moscow: Art, pp. 28-37.
Ermash, N. (1976). Marina Neelova. Screen 1974-1975. Moscow: Art, pp. 159-161.
Erokhin, A. (1986). What is complicity?. Screen 1983-1984. Moscow: Art, pp. 102-103.
Erokhin, A. (1988). Non cinema war. Screen 1988. Moscow: Art, pp. 93-95.
Esina, V. (1986). Westernization of the history... Screen 1983-1984. Moscow: Art, pp. 38-42.
Fedorov, A. (2011). Structural analysis of a media text: stereotypes of the Soviet cinematic
image of the war and the film of V. Vinogradov "Eastern Corridor" (1966). Questions of
Cultural Studies, № 6, pp. 110-116.
Fedorov, A. (2016). Western cinema in the mirror of the Soviet critics (for example, thematic
collections of "Myths and Reality": 1966-1989). Media Education, N 3.
Fomin, V. (1971). Afterword to victory. Screen 1970-1971. Moscow: Art, pp. 27-31.
Fomin, V. (1972). High and earth. Screen 1971-1972. Moscow: Art, pp. 96-99.
Fomin, V. (1975). Home and Away. Screen 1973-1974. Moscow: Art, pp. 28-31.
Fomin, V. (1977). Pink veil of melodrama. Screen 1975-1976. Moscow: Art, pp. 81-84.
Fomin, V. (1989). Undefeated. Screen 1989. Moscow: Art, pp. 97-101.
Freilich, S. (1968). Hero of Our Time. Screen 1967-1968. Moscow: Art, pp. 14-18.
Freilich, S. (1969). One day of revolution. Screen 1968-1969. Moscow: Art, pp. 60-63.
Freilich, S. (1982). Thinking about the film. Screen 1979-1980. Moscow: Art, pp. 92-95.
Freilich, S. (1986). Talent it is work. Screen 1983-1984. Moscow: Art, pp. 134-138.
Freilich, S. (1990). Anticipation of change. Screen 1990. Moscow: Art, pp. 192-194.
Galanov, B. (1969). Missing laughter. Screen 1968-1969. Moscow: Art, pp. 104-106.
Gerber, A. (1975). Boy after the war. Screen 1973-1974. Moscow: Art, pp. 39-40.
Gerber, A. (1986). Once in a thousand years. Screen 1983-1984. Moscow: Art, pp. 97-99.
Gerber, A. (1987). Inna Churikova. Screen 1976-1977. Moscow: Art, pp. 160-164.
Gerber, A. (1989). The boy, who are you? Screen 1989. Moscow: Art, pp. 124-129.
Gershenson, O. (2011). Unknown Vinogradov. Cinema Art. № 7, pp. 136-144.
Gorelov, D. (2001). The first row, 1961: Amphibian Man.
http://www.ozon.ru/context/detail/id/200781/
Goryunova, N. (1985). Life Lessons. Screen 1982-1983. Moscow: Art, pp. 96-98.
Gromov, E. (1969). Paphos of profession. Screen 1968-1969. Moscow: Art, pp. 94-95.
Gromov, E. (1972). Opening personality. Screen 1971-1972. Moscow: Art, pp. 86-91.
Gromov, E. (1976). Romance for Lovers. And you will call trumpeter. Screen 1974-1975.
Gromov, E. (1977). Masters of their own fate. Screen 1975-1976. Moscow: Art, pp. 85-87.
Gromov, E. (1978). Our contemporary Ferdowsi. Screen 1976-1977. Moscow: Art, pp. 108-111.
Gromov, E. (1981). Plain woman, or feelings of fullness. Screen 1978-1979. Moscow: Art, pp.
89-92.
Gromov, E. (1981). School film valtz. Screen 1978-1979. Moscow: Art, pp. 31-38.
Gromov, E. (1982). Dream of meeting. Screen 1979-1980. Moscow: Art, pp. 54-57.
Gromov, E. (1983). Vine Vaio Valley. Screen 1980-1981. Moscow: Art, pp. 72-75.
Gromov, E. (1984). Thought Wings. Screen 1981-1982. Moscow: Art, pp.54-58.

Gromov, E. (1985). Station hopes. Screen 1982-1983. Moscow: Art, pp. 81-85.
Gromov, E. (1986). Burden wishes. Screen 1983-1984. Moscow: Art, pp. 88-90.
Gromov, E. (1987). Khatyn Nabat. Screen 1987. Moscow: Art, pp. 91-95.
Gromov, E. (1988). Ice and Fire truths. Screen 1988. Moscow: Art, pp. 95-98.
Ignatieva, N. (1966). Humor, poetry, wisdom. Screen 1965. Moscow: Art, pp. 52-55.
Ignatieva, N. (1967). Conversation Continued. Screen 1966-1967. Moscow: Art, pp. 28-30.
Ignatieva, N. (1983). Next the soul. Screen 1980-1981. Moscow: Art, pp. 81-82.
Ilyina, N. (1969). I believe ... Screen 1968-1969. Moscow: Art, pp. 101-104.
Inovertseva, A. (1966). The last day of vacation. Screen 1965. Moscow: Art, pp. 34-37.
Ivanova T. (1965). Cameo. Screen 1964. Moscow: Art, pp. 125-130.
Ivanova, T. (1969). "It is hard" - "harder" - "quite difficult ... Soviet Screen. 1969, № 24.
Ivanova, T. (1970). "It is hard" - "harder" - "quite difficult"... Screen 1969-1970. Moscow: Art,
pp. 90-95.
Ivanova, T. (1976). Boris Andreev. Screen 1974-1975. Moscow: Art, pp. 148-153.
Ivanova, T. (1976). On Friendship front. Screen 1974-1975. Moscow: Art, pp. 48-51.
Ivanova, T. (1977). Enchanted Hundred Days. Screen 1975-1976. Moscow: Art, pp. 92-96.
Ivanova, V. (1967). Alexey Tolstoy and movie. Screen 1966-1967. Moscow: Art, pp. 199-201.
Ivanova, V. (1967). Lubov Rumyantseva. Screen 1966-1967. Moscow: Art, pp. 79-80.
Ivanova, V. (1968). Mother's Heart. Screen 1967-1968. Moscow: Art, pp. 21-23.
Ivanova, V. (1977). Yevgeny Leonov. Screen 1975-1976. Moscow: Art, pp. 149-153.
Ivanova, V. (1978). Evgenia Simonova. Screen 1976-1977. Moscow: Art, pp. 128-129.
Ivanova, V. (1990). Madonna of the gate. Screen 1990. Moscow: Art, pp. 149-152.
Janulaitis, K. (1987). Pages of heroic chronicle. Screen 1987. Moscow: Art, pp. 99-101.
Kamshalov A. (1977). Ruler of thoughts. Screen1975-1976. Moscow: Art, pp. 23-35.
Kapralov, G. (1966). Films and symbols. Screen 1965. Moscow: Art, pp. 82-84.
Kapralov, G. (1967). Through the poet's heart. Screen 1966-1967. Moscow: Art, pp. 16-20.
Kapralov, G. (1976). Birch of Yegor Prokudin. Screen 1974-1975. Moscow: Art, pp. 74-76.
Kapralov, G. (1977). It all started with prize. Screen 1975-1976. Moscow: Art, pp. 66-69.
Kapralov, G. (1981). Prometheus XX century. Screen 1978-1979. Moscow: Art, pp. 188-190.
Kapralov, G. (1988). "After", which should not be. Screen 1988. Moscow: Art, pp. 84-86.
Karaganov, A. (1971). Guilties’ Drama. Screen 1970-1971. Moscow: Art, pp. 57-62.
Karaganov, A. (1972). Responsibility of the criticism. Screen 1971-1972. Moscow: Art, pp. 92-
96.
Karaganov, A. (1976). The Great Patriotic War in the images of Soviet cinema. Screen 1974-
1975. Moscow: Art, pp. 8-16.
Kardin, V. (1965). Both better. Screen 1964. Moscow: Art, pp. 66-73.
Kardin, V. (1966). Is parallel lines converge? Screen 1965. Moscow: Art, pp. 88-91.
Kazakova, R. (1970). Everything should be humanly. Screen 1969-1970. Moscow: Art, pp. 44-
46.
Kazarinov, V. (1976). The rank is soldier of the Fatherland. Screen 1974-1975. Moscow: Art, pp.
46-48.
Khanyutin, Y. (1969). Uunfulfilled. Screen 1968-1969. Moscow: Art, pp. 112-115.
Khanyutin, Y. (1971). On the verge of genres. Notes about the films of young. Screen 1970-
1971. Moscow: Art, pp. 116-122.
Khanyutin, Y. (1979). Nikita Mikhalkov. Screen 1977-1978. Moscow: Art, pp. 131-136.
Khloplyankina, T. (1965). Versus. Screen 1964. Moscow: Art, pp. 110-114.
Khloplyankina, T. (1966). Whether the ice is broken? Screen 1965. Moscow: Art, pp. 100-107.
Khloplyankina, T. (1969). At the far, the civil. Screen 1968-1969. Moscow: Art, pp. 70-74.
Khloplyankina, T. (1972). "With me that's what happens..." Screen 1971-1972. Moscow: Art, pp.
75-77.
Khloplyankina, T. (1975). Return. Screen 1973-1974. Moscow: Art, pp. 64-66.
Khloplyankina, T. (1975). Two Shurka and Tatiana. Screen 1973-1974. Moscow: Art, pp. 94-96.
Khloplyankina, T. (1976). Two travel to youth. Screen 1974-1975. Moscow: Art, pp. 120-123.
Khloplyankina, T. (1977). Hello, Dersu! Screen 1975-1976. Moscow: Art, pp. 170-173.
Kholodov, E. (1966). Neither the letter nor the fact. Screen 1965. Moscow: Art, pp. 96-97.
Klado, N. (1967). So what's the deal, the critic? Screen 1966-1967. Moscow: Art, pp. 98-104.
Kolesnikova, N. (1966). "Do not run after the first line..." Screen 1965. Moscow: Art, pp. 144-
145.
Kolesnikova, N. (1967). Sophiko Chiaureli. Screen 1966-1967. Moscow: Art, pp. 82-83.
Komarov, S. (1974). Cinematography Czechoslovak Socialist Republic (1945-1970). Moscow:
Institute of Cinematography, p. 62.
Korobkov, L. (1977). Nature and circumstances. Screen 1975-1976. Moscow: Art, pp. 48-58.
Korobov, V. (1981). "... About the fate of the time". Screen 1978-1979. Moscow: Art, pp. 139-
145.
Kozhevnikova, N. Learning itself. Screen 1990. Moscow: Art, pp. 135-138.
Kozhukhova, G. (1972). Ilf and Petrov and others. Screen 1971-1972. Moscow: Art, pp. 72-74.
Kremlev, G. (1966). Born comic film. Screen 1965. Moscow: Art, pp. 108-110.
Krivitsky, K. (1979). Contemporary (M. Ulyanov - 50). Screen 1977-1978. Moscow: Art, pp.
147-153.
Kudin, V. Thinking about the national heroism. Screen 1974-1975. Moscow: Art, pp. 38-42.
Kukarkina, T. (1978). Success Logic. Screen 1976-1977. Moscow: Art, pp. 118-121.
Kurbatov, V. (1989). Remembrance and Hope. Screen 1989. Moscow: Art, pp. 178-180.
Kuznetsov, F. (1983). The courage and the strength of the Soviet people. Screen 1980-1981.
Kuznetsov, M. (1965). Debut that promises much... Screen 1964. Moscow: Art, pp. 136-142.
Kuznetsov, M. (1965). Victory and defeat of Yegor Trubnikov. Screen 1964. Moscow: Art, pp.
39-44.
Kuznetsov, M. (1978). On the human passions. Screen 1976-1977. Moscow: Art, pp. 100-104.
Kuznetsov, M. (1981). When there is a real hero. Screen 1978-1979. Moscow: Art, pp. 99-102.
Kuznetsova M. (1984). Vasily and Vasilisa. Screen 1981-1982. Moscow: Art, pp. 67-69.
Kuznetsova, M. (1983). Dostoevsky: the image. Screen 1980-1981. Moscow: Art, pp. 87-89.
Kuznetsova, M. (1985). Anxiety. Screen 1982-1983. Moscow: Art, pp. 90-93.
Kuznetsova, M. (1988). For whom is the land? Screen 1988. Moscow: Art, pp. 42-46.
Kuznetsova, M. (1989). "Boy, you are who?" Screen 1989. Moscow: Art, pp. 129-131.
Kuznetsova, M. (1990). Living Souls and low season. Screen 1990. Moscow: Art, pp. 132-134.
Kvasnetskaya, M. (1965). Match. Screen 1964. Moscow: Art, pp. 61-65.
Kvasnetskaya, M. (1969). Not fashion talent. Screen 1968-1969. Moscow: Art, pp. 91-93.
Lagina, N. (1979). Alexei Petrenko. Screen 1977-1978. Moscow: Art, pp. 121-126.
Levitin, M. (1986). Wait new meetings (Natalia Vavilova). Screen 1983-1984. Moscow: Art, pp.
122-126.
Levitin, M. (1990). Way up or search for the perpetrators. Screen 1990. Moscow: Art, pp. 38-44.
Levshina, I. (1965). Lessons of Match. Screen 1964. Moscow: Art, pp. 60-65.
Levshina, I. (1965). Transformations of Donia Trubnikova. Screen 1964. Moscow: Art, pp. 116-
121.
Levshina, I. (1966). An invention. Screen 1965. Moscow: Art, pp. 85-87.
Levshina, I. (1967). With author wave. Screen 1966-1967. Moscow: Art, pp. 105-11.
Levshina, I. (1968). Actor on the screen. Screen 1967-1968. Moscow: Art, pp. 76-79.
Levshina, I. (1969). Directing or anti-directing? Screen 1968-1969. Moscow: Art, pp. 148-149.
Levshina, I. (1972). Two awards. Screen 1971-1972. Moscow: Art, pp. 36-38.
Levshina, I. (1975). Life of Huckleberry Finn almost without incident. Screen 1973-1974.
Lipkov, A. (1970). Generosity. Screen 1969-1970. Moscow: Art, pp. 46-49.
Lipkov, A. (1971). A final judgment. Screen 1970-1971. Moscow: Art, pp. 62-69.
Lipkov, A. (1972). Chekhov Cinema. Screen 1971-1972. Moscow: Art, pp. 37-44.
Lipkov, A. (1975). Heifits Chronicle. Screen 1973-1974. Moscow: Art, pp. 24-26.
Lishchinsky, I. (1966). The effect of participation. Screen 1965. Moscow: Art, pp. 78-80.
Lishchinsky, I. (1967). The Price of the "modern". Screen 1966-1967. Moscow: Art, pp.170-172.
Lishchinsky, I. (1968). A Stage. Screen 1967-1968. Moscow: Art, pp. 62-63.
Listov, V. (1989). "But there is the fate of the poet...". Screen 1989. Moscow: Art, pp. 114-118.
Lordkipanidze, N. (1966). Other Eyes. Screen 1965. Moscow: Art, pp. 133-137.
Lordkipanidze, N. (1967). Most Dangerous. Screen 1966-1967. Moscow: Art, pp. 178-181.
Lordkipanidze, N. (1968). Opening and repetition. Screen 1967-1968. Moscow: Art, pp. 59-61.
Lordkipanidze, N. (1969). Who are you? Screen 1968-1969. Moscow: Art, pp. 85-87.
Lordkipanidze, N. (1975). And general and own. Screen 1973-1974. Moscow: Art, pp. 44-47.
Macheret, A. (1969). The last movie of Iva Pyrev. Screen 1968-1969. Moscow: Art, pp. 150-
153.
Makarov, A. (1989). Andrei from the 170th. Screen 1989. Moscow: Art, pp. 180-185.
Mamatova, L. (1987). Incredibly obvious. Screen 1987. Moscow: Art, pp. 103-106.
Mamatova, L. (1988). On the eve of renovation. Screen 1988. Moscow: Art, pp. 20-30.
Marchenko, V. (1979). On the brethren and faithfulness. Screen 1977-1978. Moscow: Art, pp.
98-101.
Markov, S. (1971). Legend and profit. Screen 1970-1971. Moscow: Art, pp. 36-38.
Markova, F. (1970). Love, death, life ... Screen 1969-1970. Moscow: Art, pp. 61-64.
Markova, F. (1971). Just War. Screen 1970-1971. Moscow: Art, pp. 40-43.
Markulan, J. (1969). Meet Ilya Averbash. Screen 1968-1969. Moscow: Art, pp. 82-84.
Materials of the Plenum of the Soviet Communist Party Central Committee (1983). Moscow, p.
7.
Matsaytis, S. (1983). Paradoxes expression (J. Budraitis). Screen 1980-1981. Moscow: Art, pp.
110-115.
Medvedev, A. (1970). Valentina Telichkina. Screen 1969-1970. Moscow: Art, pp. 64-66.
Medvedev, A. (1972). Will be continued. Screen 1971-1972. Moscow: Art, pp. 63-65.
Medvedev, A. (1975). Fifty-first Year. Screen 1973-1974. Moscow: Art, pp. 86-88.
Medvedev, A. (1979). Feat of the people, the fate of folk. Screen 1977-1978. Moscow: Art, pp.
39-46.
Medvedev, A. (1981). Long Way to itself. Screen 1978-1979. Moscow: Art, pp. 95-97.
Medvedev, A. (1982). Look back in sorrow. Screen 1979-1980. Moscow: Art, pp. 88-91.
Medvedev, B. (1966). Not the letter, but the essence... Screen 1965. Moscow: Art, pp. 92-95.
Medvedeva, G. (1965). Violation of traditions. Screen 1964. Moscow: Art, pp. 136-139.
Medvedeva, G. (1967). Knight without fear, but with the reproach. Screen 1966-1967. Moscow:
Art, pp. 25-27.
Melville, L. (1982). Eternal Law promised land. Screen 1979-1980. Moscow: Art, pp. 110-114.
Mikhalkovich, V. (1976). Man and his work. Screen 1974-1975. Moscow: Art, pp. 116-120.
Mikhalkovich, V. (1987). His voice (Leonid Kalashnikov). Screen 1987. Moscow: Art, pp. 140-
144.
Monakhova, E. (1977). Vadim Yusov. Screen 1975-1976. Moscow: Art, pp. 157-159.
Murzina, M. (1990). "Golden Duke" Everything was good, except ... Screen 1990. Moscow: Art,
pp. 219-228.
Nedelin, V. (1981). The plot of the short story. Screen 1978-1979. Moscow: Art, pp. 97-99.
Nesteva, M. (1965). Composer as the author of the movie. Screen 1964. Moscow: Art, pp. 162-
164.
Nesteva, M. (1966). Feeling genre. Screen 1965. Moscow: Art, pp. 37-38.
Novogrudsky, A. (1979). Under the sign of the October Revolution. Screen 1977-1978. Moscow:
Art, pp. 24-28.
Nujkin, A., Erokhin, A. (1990). Bitter account. Screen 1990. Moscow: Art, pp. 6-14.
Ognev, K. (1987). A measure of success (Anatoly Romashin). Screen 1987. Moscow: Art, pp.
131-135.
Orlov, D. (1986). Fold the details of the order. Screen 1983-1984. Moscow: Art, pp. 28-32.
Orlov, V. (1966). Sleeping Lion comedy. Screen 1965. Moscow: Art, pp. 110-114.
Orlov, V. (1969). With pain of the past. Screen 1968-1969. Moscow: Art, pp. 68-69.
Ostrovsky, D. (1971). Who are they? Screen 1970-1971. Moscow: Art, pp. 84-87.
Pabauskaya, N. (1988). Right to their fate (Tatiana Drubich). Screen 1988. Moscow: Art, pp.
128-134.
Pabauskaya, N. (1989). Playwright, Film and time (Evgeny Grigoriev). Screen 1989. Moscow:
Art, pp. 158-166.
Pabauskaya, N. (1990). As the stars shine ... (Gennady Shpalikov). Screen 1990. Moscow: Art,
pp. 194-200.
Paperny, Z. (1966). Be careful... Screen 1965. Moscow: Art, pp. 115-117.
Pavlyuchik, L. (1988). Gravity (Boris Nevzorov). Screen 1988. Moscow: Art, pp. 135-138.
Pavlyuchik, L. (1989). Under the sign of penitence. Screen 1989. Moscow: Art, pp. 186-192.
Pisarevsky, D. (1965). Lessons of "Chapaev". Screen 1964. Moscow: Art, pp. 216-219.
Pisarevsky, D. (1966). Let's get acquainted. Screen 1965. Moscow: Art, pp. 140-142.
Pisarevsky, D. (1967). This is his own, and this is total. Screen 1966-1967. Moscow: Art, pp.
66-68.
Pisarevsky, D. (1968). Again in formation. Screen 1967-1968. Moscow: Art, pp. 19-20.
Pisarevsky, D. (1968). Panorama of national heroism. Screen 1967-1968. Moscow: Art, pp. 23-
26.
Pisarevsky, D. (1969). "Mother" Screen 1968-1969. Moscow: Art, pp. 18-19.
Pisarevsky, D. (1970). Comedy Detective. Screen 1969-1970. Moscow: Art, pp. 58-61.
Pisarevsky, D. (1972). From relocation of terms... Screen 1971-1972. Moscow: Art, pp. 100-103.
Pisarevsky, D. (1975). Attendance and Movies. Screen 1973-1974. Moscow: Art, pp. 98-100.
Pisarevsky, D. (1977). Artists innovators: Vasilyev brothers. Screen 1975-1976. Moscow: Art,
pp. 125-128.
Pistunova, A. (1984). The sea was great (Anatoly Petritsky). Screen 1981-1982. Moscow: Art,
pp. 92-96.
Plakhov, A. (1987). Not the letter, but the essence! Screen 1987. Moscow: Art, pp. 39-44.
Pogozheva, L. (1971). "Crime and Punishment". Screen 1970-1971. Moscow: Art, pp. 78-83.
Pogozheva, L. (1975). Debut took place. Screen 1973-1974. Moscow: Art, pp. 22-23.
Povolyaev, V. (1983). It is a live picture of the history. Screen 1980-1981. Moscow: Art, pp. 69-
71.
Pritulenko, V. (1989). From what Alex runs away? Screen 1989. Moscow: Art, pp. 111-114.
Pritulenko, V. (1990). Who is the owner on earth. Screen 1990. Moscow: Art, pp. 143-149.
Proceedings of XXVI Soviet Communist Party Congress (1981). Moscow, pp. 61-63.
Pustynskaya, L. (1978). Wind of Revolution. Screen 1976-1977. Moscow: Art, pp. 132-133.
Pustynskaya, L. (1989). Its young heroine (Vera Glagoleva). Screen 1989. Moscow: Art, pp.
171-176.
Pustynskaya, L. (1990). Moment of fortune (M. Martinsone). Screen 1990. Moscow: Art,
pp.168-171.
Rachuk, I. (1983). With a mission of liberation. Screen 1980-1981. Moscow: Art, pp. 75-77.
Rakhmanov, L. (1969). Short but happy life of Tanya Tetkina. Screen 1968-1969. Moscow: Art,
pp. 64-67.
Rassadin, S. (1967). Why? Screen 1966-1967. Moscow: Art, pp. 190-196.
Resolution of the Soviet Communist Party Central Committee (1969). On increasing the
responsibility of the heads of the press, radio and television, film, culture and art institutions for
the ideological and political level of the published materials and repertoire. Moscow.
Resolution of the Soviet Communist Party Central Committee (1972). ‘On Literary Criticism’.
The Soviet Communist Party in Resolutions and Decisions of Congresses, Conferences and
Central Committee plenums. Moscow: Politizdat, 1986, Vol. 12, pp. 170-173.
Resolution of the Soviet Communist Party Central Committee (1967). ‘On measures for further
development of the social sciences and enhance their role in the building of communism’. The
Soviet Communist Party in Resolutions (1986). Moscow, Vol. 11, pp. 237-251.
development of Soviet cinema." (1972). The Soviet Communist Party in Resolutions. (1986).
Moscow, Vol. 12, pp. 263-268.
Resolution of the Soviet Communist Party Central Committee On the Mosfilm (1964). Moscow.
Revich, V. (1968). About Science Fiction. Screen 1967-1968. Moscow: Art, pp. 82-86.
Revich, V. (1969). Zorge’s Companions. Screen 1968-1969. Moscow: Art, pp. 139-144.
Revich, V. (1971). Five evenings in the TV-screen. Screen 1970-1971. Moscow: Art, pp. 99-104.
Revich, V. (1972). About the workers' cause. Screen 1971-1972. Moscow: Art, pp. 82-86.
Revich, V. (1975). Should I announce Shah queen? Screen 1973-1974. Moscow: Art, pp. 92-94.
Romanenko, A. (1983). Holiday with me and without me. Screen 1980-1981. Moscow: Art, pp.
32-36.
Romanenko, A. (1984). At the root of the character. Screen 1981-1982. Moscow: Art, pp. 72-74.
Romanenko, A. (1987). How young we were. Screen 1987. Moscow: Art, pp. 113-114.
Romanenko, A. (1988). Smile, baby ... or a game for school age children. Screen 1988. Moscow:
Art, pp. 102-104.
Romanenko, A. (1989). They and we. Screen 1989. Moscow: Arts, pp. 43-48.
Rubanova, I. (1966). Strict test days and years. Screen 1965. Moscow: Art, pp. 64-68.
Rudnitsky, K. (1978). The parallels. Screen 1976-1977. Moscow: Art, pp. 122-124.
Rybak, L. (1977). Failure to escape. Screen 1975-1976. Moscow: Art, pp. 102-107.
Ryzhova, V. (1971). Composer. Music. Film. Screen 1970-1971. Moscow: Art, pp. 87-91.
Samarin, Y. (1984). Russian epic time. Screen 1981-1982. Moscow: Art, pp. 77-79.
Samarin, Y. (1985). We are looking for understanding and love. Screen 1982-1983. Moscow:
Art, pp. 93-95.
Samarin, Y. (1986). Tale about Urals. Screen 1983-1984. Moscow: Art, pp. 104-106.
Samarin, Y. (1987). No wonder all Russia remembers. Screen 1987. Moscow: Art, pp. 48-54.
Samarin, Y. (1990). Last role of Anatoly Papanov in a movie. Screen 1990. Moscow: Art, pp.
201-204.
Savinchenko, N., Shirokov, A. (1970). About the film "The Sixth of July". Ogoniok. № 13, p.25.
Savitsky, N. (1978). Man and his work. Screen 1976-1977. Moscow: Art, pp. 92-96.
Savitsky, N. (1979). Direct connection. Screen 1977-1978. Moscow: Art, pp. 87-92.
Scherbakov, K. (1969). Only true? Screen 1968-1969. Moscow: Art, pp. 98-101.
Scherbakov, K. (1988). Long breath. Screen 1988. Moscow: Art, pp. 87-90.

Semenov, M. (1965). Instead anthem. Screen 1964. Moscow: Art, pp. 66-71.
Semenov, M. (1966). Small masterpiece. Screen 1965. Moscow: Art, pp. 138-139.
Shatsillo, D. (1976). Guerrilla prowess. Screen 1974-1975. Moscow: Art, pp. 42-46.
Shatsillo, D. (1977). The Revolution Continues. Screen 1975-1976. Moscow: Art, pp. 87-91.
Shatsillo, D. (1985). As a high score (Elena Drapeko). Screen 1982-1983. Moscow: Art, pp.108-
113.
Shatsillo, D. (1986). Poem about war and peace. Screen 1983-1984. Moscow: Art, pp. 61-64.
Shatsillo, D. (1987). Feat in ice. Screen 1987. Moscow: Art, pp. 95-99.
Shcherbakov, K. (1965). Tradition schemes quest ... Screen 1964. Moscow: Art, pp. 85-91.
Shcherbakov, K. (1967). Again about detectives. Screen 1966-1967. Moscow: Art, pp. 175-178.
Shilova, I. (1978). Regimantas Adomaitis. Screen 1976-1977. Moscow: Art, pp. 156-160.
Shilova, I. (1981). Mythology of Contemporary History. Screen 1978-1979. Moscow: Art, pp.
83-87.
Shilova, I. (1982). Natalia Andreichenko. Screen 1979-1980. Moscow: Art, pp. 132-136.
Shilova, I. (1984). His choosing the path ... (Michael Nozhkin). Screen 1981-1982. Moscow:
Art, pp. 82-84.
Shilova, I. (1985). Contemporary screen. Screen 1982-1983. Moscow: Art, pp. 14-40.
Shilova, I. (1986). Afterword or Foreword? Screen 1983-1984. Moscow: Art, pp. 94-96.
Shilova, I. (1988). Industrial conflicts, family conflicts. Screen 1988. Moscow: Art, pp. 36-41.
Shilova, I. (1990). Duty (Oleg Borisov). Screen 1990. Moscow: Art, pp. 172-177.
Shitova, V. (1972). Do not applause ... Screen 1971-1972. Moscow: Art, pp. 70-72.
Shmyrov, V. (1989). Soul of sphinx. Screen 1989. Moscow: Art, pp. 118-122.
Shmyrov, V. (1990). Returning to the theme. Screen 1990. Moscow: Art, pp. 15-20.
Sholokhov, S. (1990). Other times - other songs. Screen 1990. Moscow: Art, pp. 49-53.
Shumakov, S. (1987). ... Good fellows a lesson. Screen 1987. Moscow: Art, pp. 115-118.
Shumakov, S. (1988). About position of decent man. Screen 1988. Moscow: Art, pp. 99-101.
Shumakov, S. (1989). "There is no sadder ...". Screen 1989. Moscow: Art, pp. 131-134.
Shumakov, S. (1990). "Little Faith". Screen 1990. Moscow: Art, p.131.
Sobolev, R. (1971). "The Beginning", which has no end. Screen 1970-1971. Moscow: Art, pp.
69-74.
Sobolev, R. (1975). Twelve meetings with the eleventh muse. Screen 1973-1974. Moscow: Art,
pp. 52-54.
Sobolev, R. (1983). Simplicity Wisdom (Vsevolod Sanaev). Screen 1980-1981. Moscow: Art,
pp. 92-96.
Sologub, V. (1978). Georgy Burkov. Screen 1976-1977. Moscow: Art, pp. 164-167.
Solovyova, I. (1965). A man named Hamlet. Screen 1964. Moscow: Art, pp. 94-100.
Stishova, E. (1981). Natalia Gundareva. Screen 1978-1979. Moscow: Art, pp. 119-124.
Stishova, E. (1982). Entry (Notes on film debut). Screen 1979-1980. Moscow: Art, pp. 74-78.
Stishova, E. (1984). A few words in defense of women's virtue. Screen 1981-1982. Moscow:
Art, pp. 32-36.
Stishova, E. (1987). Close the past (My Friend Ivan Lapshin). Screen 1987. Moscow: Art, pp.
107-112.
Stishova, E. (1989). Laura and thorns. Screen 1989. Moscow: Art, pp. 31-36.
Sulkin, M. (1972). Last movie of Shaken Aimanov. Screen 1971-1972. Moscow: Art, pp. 28-32.
Sulkin, M. (1975). Brutal good truth of Tolomush Okeev. Screen 1973-1974. Moscow: Art, pp.
35-38.
Sulkin, M. (1982). Elaman engages in battle. Screen 1979-1980. Moscow: Art, pp. 96-98.
Sumenov, N. (1977). One day, the whole life. Screen 1975-1976. Moscow: Art, pp. 70-75.
Sumenov, N. (1978). Poem about the brotherhood. Screen 1976-1977. Moscow: Art, pp. 78-83.
Sumenov, N. (1981). Red Marius. Screen 1978-1979. Moscow: Art, pp. 80-83.
Sumenov, N. (1982). Several interviews on important issues. Screen 1979-1980. Moscow: Art,
pp. 106-109.
Sumenov, N. (1984). A few days after the outbreak of war. Screen 1981-1982. Moscow: Art, pp.
69-71.
Sumenov, N. (1985). Fidelity truth of history. Screen 1982-1983. Moscow: Art, pp. 78-80.
Surkov, E. (1965). Yegor Trubnikov and his time. Screen 1964. Moscow: Art, pp. 34-39.
Svobodin, A. (1968). Anna Karenina. A screen adaptation of 1967. Screen 1967-1968. Moscow:
Art, pp. 35-40.
Tarasenko, L. (1979). Emile Lotyanu. Screen 1977-1978. Moscow: Art, pp. 136-141.
Tolchenova, N. (1976). Sholokhov and cinema. Screen 1974-1975. Moscow: Art, pp. 106-110.
Tolchenova, N. (1978). The soul must work (Julia Solntseva - 70). Screen 1976-1977. Moscow:
Art, pp. 148-150.
Tolstysh, V. (1989). What audience we deserve? Screen 1989. Moscow: Art, pp. 142-150.
Troshin, A. (1970). "Art like a wild horse". Screen 1969-1970. Moscow: Art, pp. 56-58.
Troshin, A. (1971). "Or I die, or I will play ..." Screen 1970-1971. Moscow: Art, pp. 75-77.
Troshin, A. (1988). Sound of a breaking string. Screen 1988. Moscow: Art, pp. 107-108.
Tsereteli, K. (1969). "Eliso". Screen 1968-1969. Moscow: Art, p. 28.
Turbin, V. (1969). Alexander Green, his rights, his duties. Screen 1968-1969. Moscow: Art, pp.
110-111.
Turin, Y. (1977). Way of the Cross. Screen 1975-1976. Moscow: Art, pp. 96-102.
Turin, Y. (1978). Welcome win! Screen 1976-1977. Moscow: Art, pp. 97-99.
Turin, Y. (1979). Children after the war. Screen 1977-1978. Moscow: Art, pp. 92-97.
Turin, Y. (1981). Ivan Ryzhov. Screen 1978-1979. Moscow: Art, pp. 115-118.
Turin, Y. (1982). Anatoly Solonitsyn. Screen 1979-1980. Moscow: Art, pp. 136-143.
Turin, Y. (1983). Again, the historical film. Screen 1980-1981. Moscow: Art, pp. 36-43.
Turin, Y. (1984). Film-call. Screen 1981-1982. Moscow: Art, pp. 62-65.
Turin, Y. (1985). Earth, water, people. Screen 1982-1983. Moscow: Art, pp. 86-90.
Turin, Y. (1986). Faces of heroic themes. Screen 1983-1984. Moscow: Art, pp. 47-56.
Turin, Y. (1987). Humanism Lessons (Sholokhov - Bondarchuk: The destiny of man). Screen
1987. Moscow: Art, pp. 152-158.
Turin, Y. (1988). Quiet Flows the Don of Sergei Gerasimov. Screen 1988. Moscow: Art, pp.
151-154.
Turin, Y. (1989). Talent of Resistance. Screen 1989. Moscow: Art, pp. 102-105.
Tvalchrelidze, T. (1977). Sophia Chiaureli. Screen 1975-1976. Moscow: Art, pp. 145-148.
Ungureanu L. (1984). Actor with deep temperament (Mihai Volontir). Screen 1981-1982.
Urnov, D. (1987). Why? What for? Screen 1987. Moscow: Art, pp. 28-32.
Vartanov, A. (1969). Stories, events, characters. Screen 1968-1969. Moscow: Art, pp. 134-138.
Vartanov, A. (1971). Telefilms? And what is it? Screen 1970-1971. Moscow: Art, pp. 128-134.
Vartanov, A. (1972). We and G. Malyan’s film. Screen 1971-1972. Moscow: Art, pp. 47-49.
Vladimirova, E. (1979). Fidelity (I. Talankin - 50). Screen 1977-1978. Moscow: Art, pp. 154-
157.
Vlasov, M. (1984). Happy gift. Screen 1981-1982. Moscow: Art, pp. 103-106.
Warsawsky, J. (1965). Film of action delayed. Screen 1964. Moscow: Art, pp. 44-51.
Warsawsky, J. (1966). Return to movie. Screen 1965. Moscow: Art, pp. 124-132.
Warsawsky, J. (1967). Comedy of Errors. Screen 1966-1967. Moscow: Art, pp. 105-111.
Warsawsky, J. (1967). Work of the Film. Screen 1966-1967. Moscow: Art, pp. 20-24.
Warsawsky, J. (1969). Dignity. Screen 1968-1969. Moscow: Art, pp. 75-79.
Warsawsky, J. (1971). Through the chronicle. Screen 1970-1971. Moscow: Art, pp. 92-93.
Wilchek, V. (1976). Spectrogram of success. Screen 1975-1976. Moscow: Art, pp. 58-63.
Yurenev, A. (1977). Boris Babochkin. Screen 1975-1976. Moscow: Art, pp. 142-144.
Yurenev, A. (1979). Happy fate (A. Khokhlova - 80). Screen 1977-1978. Moscow: Art, pp. 145-
147.
Yurenev, R. (1975). About sensitivity of the human. Screen 1973-1974. Moscow: Art, pp. 19-21.
Yurenev, R. (1978). Indomitable (the 75th anniversary of I. Pyrev). Screen 1976-1977. Moscow:
Art, pp. 136-142.
Yurenev, R. (1982). Five parties and two actors. Screen 1979-1980. Moscow: Art, pp. 100-102.
Yurenev, R. (1983). Victory of conscience. Screen 1980-1981. Moscow: Art, pp. 82-84.
Yurenev, R. (1984). Jakov Protazanov. Screen 1981-1982. Moscow: Art, pp. 106-110.
Yurenev, R. (1985). Vsevolod Pudovkin. Screen 1982-1983. Moscow: Art, pp. 130-134.
Yurenev, R. (1986). Failure. Screen 1983-1984. Moscow: Art, pp. 100-101.
Yurenev, R. (1988). Military prose Poetry. Screen 1988. Moscow: Art, pp. 90-92.
Yurenev, R. (1989). Cleansing Fire. Screen 1989. Moscow: Art, pp. 94-96.
Zaitsev, N. (1978). Optimsm of the revolutionary perspective. Screen 1976-1977. Moscow: Art,
pp. 84-86.
Zaitsev, N. (1981). No one is forgotten and nothing is forgotten. Screen 1978-1979. Moscow:
Art, pp. 76-80.
Zak, M. (1975). Big Picture Show. From observations of cinema. Screen 1974-1975. Moscow:
Art, pp. 111-116.
Zak, M. (1977). Master. Screen 1975-1976. Moscow: Art, pp. 134-137.
Zak, M. (1978). Director selects the position. Screen 1976-1977. Moscow: Art, pp. 63-69.
Zak, M. (1981). Autobiography of love. Screen 1978-1979. Moscow: Art, pp. 92-95.
Zak, M. (1982). Counter-movement. Screen 1979-1980. Moscow: Art, pp. 103-106.
Zak, M. (1985). Business man on vacation. Screen 1982-1983. Moscow: Art, pp. 75-78.
Zak, M. (1986). Dialogues. Screen 1983-1984. Moscow: Art, pp. 32-37.
Zak, M. (1987). Checking using life. Screen 1987. Moscow: Art, pp. 22-28.
Zak, M. (1988). Stairs analysis. Screen 1988. Moscow: Art, pp. 31-35.
Zak, M. (1989). Myocardial as a social category, or to the question of entertainment movie
screen. Screen 1989. Moscow: Art, pp. 106-111.
Zakrzhevskaya, L. (1968). Seven shots over Rediul Mare. Screen 1967-1968. Moscow: Art, pp.
56-58.
Zakrzhevskaya, L. (1972). Russian Nature ... Screen 1971-1972. Moscow: Art, pp. 58-59.
Zakrzhevskaya, L. (1979). Lydia Fedoseyeva-Shukshina. Screen 1977-1978. Moscow: Art, pp.

114-120.
Zakrzhevskaya, L. (1981). Margarita Terekhova. Screen 1978-1979. Moscow: Art, pp. 111-114.
Zakrzhevskaya, L. (1982). Leonid Kuravlev. Screen 1979-1980. Moscow: Art, pp. 127-131.
Zakrzhevskaya, L. (1983). Roles, in tune with the time (Stanislav Lyubshin). Screen 1980-1981.
Zakrzhevskaya, L. (1984). Actor on the screen. Screen 1981-1982. Moscow: Art, pp. 100-102.
Zakrzhevskaya, L. (1986). In the context of time (Evgenia Glushchenko). Screen 1983-1984.
Zakrzhevskaya, L. (1987). "I love to play strong characters ..." (Elena Tsyplakova). Screen 1987.
M .: Art, 1987, pp. 127-131.
Zakrzhevskaya, L. (1988). Waits from us... (Natalia Saiko). Screen 1988. Moscow: Art, pp. 125-
128.
Zakrzhevskaya, L. (1989). The same thought (Nina Ruslanova). Screen 1989. Moscow: Art, pp.
166-170.
Zakrzhevskaya, L. (1990). The essence of the laws (Vladimir Gostyukhin). Screen 1990.
Zelenko, N. (1965). Actor conducts exploration. Screen 1964. Moscow: Art, pp. 142-147.
Zelenko, N. (1966). Citizenship. Screen 1965. Moscow: Art, pp. 56-58.
Zinoviev, M., Markov, S. (1967). Mid stream. Screen 1966-1967. Moscow: Art, pp. 74-78.
Zinoviev, M., Markov, S. (1968). Nikina from a movie and itself. Screen 1967-1968. Moscow:
Art, pp. 64-66.
Zolotussky, I. (1989). Return Screen. Screen 1989. Moscow: Art, pp. 78-81.
Zorkaya, N. (1965). Kostya Inochkin underground. Screen 1964. Moscow: Art, pp. 52-60.
Zorkaya, N. (1975). Lady Luck. Screen 1973-1974. Moscow: Art, pp. 69-71.
Zorkaya, N. (1988). Sketches for a biography (Tengiz Abduladze). Screen 1988. Moscow: Art,
pp. 110-118.
Zorky, A. (1970). From Goodbye, Gulsary. Screen 1969-1970. Moscow: Art, pp. 52-55.
Zorky, A. (1971). Origins of heroism. Screen 1970-1971. Moscow: Art, pp. 32-34.
Zorky, A. (1972). About Love? Screen 1971-1972. Moscow: Art, pp. 77-79.
Zorky, A. (1978). Mimino is Georgian Falcon. Screen 1976-1977. Moscow: Art, pp. 208-209.
Zorky, A. (1983). Tehran Case. Screen 1980-1981. Moscow: Art, pp. 137-140.
Zorky, A. (1987). Comments to the spectacle. Screen 1987. Moscow: Art, pp. 118-122.
Zorky, A. (1989). "Lone White Sail ..." (Kira Muratova). Screen 1989. Moscow: Art, pp. 152-
157.
Zorky, A. (1990). So, we need one victory (Andrey Smirnov). Screen 1990. Moscow: Art, pp.
162-167.

ISSN: 2410-9118
E-ISSN 2413-7545
Vol. 3, Is. 1, pp. 4-9, 2016
DOI: 10.13187/rjs.2016.3.4
www.ejournal32.com
UDC 316
Soviet Cartoons Media Texts in Cold War Times: Hermeneutic Analysis
Alexander Fedorov
Abstract
The author uses the hermeneutic analysis – a study of the process of interpretation of media
texts, cultural and historical factors influencing the views of the agency / author on the media text.
This analysis suggests media text comprehension through comparison with historical, cultural
tradition and reality; penetration of its logic; through comparison of media images in historical and
cultural context by combining analysis of the structural, plot, ethical, ideological, iconographic /
visual, media stereotypes and analysis of media texts’ characters. As a result, the author concluded
that the era of the Cold War, which spawned mutual ideological confrontation of the communist
and capitalist countries, covering all categories of media texts, including animation / cartoon.
Cartoons were used as levers of power required reports confrontational ideas in attractive folklore,
fairy package in order to influence not only adults but also on children's audience.
Keywords: media literacy, film studies, cartoons, media education, animation, cartoon, cold
war, ideology, media text, cold war.
Introduction
In my previous works (Fedorov, 2008; 2011), I have repeatedly appealed to the technology
hermeneutic analysis of media texts (Eco, 1998; 2005; Eco, 1976; Silverblatt, 2001, p. 80-81).
This time I use as an example of the Soviet cartoons media texts on the topic of Cold War. This
data analysis of media texts, in my opinion, will be useful for the training of future culture & art

Technology hermeneutic analysis of Soviet cartoons media texts on the topic of "cold war".
The historical, cultural, political, ideological context
Historical Context
- the place of media texts’ actions: the United States, an unnamed country;
- the times of creation of media texts: these cartoons were created in the second half of the
1940s.
- the era of the cold war was the source of the creation of the set as the anti-Soviet / anti-
communist and anti-western / anti-bourgeois media texts within the time period 1946-1991 years
(since March 5, 1946, when Winston Churchill made his famous Fulton speech, sharply criticized
the policy the Soviet Union, and since August-September 1946, when Stalin’s regime adopted "anti-
4
cosmopolitan" resolution "On the magazines "Zvezda" and "Leningrad", "On the repertoire of
theaters and measures for improvement" and "On the use and discharge Foreign Literature").
General socio-cultural, political and ideological context of the second half of the 1940s:
- the restoration of the war-torn Russian economy through the exertion of all human
resources;
- the rapid development of military industry, nuclear development;
- the establishment of totalitarian regimes (completely dependent on the Kremlin) in almost
all the countries of Eastern Europe;
- a return to the practice of mass repression (the struggle against cosmopolitanism, anti-
Semitic campaign, etc.).
Discussion
I agree with Russian philosopher and political scientist D.P. Konchalovsky, who come to the
conclusion that Russia in the 1930s - 1940s, has turned "in hierarchically structured society
absolutist police-type class division, hierarchical bureaucracy, strict discipline, lack of freedom and
personal rights. As if stricken 19th century. Return to the 18th and even the 17th century. This is
the essence. But apparently, this regime, for the sake of the era and the recent habits, created and
supported in every possible way scenery of democracy and freedoms. It is necessary for both
internal and external use. To create this duality and contradiction have to befuddle, to confuse
people. Hence the propaganda reinforced at every turn (to prevent people to recover and to think
again), here the suppression of contact with people who saw the West, they neutralized as much as
possible, hence the "iron curtain" (Konchalovsky, 1969, p.24-25).
Undoubtedly, even in the era of peak "cold war" - as in the United States and the Soviet
Union - were the media texts with positive characters from the country of "potential enemy".
A positive foreign characters mostly appear in the Soviet film adaptations of literary classics, which
is set in the past (at least - until 1917). As for western characters of the second part of 1940s, they
met in the Soviet media texts if they are anti-imperialist, anti-bourgeois attitudes and actions, and
even better - direct support of communist ideas.
But, of course, most of the Soviet media texts on the theme of modern Western life in the
times of "cold war" was created with the aim of exposing and accusations of imperialism and the
bourgeois world.
In this respect, it is very interesting of real events on both sides of the "Iron Curtain." Yes, we
can agree with that the atmosphere of mutual suspicion, rudeness, cynicism, fear, complicity and
disunity in last years of Stalinism completely displaced from the domestic themes, could be realized
only in the construction of the "enemy image (Turovskaya, 1996, p.106). But, alas, a very similar
atmosphere, in spite of all the American democratic tradition, there was in the process of "witch
hunt", launched at about the same years of Senator George McCarthy in relation to many of the
Hollywood director and screenwriter, accused of sympathizing with communism and the Soviet
Union.
At the same time these two mutually hostile media trends are similar version where the true
facts (in varying degrees) combined with ideological and aesthetic falsification.
I confidently assert that the Western enemy media image was formed in the Soviet Union (as,
indeed, the image of the Soviet enemy in the Western media texts aimed against the USSR) back in
1920s-1930s and later operated effectively for many decades: the vast majority of it was the image
of the aggressor / aggressor alien / spy / criminal barbarian / degenerate, and if intellectual, then
again, hostile, spiteful and cruel.
In addition, the external threat was "a convenient excuse for domestic problems and
contradictions in the socio-economic and political system, which could otherwise be seen as
evidence of the inhabitants of the Soviet Union its imperfections" (Fateev, 1999). It was typical for
the Stalinist socialism with the because “the dominance of a ruthless and all-consuming state”
(Konchalovsky, 1969, p.17).
In this context, the so-called Marshall Plan, developed in 1947 by US Secretary of State James
Marshall, was treated by Soviet propaganda as a threat to the socialist camp. The Marshall Plan
worked in Western Europe (Britain, France, West Germany, Italy, the Netherlands) from 1948 to
1951 and became known to be one of the most effective economic projects to revive the war-torn
5
states. Of course, billions of dollars of investment in the development of Europe were associated
with the political conditions of the anti-communist orientation.
Hence it is clear that the Marshall Plan in the Soviet Union was perceived hostility and Soviet
media of late 1940s were awash with articles against this action.
Ideological propaganda of the Cold War could not circumvent and artistic sphere of life in the
USSR. So in addition to the decision of the Politburo of the Communist party "On the magazines
"Zvezda" and "Leningrad" (Decision ... 1946),"On the repertoire of theaters and measures to
improve them" (Decision ... 1946) the Resolution "On the opera "The Great Friendship" of
V. Muradeli" was published in February 1948. This Resolution accused the Soviet composers'
works in which “the most clearly presented formalist perversions, anti-democratic trends in music,
alien to the Soviet people and their artistic tastes. Characteristic features of this music is the denial
of the basic principles of classical music, preaching, atonality, dissonance and disharmony, which
are supposedly an expression of "progress" and "innovation" in the development of musical form,
the rejection of the essential foundations of a musical work, which is a melody, passion chaotic,
neuropathic combinations that turn music into cacophony, a chaotic jumble of sounds. This music
gives much the spirit of contemporary modernist bourgeois music of Europe and America
displaying insanity of bourgeois culture, a complete negation of the musical art, its dead end”
(Decision ... 1948).
Moreover, in April-May 1949, the Soviet Union developed a special "Action Plan to
strengthen the anti-American propaganda in the near future," provides for "the systematic printing
materials, articles, pamphlets exposing the aggressive plans of US imperialism, anti-national
character of the social and political system of the United States, debunks the fable of American
propaganda about the "prosperity" of America, showing the profound contradictions of the US
economy, the falsity of bourgeois democracy, the insanity of bourgeois culture and mores of
modern America" (The plan ... 1949).
Results
And it should be noted that all three of anti-Western cartoon, shot in 1949 - Ambulance,
Mr. Wolf and Alien Voice - fully meet the objectives of this plan.
The first of these was exposed perfidy of the Marshall Plan, the second - the greed and deceit
of the American bourgeoisie, and the third - noxiousness formalism and jazz music.
The term Cold War is closely related to such concepts as psychological war, ideological
struggle, political propaganda, ideological propaganda, propaganda (under the propaganda
I understand purposeful regular a media introduction into the mass consciousness of this or that
ideology to achieve a particular social effect planned) and the enemy image. According to the just
determination A.V. Fateev, "enemy image is an ideological expression of social antagonism,
dynamic character hostile to the state and the citizen forces, a policy tool of the ruling groups of the
society. ... The enemy image is a crucial element of psychological warfare, which is a deliberate
and planned use of propaganda by political opponents, among other means of pressure for the
direct or indirect influence on the opinions, moods, feelings and behavior of the enemy, allies and
their populations in order to force them to act in pleasing to the government directions"(Fateev,
1999).
In this sense, animated film Ambulance, Mr. Wolf and Alien Voice noticeable clear message
of propaganda aimed at convincing the audience that:
- The Marshall Plan is built on the evil designs of the US imperialists in the guise of
economic aid to rob and plunge into poverty population of the European countries (Ambulance);
- Even pretending for a while pacifist Western bourgeois sooner or later finds its aggressive,
greedy nature (Mr. Wolf );
- Imposed by the West and disharmonious cheeky "music of thick" (jazz, etc.) must be
uncompromisingly rejected the true connoisseurs of classical music, folk tunes and genuinely
(Alien Voice).
In general, the ideological and political context of world, depicted in the anti-Western Soviet
cartoons in 1949, can probably be described as follows.
Ideology and political context of world depicted in the anti-Western Soviet cartoons of the
Cold War times.
6
Ideology of the world represented in the media text: the imperialist bourgeois ideology, the
ideology of survival in the world of the wolf (Ambulance, Mr. Wolf), the ideology of the struggle for
traditional music against harmful foreign influences (Alien Voice).
The hierarchy of values of the world in the media text: wealth - power - fun, entertainment
(Ambulance, Mr. Wolf), enjoy of jazz melody (Alien voice).
The recipe of a success for the characters of the media text: to be aggressive imperialist,
greedy and deceitful bourgeois (Ambulance, Mr. Wolf), to be alover of discord and disharmony in
the music (Alien voice), to be able to survive in the world of the wolfs (Ambulance, Mr. Wolf).
Characters seek to achieve this success by any means available to them - false propaganda,
armed aggression, persistent implementation of the masses modernist music.
In general, these cartoons have stereotyped characters, but some characters may also have
individual characteristics (eg, Mr. Wolf first puts on the mask of a pacifist).
Cultural Context
As a product of mass / popular culture, Soviet 1949’s cartoons on the theme of confrontation
with the Western way of life relied on folklore and fairy sources, including traditional fabulous
presentation about wolves as a negative and evil beings, a hares like eternal victims of predatory
animals and so on. Thus, in the Ambulance and Alien voice folk-fabulous images of animals and
birds were transferred to Western and Soviet values representation, helping to strengthen the
image of the West as hostile and alien to the Soviet Union.
In particular, the Alien voice quite clearly resonates with the base of the era of the "cold war"
Soviet book with the eloquent title Music of spiritual poverty, which clearly states that "the task of
modern jazz is directly opposed to the tasks of the people's dance songs and music. It does not
excite strong, cheerful feelings, but rather dampens and suppresses them. It does not carry the
impetuous passion, but mesmerizing deathly cold of their mechanistic rhythms disastrous
monotony and scarcity of musical material. And even when its purpose - to act as a pathogen, it is
used only to stun the hysterical cries of" (Gorodinsky, 1950, p.81).
Genre modification: basically - satire.
The main dramatic stereotypes of media texts:
- The representatives of Western values invade in the peaceful world of positive characters
(Ambulance, Alien voice) in an attempt to deceive, entrap, rob, spoil the artistic taste; but - sooner
or later - positive characters realize deceit of these shares and begin to deal with them.
- Western bourgeois characters may at some time to pretend to be pacifists (Mr. Wolf) or
benefactors (Ambulance), however, their negative, bestial essence is found...
The modest appearance of positive characters; luxurious furnishings life of the Western
bourgeoisie. Western capitalists (Mr. Wolf) is shown with a significant share of grotesque.
Character Age: 50-60 years (Mr. Walk and his wife), the age of the characters, animals are
more difficult, but at least they are not old...
The appearance, clothes, physique: characters dressed according to social status, although
the poor bunny gets first of the new bourgeoisie expensive suit).
Appearance of a positive characters are usually attractive, the appearance of bourgeoisie and
their henchmen, by contrast, - repellen...
Social status, profession characters: social position for bourgeois characters and poor
characters (regardless - people or animals) is significantly different.
Marital status characters also depends on the specific plot of the media text.
Negative characters’ traits: greed, cruelty, meanness, dedication, hostility, cunning,
strength.
Positive characters’ traits: gullibility, naivety, the ability to resist bourgeois influence.
Bourgeois characters shown angry, rude and violent, with a primitive vocabulary, active
gestures and unpleasant tone of voice.
The positive characters, in contrast, has a pleasant voice (especially of the Nightingale from
Alien voice.
The whole character of all characters mentioned above is depicted by a dashed media texts,
without going into psychology.
7
Value orientations (ideological, religious, etc.) of characters: in all three "confrontational"

cartoons negative characters clearly manifested bourgeois, imperialist, modernist values, coupled
with a focus on violence as a means of solving problems. Values of positive characters are similar to
the "traditional folk".
The actions of the character, his methods of conflict resolution: the actions dictated by the
development of the characters mentioned above storylines stereotypical media texts.
encountered, solutions to the problem.
Negative characters interrupted of ordinary life of positive characters. A problem: the life
(Ambulance), or artistic values (Alien voice) of positive characters are threatened. And there's only
one way to solve it – the struggle with negative characters, their foreign influence.
Conclusion
So, I tried to specific examples make hermeneutic analysis - a study of the process of
author on the media text. Hermeneutical analysis suggests media text comprehension through
comparison with historical, cultural tradition and reality; penetration of its logic; through
comparison of media images in historical and cultural context by combining analysis of the
structural, plot, ethical, ideological, iconographic / visual, media stereotypes and analysis of media
texts’ characters. As a result, I concluded that the era of the Cold War, which spawned mutual
ideological confrontation of the communist and capitalist countries, covering all categories of
media texts, including animation / cartoon. Cartoons were used as levers of power required reports
confrontational ideas in attractive folklore, fairy package in order to influence not only adults but
also on children's audience.
Filmography:
1. Mr. Wolf. USSR, 1949. Directed by V. Gromov. Writers: V. Dlugach, S. Romanov (author
of the play "Island of Peace" – E. Petrov). Operator M. Drujan. Composer Y. Levitin.
2. Ambulance. USSR, 1949. Directed by L. Bredis. Screenwriter A. Medvedkin. Operator
E. Petrova. Composer N. Peyko.
3. Alien voice. USSR, 1949. Directed by I. Ivanov-Vano. Writers: D. Tarasov, M. Kalinin.
Operator N. Voinov. Composer Y. Nikolsky.
References:
432 p.
3. Eco, U. (2005). The role of the reader. Research on the semiotics of the text.
St. Petersburg: Symposium, 502 p.
4. Fateev, A. (1999). The image of the enemy in Soviet propaganda, 1945-1954. Moscow:
Publishing House of the Russian Academy of Sciences.
6. Gorodinsky, V. (1950). Music of spiritual poverty. Moscow: Muzgiz, 139 p.
7. Konchalovsky, D.P. (1969). Ways of Russia. Paris: YMCA-PRESS, 1969. 261 p.
8. Resolution of the Central Committee of the Communist Party "On the magazines
"Zvezda" and "Leningrad". Moscow, 1946, August, 14.
9. Resolution of the Central Committee of the Communist Party "On the repertoire of
theaters and measures to improve it." Moscow, 1946, August 26.
10. Resolution of the Politburo of the Communist Party "On the opera "The Great
Friendship" of V. Muradeli." Moscow, 1948, February, 10.
11. The Action Plan to strengthen the anti-American propaganda in the near future.
Moscow, 1949. RCHIDNI. File 17-132-224, pp. 48-52.
12. Turovskaya, M.I. (1996). Movies of Cold War // Art of Cinema. 1996. № 9, pp. 98-106.
8
УДК 316
Советские анимационные медиатексты во времена холодной войны:

герменевтический анализ

Аннотация. Автор этой статьи использует герменевтический анализ – исследование

процесса интерпретации медиатекста, культурных и исторических факторов, влияющих на
вид на агентство / автора медиатекста. Этот анализ предусматривает анализ через сравнение
с исторической, культурной традицией и реальностью; проникновение в логику
медиатекста; анализ аудиовизуального ряда медиатекста в историческом и культурном
контексте, сочетая структурной, этический, идеологический, иконографический,
семиотический анализ. В результате, автор приходит к выводу, что эпоха холодной войны,
которая породила взаимную идеологическое противостояние коммунистических и
капиталистических стран, охватывало все категории медиатекстов, в том числе
анимационных / мультипликационных. Мультфильмы были использованы в качестве
рычагов власти для пропаганды конфронтационных идей в привлекательной фольклорной,
сказочной упаковке, для того, чтобы влиять не только взрослую, но и на детскую аудиторию.
Ключевые слова: медиаграмотность, мультфильмы, медиаобразование, анимация,
холодная война, идеология, медиатексты, холодная война.
9
Alexander Fedorov
Film Criticism and Russian Screen *
Film-Criticism and Cinema-Press in Russia
The history of Russian cinema-critics will be written some day, including the main
stages, currents and directions, «the revolution's romanticism» of the twenties, «the ideological
conservatism» of thirties and forties, «the thaw» of the fifties and sixties, «the stagnation» of
seventies, the problems the capital and provincial cinema-critics, etc.
My intentions here are more modest - to chronicle the situation in the nineties, when the
former leaders of the profession (Rostislav Urenev, Georgy Kapralov, Alexander Karaganov)
were removed for various reasons, or became TV-journalists (Boris Berman, Sergey Sholokhov
and Petr Shepotinik). Others (Victor Demin, Georgy Bogemsky, Vladimir Baskakov, Valery
Turovskoy), left us for a better world...
«Reading Hall» (editor-in-chief of Alexander Troshin) - vastly simplifies the access to
the statistics of the articles published by Russian cinema-critics. From the Russian «old guard»
of cinema-critics, only a few preserved their positions: Lev Anninsky, Jury Bogomolov, Myron
Chernenko, Kirill Razlogov and Alexander Braginsky, each of them publishing an average of ten
articles a year. The leading Russian cinema-columnists (Jury Gladiltsikov, Leonid Pavluchik,
Victor Matisen and others) publish 30-40 articles per annum. The «critics-stars» of the
«Perestroika» Alexei Erohin, Alexander Timofeevsky, Viacheslav Shmyrov and Sergey
Lavrentiev have less articles to their credit, despite the fact that given their nontrivial method of
criticism, each of them could, probably, be at the head of his own cinema magazine.
The new names on the firmament of Russian cinema-critics include Statislav F.
Rostotsky, Elena Telingator, Dmitry Savosin, Georgy Samsonov. Their articles are more
frequent than ever in the Russian press. However, only Dmitry Savosin tends to continue the
glorious tradition of «francophone» Alexander Braginsky. A big group of young critics works
now in the new magazine «Premiere» - the analog of French-American «Premiere» for young
readers.
But the only true leaders of cinema criticism in the nineties are Andrei Plakhov and
Sergey Kudriavtsev. They publish annually about 100 articles, reviews, portraits of actors and
directors. Sergey Kudriavtsev also published 3 volumes of video-cinemacatalogue-encyclopedias
and the special books «All is Cinema» & «Our Cinema»...
Since the mid-eighties, Andrei Plakhov has become the most active participant in
international cinema-festivals. He did not miss, probably, any important cinema events during
that period. His reports are analytical, ironical and professional. Sergey Kudriavtsev, as a rule,
sees the films in Moscow, but his efficiency is astounding. He writes thousands of voluminous
reviews and portraits, including detailed lists of all prizewinners, be it the Oscars, Cesars, Palmes
d'Or, Golden Lions, etc. Many other Russian journalists, less known, lacking the necessary
preparation, with modest baggage of knowledge, abilities and talent, systematically write about
cinema and travel to festivals. But Kudriavtsev does not enjoy this privilege...
The articles of Sergey Kudriavtsev and Andrei Plakhov stand out due to their high degree
of professionalism (the lucky absence «scientific» style) and the love for Cinema Art.
Certainly, in the age of computers and satellite, television tends to be more prestigious
then cinema. The audience for TV-critics is now enormous. And many critics find it much easier
to speak or to interview than to write the articles. Which makes «non-television» people such as
Sergey Kudriavtsev and Andrei Plakhov, look like old-fashioned traditionalists. But since when
are all critics supposed to be avanguardists!
Else 15 years ago the situation in Russian cinema-press thread seems stable: for mass-
audience was released magazine «Soviet Ecran» with million by circulations and advertising
review «Satellite of Cinema-Viewer». For elite audience - fat magazine «Cinema Art», for
1
cinema-distributors - monthly magazines «Soviet Film», «Projectionist» and «New Films», for
amateurs of the dramaturgy - magazine «Screenplays». Materials about movies regularly
emerged on the leaves ordinary press is and all...Compared with dozens French or American
periodical cinema-press this is was, certainly, drop in sea. That is why Gorbachov's liberalization
immediately led to appearance the new cinema-magazines. With the emergence of Petersburg's
«Séance», with European style and the intellectual reflection of Russian cinema-critics of the
young generation, Moscow lost its old monopoly in cinema-press. But in the early '90s Moscow's
critic Vladimir Borev made the publishing home «Video-Ace Magazine's bouquet: «Video-Ace»,
«Video-Ace Premier», «Video-Ace Express», «Video-Ace Sunrise», «Video-Ace Favorite»,
«Video-Ace Satellite», «Video-Ace Crown», «Video-Ace Dandy», etc.
Truth, the first outputs of this magazines had very modest polygraphy, but soon financial
backing of several Moscow's banks and working agreement with one of top French publishers
carried out «Video-Ace» on entirely European level color photo-design and scope about 200
leaves of big format. In that or another key magazines of «Video-Ace» from the very beginning
were oriented generally on Hollywood cinema, the portraits of top directors, interview, hit-
parades, reportages from the largest festivals, information about video-techniques, video-pirates
and legal video-firms.
Almost simultaneously with «Video-Ace» other cinema-press appeared in Moscow:
«Video-Digest» (Editor Vsevolod Vilchek), weekly newspaper «Ecran and Scene», epatage
newspaper «Cinema Home», magazine «Cinema-Eye» (about cinema-business) based by the
group of the authors of the «youths of outputs» in «Soviet Ecran», professional and academic
«Cinema-critics' Memos» (Editor Alexander Troshin from Scientific Institute of Cinema,
Moscow) and modest little magazine «Opinions» about new Russian films. The boom of the
periodical press of end '80s - early '90s also concern cinema-press. For account of the several
sensational publications increased the circulation of «Cinema Art». Magazine «Ecran» losing at
new redactor Victor Demin (1936-1993) its prior adjective «Soviet», as before retained
auditorium of readers. How mushrooms after rain, unfortunately, with the same duration of
existence, steel to emerge another issues of cinema-press («Cinema-Video Review», «Film and
Video Reporter» and so on.): let with pore by bad quality seals, but with great titles.
But everything was changed after the beginning of Eltsin's reforms. Existing state budget
«Opinions» closed. Due to the same financial causes not get till ninth number, was gone in
history «Video-Digest». Was concealed with banking money, the magazine's bouquet of «Video-
Ace» (200 pages) fading directly on eyes. With larger temporary intervals steel to come out
«Ecran» (despite the heroic attempts of new editor Boris Pinsky) and «Cinema-Eye». Obviously
not from good life were poured out under one binder «New Films» and «Projectionist». Last NN
of «Video-Ace» & «Ecran» was published in summer of 1998. It is very difficult to publish
something without of money...
Only «Cinema Art» (though even greatly losing in circulation: from 50,000 to 5,000) was
successful publishes (with the grant's help). Thread seem, situation existing in Russian cinema
press, logically reflected common painting in domestic cinema (blunt abbreviation film-
production, economic difficulties, etc.).
And, contrary to all forecasts, in end of '90s Alexander Semenov founded the new
«Video-magazine» (for distributors of videos) and old editor of «Video-Ace Express» Georgy
Samsonov founded magazine «Film». New Russian cinema-paper for professionals were borne
at the end of 1998: «SK-News» (The News of Union of Russian Filmmakers»). Also gave to
start to right away several new magazines about movies and video. In may 1997 appeared of
Russian edition «Premiere», a la French-American samples: qualitative paper, excellent colors,
the absence of pirates' photos... To the editorial office honor must badge, what she was not was
limited by the translations of the clauses of its foreign partners: the better half of 100-pages
scope occupied material about Russian cinema, video, sound and computer. Another new
magazine (60 pages) is «Cinema-Park» at the same colors and Hollywood orientation.
Incidentally, unlike Western «Premiere», «Cinema-Park» has more Russian. However on
2
today's Russian market they do not only compose serious competition, but also residing as to
essence on one genre-thematically floor of bulks each other for right of to be the most popular
Russian cinema-press. What it: rejuvenation of Russian cinema-press, or artificial reanimation
of detrimental business? Shall-see...
Alexander Fedorov
Alexander Fedorov
The Mystery of Russian Cinema
Russian cinema today is, like Russia itself chaotic, unpredictable and full of contrasts. No
one can tell if the country will become an equal among equals on the world's professional stages
by the beginning of the 21st century, casting off its poor role as a supplicant to Western artistic
leaders.
Anyone who knows even a little history is aware that Russia was virtually outside
European civilization for 75 years of XX century. The Communist regime firmly controlled all
spheres of life for a sixth of the planet's citizens. In spite of totalitarian pressure, however,
Russian culture managed to survive. The best books of Mikhail Bulgakov and Anna Ahmatova,
the symphonies of Dmitry Shostakovich and Alexander Prokofiev, the films of Andrei
Tarkovsky and Vassily Shukshin were created in the years of the most rigid censorship.
Despite bans, prisons and gulags, the artists leaned to speak to their readers and
spectators in some sort of «language of initiates». Music, without clearly defined plot, made it
much easier to do this. Writers, directors and actors were forced to talk about many things in
hints and symbols, taking advantage of legends, fairy tales and parables.
Russian authorities of the 60-s through the 80-s officially supported the publication and
distribution of classical literature - the works of Lev Tolstoy, Alexander Pushkin, Nikolai
Gogol, Ivan Turgenev, Anton Chekhov, etc. The best film directors knew this, and were aware of
weakened censorial control applied, at times, to screen adaptations. Consequently, the period
saw The Nest of Noble Family(1968) based on Turgenev novel and Uncle Vanya(1971) based on
Chekhov's play, directed by Andrei Konchalovsky.
Nikita Mikhalkov, making films based on Chekhov (Unfinished Piece for Mechanical Piano,
1976) and Ivan Goncharov (Several Days in the Life of Oblomov, 1980), succeeded in telling
more about the situation in Russia - and the national character - than the majority of his
colleagues whose pictures dealt with the country's modern life. Oblomov embodies the
paradoxes of mysterious Russian soul: intelligence, talent and an innate sense of beauty go
poignantly hand in hand with passivity, laziness, sleepy inaction and abstract dreaming...
The Russian cinematic fairy tale also has old traditions, founded by Alexander Row (The
Frosty Fire, Water and Cooper Trumpets, Morozko, etc.) and Alexander Ptushko (The Stone
except a few were made for a children's audience, and the action had to take place in ancient
times, in a faraway kingdom. The first rule dictated an understandable style for the fairy tale,
with vivid, clear pictures and vocabulary, and villains looking not very fearful but on the
contrary, usually, funny and harmless. The second rule was very seldom infringed, because
magicians, witches, demons and other fairy characters - according to «highly placed» thought -
could be perceived as an embodiment of the authors' mysticism intruding on a modern
background. In these cases, when magic and witchery were admitted into our days (as in The
Snowy Fairy Tale by E.Shengelaya and A.Saharov), unintended associations and parallels
appeared.
In the word, the production of films similar to The Omen by Richard Donner and The
3
Shining by Stanley Kubrick for the Russian screen couldn't be even imagined until 80-s. Now the
Remarkable Russian actors - Oleg Dal (1941-1981), Vladimir Vissotsky (1938-1980),
Anatoly Solonitsin (1934-1982), Vladislaw Dvorzecki (1937-1978), Nikolai Grinko (1920-
1989), Alexander Kaidanovsky (1946-1995) - very often played heroes who stood beyond the
usual circle of life on the screen of the 60-s and 70-s. The Fairy Ivans, fools and intelligent
outsiders of Dal. The hot-tempered, contentious, furious romantics of Vissotsky. The inspired,
always doubtful or cynical, devastated heroes of Solonitsin (Andrei Tarkovsky's favorite actor)...
These were in opposition to the artificial characters distilled in the retort of Socialist Realism.
Censorship was ruthless to the filmmakers. Important scenes, phrases and frames were
cut out of many movies. Yet Tarkovsky's Andrei Rublev (1966), despite all the alterations,
extolled Russian culture and closely connected with the Orthodox faith, while Elem Klimov's
The Parting (1981) remained an angry accusation of the political system of the time, aspiring to
destroy this same culture and religion.
culture became a peculiar national religion; as the only source of spirituality, it allowed people
who could not stand slavery to maintain a dream of Beauty during the hardest years.
Indisputably, politics had a highly negative influence on the development of Russian
culture and education, but the classical legacy of art helped people to survive. Every new truthful
book or film of the masters was perceived throughout the country as a desirable breath of cool
wind. I remember how the books of Alexander Solzhenitsyn were handed around, how the films
of Marlen Hutsiev or Gregory Chuhrai, in the '60s, were discussed till voices became hoarse.
And what events for Russian viewers in the '70s were screenings of masterpieces by Federico
Fellini (Amarcord, Orchestra Rehearsal)! Another paradox of Russian life is that all people
hoped for and aspired to the «light future», yet their ranks included dissenters who were
Slavophiles, craving a return to the Russia of 1913, and dissenters of Western orientation who
wanted a rapprochement with America, while the majority of the so-called «common people»
faithfully waited for a near-Socialist paradise of well-being and, in the name of this, were ready
to tolerate «temporary» hardships. Today a lot of Russian politicians try to find some «middle
way» between capitalism and socialism where, to trust the premises of fashionable leaders,
harmony will reign. In the political, economical currents some Russian filmmakers thoroughly
lost their bearings, becoming victims of the whirlpools, submerged stones and shallows. Having
got rid of censorship and having been given «carte blanche» in freedom of thought, they began to
throw onto the screen what they apparently believed were commercial and brave statements, but
which in fact were monotonous, non-competitive films. The freedom didn't evoke the expected
abundance of masterpieces, because bitter truth alone isn't enough for the creation of a work of
art. Talent is also needed, and it is everywhere in deficit.
More and more Russian cineastes, finding it harder and harder to work in the Motherland
in a condition of permanent economic crisis, are gathering under Western’s roofs. Almost all
Russian masters (Nikita Mikhalkov, Pavel Lungin, Ivan Dykhovichny, Valery Todorovsky, Gleb
Panfilov, Andrei Konchalovsky, Alexei German and others), even if they make films in China or
in Moscow, nevertheless do it with the help of U.S. or French money, on Western film stock,
with the Western sound system. Western producers willingly stake these talented directors who
capture prizes at prestigious festivals. For nearly a year the preeminent actor of Russian cinema -
Oleg Yankovsky (Nostalgia by Andrei Tarkovsky)- appeared on stage in a Paris theater. It is
rather logical: Russian filmmakers hope that West will become a gate to the world screen for
them; at home indigenous movies are being forced out by American production everywhere.
Only the most entertaining Russian films manage to survive the competition in such conditions,
but they, as usual, copy U.S. pictures and don't hold any special interest as art. Undoubtedly,
such work in the West (by Andrei Konchalovsky and Nikita Mikhalkov, for example) requires a
4
certain attention to the producers' wishes and an orientation toward middle-of-the-road European
and American viewer's tastes. Well, don't judge and you will not be judged...
The words of Russian great writer Gogol about the «Bird-troika» - Russia - therefore
turned out to be really prophetic: «Russia, where are you rushing to? Give the answer. No
answer».
Alexander Fedorov
Phenomenon of Russian Cinema-Hits
Modern screen art over its success to the use of folklore, myth, synthesis of the natural
and supernatural, and a consistent orientation toward the most popular plot schemes. Their
metaphorical appeal is not to the rational but to the emotional. through identification with the
magic power of heroes and standardization of ideas, situations, characters and so on In
compensation for dreams not realized in life, there are illusions - happy endings. In movies, TV
shows, and music videos' rhythmic organization, viewers' feelings are influenced as much by the
American critic Richard Corliss notes that for the creators of many Hollywood movies
plot is a thing of past, and these movies are more thrilling than satisfying. Their main impact on
most of the youthful public lies in the expect special effects making spectators gasp in surprise or
freeze with fright. this «dynamic cinema», according to Corliss, put higher demands on viewers,
because we have to follow every frame of a shot waiting for the trick. These features of mass
embodiments of the above-mentioned «phenomenon of mass success» tendencies.
The action in these films moves form one short episode to another (in order not to be
boring to viewers) with sensational informativeness: event take place at various exotic locations
in a cruel world of pirates drug dealers, Mafia men, racketeers and prostitutes. Psychological
pressure is active - throughout the stories the idea that sly enemies (inner and external) are
scheming is repeated over and over. Now something mean is planned, now somebody is robbed;
now positive heroes are attacked...
The main hero of these movies is an almost magical, fairy-tale character. Cute, strong
and smart, he comes out of al supernatural situations safe and sound (an excellent motif for
identification and compensation). Many episodes touch human instincts and emotions (such as
fear). There's even continuity, as each story supposes an endless number of sequels. In spite of
an absence of technical shine and the presence of numerous mistakes of taste or sense, the
common components of these motives are rather professionally presented: fights, chases,
shootings, pretty women, alarming music, strong feelings, a minimum of dialogue, a maximum
of movement, and other attributes of action films. Other favorites of Russian public are made
with similar attitudes and qualities...
pluralistic without dull teaching and officiousness. Only lately has Russian TV started
developing aesthetics for its entertainment packages, rejecting the different demands of the
public. There are some intellectual and game shows - even some mass-culture programming -
made on professional level. But the border between artistic and inartistic is often erased in a
tendency toward documentary, one-day value, «open» formats that reproduce something in its
process of becoming an event. This peculiarity of mass communication is an obstacle in
determining the aesthetic distance. For examples, platitudinous music videos are show all the
time on Russian TV; if a viewer didn't have taste preferences; this could penetrate deep enough
into his mind to unconsciously determine them...
Alexander Fedorov
5
The Gloom of Russian Fantastic Movie-Land
One might think, after the gloomy films of Constantine Lopushansky (Russian Symphony,
Letters from a Dead Man) and other supporters of the genre usually called futuristic fantasy with
element of horror, that the fashion would have faded. Russian cinema and video viewers prefer
the technically perfect American scare movies to our boring and indistinct mix. In contrast with
the old Romantic stories about men-fish and astronauts, however, the heroes of many Russian
films of '90s continue their agonizing, hard traveling across «The Zone», and if they leave the
surface of the Earth, they do so only to hide in another planet's gloomy caves or dungeons.
Often the action of these pictures takes place under some dictatorship. On the land and in the air
the «services of liquidation» move, armed with lethal weapons. For photography dirty and
deserted streets are chosen, with decayed houses, the walls of which are covered with mold as
turbid water slowly drops from the ceiling. Hysterical characters with matted hair and eternal
bags under eyes rush about the ruined labyrinths and sandy ridges. They may keep silent for a
long time, staring into cracked mirrors or, contrariwise, burst out in endless superintellectual
monologues. Here dark old oaken doors creak vilely and swampy puddles stick underfoot (a
variant: the unsteady sand is creaking). The beautiful and mysterious women from time to time
throw off their covers, and their naked bodies shine in the semi-darkness...
Central scenes of such films are episodes of contact with the strange and forbidden Zone
where, in imitation of Andrei Tarkovsky's works (Solaris, Stalker), a lot of extraordinary things
happen to the heroes. There is uncertainty at every step: malicious mutants, werewolves, dog-
cannibals, maniacs, and so on.
The motives «inspiring» authors of this «Russian fantastic movie-land» are
understandable. They want to create something epochal on the theme of humankind's
responsibility for its actions on the planet; to condemn the principle of «the end justifies the
means»; to think about the problems of ecology and nature, psychology and intellect. As a rule,
however, philosophical concepts are hardly visible through the steam of cinema clichés, rented
for the occasion.
The authors of such films often claim famous literary origins. But their modest «based
on» postscript only affords an opportunity to make a middling movie out of any original story or
novel once it is provided with meaningful pauses. These, deprived of a psychological basis, serve
only to lengthen the picture.
It's hard for even talented actors to play in these films, because their heroes are submitted
to the firm laws of the marionette. It's easier for less-gifted actors but that, obviously, doesn't add
artistic pluses. Perhaps only cinematographers and designers feel themselves free there, hoping
to surprise spectators with defined compositions, whimsical plays of light and color.
Unfortunately, poor budget are quite clearly evident. The technical backwardness of Russian
cinema is obvious in the productions' primitive shooting; their horrors don't frighten. Fantasy
today can't be made with ancient means: the gap in effects, tricks and technology is too great
between Russian «fantastic movie-land» and any of the works of Robert Zemeckis, James
Cameron or John Carpenter.
One way out for Russian fiction is as old as cinema world - studying the films of
Spielberg and Lucas - but the disorder of our economics does not evoke optimism...
Alexander Fedorov
6
Alexander Fedorov
From Boarding School to Nuthouse

(Domestic and Other Violence on the Mirror of Russian Screen)
Recently I found a new hobby: collecting stereotypes of Russian cinema plots. For
examples, the theme: "Domestic & Non-Domestic Violence on the Mirror of Russian Screen".
1. Public schools, boarding schools, children's shelters, educational-training
establishments.
Action of films in this category always alternates between bathroom and punishment
room, between ruined shed and small, dark cell. Under the narrator's "My address is neither a
house nor a street..." there is violence, drug addiction and cruelty - when a teacher, knowing the
customs of his group, prefers not to notice fresh blood on the dresser mirror in a child's bedroom,
or when the strong mock with pleasure the weak. Somebody stark naked is sitting on the toilet,
somebody in the same state of dishabille is running down and up stairs...
Russian moviegoers once watched sentimental, touching stories about careful, kind tutors
trying to create an illusion of homey coziness for poor orphans. That was ages ago. Now,
whatever the film, it's a severe and ruthless accusation, saying we can do nothing - over the last
80 years the whole country turned into an unfriendly state institution whose inhabitants, from
early childhood, are doomed to endless humiliation, indignity, discomfort and stress, poverty and
constraint. In the boarding school, as in a drop of water, all the evils and vices of life are
reflected, where a 15-year-old boy knifes to death a strong, drunken man. This is not only
revenge for the raped girl of the same age, it is furious and irrational retaliation for a crippled
childhood, for a friend who became the victim of drugs, for the false slogans of adults, for their
indifference, for...
The teachers in Category N 1 are only administrative appendages of the formal
mechanism of management. Hypocritically, they can suddenly cry with the power of a fire-
engine siren then, in a moment, smile as if nothing had happened. By the way, this is a fact noted
by authors of the pictures' source books: workers in Russian boarding schools, with the help of a
system of instruction in "standard educational training", acquired the strange – for normal people
- ability to drive themselves almost to hysterics (outwardly) with absolute coldness and
indifference in their hearts. On screen, portraits of these tutors are well matched by
characterizations of the destitute boys' and girls' parents. They don't mind letting fall a tear - over
glasses of vodka - to lament a son or daughter given away to the boarding school. Audiences pity
the children, abandoned by this scum to live at this scum to live at the expense of the weak
Russian state, as they pity some mad father, drunk, wandering at night under the windows of a
boarding school in order to see his child.
2. Sanitariums, hospitals and other medical establishments
"All the world's a nuthouse, and all its people are mad". Rephrasing Shakespeare is
probably the best way to express the main idea of film in this category.
For example, all characters - wives and children, neighbors and passersby - cooped up in
their communal flat wish the main hero to kill a bureaucrat who for years hasn't maintained
normal housing It is for this mission the hero is brought from a mental hospital: a psycho is a
psycho, he can't answer for his acts. Once freed, however, the hero finds himself still in a world
of madmen: there is the former cavalryman with naked sword, the bald athlete who is glutton and
drunkard, some mountaineers, some people from an underground organization singing a song
about "the black raven", etc.
Having got into the office of the hateful chief at last, our hero is again part of a crazy-
show, this one scripted by the sly bureaucrat. There are machine-gun firings and explosions of
grenades, poisoned coffee and the staff's pretended pity for the freezing children. The film ends
with the escape of the real psychos who capture the main municipal building while troops and
tanks are called against them, and demagogic speeches are made. In a word, everyone wears
7
fashionable political dressing; with their exposes and social accusations, cinema mediocrities -
who were quietly making nonsense films before this time - now are trying to dash forward as
leaders of the "fighters" and "truthful people". Their operative principle is: I'll roar, if nobody
will hurt me.
The setting for these films from my second category are, as a rule, unpleasant interiors...
dirty walls painted with cheerless colors, semi-submerged basements, filthy hospital cots and
soon. Numerous conversations are staged, but their dialogue is empty and unintelligible for
viewers with more or less stable nervous systems. Indisputably, the nuthouse as a model for the
totalitarian state, were every display of normal mentality and human individuality is suppressed,
is good material for the creation of gloomy parables, pathological visions, shocking naturalistic
images and surrealistic symbols. If only these films had less of the epigone's features.
3. Prison colonies and other reformatories
A typical scheme: some sort of remake of action pictures of the '60s-'70s about war.
Added will be homosexual passion and, certainly, scenes of cruelty and violence with dozens of
accusatory speeches. But today's on-screen "bad guys"(fascists) and "good guys"(heroically
struggling prisoners preparing a protest action or an escape) are caricatures. In short, after
watching several of these films, you could easily gain the impression that all of them make up
one gloomy and monotonous serial about the Russian State House. It can be located anywhere,
the main point is the same. But the stream still flows, as Russian screenwriters and directors
continue to gladden our hearts with cinema theses about what is wrong. All this makes me sick.
Yet in spite of it... we live! I wish, though, that my collection of Russian State Institutional Films
didn't keep replenishing itself.
Alexander Fedorov
America, America…
Consider these titles – I Want to go to America, We Are Going to America, The American
Boy, Our American Borya, The American Grandpa, The American Daughter, The Groom from
Miami…
These are the titles of a few of the many Russian films of the 1990s that have the
‘American Dream’ as their theme. Basically, these are entertainment films that are not made for
festival awards or critical acclaim, but deal with the dream of many Russians to visit the U.S.
one day.
In Russia now, as in the West, directors and producers must find money to produce a
movie. Having announced their intention to make a movie that takes place in New York, Miami,
or Hawaii, Russian filmmakers of this ‘American Series’ assume that they will more easily find a
backer. For one thing, a backer is more likely to think that an American theme will bring
theatrical success. Also, filmmakers themselves want to visit the world across the ocean.
Besides, shooting on location in the U.S. encourages the participation of popular Russian actors,
who like to have a good time for free.
The basic interests of these Moscow film crews, then, are from art and close to partying
and shopping. Russian actors waste little time in America. Aside from making the movie, they
get a tan, go shopping, and put on some shows for Russian immigrants living in Brighton Beach
or in other parts of New York and U.S. It’s kind of funny that the plots of some of these
‘American Series’ Russian films are about the adventures of Moscow actors, artists, singers, et
al., who come to the U.S. to make money by any means.
Other plots are popular as well: an ordinary Russian guy gets an inheritance; or a Russian
guy gets an inheritance; or a Russian returns from America and learns that a gang has killed his
best friend, and now he must seek revenge. But probably the most popular stories are about
prospective grooms (less frequently, brides, grandfathers, and grandmothers) who come from the
U.S. to Russia searching for a loving and faithful spouse. This is certainly understandable – it’s
8
much cheaper to make such movies because the action takes place principally in Moscow.
Comedies about American grooms (as a rule, of Russian origin) come in two basic varieties. In
one version (e.g. Our American Borya), a shy young man comes to Moscow from the U.S. to
visit his relatives. His hosts begin searching for a bride at once. Almost immediately, young
women are besieging ‘the man of their dream’ and he tries to get rid of them. In another version
(e.g. The Groom from Miami), a self-confident young man comes to Moscow to visit relatives.
He begins a search for a young woman himself, and ends up finding the woman of his dreams.
Name actors are what filmmakers bank their money on. And sometimes this works. In
The Groom from Miami , L.Udovichenko, with her uniquely naughty, diva-like manner, plays a
sly woman who attract men with her classy appearance, then robs them of everything. There is a
lot of charm and irony in her performance. On the whole, however, such comedies resemble
amateur drama-club productions in which the quickly-written then acted script seems like a
collection of pointless, often vulgar episodes. Sometimes not only professional actors performs
in these films, but also their wives, children, and other relatives. It’s as if the filmmakers have
decided that, since the relatives have traveled to America, why shouldn’t they appear in the
movie, too?
Having had a lot of fun on location, filmmakers of this ‘America Series’ often like to
show off their patriotism. Their characters reject the American dream in the film’s finale, and
choose to stay in unlucky and troubled Russia. But by the mid-1990s, when this kind of plot
became a cheap cliché, Russian directors started to change the minus sign to plus more
frequently. The makers of The Groom from Miami, for example, frankly suggest to Russian
audience that they leave for U.S. Forever. Not a bad suggestion, perhaps. But if they were to
follow it, who would be left in Russia?
Alexander Fedorov
Videopirates from Russia
Undoubtedly, Russia today takes one of first place in the world's number of videopirates.
The Kremlin has signed the Bern international authors' rights convention. But Russian authorities
doesn't control the pirates' audiovisual productions. Countless booths sell thousands CD, CD-
ROM and videocassettes with Western films - mainly the newest which have just appeared in
America, France or Italy. Of course, nearly 80% of this audiovisual production are American CD
and action films with Stallone, Van Damme, Schwarzenegger and others Hollywood stars. The
adroit shopmen, as a rule, have neither licences to the copyrights nor the right to sell or rent
foreign CD or films, but the trade is very successful.
The purchase price of one videocassette or CD is nearly $2-4 dollars in the black market.
The same cassette can be rented in hundreds of Russian cities and towns for half a dollar a day.
One Russian videopirate revealed to me the secret of his "firm's" operational efficiency.
Once a month - or more often - Moscow agents leave for America to buy as many new DVD,
laserdiscs as possible in the biggest video shops of New York, L.A. and others cities.
(Videocassettes are less desirable because of their larger size, which makes it difficult to
transport them abroad). Having gotten the batch, the agents return to Moscow where in several
underground studios the American laserdiscs are copied onto videocassettes on a mass scale. In
the course of this, the U.S. NTSC system is transformed into Russia's adopted system - PAL-
MESECAM/VHS. The cassettes are translated into Russian by a staff of experts in English, a lot
of whom have been occupied with this profitable business for 10-20 years.
Sometimes it happened that Russian videopirates can't buy a laserdisc of the latest screen
hit quickly. Then the executive agent arms himself with a camcorder, goes to an American movie
theater where, for example, Spielberg's new production is showing, and photographs the film
straight form the screen. The quality of such a recording is, of course, much worse than that of a
laserdisc, but the salable result can be brought to the Russian video market with maximum speed.
9
Audiovisual-pirates across the country know well in Moscow "offices" the converted
cassettes or CD can be bought. Two or three times a month they come to Moscow, pick up the
next lot of transfers and then copy them for consumers in their cities and villages. Piracy is not
only the selling or renting of stolen videos, CDs or CD-ROMs, however. There is wide broadcast
of Western cinema novelties by little private TV channels. (Even small Russian towns have two
or three local private TV channels.) Each shows from two to six pirated videos a day. Besides,
the cable owners get monthly income from subscribers, and the private-TV owners meet
expenses by inserting commercials during the piratical video's broadcasts.
The broad development of audiovisual-piracy in Russia has, to my mind, one
characteristic peculiarity. Being in an extremely difficult financial situation, many Russian
viewers find in an everyday exposure to pirated films the only opportunity to feel themselves in
another world even for a few hours, to escape from the surrounding misfortunes, hardships, etc.
Watching the screen adventures of Harrison Ford or Bruce Willis characters who, in
peaceful well-being, enjoy ownership of cozy two-storied American cottages while they busy
themselves with clarification of love affairs, Russians can admire the power of foreign
technology in fantastic special-effects super-shows and, if only in dreams, find a place as heroes
of an inaccessible life.
Some 20 years ago Russian authorities struggled severely not only with the audiovisual-
pirates, but even with common spectators - anyone who had bought abroad an erotic cassettes or
one containing Rambo's latest adventures. People could be imprisoned for illegally watching the
Godfather or Caligula. Today audiovisual censorship in Russia is practically unknown. Up to
1987, the audiovisual stream in Russia was almost 100% controlled by strict regime. At the end
of '80s the system, in place for 70 years had begun to disintegrate; in the early '90s it finally
collapsed. Russian audiovisual pirates now reign boundlessly and completely, cutting into profits
of the ordinary cinemas whose attendance is catastrophically down. Spectators filled only 2-7%
of the seats in the average movie theater (exceptions: several modern Dolby Digital theaters in
Moscow), even there was an American novelty on the screen. Russian viewers prefer the screen
of their home TVs. Once Russia was called the Empire of Evil. I can only hope it will newer be
the Empire of Audiovisual-Pirates...
Alexander Fedorov
Something About Russian Screen
The Outsiders: Two films by Sergei Bodrov
S.Bodrov, well reputed as a commercial screenwriter in the ‘70s, in the ‘80s became the
real revelation among new directors. His films – I Hate You (1984), The Sweet Sap of the Grass
(1985), Unprofessionals (1985), SIR: Freedom Is Paradise (1989) – received prizes in many
Russian and foreign festivals. They told viewers about the problems of a generation of teenagers
with unusual – for those times – frankness and artistic power. Bodrov showed that he could work
with unprofessional actors; the reality of his films was enhanced by improvisation on the set, and
by the subtly elaborated psychology of the leading characters.
Unfortunately, Bodrov’s Cardsharper (1990), a dashing story about professional card
players, somewhat surprised his admirers with standard situations and diminished directorial
effort. His I wanted to See the Angels, however, refutes the pessimists who hurried to relegate
him to a level of minor importance.
I wanted to See the Angels can be linked to a fashionable stream of “unmasking” films
with naturalistic themes. There are rockers on roaring bikes, Mafia gunmen, dirty basements,
scenes of morgues and police, and the cold, comfortless nighttime Moscow’s streets. Moscow
itself is shown from its black side. You do not see here the bright lights of New Arbat and
fashionable supermarkets, but rather the plain outskirts whose houses sullenly twinkle with the
10
weak-sighted windows of communal flats… nearly the film’s only scenery. There are also
familiar main characters: the novice hired killer and street girl. In short, a number of dull clichés
are present.
But it seems one can make a good film with such ordinary – for Russian cinema –
characters and settings. Of course, it depends on the director’s talent. Bodrov managed to imbue
this story of the bitter love of a Saratov boy (who comes to the capital to kill a Mafia debtor) and
a rocker’s girl (who dreams of writing a letter to Madonna) with the sincerity of real feelings.
The general sensation after the film is hopelessness. Young outsiders can’t “find
themselves” in a life that holds no prospects. Being romantics in their souls, they aren’t satisfied
to sit as clerks in commercial shops for many hours or sell bubble gum in the Metro stations. One
woman is attracted to the image of an “easy rider” flying on a bike along the freeway; another
dreams about warm American beaches and communications from the famous pop-star. But these
dreams stay unrealizable, as castles in the air; each of the characters has a better chance of going
to the heavens by way a lover of women’s caresses – a hospital attendant – will out with the
neatness of a professional, fill out the last medical report on the “client”.
This had no chance of becoming a Russian screen bestseller. As well as its heroes, the
film itself was condemned to be an outsider. There are too many dramas and sad stories in
Russian modern life to hope that a film telling about such joyless things in earnest and without
sentimentality could achieve mass success.
In the same year of the release of the forlorn I wanted to See the Angels, Sergei Bodrov
produced White King, Red Queen. The main character was played by French actor André
Dussolier who became known for roles in the films of his more famous compatriot Alain Resnais
.
White King… begins as a biting comedy of temperaments. A small Russian trade-union
delegation comes to a Swiss town for a conference and stays in a little hotel. This gives the
director cause to show the charms of poor Russians who once in a blue moon can fall greedily
upon the West. There are dinners with tinned fish in the room, the sale of vodka “for a song”,
wild joy upon the receipt of 20 or 30 dollars, an occasion for free refreshment, and so on. The
heroine is a mature woman with sings of former beauty who dully begins a flirtation with an ex-
TV commentator while their colleagues drink spirits from morning till evening. The situation of
Russians who find themselves shameful beggars in prosperous Switzerland may be a little
exaggerated; taking into account the almost comedic plot, however, it doesn’t seem a falsity.
Further on, the comedy turns smoothly into melodrama: an elegantly dressed man (Dussolier)
appears in the hotel; 20 years ago he was a famous Russian chess player who moved to the West,
and he has learned that his old love, by the whim of fate, is in Europe for several days… but,
alas, one can’t step in the same river twice, the previous love can’t be renewed, and the Red
Queen doesn’t find enough strength to stay with the White King.
This sad story with a gay beginning, although not claiming the psychological depths of
Bergman or Antonioni, is made with European mastery. Bodrov skillfully observes the laws of
the melodramatic genre with its heightening of emotions and expectant pauses, while accenting
the differences in mentality, habits and image of his characters so as to make the film
understandable and accessible to a European audience. Because of this some things at once
obvious to Russian viewers are explained more distinctly and straightforwardly than we might
expect, but this perspective takes into account the film’s distribution in the West.
Alexander Fedorov
11
Alexander Fedorov
Retro-styles
The System’s Typical Product
1934 was one of the most fateful years for our suffering Russia. The shooting of
Communist leader Kirov was the cause of a new wave of mass murders. Ex-cameraman and now
director D.Dolinin, in his eighth movie The Myth of Leonid, tries to catch the sense of that time,
to investigate the phenomenon of “the small man” Leonid Nikolaev – one of the screws in the
Party’s machine constructed by the Bolsheviks. Like I.Dyshovichny in Moscow Parade, Dolinin
doesn’t want to make everything happening on screen into documentary. Remaining within the
framework of realistic narration, the director tries to investigate the character of a hero,
interpreting him as the typical product of a totalitarian system. The ambitious, pitiful, odd, self-
loving Nikolaev doesn’t evoke compassion, though there is nothing to hate him for… there were
plenty of such people in those days. He was just the one to whom that lot was cast, and with his
help Stalin’s intelligence corps played its bloody game, using his extreme, odious
suspiciousness.
Had The Myth of Leonid come out about 15-20 year ago, its appearance would probably
have raised viewers’ interest and tempest in the Russian press. But, unfortunately, the movie is
late. Readers and moviegoers in Russia have already been exposed to a storm of information
about different aspects of the Soviet totalitarian regime. Their fed-up feelings can be overcome
only by a masterpiece. The Myth of Leonid doesn’t claim this title.
Lost in the Kremlin…
The Inner Circle directed by A.Konchalovsky developed a certain reputation in Russian
cinema press: one after another, critics said that its aim was to cater to Western viewers’
preferences by means of American marketing techniques.
There are reasons for such a conclusion: The main roles in the film are played by the
American Tom Hulce and the British bob Hoskins; the story of Ivan Sanshin, Stalin’s private
projectionist, is developed on the screen in a style close to the traditions of melodrama.
Konchalovsky, an expert in psychological drama (Uncle Vanya, Duet for One), turns up the
volume in The Inner Circle while deliberately declining to apply a European depth – a
penetration of thought – to his characters; that, of course, makes them understandable to an
audience not versed in the twists of Russian history through the Thirties and Forties.
Many Russian directors, probably inspired by A.German’s My Friend Ivan Lapshin,
would try to focus on the tragedy of the bitter understanding of truth by a man who, a cog in
Stalin’s totalitarian machine, became the obedient executor of another’s orders. But this Russian
directors of an American film accentuates the love story of Ivan and his wife who passed through
the dirty, lusting hands of the killer Beria. In another move, Konchalovsky demotes her
memories in favor of the usual plot constructions of standard transpacific cinema.
And, frankly speaking, I don’t see anything bad about this.
The internationalism (not of class, but common human values) of the cinematic language
in The Inner Circle is a necessary bridge between different mentalities and cultures.
Moreover, Konchalovsky managed to gather a wonderful acting team. Tom Hulce (the legendary
Amadeus in M.Forman’s film) plays Ivan in such a way that there is nothing for us but to wonder
how this star of Western screens captured Slav naiveté’, enthusiasm and childlike
defenselessness.
B.Hoskins, in the role of Beria, scores no less of an exact hit with the buttery look of this
funny fat man from whose eyes sometimes blows a cold, ominous wind. Maybe the role is
played slightly grotesquely, yet it is brightly convincing. Against this background, A.Zbruev
loses in the role of Stalin; he hasn’t got much kick or an actor’s original vision.
A whole constellation of Russian actors play minor characters in The Inner Circle, and in
spite of their short appearances on screen stay in memory even more than in their previous roles.
Brilliantly does I.Kuptchenko lead her episode as a teacher in orphanage for children of the
12
“people’s enemies”, revealing contradictory feelings of fatigue, fear, compassion, pain and
devastation.
A sense of the real nature of a Russian woman who doesn’t understand how it is possible
for a man to love Comrade Stalin more than a wife and a poor child exists in the performance of
the performance of the American actress L.Davidovich also.
In The Inner Circle Konchalovsky aspires to show that despite all hardships the people
felt themselves happy in the faraway Thirties, though their happiness was possible only while
they trusted leaders infinitely and dispensed with questions and doubts. As soon as they began to
ask questions, the whole of their prosperity was ruined, drawing them into the currents of
morally and physically crippled Fates.
Returning to Form
Frankly speaking, Piotr Todorovsky’s, previous film with the enticing title of Inter-Girl,
very much disappointed me. A subtle psychologist, director of the wonderful The Martial Love
Affair and imperfect but ingenious Along Main Street with the Brass Band, Todorovsky suddenly
was carried away by V.Kunin’s shallow story that showed – in an accessible, mass-language
style – how prostitutes could love. Of course, thanks to the director’s professionalism, the
straightforward script began to look rather profound and sometimes even psychologically
convincing, but on the whole it was not suited to Todorovsky’s personality.
Thank to God, in his Encore, More Encore Todorovsky has returned to his own style. He
himself wrote the script about the life of Russian military town in 1946, he wrote the touching
music, and he chose the same title as that of canvas by the famous Russian artist Fedotov.
I spent my childhood in one such town for Army personnel. And during the screening I
remembered the past with a sad nostalgia. The closed community: a reserved world where
everybody knows each other, where even a needle in a haystack could never hidden from the
curious eyes of the officers’ wives, but where nevertheless all kinds of extraordinary events take
place. Now the handsome major brings a whole bunch of frivolous beauties from the city in his
smart car; now several drunks fight; now the senior lieutenant, pistol in hand, chases his
unfaithful wife…
Gathering these stories together, and inviting Mel Brooks to direct, a very funny comedy
could be made. But Todorovsky, as is well known, isn’t Brooks. So in his film the funny
episodes (for example: a husband comes home after work to find his wife sleeping with his
chief) are mixed with a dramatic plot. The ominous signs of those times are in evidence – when
the authorities could send a boy, who was counting days till the end of his military service, to
prison simply for carelessness in writing several superfluous words to a civilian friend; when the
colonel, a wartime hero, had to submit to a miserable KGB captain; and so on.
One Russian critic declared in TV program that Encore… evokes brutal laughter among
audiences, that there is no love in the film, and primitive instincts triumph. From my point of
view, only a man who didn’t watch attentively could have such an opinion. True, there is no
refined, intellectual love here; the love scenes are loaded with humorous detail. You believe,
however, in the sincerity of the characters’ feelings. You believe that while the colonel, who was
in the whole war, loves his wife whom he met at the front, he can’t forget his pre-war wife too.
You believe that the colonel’s young wife had fascinated the charming lieutenant and then he
lost courage. You believe in the love of the unfaithful wife, who receives her husband’s
supervisors in her bed for the sake of his service career.
This film appeals because it does something the Russian cinema of late years has pretty
much forgotten is possible: Todorovsky tells about life through love… even if it sometimes
looks funny and is not what you’d call spiritual.
Those years
Summer 1957. Moscow. International festival of youth & students. The rhythms of
banned jazz. Smiling young faces…
V.Moskalenko rather carefully recreates the romantic atmosphere of those years, when
Russia was creeping slowly out of Stalinism’s ice age. The love story of a Moscow student and
13
his new girlfriend – French with Russian origin – seems natural against this background. The
authors of the film The Way to Paradise, however, don’t seem to want to please us with retro-
melodrama: the lovers are between two fires. On one hand, the KGB wants the Russian boy,
nephew of an academician-chemist, to be its informer. On the other, the girl has been sent by the
French side to learn the chemical secrets of her boyfriend’s uncle.
Obviously, it’s an unexpected change after a lyrical beginning. I would have liked the
film just to tell the love story… sentimental, a little bit sad, with its ‘50s teenage hits. But I’m
sure this spy’s version of the plot will find its admirers, especially since in this conflict the
authors are obviously on the side of love, not the interests of this or that intelligence or secret
service.
The Way to Paradise is made with a sense of style, the actors’ play is rather convincing.
Like S.Ursulyak’s Russian Ragtime, Moskalenko’s film doesn’t claim psychological depth and
analysis. It’s a moody sketch, invoked by nostalgia for the end of the ‘50s.
Melodramaland’ 66
The late Russian poet and screenwriter G.Shpalikov had a wise line: “Never come back to
the old places”. I won’t say that’s a strict rule, but director B.Frumin’s melodrama Viva, Castro!
Convinces from its first episodes that nostalgia for his youthful experiences in the ‘60s didn’t
help him create some special piece of art. The attraction of “the time of good hopes”, brightly
reflected in M.Hutsiev’s 1962 I’m 20 and G.Danelia I Am Walking in the Streets of Moscow
(both movies, by the way, made from G.Shpalikov scripts) in lost in Viva, Castro! The young
actors are dull and stiff, the love story is unemotional and weary against the background of a
1966 visit by Cuban leader Castro to Moscow. The spirit of those days is evoked only by the
soundtrack’s songs from archival tapes.
Some years ago B.Frumin could make much better melodramas. But having captured the
attention of audiences with The Diary of the Principal (1976) and Family Melodrama (1977), he
became a victim of s\censorship. His 1978 film Mistakes of Youth was banned; he emigrated to
the USA where he couldn’t manage to find success. After making Black and White in 1991 he
has attempted, with this film, to return to his Russian roots, not listening to Shpalikov’s advice.
Unfortunately.
Detective Tricks’83
Y.Moroz’s film The Black Square is based on the detective novel by F.Neznansky, The
Fair in Sokolniki, whose action takes place in 1983. For Russia that year was extraordinary, as
ex-KGB leader Andropov tried to fight the Mafia in the highest State spheres. The novel’s main
character, a young investigator, gradually understands that the trail of an apparently ordinary
murder leads to the Kremlin, where plans of world control involve seizing the planet’s main oil
resources.
This could have been filmed as a serious traditional detective story. Moroz chose what I
find a more successful approach – half parody, with an accent on the detective’s humor, and half
tricks. The cast, understanding the director’s aim very well, enjoyed acting, making fun of
commonplace details in past Russian life (like so-called “grocery requests” with were the
privilege of the authorities only, because of the lack of food in stores).
Not placing any special stylistic emphasis on 1983, Moroz nevertheless recreates the
atmosphere of that time pretty convincingly… a time when Russia fought not only with the
Mafia, but with its own ordinary people, too, if they happened to be outdoors during working
hours.
Watching these characters form a ‘90s point of view, the film’s authors certainly
understand how naïve and unrealistic dreams about victory over corruption were. That’s where
the bitter feeling radiating through the comedic action comes from. Famous Russian
abstractionist Kazemir Malevich’s canvas The Black Square becomes a symbol of unbeaten Evil,
whom the Good is doomed to forever fight.
Alexander Fedorov
14
Alexander Fedorov
Crime on the Russian Screen

Agatha Christie’s Arithmetic
Dmitry Svetosarov, who likes showy cinema, is not a very consistent director. Now he
flashes with European professionalism à la Claude Lelouch in The Speed (1983), now he sags
into dull naturalism with The Dogs (1990). In The Arithmetic of Murder Svetosarov decided to
stay with the traditional detective format. The crime in the film is investigated with all rules of
the genre: detailed questioning of witnesses and suspects, the appearance of some convincing
alibis and so on.
A Petersburg public flat, at firs sight very common, turns from episode to episode into a
mysterious tangle of criminal threads in Agatha Christie’s favorite method: any character could
have committed the crime. The film doesn’t limit itself, however, to the arithmetic of a detective
thriller. S.Bekhtirev plays the main role of armchair-bound invalid. Never destroying suspense
and other attributes of the genre, he creates a contradictory image of the man, aspiring to the…
But I shall not reveal mystery. There are many surprises, and the film, although far from a
Hitchcockian masterpiece, is psychologically convincing, never dull. And cinematographer
S.Astahov demonstrates great skill working in feebly lighted rooms.
Feeling Cheated
The Day Before, form the viewpoint of this writer who is very tired of unprofessional
movies about the Mafia, starts riskily. A group of actors, sitting in armchairs, speaks in wooden,
false voices about some machinations. In a minute, however, you understand that it’s a sharp
parody of Russian F-class action movies.
After this prefatory trick the film’s debuting directors, former actors O.Boretsky and
A.Negreba, take an abrupt turn into stylization. The story becomes one of nice, handsome young
men and women trying to preserve the ambience of 1970 “kitchen talks” in the ‘90s: sociable
jokes, romantic attractions, intelligent discussions. In a word, praise to friendship. In this main
part of the movie the attentive viewer will find a lot of cinema quotations from films of the ‘70s
by O.Ioseliani, K.Muratova, etc. It’s a playful stylization in many ways. Not for a minute does it
become the fruit of cold calculation, or lose its free, elegant spirit of improvisation.
Then the alarming signals of other words intrude on the movie’s intellectual lyricism: a
sex maniac attacks one of the heroines; the other charming woman, aiming to prevent a rape,
plucks out the eye of a street beggar. After such encroachments the final events of the film, with
all their unexpectedness, have a certain logic. Feeling cheated, as were we all in that time, the
intellectuals do not become nice heroes. Donning masks and taking up guns, they engage in
murder and robbery “to get to the West”. In this way the film reflects the old story of some of
Tbilisi’s youthful elite who tried to fly an airplane away from the hated USSR.
After this mutual directorial debut, Boretsky and Negreba decided to go their own ways,
though their duet, to my mind, turned out to be organic and united.
Thirst for a Thriller
Former actor A.Haritonov proves, in his directorial debut, that he wants and is able to
make thrillers. In Thirst for Passion Haritonov didn’t hide quotations from other films (for
example, Kubrick’s The Shining), he built them precisely into the action. The story, about a
phantom-twin chasing a young aristocratic lady, is taken from Valery Brusov’s prose and is told
according to the rules of classic thrillers in the spirit of Hitchcock: ominous pauses,
presentiments of terrible events, and a coldly erotic elegance… all giving the film a necessary
style.
Surely, Haritonov is not Kubrick. He isn’t even Brian De Palma. He does have a
command of his profession, though, and his actors are good. A.Vertinska is very effective in both
role, real and illusory, while I.Kostolevsky, as the police commissar, can compete with the
inspector in any American crime-detection TV series.
15
A Toy-Brick Game
Director and actor I.Okhlobystin likes to astonish the Russian public. I can’t remember
the last time some cinema personality as famous as he declared an attachment to drugs. But
Okhlobystin has made it several times (now he is very religious man). In his detective story The
Arbiter he also spites tradition, splintering stereotypes and playing with them at the same time, as
a child does with toy bricks. His characters – a freshman detective with his gray-haired colleague
– chase a serial killer. The standard plot becomes the basis for cinematic hints by the
director/leading man. Single shots and full episodes periodically quote or resemble the films of
Alan Paker (cameraman M.Mukasey doesn’t miss a chance to play with light rays penetrating
the blades of a gigantic ventilator), Hitchcock, Friedkin, Lynch and Scorsese.
These ironical quotations and hints help the director turn the film into some kind of
retrospective, proving that the style of French post-modernists Luc Besson (Subway) and Leos
Carax (Mauvais Sang, Boy Meets Girl) are close to the interests of modern young Russian
cineastes. Not accidentally, maybe, many members of The Arbiter’s team resemble (in their
creative style) famous parents in some way: actor Kirill Kosakov, composer Artem Artemiev,
etc.
The Arbiter counts on aficionados. It’s hard to surprise somebody in the West with this
kind of movie. American, French and British cinema, to my mind, has polished such style till it
shines. In Russian, I.Okhlobystin’s work is doomed to the TV heading “Not for Everybody”.
Devilish Speculation
N.Stambula’s film Operation Lucifer is made with clear intention: to add to gossip
about the mysterious murder of Russian pop star Igor Talkov. Stambula offers his own version of
the death of the singer, composer and poet: that neither jealous competitors, the Mafia nor
racketeers are guilty, but Develish power, the same evil creatures who – in Stambula’s plot –
want to kill an actor playing the role of Talkov in some movie by a gloomy director. There is a
subplot about a woman who buried her husband in a suit, one of whose pockets held a lucky
lottery ticket for a prestigious car (this story was printed in all Russian newspapers some time
ago). The action is interrupted by erotic scenes in a pool and out of it. In a word, it’s pure
speculation.
However, who knows? – if Stambula had the talent of Alan Parker, director of the 1987
mystical thriller Angel Heart, this might have been something artistic. But as it stands there is
nothing going on.
Alain Delon doesn’t Drink Eau de Cologne
And this drink isn’t favored by his screen heroes either, among which are hired killers (Le
Samourai by J.-P.Mellvile, Traitment de choc by R.Davis, etc.). Actor and director V.Shilovsky
decided to try on one of the established Delon’s roles. In Deadline Shilovsky plays a liquidation
professional making Mafia people uncomfortable. His next victim becomes respectable, and sets
out to destroy the superbosses. Shilovsky’s hero kills a “client”, then wants to be out of the
game, but…
All in all, the standard plot of Deadline doesn’t shine with specially dramatic passages.
It’s not actually bad, though, until Shilovsky tries to give the actions of his character a
psychological basis. As a child, he saw during the war how some died of hunger and others
enjoyed a glut of apples and peahens. That’s when he began to hate the masters of life.
Therefore, he is not an everyday hired gun, but a man with firm ideological principles – the
killer-avenger. This is another Russian attempt to complicate things, to make a murderer not a
murderer but some sort of victim of the social environment.
Pity, but there is none of Delon’s charm in Shilovsky’s hero. And he drinks, alas, eau de
Cologne instead of bourbon and Napoleon brandy…
Primitive Scripting
The plot of B.Grigoriev’s The Confession of the Mistress is simple: the Mafia kidnaps a
businessman, one of the so-called New Russians, and demands money from his mistress and
companion. A police detective tries to free the hostage with the woman’s help.
16
Most of the movie takes place in the heroine’s gorgeous apartment, where she and
detective are sitting beside the phone on which criminals call her from time to time. Under these
conditions only excellent directorial effort and well-developed acting could have saved the
movie. But neither M.Zudina nor M.Zhigalov manages to bring life to the primitive script
scheme. Their characters are monotonous and unattractive, their dialogue is boring. The action
develops very slowly, and by the middle of the movie only determined perseverance keeps one
from walking out for a breath of fresh air.
Belief in a Right to Kill
Kidnapping themes are as common in Russian cinema as American. The suspense movie
The Nonhuman tells of the kidnapping of a 13-year-old boy whose mother had a high office in
City Hall. Contrary to some other versions of such events, director Y.Ivanchuk puts the main
accent not on details of investigation, chases and fights, but on the family’s moral situation. The
kidnapping is presented as a harsh revenge for the mother’s sins (bribery, corruption, lying).
Here the talented actress L.Gurchenko had material for creation of an interestingly complicated
character. She played it, however, for half its potential, without the psychological truth she
brought to The Five Nights (1979) by N.Mikhalkov and Sibiriada (1980) by A.Konchalovsky.
S.Bragarnik, who performed a similar rile in V.Aristov’s drama Devil , managed to create a more
convincing and interesting character.
The criminal in Devil was scarier, too. Actually, he was kind of a Raskolnikov from
Dostoevsky’s Crime and Punishment, fixated on the belief that he was superhuman, having a
right to kill for some higher aims. In Devil the criminal didn’t get punished and the evil was his
celebration of a devilish victory. In The Nonhuman the criminal is killed by an assassin’s bullet.
Happy ending? Or evil just passing on its bloody baton?
Elena and a Russian Clyde
Russian Roulette, a film by V.Chikov, is made for spectators who love the American
cinema of the ‘60s-‘70s. A couple of gangsters-outlaws rob racketeers, thieves and at last just
suspicious-looking rich men until the dramatic ending. Chikov doesn’t conceal the origin of his
movie in Arthur Penn’s 1967 Bonnie and Clyde. But his action takes place in Russia of the ‘90s,
and instead of Faye Dunaway and Warren Beatty there are Elena Yakovleva and Denis Karasev.
They are not bad actors but they play in too “soviet” a way. The vivid music of A.Kozlov, with
its rich saxophone tunes, from to time evokes a moody, stylish variation on the theme of
gangsters’ Eros, grown dim in a romantic fog.
It would be ridiculous to demand that a common criminal movie rise to the level of
Dostoevsky, so let’s enjoy at least Russian Roulette’s good music.
Abuse, Song, Fighting, Sex and Guns
It seems like only yesterday that Russian authorities didn’t want one of outstanding director
K.Muratova’s films exhibited because its main female character uttered a couple of “bad language” words
in one scene. In N.Dzhgurda’s film Superman Against His Will, or The Erotic Mutant the characters are
swearing in nearly every scene, and it’s O.K. – the movie is circulating without restriction.
Were there indisputable artistic values in Dzhigurda’s auteur effort – he is the screenwriter, co-
director (with S.Gaiduk), singer, poet and actor playing the role of an engineer-inventor in a constant fight
with the Mafia – to be compared even a little with Muratova’s films, no one would be paying attention to
its vocabulary. You can hear more of it in real life. Unfortunately, besides the trumped-up “bad language”
Superman… can attract attention only through numerous soft-porn scenes wherein N.Dzhigurda
apparently acted without a “body double”, while shyer A.Hmelnitska used the services of a young
photomodel from Moscow men’s magazine Andrei. The film’s sexual-acrobatic episodes are, however,
rather monotonous, and no more creative are its action scenes’ skirmishes.
Dzhgurda with his hoarse voice reminiscent of Vysotsky, flashes on Russian TV screen in
assorted music videos, concerts and commercials. Superman…, obviously, was planned by him as a 1 1/2
–hour self-promotion, counting on million-ruble box-office profits. And here it is – an old, greasy,
obscene story with an unbridled pop-music soundtrack.
Alexander Fedorov
17
Alexander Fedorov
Comedies à la Russe
Identifying with Images
Until only recently it was hard to even imagine a comedy about the life and activities of
Lenin appearing on Russian screens. His persona remained sacred through all the years of ‘20s –
‘80s. But two talented directors - V.Studennikov & M.Grigiriev – have ventured to destroy a
stereotype and defy the censors’ ban with A Comedy of Strict Regime. Those between age 50 and
100 certainly remember the unforgettable spring days of 1970, when the whole great country of
Soviets prepared to celebrate the 100th anniversary of this legendary workers’ leader. Press, TV
and radio sent and endless stream of information blockbusters at the public. From Moscow to the
very east a great wave of holiday celebration was rising.
The central characters of this movie swam in it, unfortunately for them. They, the officers
of a rigidly organized prison colony, decide to surprise the authorities with an amateur-theater
production, The Light of October, casting convicts in the roles of the first world state’s workers
and peasants. In might seem that nothing could be stupider than this! But the more the ex-
thieves and murderers identify themselves with their images, the clearer a resemblance becomes.
Sitting in the theater, you understand that in spite of obvious differences (in education, for
example) the actors and the prototypes are people with similar moral values. For them the life of
an individual is worth nothing (“no man, no problem”), the aim justifies all means.
The seriousness of its material notwithstanding, the film is a real comedy, with excellent
satirical skits on the colony’s life (a huge poster says, “Lenin is more alive than everybody living
even now – V.I.Lenin”) and a perfect understanding of funny elements. It is not accidental that
the role of this leader is given to the plainest, most insignificant convict, who day after day
begins to identify with it, arming himself with quotations from the books and films of M.Romm
– Lenin in October (1937) & Lenin in 1918 (1939) – and becoming himself a real leader, able to
make the mob follow him wherever… even to escape from the colony, distracted by the
celebration.
There is no Lenin-movie cliché that is not ironically remade in A Comedy of Strict
Regime. In a fountain of quick-witted gags and dialogue the action develops dynamically;
without extended or repeated tricks. This is humor behind which lies a bloody and terrible
history of “dictatorship of the proletariat” and civil war, mass terror and violence. But there is a
saying in the holy book of Marxism: “Mankind parts with the past laughing”.
The same, with a difference
Remake is not a very word in Russian cinema yet. It applies to America, where they like
to shoot the same script several times. Often, it’s done without a wish to parody the original; yet
attempts to use cinema classics as background for ironic rewondering happen too.
Such appears to be the goal of Igor & Gleb, the Aleinikov brothers-film, ex-editors of
handwritten paper, Cine-Phantom, and authors of the 1980’s Underground Cinema. They took
the script of a famous I.Pyriev comedy, Tractor-drivers (1939), and made a parody in the spirit
of amateur action films about Russian Mafia. At first it’s funny. Why not? The female tractor-
driver Mariana lives in a luxurious villa, drivers an American car, shoots every kind of weapon
expertly. Rivals from a competing farm resemble a gang of terrorists and assassins. The ex-
solder Klim has to make an uneasy choice between these two armed, warring groups.
Unfortunately, the authors’ imagination and fantasy are sufficient for a 30-minute movie
only. In 15 to 20 minutes the film’s action stops going anywhere, the tricks and gags are being
repeated, and it doesn’t look funny at all. In a word, 85 minutes of The Tractor-drivers 2 are too
much. And what was forgivable in enthusiastic amateurs, on the big screen looks like
unprofessionalism.
18
A Russian Shveik
Recently a lot of movies have shown, with realistic thoroughness, the horrors of Russian
army life: violence, cruelty, crimes, murders. Y.Volkogon’s Saluting! , for what may be one of
the first Russian film, tells about the same problems in the comedic tradition of novelist
Gashek’s unforgettable hero, The Good Soldier Shveik.
The comedy evolves with some bitterness, but it is funny at the same time. A.Androsov
brightly plays Ivan, the recruit who manages to make fools of stupid authorities and even
Ministry commissioners with his untamed optimism and idiotically thorough completion of
orders. Half Shveik, half hero of folk tales, Ivan comes safe and sound through dead-end
situation to win the love of his commander’s daughter.
Viewers who know Russian army life will probably get genuine pleasure from how the
movie turns into gags so many barracks customs, from the cleaning of latrines to the thousand
repetitions of the same drills. Reality, however, can be glimpsed in each absurd episode.
Wouldn’t it be great if everything shown in Saluting! Were just a fantasy!
Country Clumsiness
The star of V.Chikov’s comedy About Businessman Foma, M.Evdokimov, used to be
famous in Russia as a music-hall comic, reading humorous and satirical monologues in the
character of a rural athlete who from time to time comes out of a bathhouse with “a red face and
vodka inside the shirt”. Director Chikov decided to adapt this character for the big screen by
making Evdokimov into Foma, a tractor-driver who, having sunk his tractor while drunk, decides
to open a pay-restroom in his native village. The film obviously expects laughter to be evoked by
this odd situation itself. Really, though, what is a public toilet for in this tiny village where
everybody has his own house? The gag is simply not enough for a full-length comedy. Aware of
that, the script adds racketeering and a mad Communist who decides to protest this form of
private property by burning himself in the new toilet.
Sometimes it gets laughs, but on the whole it’s too monotonous and clumsy.
Evdokimov’s original monologues, told from the scene, were much funnier.
With Maternity in Mind
A young, single, pretty woman wants to have a baby without marrying its father. It’s not
so easy, however, to find a suitable man. In A Baby for November director A. Pavlovsky
develops this idea in the comedy genre (though the events can be easily imagined in a dramatic
version). A line of male characters, all unsound for our heroine’s purpose, passes episodically
before our eyes. Finally, a married friend lets her borrow her stupid husband (one of the most
popular actors of today’s Russian cinema, S. Makovetsky, is very good as this infantile fellow)
There are plenty of spicy situations which, I suppose, would be likable if directed by French
masters for erotic comedies. But Pavlovsky is neither Michel Deville nor Roger Vadim. Erotic
here lack charm, and there is no improvisational delicacy in the performances of the majority of
actors. A sex comedy doesn’t have to be so serious.
An Author Acts
Nearly every famous actor in Russia today has decided to try directing. So have
screenwriters and even film critics. More often, though, music-hall comics and pop singers
become movie actors – and the screenwriters are taking a turn. They used to write scripts. Now
they perform in film. In leading roles. You want an example? Here you are: a film by
S.Nikonenko (also an actor, by the way), I want Your Husband, in which the man of the title is
played by writer-humorist M.Zadornov, who decided to transfer his own monologues to the
screen.
One day a wife opens an apartment door and there stands some lady declaring that she
wants to buy her precious spouse. This start is rather intriguing. But as soon as the husband
appears the movie turns into a kind of radio show or TV performance of Zadornov reading his
stories. This famous writer lacks the acting skills to keep viewers’ attention for an hour and a
half. And the director hasn’t helped him at all; action, taking place primarily in one room, is
filmed uncreatively, on the level of a common new report.
19
The great Chaplin, as we know, was a screenwriter, director, actor and composer all at the
same time. But he was Chaplin…
Not Quite a “The Sting”
In its script and style, V.Mishatkin’s crime comedy We Will Meet in Tahiti resembles
George Roy Hill’s famous The Sting and its Polish variation Va-Banque by U.Mahulski. This
director’s level is undeniably lower, and the movie came out not brilliant, but there are many
funny episodes and the gags are no worse than any of Mel Brooks’. Young actors play – with
visible pleasure – the roles of the smart rogues; L.Kuravlev is excellent as their elder colleague, a
lover in the guise of a thief-pensioner…
Service Compris?
It is common to give tips to waiters in a restaurant. That’s a rule all over the world. The
protagonist of R.Zurzumia’s comedy The Waiter with the Gold Tray decides to break the rule
and step out of the game. This is dangerous: his colleagues, not wanting “the good guy” around,
call him a traitor. The restaurant’s customers, surprised by this waiter’s unusual behavior, almost
kill him.
The situation of the “white crow” is not a new one for art. Yet it’s one thing when authors
of a film depict, for example, someone standing up against a totalitarian regime, it’s another
when they just tell about a man who doesn’t want to take extra money from clients.
Zurzumia pays no attention to this difference, making the waiter (played by the popular
Russian actor A.Abdulov) almost a hero, one worthy of the Honored Legion awards. This could
be forgiven if the movie had shone with artistic fantasy, gags, quick-witted dialogue.
Unfortunately, the script of The Waiter with the Gold Tray is another one failing to justify a full-
length film
Seeing Paris
French motifs have become very popular in Russia. “To see Paris and die” – the title of a
A.Proshkin film – become the theme of a lot of Russian films and Y.Mamin’s comedic fantasy
The Window into Paris, characters can be instantaneously transported between Petersburg
communal houses and the center of modern Paris. Mamin plays up the essential difference
between Slav and Western mentalities rather successfully. One unlucky Frenchwoman, who
finds herself almost naked in a dirty Petersburg yard, is absolutely unable to get used to
situations that surround all Russians from childhood, while Russian citizens – having discovered
a magical route to France – in several days begin to trade in the French stock market and steal
whatever isn’t fastened down. Against such a background, the figure of a failed musician, an
aged romantic who just wants to get pleasure from the sudden gift of fate, seems funny and odd.
Maybe the best joke of the film, in which Mamin sounds the highest note of pitiless
sarcasm, is the sequence about a restaurant musician who moved to France about ten years ago.
Lazily offering cognac to a former friend, he abuses Frenchmen and their customs, sentimentally
recalls Russia and almost cries while saying that he would give everything for an opportunity to
return to Petersburg just for one minute. As a gag, his friend fulfils this wish (via the magical
“open window”). But instead of the expected ecstasy, the emigrant – seeing an armored car in
front of the Petersburg railway station – falls into despair.
The fact is that modern Russia is good only in sentimental dreams and in conversations
before the cozy foreign fireplaces of restaurants with a view of the Sein, the Thames or the
Hudson.
I can’t say that Mamin’s film is as funny as the early comedies of Leonid Gaidai. There are
brilliant comedy scenes and pointedly devised details (in the principals office of a private college
for young businessmen, hanging portraits of political leaders have been replaced by gigantic
dollar symbols), but they are side by side with useless dialogue and events.
The finale of the film – driven by the slogan “We don’t need French shores” – isn’t,
frankly speaking, new. There are, however, more successes in The Window into Paris than
stereotypes.
20
Almost a Fairy Tale
Kira Muratova’s film The Asthenic Syndrome (1989) was strict uncompromising, even
ruthless in its aesthetics and vocabulary. Her The Sensitive Militiaman’s style is completely
opposite: imitative conventions harmonize with a fairy-tale plot.
Anatoly, a nice young soldier, finds a baby in a cabbage patch one night and wants to
adopt him. This idea might have been taken from the half-forgotten Russian cinema of the late
‘50s and early ‘60s, when there were very popular lyric films about sweet lovers and handsome
babies. And, in fact, at first sight The Sensitive Militiaman seems to be a naïve, bright movie
about love and compassion awakening in its hero.
But K.Muratova remains faithful to herself. Her film is a subtly stylized, unusual toying
with mythology, ironic quotations and eccentric characters… all making it impossible not to
notice a connection with her previous works – The Long Seeing Out (1971), Learning the World
(1978), The Change of Faith (1988) and others.
The slightness and transparency of this picture may be a surprise for those who expected
a new Asthenic Syndrome. Muratova’s talent, however, was always unpredictable, original,
mobile. For some, her cinema is affected; for others, this writer included, it is attractive and
masterly.
Alexander Fedorov
Alexander Fedorov
Fantasies and Parables…

A Fearsome Story
The authors of Gongofer speak frankly and ironically about the old and new clichés of
fearful cinema tales. I wouldn’t, however, call this film, directed by B.Kilibaev, a clear parody.
It is a fantasy on the theme, with hints of the stories of Nikolai Gogol, its style in the spirit of the
genre’s aesthetics.
Kolka, a young Cossack, comes to the capital with his uncle to buy a bull for breeding.
Initially the film recalls Pig-Woman and Shepherd (1941) with its pompous fountains and frank,
intellect-unburdened faces of the heroes that look as if they were created especially for the
cinema, glorifying the best collective farmers in the world. But soon after, the unpretentious
comedy about provincials in Moscow for the first time breaks off as the ill-fated Kolka meets the
blond beauty Hanna – who turns out to be a witch and exchanges eyes with the guy during their
love ecstasy.
Kilibaev deliberately makes this perfidious substitution shocking and natural. The camera
keeps our attention on the spreading eye slime in the palm of treacherous Hanna, surrounded
with a hellish glow. And then a chain of funny and rather frightening episodes begins, in which
Kolka and his uncle try to get his stolen eyes back.
Gongofer can be reproached for its eclectic lack of style. But despite that Kilibaev
managed to make it a dynamic show, whimsically combining myths of the epoch of Socialist
Realism with special effects like Joe Dante’s.
What Boredom!
E.Nikolaeva’s film Sextale is derived form Vladimir Nabokov’s airy, refined story The
Tale, as is clear to any admirer of the works of famous Russian-American writer. But I’ll avoid
comparing screen and prose because during all the action of Sextale the original plot’s
development is absent. The filmmakers, probably, isn’t want to write more dialogue than
Nabokov did and decided to fill in the pauses (the story is short and film is long) with displays of
whimsical decorations, costumes, smoke and fog. The set decorators and artists really worked
hard on this. It needed something else, however… such as actors with skill. On one hand
L.Gurchenko is supple and musical in the role of The Devil, tempting a pretty young man with
displays of erotic desire. (It is the tempter’s whim that the fellow can choose – until midnight –
21
any number of the most beautiful women, providing this number is odd.) On the other hand,
there are inexpressive performances, in unemotional erotic scenes, by all the other actors. Add to
this an unjustified reserve of action, slack cutting, and badly recorded sound. In short, it is very
boring – despite the participation of the bright Gurchenko with her playful expression, biting
irony, and natural sense of style.
Rather than seeing the movie, it’s better to read Nabokov.
Too Obvious an Allegory
A rain of festival awards and unanimously enthusiastic opinions greeted the film
Drumaniada by S.Ovcharov practically from the first days of its release. “A unique contribution
to the development of Russian cinema”, “faithful to the theme of love for life” – those were
some phrases praising the picture. My voice, I’m afraid, will be omitted from the chorus.
Drumaniada seems to me the weak work of a talented director.
Previous fantasies by Ovcharov – Clumsy (1979), Flight of Fancy (1983), Left-hander
(1986) and his version of Saltykov-Schedrin’s The Story of the One Town under the title The It
(1989) – were created in an atmosphere of strict censorship that began to weaken and die only at
the end of the ‘80s. Using the traditions of Russian folklore and comedy tricks from the great
silent films, Ovcharov created a world built on eccentric allegory. I can’t say that director openly
presented puzzles and symbols to his viewers, but the satirical sharpness of his films (The It
especially) probably was read by every attentive admirer of the tenth muse.
In contrast, unnecessarily straightforward, newspaper-style satire can be felt in
Drumaniada in spite of its allegorical plot. The premise itself is interesting: to make a one and a
half-hour parable – about the misadventures of a funeral orchestra’s drummer who inherits an
enchanted drum labeled “Stradivarius” with which he travel around Russia – without the
characters speaking a single word.
But… again there’s a captious “but”… the story of this poor wretch is good enough for a
short film only. Forty minutes into the picture one feels the exhaustion of the method, as one
monotonous episode follows another. Even a scene in which the wonderful drum turns into a TV
set for several minutes is just boring. And the climactic sequence of the visit of foreign homeless
people to Russia, taking place in a town’s rubbish heap, is rather crudely made, and the actors’
performances are inexpressive.
An image of this country as a rubbish heap populated by homeless beggars has become
the Russian media’s most widespread cliché. The film’s other symbols are equally
straightforward and shallow. The signing of treaties for collaboration between Russian and
foreign beggars won’t impress anybody as a satirically courageous fantasy. And there are a great
number of such scenes. The behavior of the main character – the sad clown, a pale reflection of
Baster Keaton – and the development of early episodes become too predictable. The only good
thing about Drumaniada is the music on the soundtrack: Beethoven, Mozart, Mahler – this is
forever!
Ivanov after Godard
For his directorial debut in feature cinema, E.Ivanov chose an ambitious project requiring
a subtle stylistic gift: anew version of Jean-Luc Godard’s brilliant 1959 À Bout de
souffle(Breathless) . Ivanov’s film is called Nicotine, and its action takes place not in Paris at the
end of ‘50s, but in Petersburg of ‘90s. On the whole, the plot’s lines – and even several details of
the characters’ dress – are retained. But something like the fantasies of Leos Carax and Jean-
Jacques Beinex breaks the style of the “new wave” at times. In general, this film is close to the
classical understanding of the word “remake” without parody, admixtures or eccentric pranks.
It’s a pity that Ivanov insistently demands we pay attention to his source, the legendary
Godard’s debut with Belmondo and Seberg in the leading roles. He does this by making the
characters attend a lecture by cinema critic and director O.Kovalov, who introduces the film À
Bout de souffle to Petersburg’s movie fans; and he also restages one of Godard’s press
conferences with the help of a double.
22
This persistence is worthy of a better application for two reasons. First, viewers who
know the creative work of Godard very well, or who at least saw À Bout de souffle? Guess the
family tree several minutes into Nicotine without any oral prompts. Secondly, viewers who don’t
know who Godard is will be helped neither by lecture episodes nor by stills of his old
masterpiece to perceive Nicotine as a remake: the visual associations, cutting and plot parallels
remain “unreadable”.
Yet Ivanov’s biggest mistake, it seems to me, is in the unfortunate choice of actors who
very much let him down. It’s hard to suppose, certainly, that a young director might his the target
and find Russian performers whose scale of personality and charm would live up to Belmondo’s
and Seberg’s But having cast actors deprived of not only inward charm also attractive
appearance, Ivanov had to use them as visual effects, simply opportunities to underline – in
strange, long passages of light and shade – the black and white style of the film.
The emotional influence À Bout de souffle? In which the reckless Michel, having
accidentally killed a cop, tried to fight his fate till the tragic realization of the exhaustion of his
life, is left below the surface by the director of Nicotine.
That is why, to my mind, this is not a warm declaration of love to the French “new wave” but the
fruit of cold, professional calculation.
To Believe the Prophecy for a Moment…
The film of E.Riazanov get sadder form year to year. The Prophecy is perhaps his most
sorrowful. It even has a gloomy outset: a famous writer (O.Basilashvili) learns from a Gypsy
fortune-teller that only a day is left for him to live and he is to meet with an unexpected man.
In that mystical tone a young man (A.Sokolov) with the same name and same temple scar
appears in the writer’s flat. Who is this mysterious double – phantom or guardian angel? The
answer remains open throughout the film.
So the time of summing-up comes for the tired writer, shaken by life. He is well-to-do in Russian
terms: he has an apartment in the center of Moscow, a car and video camera, and his books are
published in Paris. But, characteristically for a man living in a country of endless admonitions,
distress his look reveals the effect of freedom’s absence. And it’s not because of the peculiarities
of his biography (his father perished during the repressions, his mother is Jewish – which he
couldn’t mention for a long time – and his wife died in a car accident). The brand of unfreedom
is stamped on practically everybody in Russia, except those under 20.
In that regard, the choice of actress for the leading female role was perfect: French star
Irene Jacob Though her character is just a modest cashier in a bank, she can be at once
distinguished from the surrounding Russian fuss by her uncommon expression. She becomes a
fairy princess and, probably, the writer’s last love… for this princess is colored by the shade of
nostalgia for unrealized dreams.
In contrast with Riazanov’s previous works (Dear Elena Sergeevna, etc.), there is little
topical populism – although the conclusion is connected with one of the most widespread script
devices in Russia today (escaping from Mafia pursuit, the hero tries to leave for Israel). Sensitive
to his audiences’ mood, Riazanov couldn’t but feel that a mass interest in cinematic political
investigations and revelations has almost disappeared, while the need for melodramatic love
stories is great.
Actually, The Prophecy, can’t be called melodrama. There are comedy episodes (a
visiting fanatic suggests that the writer burn himself in Red Square as protest against something
– it’s not important against something – it’s not important against what, the main thing is to
perform the action), and there are elements of a parable. I don’t find such a genre alloy organic
and convincing. This seems to be the director’s attempt to get a second wind.
And I’m Again Walking about Moscow
Thirty years ago, whistling happily, the hero of young Nikita Mikhalkov walked through
Moscow streets wet with rain. It was a time of hope, joy was felt there. The Metro stations
shone, shady lanes in the park attracted. The heroes of another G.Danelia’s firm film Nastya are
also young, also fall in love, make dates in the Metro and jump on the day’s last bus or streetcar,
23
but the intonation has become sad, and even the funniest moments are tinted with this sadness
like maple leaves in autumn.
Telling the fairy tale of a Moscow girl who one fine day turns into the beauty from an
advertising poster, Danelia deliberately puts aside the gloomy old song with which modern
Russian “exposé” films are so rich. And in this film there are no fights in doorways, no scenes of
undressing and no “bold” language of modern Russian cinema.
Danelia has cast charming A.Abdulov as the representative of new “democratic power”.
Yet the film doesn’t fall into the expected wrathful pathos. Abdulov’s hero is petty in his
nouveau riche manners, fussy, boastful, infinitely proud of his position as prefect and his
participation in big-time politics, but he hasn’t lost his wonderful outbursts of soul.
The main success of the film is a duet of actresses playing the role of the 18-year-old
stationery clerk. Before the magic change Nastya was a nice girl, unhampered by men’s
attention, who tried to break out of the solitude, poverty and grayness of surrounding life with its
mother-yardkeeper, small flat and a brightly made up shopgirl colleague who, month after
month, suggested dubious entertainments with “cool guys”.
Nastya after the miracle is a beauty. With surprise she discovers how much appearances
influence the life of a man… not, often, in the best way. Happening upon an art show in the
subway where “men of culture” get very drunk and petty thieves pretend to be businessmen or
weighty sponsors., Nastya feels herself a stranger in this festivity of pseudo-life.
Alexander Fedorov
Territory of Love
The Wind from the East…
Nikita Mikhalkov’s Urga reached Russia in the glow of a triumph at the Venice film
festival. This picture about a possible harmony with nature, about the attempt of a common
Russian driver to understand the world of Mongolian nomads, was received in Moscow with
restraint, in spite of additional praise from Rome and Paris. There were a lot of things the film
was reproached for: An attempt to run away abroad from the difficulties of Russia’s troubled
time, for a tourist’s point of view on Asia and its people, for lacking the intuition of Bertolucci,
and so on.
Urga it rather vulnerable to such reproaches, though they don’t seem to me well
grounded. On the other hand, charges against the director’s and script’s prosaicness (as in a talky
restaurant episode about the essence of the Russian nation) are fair. But all this is put aside when
you see the wonderful landscapes of the imposing steppes, shot by V.Kaluta’s camera, and when
you hear the thousands of sounds.
The simplicity and ease of the Mongolian and Chinese actors frees a comical story (how a
Mongolian herdsman’s wife sent him into town for contraceptives, lest they be punished for
violating a law controlling the birth rate) from any bad tone. The professional European actor
usually has serious problems when working among Asiatic performers, but V.Gostukhin’s hero
is well realized and convincing.
So, after a long interval, Nikita Mikhalkov decided to return to the free-breathing
cinematograph.
And God Created Kiss
Director A.Karpikov, the pupil of Sergei Soloviev, is talented, flashy, and skillfully
stylized. His The Fish in Love (1989) was an elegant fantasy on themes of the French New
Wave, transformed in the atmosphere of Kazakh’s nighttime capital. Air Kiss continues a search
in the same direction. The film can seem an affected melodrama about how a beautiful nurse
prefers a lame gardener and a bandaged moto-racer to her respectable fiancé, the chief doctor of
her hospital. Yet it is bright and ironical, with a hint of the aesthetics of Roger Vadim and the
unforgettable image of Brigitte Bardot. In short, it’s postmodernism with a parodic layer that is
not very intensified and does not disturb the emotional atmosphere at all. And to their credit, the
young actors play sincerely, animatedly.
24
A doubtful spectator, after seeing Karpikov’s film, may ask: What about something
Kazakhian? All the characters are played by European actors – where is national vividness? But
who says Russians must make movies just about Russians, and Kazakhs about Kazakhs?
A Day Without Arguments
In You’re My Only One director D.Astrakhan succeeds in expressing the sensations of
average Russian who for one wonderful day experience a “holiday of life” in which there is no
place for nostalgic sentiments and hot arguments on spirituality, in which businessmen
accompanied by suave friends drive about in Fords and Mercedes, lazily count wads of dollar
notes, buy foreign delicacies and telephone New York right from their cars.
The life of 40-year-old Eugeny (A.Zbruev) resembles thousands of others. He has a
modest occupation as engineer in some institution, a flat in a standard tall block, a wife
(M.Neyolova) dreaming of escape from the closed circle of humiliating poverty, and a 16-year-
old daughter for whom her ill-provisioned parents are a vivid demonstration of how one mustn’t
live – the embodiment of her dread of destiny.
The film’s opening episodes create a familiar sketch of “common family of intellectual
workers”: reproaches of Eugeny by wife and daughter, unmistakable hints that he is a typical
failure, that all others managed to do better long ago, that he ought to join a number of fellow
employees in a Russian-American joint venture, etc. And then, dreams… about trips over the
ocean, Hawaiian beaches, Dior perfume and Cardin dresses…
Zbruev and Neyolova play this without pressing, without relishing the muddle of their
characters’ lives. Even scenarist O.Danilov’s move into fantasy doesn’t make their performances
less truthful. It turns out that the firm organizing the joint venture is headed by one of Eugeny’s
former schoolmates whose younger sister Anna comes to Russia from USA. Anna has loved her
“only one”, her “unique Uncle Eugeny” since childhood. Now she is ready to become his fairy
godmother – or princess: buy him a smart suit, make him the representative of the American firm
in Russia, drive him in a Mercedes along the Petersburg streets.
But pride prevents Eugeny from becoming dependent on his old friend, although pride is
not the main problem in his affair with Anna: “I don’t love you, you see! Don’t love!” he cries to
his benefactress in a riveting sequence. A lot of things are mixed in Zbruev’s expression. It
would be good if he spoke so because he was deeply in love with his wife, but not at all… love
has smoothly changed into habit. And if it’s possible to live without rapturous love with one
woman, then why is it impossible with another? There is quite another thing, too – fatigue:
hopeless awareness of the fact that his life is over, that he has no strength to restart everything
from zero.
The bitterness of this feeling doesn’t disappear after either Eugeny’s return to his wife or
a Felliniesque postscript with a birthday celebration in the snowy garden of his house. Having
escaped the turn of fate, the heroes of You’re My Only One will, several days after the touching
departure of Anna for America, again poison each other’s lives with mutual criticism… and
dream about a separate room for their daughter.
The film reminded me of the best works of E.Riazanov (Beware of the Car, Irony of
Fate) and G.Danelia (The Autumn Marathon). D.Astrakhan can tell a story emotionally, vividly
and with psychological truth, in spite of its fantastic turns.
Identification of Cliché
Antonioni, Taviani, Wenders… The Identification of Wishes, director T.Hamidov’s
movie, is obviously made for people who know cinema. Quotations from famous directors’
classic films (slow plot development, psychological pauses, etc.) are spread among pseudo art-
house movies.
The story – about three teenagers who, learning that a friend’s mother works as a
prostitute at night, decide to “visit her” – in presented, for the most part, naturalistically. The
people, though not convincing, are sufficiently developed to show Hamidov’s thoughts about the
necessity of moral borderlines… which the characters don’t have, and which lack marks them
25
inhuman. Yet there’s not much kick to the film, no discovery. Instead of postmodern stylization,
it as dull collection of clichés. Hamidov doesn’t seem to have prospects.
Though He is Clever and Handsome
Petersburg’s atmosphere seems to create in movie critics and cinema scientists the wish
to show directors how real films must be made – not only in theoretical articles but on the set.
Following O.Kovalov (The Gardens of the Scorpion, Island of the Dead), another Russian film
critic in St-Peterburg – Y.Pavlov – has decided to try his hand at directing.
Pavlov’s philosophical The Creation of Adam can be regarded as you please, but to my
mind it has one great advantage. The film is beautifully made. In its world are yellow sandhills,
the play of Baltic waves, the deserted streets of Petersburg’s outskirts, the fashionable costumes
of the main characters… shots that seem to belong in a picture gallery.
Unfortunately, for me, this is the only attractive aspect of the film, because the story – of
a handsome, 30-year-old homosexual who finds clarity in life and love after meeting an
effeminate guardian angel – left me indifferent. The fashionable Gay theme evoked only weak
surprise because the characters didn’t invite a sharing of emotions with them, while the slow
development of action reminded me of Wim Wenders’ late films and brought boredom. I can
watch the “slow” films of Michelangelo Antonioni for hours, charmed again and again by the
silent pauses of L’Avventura, La Notte or L’Eclisse, so my dislike of The Creation of Adam is not
due to its pace and cautionary plot, but to a serious discrepancy between its author’s perception
of film and the aesthetic preferences of this spectator.
It happens sometimes in life: you meet a man who is dressed with taste and seems to be
clever, but it’s boring to speak with him. Antipathy arises in a moment… sometimes at first
sight. The same holds true for films; you watch some with pleasure, you can’t wait for others to
end.
It was bad luck for me to see The Creation of Adam. This is not my cinema, this is the
cinema of Y.Pavlov, corresponding to his ideas of how stylish directors’ films should look.
Red Riding Hood & Bluebeard
Despite its trendy modern-Mafia story, A.Chechulin film A Wife for the Maitre d’Hotel is in fact
a free fantasy on the theme of two famous fairytales by Charles Perrot.
A young, really naïve beauty (A.Nemolyaeva), though foolishness and the effects of
alcohol, finds herself in the room of a professional maitre d’hotel – a University graduate who
knows eight languages. He spends the night with her and, untrue to stereotype, proposes to her.
That’s the point where the story of Red Riding Hood being eaten by the wolf turns into the story
of Bluebeard. Showering his wife with presents, luxurious outfits and awesome travel tours, the
intellectual maitre demands only one thing: that she not interfere with his criminal deeds. But, of
course, the temptation is too powerful, and she has secret affairs with her husband’s best friends
– a gangster and cop – whom he cold-bloodedly kills when he learns the truth.
You say in the original tales Bluebeard killed non his wives’s lovers, but the overly
curious ladies themselves? But that’s Chechulin’s fantasy, modernizing Perrot. His finale follows
suit: disappointed in her husband, our heroine returns to her mother’s house and… becomes a
prostitute.
So it’s better to go into the streets than to live with a loveless husband! If only this idea
had been presented to us as humorous parody. But Chechulin just retells Perrot’s story using the
language of Emile Zola.
The Time Has Passed
V.Bogachev’s Dark Alleys is based on the novels of Ivan Bunin, classic of Russian
literature. The best thing about the film is the duet of actors O.Bogacheva and D.Lubshin – she
with the slightly mocking eyes, he with the shyness of a tutor-student, both in their days of
transient happiness, all shown with appropriate respect for the Nobel Laureate’s work and a will
to re-create the atmosphere of Russia at the beginning of the 20th century.
26
Episodes framing the dramatic story, however, turn out badly. Roughly naturalistic,
reformed with extreme theatricality, they resemble the tricks of a roving street circus. You don’t
believe these characters could be related to the Russian elite of Nikolai II’s epoch.
It’s hard for today’s filmmakers to get rid of the post-Soviet outlook and create anything
slightly resembling the images of Bunin’s heroes. Dark Alleys is another unrealized attempt to
relinquish the Russian “cinema of gloom” for the beautiful world of passionate love evoked by
classic literature.
Alexander Fedorov
Alexander Fedorov
How to Shoot the “True” Film About Russia (Ironical instruction for Western
cineastes)
As a member of the Union of Russian Cineastes, I've worked up a set of brief instructions
for Western producers, writers and directors who want to make «true film about Russian life»:
1. Say you're basing your movie on a Russian story.
2. Give the leading male positive role to an actor with a «manly» appearance.
3. To show his endless attraction to Russian nature, church and children. Have him
mouth deep psychological thoughts about «the essence of being».
4. Make the principal Bad Guy look nasty with uncommon eyebrows and a curly black
wig. His residence must have foreign posters on its flat-painted walls and
Cosmopolitan magazine on the table. He should show an eager desire to run off over
the border, visit underground clubs, make fun of Russian boldness and - the main
thing - have an affair with another's Slavic wife.
5. It's necessary for the heroine not only to show a bright Russian manner but
wardrobe to match... such as big «sarafan»(a female costume in old Russia). She can
have her weaknesses, certainly, as does everyone. Even commit adultery. None of it
is her fault, however; she is simply a victim of the Mafia.
6. Between the Bad and Good Guys of a True Film about Russia you can't omit the
«intermediate link»: one hesitating character - an alcoholic doctor, for example -
who is torn between Good and Evil.
7. For the creation of action tension it's okay to use: explosion of secret laboratory; a
car accident; stripteases in rock club, and location footage in Paris.
8. Photographically, a Fine Arts representation must be made through poetic contrast:
milky fog drifting over green fields and a pensive cow will definitely underline the
alienation evoked in the Russian soul by your images of the cold shine of Western
skyscrapers, luxurious shops and bottles of White horse (more suggestive of
deceitful, negative characters than Stolichnaya vodka).
9. If, seeing the end result, critics and some spectators are indignant over the primitive
drama, dialogue and performances, and the director's pretentious amateurism, they
should be rebutted by special advertisements in the mass newspapers and TV-
channels.
10. If that doesn't work, than the last advice is simple as everything that's brilliant:
declare publicly (preferably on TV) that your film can be understood and appreciated
only by True Lovers of True Russian Culture.
Alexander Fedorov
* The first publications of some of these texts were:
in the American magazines Cineaste (1997, Vol. XXII, n 4, p. 62),

Audience (1994, n 179, p.20-22; 1995, n 180, p.13-17; 1995, n 181, p. 24-28; 1995, n
27
182, p. 4-7; 1995, n 183, p.15-17; 1995, n 184, p.40-42; 1995, n 185, p.14-16; 1996, n
186, p. 14-16; 1996, n 187, p.2-4; 1996, n 188, p. 21-23; 1996, n 189, p. 14-15; 1997, n
197, p. 19; 1998, n 198, p. 29; 1998, n 199, p. 19-21; 1998, n 201, p. 20);
in the Norwegian magazine Media i Skolen (1992, n 5, p.55-57; 1993, n 1, p. 55-58;
1993, n 2, p. 58-61; 1993, n 3, p. 51-55; 1993, n 4, p. 46-50; 1994, n 1, p. 36-39; 1994, n
2, p. 21-24; 49-51; 1994, n 4, p. 41-45; 1994, n 5, p. 48-50; 1994, n 6, p.50-52; 1995, n 1,
p. 55-58; 1995, n 2, p. 40-42; 1995, n 4, p. 54-60; 1996, n 1, p. 25-32; 1996, n 6, p. 26-
30; 1997, n 1, p. 39-41; 1995, n 2, p. 26; 1997, n 3, p. 12-13; 1997, n 4, p. 34-35; 1997, n
5-6, p. 39; 1998, n 1, p. 30-31; 1998, n 2, p. 22,33; 1998, n 3, p. 40-42; 1998, n 4, p. 39;
1998, n 5, p. 58-59; 1999, n 1, p.36-37; 1999, n 2, p. 45-47; 2000, n 2, p. 6-7, 45-47;
2000, n 4, p. 38-41; 2001, n 1, p. 36-37).
28
European Journal of Philosophical Research, 2016, Vol. (5), Is. 1

European Journal of Philosophical Research
ISSN: 2408-9435
E-ISSN: 2413-7286
Vol. 5, Is. 1, pp. 4-12, 2016
DOI: 10.13187/ejpr.2016.5.4
www.ejournal17.com
UDC 1
Ideological and Philosophical Analysis of the Functioning of Media in Society

and Media Texts on Media Education Classes
Alexander Fedorov
Abstract
Ideological and Philosophical Analysis of the functioning of media in society and media
texts: analysis of the ideological, philosophical aspects of media sphere. The ideological theory
of media becomes as the theoretical basis. It is assumed that the media are able to deliberately
influence public opinion, including in the interests of a particular social class, race or nation.
Pedagogical strategy of media education is reduced to the study of political, philosophical,
social, and economic aspects of the national media, to analyze the numerous contradictions
that contain these issues from the perspective of a particular class, race, religio n or nation.
In this case, the audience should be able to define: the difference between media images and
well-known facts; the reliability of the source; the accuracy of the determination; valid and
invalid statements; the difference between the primary and secondary information, approval;
partiality of judgment; installed and uninstalled judgment; vague and ambiguous arguments; a
logical inconsistency in the chain of reasoning; the force of the argument.
Keywords: ideological and philosophical analysis, media, media texts, media education,
media literacy, media competence, students.
Introduction
Ideological analysis and Philosophical Analysis of the functioning of media in society and
media texts: analysis of the ideological, philosophical aspects of medi a sphere. Theoretical
basis there is an ideological theory of media. It is assumed that the media are able to
deliberately influence public opinion, including in the interests of a particular social class, race
or nation. Pedagogical strategy of media education is reduced to the study of political,
philosophical, social, and economic aspects of the national media, to analyze the numerous
contradictions that contain these issues from the perspective of a particular class, race, religion
or nation [Piette & Giroux, 1997, p. 102].
4

The modern Russian and Western literature about ideological and philosophical Analysis
of the functioning of media in society and media texts was the main material for this article.
Method of study of the key concepts of representation suggests that different media texts
correspond to reality, they are not a mirror image of it, and create their own version of virtual
reality. The study of this concept is closely related to such concepts as media agency, media
audience, media language, media category and media technology. In addition, each of these
aspects affect the representation of media text (including its ideological and philosophical
sense).
The task to develop creative and critical thinking of the audience is very important.
For example, practical exercises on creating media texts (drawing on the concept of agency,
category, language, technology, audience, representation), problem analysis of media content
(relying on the concept of category, language, technology), the study of problematic situations
related to production (agency et al.), distribution and perception (audience, representation),
modeling a situation or process (agency, technology, audience et al.) using a role-playing
game.
The authors of a considerable number of research criticized creators of popular culture,
who used improper methods of psychological pressure (constant repetition of facts, regardless
of the truth), distortion of facts and trends, selection of the negative features in the imag e of
political opponents, "sticking labels", "playing folksy", a reference to the authorities in order to
justify a lie, etc. But among the creators of popular culture always been an honest professionals
who are building their own stories based on humanistic values, and another creators: politically
and commercially biased.
Supporters of the ideological approach usually have scrutinize typology of media
influences (or "effects"), among which are:
- cognitive effects: short-term; intensive, an extensive;
- effect relations: creating views; vaccination / change / strengthening opinion;
- emotional effects: short reaction;
- physiological effects: temporary illusion of fight / flight; temporary sexual arousal;
- behavioral effects: imitation; activation (i.e., for example, activation of purchases
through advertising) [Potter, 2001, pp.262-263].
In this case, the subject of media literacy education is a media system and its functioning
in society, human interaction, the language of the media and its use. As goals are distinguished:
creating a culture of interaction with the media, the development of perception of different
types of information, skills of analysis and interpretation of media texts, critical thinking,
learning various forms of self-expression with the help of the media, the development of
creative abilities in the field of media.
Understanding of the term media agency (in the sense of a source of information and
media people who own, create and distribute media texts) preschoolers' may seem far removed
from the understanding of sixteen, but it is important to see the connection between them.
Everyone is aware that any texts not arise by themselves, but are – even if they do not know by
whom and for what purpose.
The theory of media education as the development of critical thinking (as, indeed, and
cultural studies) suggests that older students should seek to understand more complex issues –
such as the pressure of the state system, in varying degrees, affecting the media censorship (in
particular, age restrictions on the sale, rental and demonstration of media texts), the division of
functions in media production, media production funding sources, etc. But anyway, the key here is
to understand the difference in the sense of a media text, depending on how the Agency it was
created (or commissioned by a company, for example, Christian Dior or Sony).
Many teachers in this sense, have a good result of studies consider not simply memorizing
information by the audience, but their ability to set key questions. For example: "Why is there such
a book was published in a small edition, and this something – big?", "Why did the director A.
received in Hollywood $ 300 million to make a film, and director B. always work with a relatively
small budget?", etc.
The methodology of cultural studies paradigm of media literacy education use both
approaches: critical thinking and practical. In particular, students can more understand the key
5
concept of media agency into the practice (for example, role game “Agency”). Good way is the role
game about "financiers of media production", "editors", "censors", etc.
As already mentioned, one of the main objectives of media literacy education in modern
conditions is the development of critical thinking of the audience in relation to the different media
texts, disseminated through the mass media. However, the full development of critical thinking of
the audience cannot be without her acquaintance with the typical objectives, methods and
techniques of manipulative media impacts, its socio-psychological mechanisms, without problem
analysis information, including ideological and philosophical.
Here is a list of anti-manipulative media educational technologies:
- identification and show of social and psychological mechanisms used by the authors of
media texts focused on manipulative effect;
- analysis of methods and techniques, which are the media text’s creators are trying to
achieve the desired effect;
- attempt to understand the logic of the author's thinking, revealing the author's conception,
the auditor's assessment of the concept of a media text;
- "sifting" of information (a reasoned selection of true and false in the materials of the press,
television, radio, etc., clarification of information, comparison with the actual facts, etc.);
- removing information’s halo: "typical", "vulgar", "credibility";
- critical analysis of the goals and interests of agency, that is a source of information;
- description of manipulative ideological influences in a particular media text: "orchestration"
("constant repetition"), "prejudiced selection", "sticking labels, creating an image of the enemy",
"guidance blush, creating a positive image," "transfer” (transfer of properties from one object to
another), "reference to the authorities”, “ simplification”, “distraction / refocusing”, lies, half-truths, etc.
Of course, such an approach is useful in carrying out activities under certain conditions.
First of all, it must be based on theoretical training audience. This can include classroom
training right in practice direct problem analysis information, but, in my opinion, the
preliminary general theoretical acquaintance with the typical audience objectives and methods
of the manipulative media exposure greatly facilitates the process of further studies.
A critical analysis of selected political information is very good for the TV -news, but not
useful for art house media text, because students must understand the difference between a
particular political interest in reality and more multi-faceted impact of the work culture. And if
the person is not prepared to perceive information in its various forms, this person cannot fully
understand and analyze of media texts, unable to resist the manipulative media effects.
One of the most pressing issues related to ideological aspects of the manipulative media
influence – violence on the screen. Undoubtedly, few people try to imitate violent action. But it
exist the "addiction" to the media violence, mindless consumption of episodes with numerous
scenes of murder, torture, etc., the indifference, the inability of a normal human reaction to the
compassion of others.
The purpose of consideration of this aspect on media literacy education lessons is critical
analysis. For example, discover the true essence of the negative character, easily killing dozens
of people, who try to show of violence as a "game", "joke", etc.
I think one of the effective game form – "Investigation", the essence of which is as
follows. The audience is invited to investigate the crimes of several characters of media texts,
containing scenes of violence. The task: to identify improper, illegal, cruel, inhumane actions of
these characters, which may, among other things supplied by the authors in the "fun" and
"playful" forms. Thus, gathering compelling "evidence", the audience builds the final charge
against the authors ("Agency") of various media texts, manipulative scenes of violence.
In this case, the audience should be able to define: 1) the difference between media
images and well-known facts; 2) the reliability of the source; 3) the accuracy of the
determination; 4) valid and invalid statements; 5) the difference between the primary and
secondary information, approval; 6) partiality of judgment; 7) installed and uninstalled
judgment; 8) vague and ambiguous arguments; 9) a logical inconsistency in the chain of
reasoning; 10) the force of the argument [Beyer, 1984, p.56].
6
Discussion
Analysis of the ideological concept of media shows that in the 1920's – early 1980's was
two main options – the Western and Soviet. In the first case, media educators have focused on
the critical analysis of political, philosophical, social and economic aspects of media texts in
their countries. In the second case, media educators (for example, from the so -called "socialist
camp") believed to be critically analyze media texts by the capitalist West. "Socialist" media
production (especially directly promotes the official ideology) was originally considered to be
politically correct, so completely eliminated the scope of this kind of critical analysis (except in
rare cases of "manifestations of trends revisionism") [for example: Lacis, Keylina, 1928;
Uritzky, 1954].
Now the ideological theory of media largely lost its former position, but in some way
transformed to the area of national-regional, religious, socio-political approach to media and
media texts. And teachers of some states and nations strive to protect students from the
expansion of American popular culture (similar to "protectionist" media education theory).
In the countries of the "third world" (for example, Latin American, Asian, Arab) is becoming a
popular active opposition of media globalization (that is, again, Americanization). In addition,
the ideological theory of media education, no doubt, has a commo n ground with more popular
in the West media education – the development of critical thinking. For both one and the other
to ask questions about whose interests is this or that media information, and what groups it is
designed. And the audience must not only develop of "critical thinking", but also make analysis
of the mechanisms of ideological influence and values of certain information [Masterman,
1988; 1994; 1997].
D. Buckingham wrote that the views of L. Masterman largely represent the
transformation of the ideological approach but he has not the active attention for cultural
studies aspects [Buckingham, 1990, p. 7].
Some theories of media literacy education (for example, "practical" media education)
ignore of a key concept media audience. It should be noted that a genuine interest in the
concept of audience appeared in media literacy education since 1960s. Before this time many
supporters of “protectionist injection” (inoculatory approach in media education), in general,
thought that the media has a direct impact on the behavior and attitudes supposedly
homogeneous audience, and other media educators rashly believed that the audience’s
problems – these are the problems of sociology and psychology, but not a topic for training
sessions on media material.
Students’ audience, even the same age, have very differentiated interest and level of
preparedness for any activity. Here play the role of factors such as heredity, macro / micro
environment, previous experience of education and training. Therefore, students’ perception of
the same media text of the same study group can be different. In addition, my practical
experience shows that in many cases, the audience tends to conform the perception and
evaluation of media texts. Students can use different reactions from the contacts with the same
media texts alone, in the company of peers, parents, in the classroom with the teacher, etc.
That is why the method works with the key concept of audience maybe start from the lessons it
involves a discussion of such situations. The materials for students’ collective discussion –
amateur photos, videos, posters, newspapers, etc.
I suppose, the progress in this type of media literacy works will appear when the students
will gain the ability to discuss the range and diversity of audience reactions, as well as related
issues of taste, compliance, laws and codes of practice, censorship and legal issues. All this can
be investigated by means of practical and critical work. At a more advanced level, students can
study the theory on the effects of media on the audience, as well as how the audience accepts or
rejects some media texts.
Results
Ideological and philosophical analysis of media texts implies a number of creative tasks [BFI,
1990; Semali, 2000, pp.229-231; Berger, 2005; Nechay, 1989, pp.267-268; Fedorov, 2004,
pp. 43-51; Silverblatt, 2014; Potter, 2014, but I substantially supplemented and revised this cycle of
tasks]: literary analytical, role-playing, fine-simulation. Each of these tasks includes analysis of the
7
key aspects of media literacy education [media agencies, media categories, media language,
media technologies, media representations, media audiences, etc.].
Cycle of literary and analytical creative tasks for ideological and philosophical analysis of
media texts in the student audience:
Media agencies:
- analysis of information about who owns the media and monitors in the country;
- analysis of the key titles on the front pages of various newspapers, the attempt to draw
conclusions about their political, genre orientation;
- research the situation related to the closure or prohibition of a particular source of media
(newspapers, magazine, film), a political media company for / against this or that politician.
- analysis of similar genre of media texts of different countries in order to prove that the same
genre can be interpreted in different ways – depending on the social, political, ideological,
philosophical, national position of authors.
Media technologies:
- analysis of how the use of different media technologies may be due to ideological influence.
Media languages:
- analysis of media language (visual, audio, audio-visual) and how it can be used to enhance
the manipulative ideological influence on the audience;
- analysis of the volume of a media (newspapers, TV), dedicated to the political and
ideological image (photographs, drawings, etc.) and volume for verbal texts (articles, dialogs, etc.)
on the ideological, political theme. Subsequent determination of political, ideological bias of media
texts;
- writing of essay (3-4 pages) “The Ideological concept of media texts on a contemporary
theme”;
- analysis of a news program in terms of the presence / absence of transmission attempts of
manipulative ideological effects (ambiguities figure of silence, "sticking labels", "orchestration" (ie
in the form of psychological pressure constant repetition of certain facts, regardless of the truth),
"selection" (i.e., the selection of certain trends - for example, only positive or negative); "transfer"
(transfer any qualities (positive, negative) to another phenomenon (or person); "evidence" – a
reference to the authorities in order to justify an action, or that slogan, "playing folksy" (the most
simplified forms of information);
- analysis, comparison of ideological orientation of TV-news in three different channels
within the same day, identifying similarities and differences, a comparison of these plots with TV
news in the press, which appeared in print the next day;
- analysis of media text on the political theme, based on documentary evidence. The study of
regional geographic, political, philosophical, and historical materials relating to the topic and the
time period. Comparison of the studied materials with the image of political events in the media
text (the image of the country, nation, race, nationality, social system, ideology, political
administration, philosophy, justice, education, employment, etc.);
- comparison of several points of view (e.g., professional journalists, art critics) on political
developments, its philosophical significance;
- location of abstracts in order of importance to understand and describe the ideology and
philosophy of a particular media text;
- description and analysis of a particular episode of a media text on the political theme,
including ideology, philosophical concept, etc.
Media audiences:
- writing of essay (3-4 pages) “The ideological influence of books, TV and press on the
youth”.
Cycle role game creative tasks for ideological and philosophical analysis of media texts in
the classroom at the student audience:
Media agencies:
- role game on hypothetical search of sponsors for media project with those or other
ideological and / or philosophical orientation;
8
- role game on the situation related to the closure or prohibition of a particular source of
media (newspapers, magazine, transfer, film), a political media company for / against this or that
politician;
- role game on the decisions about the plot on the ideological theme in different media
genres;
Media technologies:
- role game about what different media technologies may be due to ideological influence.
Media languages:
- role game on the dispute of the "authors" about how the tools of media language (visual,
audio, audio-visual) can be used to enhance the manipulative ideological influence their future
work on the audience.
- "Interview" (role game interviews with various "characters" media text - with an emphasis
on ideological and philosophical issues);
- role game: "press conference" with authors of media text ("writer", "director", "actors",
"producer" and others.) with question about ideology an philosophy of authors’ ideas;
- role game on "international meeting of media criticism" (the analysis of a various
ideological and philosophical aspects of the media and media texts);
Media audiences:
- Advertising campaign, media text sale to potential buyers (publishers, TV-channels) in view
of its ideological and / or philosophical orientation;
In fact, the role game activities complement and enrich students’ skills acquired during the
literary analytical game workshops.
Graphic-cycle simulation creative tasks for ideological and philosophical analysis of media
texts in the classroom at the student audience:
Media agencies:
- create draw comics on the topic of search hypothetical sponsors for media project with
ideological / philosophical orientation.
- create a series of drawings on the theme of the situation related to the closure or
prohibition of a particular source of media (newspapers, magazine, transfer, film), a political media
company for / against this or that politician.
- work with ideological stereotypes (the audience is invited to fill in the appropriate table).
Media technologies:
- create a comics on the topic of how the use of different media technologies may be due to
ideological influence.
Media languages:
- Analysis of the frame (photos, posters, advertising posters) from ideological and
philosophical point of view.
- read scenic line (for example: "He goes into the crowd of anti-war demonstrations, without
noticing the approaching Police ..."). Training (using sheets-frame) series of frames "the film
adaptation of this scenic line;
- create advertising, posters, collages or dioramas on the ideological, political, philosophical
theme based on texts and images clippings from old newspapers / magazines with additional drawings;
Media audiences:
- create cartoon comic based on those or other media texts on political, ideological,
philosophical theme, intended for adult audiences;
- create visual media texts on political or philosophical theme, intended for a specific
audience, foreseeing how the audience might react to such products.
The next series of media literacy education classes is problematic group discussions about
media texts in terms of their ideology and philosophy. There can be used the following tasks:
- comparison of media critics’ reviews and discussion, associated with the problems of the
median ideology and philosophy;
- preparing essays devoted to the ideological, philosophical problems of media culture;
9
- group discussions (with the help of problem questions of the teacher) about a media texts
with an emphasis on ideological orientation and philosophical concepts;
- students’ reviews about specific media texts of different types and genres, taking into
account their ideological orientation and philosophical concepts.
The logic of these creative tasks comes from the fact that the critical analysis of media
texts begins with an introduction to the works of critics' community professionals (reviews,
theoretical articles, monographs devoted to media culture and specific media texts), in which
the audience can judge the different approaches and forms of this type of work.
The audience is looking for answers to the following problem questions: "What is the
author of the review see the advantages and disadvantages of media texts, especially his
philosophy and ideology?", "How deep reviewers penetrate the philosophical and / or
ideological intention of the author?", "Do you agree or not with certain ideological, political
reviewers’ assessments? Why?”, etc.
Then – the works on the essay on the ideology and philosophy of media sphere. And only
then - an independent discussion about media texts.
Workshops on skills of critical analysis of media texts are aimed primarily at the ideological
and philosophical aspects, the ability to apply this knowledge in new teaching situations.
The general scheme of a debate:
- introduction (the goal: to give brief information about the creators of media texts, remind
their previous work, refer to other works of these authors, if there is a need to dwell on the
ideological, political, philosophical the context of the event, in any case, without touching the
ratings the author's position, and, of course, not retelling the plot of the work);
- "reading" of media text (communicative phase);
- discussion about media text, conclusions.
The questions for ideological and philosophical analysis of the functioning of media in
society and media texts [Silverblatt, 2001, pp.42-43; Fedorov, 2004, pp.43-51; Fedorov, 2006,
pp. 175-228]:
Media agencies:
Do you know who owns this or other companies that produce, buy and sell media / media
texts? Why Are?
The agency determines the target audience for a media text?
Can the agency "create" your audience?
On what parameters need to evaluate media messages (political, social, moral, philosophical,
artistic, etc.)?
Can the media artificially create pseudo-events? If yes, please give specific examples.
Is it possible to absolute objectivity views creators of media texts?
Are there visible signs of deviant behavior, sexism, conformity, anxiety, stereotyped thinking,
conflict of generations, etc.?
Media Audiences:
Why the audience takes some media representations as true and reject others as false?
Can the media to influence the development of political processes in the society? If so, how?
As (for whatever reason) the audience usually chooses / buys media texts?
As the choice of audience affects the strategy, style, and content of media texts?
audience?
Conclusion
This article presented the main directions for Ideological and Philosophical Analysis of the
functioning of media in society and media texts on media education classes for student audience,
including the examples of creative problems and issues associated with this type of the analysis in
the context of media education problems, i.e. based on six key concepts of media literacy
education: agency, category, language, technology, audience, representation. The author supposes
that the Ideological and Philosophical Analysis of the functioning of media in society and media
10
texts on media education classes can significantly develop media competence of students, including
students' critical thinking.
References:
2. Beyer, B.K. (1984). Improving Thinking Skills. Phi Delta Kappan, 1984. Vol. 65. N 8, p. 56.
3. Buckingham, D. (1990). Media Education: From Pedagogy to Practice. In: Buckingham,
D. (Ed.). Watching Media Learning. Making Sense of Media Education. London – New York –
Philadelphia: The Falmer Press, pp.3-15.
№ 4, pp. 43-51.
7. Lacis, A., Keylina, L. (1928). Children and movies. Moscow: Teakinopechat, 88 p.
11. Masterman, L. (1998a). 18 Principles of Media Education. In:
http://www.screen.com/mnet/eng/med/class/support/mediacy/edec/masterman.htm
12. Masterman, L. (1998b). Media Education Revolution. In: Hart, A. (Ed.). Teaching the
Media. International Perspectives. Mahwah, New Jersey – London: Lawrence Erlbaum Assoc.
Publishers, p.x.
13. Masterman, L. (2000). New Paradigms and Directions. Telemedium. Journal of Media
literacy. Vol. 46. N 1, p.7.
14. Potter, W.J. (2001). Media Literacy. Thousand Oaks – London: Sage Publication, 423 p.
17. Uritzky, N.C. (1954). Cinema in extracurricular activities. Moscow, 120 p.
УДК 1
Идеологический и философский анализ функционирования медиа в обществе

и медиатекстов на медиаобразовательных занятиях

Аннотация. Идеологический и философский анализ – это анализ идеологических,

философских аспектов медийной сфере. Теоретической основой здесь становится
идеологическая теория медиа: предполагается, что средства массовой информации могут
сознательно влиять на общественное мнение, в том числе в интересах определенных
социальных классов, рас или нации. Педагогическая стратегия медиаобразования сводится
тут к изучению политических, философских, социальных и экономических аспектов
национальных средств массовой коммуникации, к анализу многочисленных противоречий,
которые содержат эти вопросы с точки зрения конкретного класса, расы, религии или нации.
11
В этом случае, аудитория должна быть в состоянии определить: различия между медийными
образами и известными фактами; надежность источника; точность определения; верные и
неверные утверждения; разницу между первичной и вторичной информацией, утверждением;
пристрастность суждения; неопределенность и неоднозначность дискуссии; логическую
несостоятельность в цепи рассуждений; силу аргумента.
Ключевые слова: идеологический и философский анализ, медиа, медиатексты,
медиаобразование, медиаграмотность, медиакомпетентность, студенты.
12

European Researcher
ISSN 2219-8229
E-ISSN 2224-0136
Vol. 101, Is. 12, pp. 775-782, 2015
DOI: 10.13187/er.2015.101.775
www.erjournal.ru
Pedagogical sciences
UDC 37
The Mass and Individual Terror in the Mirror of the Soviet and Russian Cinema
(the Feature Films of the Sound Period) and Media Literacy Education
Alexander Fedorov
Anton Chekhov Taganrog Institute, Russian Federation

branch of Rostov State University of Economics
Abstract
This article gives the way for hermeneutic analysis of the topic of the mass and individual
terror in the mirror of the Soviet and Russian cinema (the feature films of the sound period). The
hermeneutical analysis suggests media text comprehension through comparison with historical,
cultural tradition and reality; penetration of its logic; through comparison of media images in
historical and cultural context by combining historical, hermeneutical analysis of the structural,
plot, ethical, ideological, iconographic / visual, media stereotypes and analysis of media text
characters. An analysis of this kind of media texts, in our opinion, is particularly important for
media literacy education of future historians, culture and art historians, sociologists, psychologists
and educators.
Keywords: terror, Russian cinema, films, hermeneutical analysis, Soviet, USSR, film
studies, media texts, media literacy, media education, information literacy.
Introduction
Proceeding from the research that was devoted to different aspects of the Theory and History
of Cinema-Art, as one of the branches of the Theory and History of Art, we can make a conclusion:
the analysis of the theme of terror and terrorism in the Russian cinema remains uncharted; no
existing school book, monographs or thesis contain a chapter devoted to this vital question.
This article gives the way for hermeneutic analysis of the topic of the mass and individual terror in
the mirror of the Russian cinema (the feature films of the sound period). The hermeneutical
analysis suggests media text comprehension through comparison with historical, cultural tradition
and reality; penetration of its logic; through comparison of media images in historical and cultural
context by combining historical, hermeneutical analysis of the structural, plot, ethical, ideological,
iconographic / visual, media stereotypes and analysis of media text characters. An analysis of this
kind of media texts, in our opinion, is particularly important for media literacy education of future
775
historians, culture and art historians, sociologists, psychologists and educators. An analysis of this
historians, culture and art historians, sociologists, linguists, psychologists and educators.

The main materials for this article was the area: the books, articles and films about the theme
of terror and terrorism in the Soviet and Russian cinema. I used also the method of hermeneutic
analysis of the cultural context of media texts (Eco, 1976; Silverblatt, 2001). This method connected
with the key concepts of media literacy education (media agencies, media categories, media
language, media technologies, media representations, media audiences etc.).
I have these objectives:
- to define the place and role of the theme of mass & individual terror in the Russian cinema
art of the sound period;
- to study a social, cultural, political and ideological context, main stages of the evolution of
the theme of the course in Soviet and Russian cinema, directions, aims, tasks of the development of
this theme, basic authors' concepts of Soviet and Russian feature films of the 1930's-1990's, where
to some extent the theme of mass & individual terror is touched upon;
- the analysis and the classification of the model of contents, genre modifications, stylistic
aspects of the Russian cinema art of sound period, dealing with the terror theme (the classics in the
history of Russian cinema - the works of Friedrich Ermler, Mikhail Romm, Leo Arnshtam, etc. and
films that haven't been analyzed yet - made in the 1980s-1990s as well).
Discussion
At present the Theory and History of Art, Cinema art lacks researches, monographs, devoted
to the theme of mass & individual terror in Russian cinema of the sound period (1930s-'90s).
The researches of Russian specialists in the Theory and History of Arts were until now devoted to
such traditional themes as 'historically-revolutional', 'heroic-patriotic', war, etc. In this theme
context films of 1930s-1940s were viewed, in this or that degree concerning our topic, for example,
works by I. Dolinsky, S. Ginsbourg, N. Lebedev, A. Groshev, V. Zhdan, N. Tumanova, L. Belova, etc.
The theme of terror as a separate theme was not regarded in the published works analyzing films of
the 1950s-1990s either (N. Zorkaja, L. Annensky, Y. Bogomolov, V. Demin, I. Waisfeld,
G. Kapralov, M. Turovskaja, K. Raslogov, etc.). Therefore, no Russian research claimed to have a
special analysis of the theme of mass and individual terror in the Russian cinema art.
Thus, the problem of the course is, for the first time in the Theory & History of Art, to study,
analyze and make it a system of evolution of the interpretations of the themes of terror and
terrorism in Russian cinema-art of the XXth century, taking into consideration the social &
cultural, political & ideological context, types of plot schemes and characters, basic authors'
concepts of the themes of mass & individual terror, peculiarities of the artistic style.
The chronological framework: the sound period of the Russian cinema-art /since 1931/ till the
present day.
The general social & cultural context, within the limits of which the problem is, is the
following: Mass and individual terror is one of the most dreadful crimes of the XXth century.
During its biggest part of existence, the Russian cinema-art touched upon the theme of terrorism.
In different years the interpretations of the terrorists' action were not only different, but quite
opposite too. For instance, in the early 1930s-1970s the activity of Russian Communists Special
police (V.C.K.) was interpreted positively, in the end of 1980s & 1990s V.C.K. was shown as the
organization that headed the mass terror. In the films made in the '60s (Sofia Perovskaya by Leo
Arnshtam, etc.) about individual revolutionary terror, the main characters were treated
sympathetically, while in the films of the 1990s (screen versions of the novels by Boris Savinkov,
etc.) individual terror is unequivocally turned down.
No doubt, the terrorism theme was never a leading one in Russian cinema art, despite the
fact that for some political, economic, and military reasons in the Russian society of the '90s,
terrorism began to increase threateningly. Cinema in different genres (drama, thriller, detective
story or a comedy and parody) began to turn to the problem of this course more and more often.
776
Results
1. The mass and individual terror in the mirror of the Soviet and Russian cinema: the Stage
of the 1930s.
The aims: to define the place and role of the theme of mass & individual terror in the Russian
cinema art of 1930s; to study the social, cultural, political, ideological context, directions, aims and
tasks of the development of this theme, model of contents of films on the topic, their genre
modifications, authors viewpoints and stylistics.
The 1930s are one of the most complicated, contradictory and contrasting periods in the
history of the Russian film industry (Turovskaya, 1989). Directors – socialist realists had to bless
and sometimes glorify mass repression of 'public enemies’, in a word aid adoption of the ideological
myths of Stalinism into mass consciousness (Turovskaya, 1989; Urenev, 1997). The totalitarian
system realized the political & ideological importance of the theme of terror. Though it didn't
occupy the leading place in the Russian cinema, its propaganda role was rather big. With the help
of a screen, the necessity of the 'revolutionary terror' towards 'class enemies', 'alien elements', etc.
was put into the heads of millions of Russians. Such films became the apparent basis for the
adoption of Stalin's thesis saying that as socialism develops, the class struggle should grow and
become violent...
General social, cultural, political & ideological context of the 1930s:
- mass terror in the totalitarian regime towards peasants that lead to the hunger in early
1930s;
- total abolition of the private property (that was revitalized during the Russian
communist's New Economic Policy of the 1920s;
- intensive industrialization (mainly of heavy and military industries) at the cost of
enormous efforts of people);
- mass repression of millions of Russians - from the lowest to the highest strata of society;
- intensive adoption of communism with the intensive repression of the Christian
ideology;
- intensive militarization of the country, unleashing war conflicts.
The film industry that touched upon the terror theme to support the main lines of the state
policy of the Stalin's regime, was set strict propaganda tasks which served as the basis for the film
authors' conceptions:
- to prove that Bolsheviks' enemies camouflage themselves and are ready to make an act of
terrorism any minute to seize power;
- to show that terror towards the public enemies is justified and inevitable;
- to convince viewers that anyone of their family, relatives, neighbors and friends can turn
out to be a 'class enemy', who must be revealed and destroyed.
Genre modifications: on the whole the genre is that of a drama (war epic, historical). The
style of such films was determined by the strict rules of so-called 'socialistic realism': instead of the
experimental (especially in the form) film production of the '20s, the style of the ordinary, everyday
life (in fact, often embellished) emerged with its consistent plot, theatrical performance of actors...
The dominating models of film plots: terror of Bolsheviks towards the so-called 'class
enemies' and 'public enemies' and vice versa (The Great Citizen by F. Ermler, Aerograd' by A.
Dovzhenko, The Party Card by I. Pyriev, Lenin in 1918 by M. Romm, etc.). The latter film by
Romm had a mission to justify mass repression (Urenev, 1997). As far as films about
collectivization are concerned, in such films a dramatic stereotype exists: 'poor peasants at once
realize the advantages of a collective farm, middle class peasants hesitate, 'kulaks' (rich farmers)
undertake sabotage and murders with the help of White Guard officers, foreign spies, priests and
salesmen coming from the blue (Urenev, 1997).
Even children's films of Stalin's period were swarming with enemies. In the 1930s, when
Stalin destroyed peasantry, enemies were usually 'kulaks', White Guards, who helped spies &
saboteurs. The great support for enemies of the Soviet regime was clergy because at that time
thousands of Russian new martyrs were killed by the godless power.
of the 1940s.
777
cinema art of 1940's; to study the social, cultural, political, ideological context, directions, aims and
tasks of the development of this theme, model of contents of films on the topic, their genre
modifications, authors viewpoints, stylistics, the differences from the stage of 1930's.
At the beginning of the war with the Nazis, Germany has visibly changed the social, cultural &
ideological context, against which the Russian film industry developed. Class struggle and the
struggle with religion stepped back, there was no mass repression against farmers, the leading
place was taken by the struggle with fascists (the Germany with which Stalin had previously set
friendly relationships).
General social, cultural, political & ideological context of 1940s:
- hostilities on the territory of Russia from 1941 to 1944 and the war in the Eastern Europe
& in the Far East in 1944-1945;
- mass terror of Nazis towards the Russians on the occupied territories (concentration
camps, mass shootings, etc.);
- intense development of war industry, re-equipment of many plants to serve military
purposes at the cost of peoples' efforts;
- adoption of the communism ideology to patriotic slogans;
- establishment of totalitarian regimes, that were totally dependent on the Kremlin almost
in all the countries of the Eastern Europe in the late 1940s;
- intense reconstruction of the Russian post-war economics in the late '40s;
- come-back of mass repression in the late 1940s - early 1950s (struggle with
cosmopolitanism, anti-Semitic campaign, etc.);
The film industry, dealing with the terror theme to support the main policy of the Stalin's
regime of the 1940s, was set the following propaganda tasks, which made up the basis for the
artistic conceptions of film authors:
- to show that the Nazis terrorize Russian people and want to make them slaves;
- to convince the audience that return terror is justified & necessary to win the war;
- to convince the audience that one should be on alert, because Nazi agents & saboteurs
who may be nearby; must be disclosed & destroyed;
Genre modifications: generally a drama (war, historical). The style of these films is not much
different from those of the previous decade, however there's more realism in showing war in
everyday life. The dominating models of film plots: terror of the Nazis towards the Russians
(shootings, executions, tortures, etc.), return terror of the Russians (partisan raids, spies, shootings
of the Nazis, etc.) towards the Germans (Rainbow by M. Donskoy, Zoya by L. Arnshtam, The
Young Guard by S. Gerasimov, etc.).
The playwright stereotype: Nazis destroy the peaceful, unruffled, happy life of people and
capturing a town or a village they begin mass terror towards the population, including women and
children, drive Russians away to Germany for hard labor, etc. People begin to struggle with
enemies: in the army, in partisan groups, in secret organizations. In passing spies & saboteurs,
traitors are disclosed... The only exception was the film by Sergei Eisenstein 'Ivan the Terrible' in
which the merciless and bloody repressive state mechanism was shown, 'Oprichnina' (Special tsar’s
police) terrorizing Russia by the tzar's will. (Ivan the Terrible who turned into a dictator at the cost
of thousands of lives of his subjects.) All this was in fact an allegorical representation of Russian
reality of the 1930s-1940s. No wonder that the second part of the film, were Eisenstein's protest
against terror & totalitarian power was evident, was prohibited by Stalin's regime...
of the 1950s - Early 1980s.
cinema art of 1950s - early 1980s; to study the social, cultural, political, ideological context,
directions, aims and tasks of the development of this theme, model of contents of films on the
topic, their genre modifications, authors viewpoints, stylistics. The differences from the stage of
1930s and 1940s.
The following stage may be divided into two main periods – Khrushchev’s 'thaw' (middle
1950s – middle 1960s) and Brezhnev's 'stagnation' (late 1960s – early 1980s). However with all
differences & peculiarities of these periods, the cinema version of the theme of mass & individual
778
terror was approximately the same: terror as it is was condemned, however the attitude towards
the so-called 'revolutionary terror' was rather sympathetic...
General social, cultural, political & ideological background of the 1950s - early 1980s:
- rejection of the class struggle within the country, declaration of the creation of the united
Soviet people, who had no national, ethnic, class or race problems;
- official rejection of the idea of the world revolution & dictatorship of the proletariat;
declaration of the policy of 'peaceful coexistence of socialistic and capitalistic systems', keeping the
so-called 'ideological struggle';
- liquidation of mass terror of the state against its own citizens, preserving local struggle
with people who had their own opinion (B. Pasternak, A. Saharov, A. Solzhenitsyn and others);
- continuation of the industrialization (mainly of the hard & military industries). In fact
rates of this development slowed down and it took less people's efforts; until the beginning of the
'80s, when crisis tendencies in the ineffective plans of the state economics began to show up
because of the fall in oil prices;
- continuation of the intense adaptation of the communism ideology (in its new Lenin-
orientated, post-Stalin variant), struggle with Christian ideology is less intense;
- continuation of the intense militarization of the country, unleashing war conflicts (in
Africa and Asia), intervention in Hungary (1956) Czechoslovakia (1968); supporting militaries,
including communist regimes in the 3rd world countries.
The film industry that touched upon the theme of terror to support the state policy of the
authoritarian Soviet regime was set the following propaganda tasks that served as the basis for the
conceptions of author's of a film:
- to show that terror during the Civil War was forced and led to people's sufferings;
- to ignore or at least to conceal the true scale of mass terror in the 1930s, concentrating
mainly on the theme of war terror in the 1940s;
- to convince the audience that the so-called 'revolutionary terror of Bolsheviks' was made
with noble aims, and terrorists themselves were honest, true to their noble ideals, protectors of the
rights of oppressed people;
- to condemn terrorists who highjack planes, ships and blow up bombs.
Genre modifications: drama (war, historical), western (seldom 'eastern'), - tragic comedy,
melodrama. The style of the majority of such films was no more determined by the laws of
socialistic realism. Along with very much traditional screen versions of Quiet Flows the Don, The
Road of Sorrows and Optimistic Tragedy some daring adventure films like Elusive Avengers and
sometimes quite murderous westerns (“eastern”) by Samvel Gasparov appeared on the screen. In
the latter films the action took place during the Civil War in Russia and mutual hatred of the
fighting sides was shown as the inevitable genre rules of the game. The destruction of dozens of
people was shown as some circus performance with fountains of blood.
The appearance of milder models of the interpretations of the terror, which lack the
aggressive mercilessness and explicitly of the models of the 1930's-1940's; terror towards the class
enemies is still regarded as a positive one. However, often the accent is put on it being forced,
temporal and sometimes even mistaken.
The dominating models of the film plots: terror towards the so-called 'enemies' (domestic &
foreign) and terror of enemies against the authorities, its representatives & peaceful population.
The playwright stereotype of the films on the 'historical-revolutionary' topic: the poor are
enthusiastic about the new rule by Bolsheviks, 'middle class' and intellectuals are uncertain; terror,
blood and war frighten them. But in the long run they understand, that Bolsheviks took repressive
actions unwillingly in the name of the future happy life of working people. Thus, those who had
doubts, begin to understand the rightness of the theory of revolutionary terror and dictatorship of
proletariat (The Road of Sorrows, etc.).
Special gratitude is given by the authors of films to Special Commission VCK (Special Police
Service); men who, with 'clean hands', with fire and sword burn the 'enemy infections' (that is,
millions of people) out of the Russian land (The Operation 'Trust', Peters, Born by the Revolution,
The Failure, The Failure of the Operation 'Terror', December, 20, etc.). An attempt by Alexander
Askoldov in his drama Commissar' to disclose the true tragedy of the Civil War and antihuman
nature of terror was mercilessly suppressed: the film was banned for 20 years. The same happened
to Alexei German (by the way, only hinted, coded) attempt to show in his film My Friend Ivan
779
Lapshin the work of the Special Policemen in the 1930s. Among the films that showed terror in its
most dramatic & true nature was Run (based on the novel by Mikhail Bulgakov) and The Slave of
Love...
The playwright stereotype of WWII films stayed nearly the same that in the 1940s but more
true-to-life. For example, in the film Spiritually Strong, methods of the individual terror which
were used against the Nazis during the WWII by the Russian secret agent Kuznetsov, were
absolutely justified while his terror acts against the Nazi officers had a reversed effect: for each
Nazi officer that was killed by Kuznetsov, fascists shot a hundred of Russians...
In films Sofia Perovskaya and Executed at Dawn, terrorists who attempted to kill the
Russian tsar were shown with sympathy. But in the The Sixth of July, the act of terrorism by the
left-wing socialist-revolutionists, who killed the German ambassador in 1918 was condemned...
Even more condemned were terrorist activities of the famous leader of socialists-
revolutionists Boris Savinkov in films, as The Failure and Operation 'Trust'... Of course, pure
criminal terrorism (The Pirates of the XX Century, The Fight in Snow-Storm) was condemned too.
Though in the early 1980s in the film A Story of a Stranger), perhaps for the first time in the
Russian film industry, not only the expediency of revolutionary individual terror, but also the
moral qualities of revolutionists themselves were brought in question (it goes without saying that
the main character was not a Bolshevik…).
In short, certain changes happened in the attitude towards the theme of the terror in the
cinema, even though the clichés of the 1930s-1940s milder models of showing terror reappeared.
They lacked the furious mercilessness and flatness of the models of the 1930s-1940s. Terror
towards class enemies is still shown positively. However, the accent is on its forced, temporary and
sometimes erroneous nature.
of the late 1980s - 1990s and begin of 2000s.
cinema art of the late 1980s -1990s and begin of 2000s; to study the social, cultural, political,
ideological context, directions, aims and tasks of the development of this theme, model of contents
of films on the topic, their genre modifications, authors viewpoints, stylistics. The differences from
the stage of 1930s, 1940s, 1950s-1970s.
This stage can be divided into two main periods - Gorbachev's 'Perestroika' (1985-1991) and
Yeltsin's reforms (1992-nowadays). These periods are different from each other in many ways.
They are similar, however, in condemning the individual and mass terror, whatever form it takes.
General social, cultural, political and ideological background of the late 1980s -1990s and
begin of 2000s:
First Period
- Gorbachev's declaration of 'Perestroika' and 'Glasnost', democracy, freedom of speech
and improvement of socialism;
- official blame of mass and individual terror and rehabilitation of millions of innocent
people who were convicted and imprisoned or shot;
- rejection of the ideological struggle and withdrawal of the troops from Afghanistan,
declaration of the policy of disarmament;
- gradual rejection of the censorship and free exchange of people & ideas between the
USSR and Western countries;
- economic and ideological crisis which led, in the long run, to the attempt of a
conservative upheaval in the summer of 1991;
- the decay of the Soviet Union in 1991;
Second Period.
- the beginning of the economic reforms, the revival of the private property, 'shock
therapy'; sudden division of the society between the few rich and many poor people;
- an attempt of coup-d'etat in the autumn of 1993;
- the crisis of reforms; the war in Chechnya, an attempt to solve economic problems with
the help of money borrowed from the West; decay of the Russian industry;
- At this point, as the censorship was practically abolished, film producers got an
opportunity for the first time to turn to the most vital themes that were banned before, such as the
theme of mass terror and repression during the communism regime.
780
- stabilization of Russian economics in 2000-2007;

- new economic crisis from 2008.
Below is the approximate list of ideas that served as the basis for the authors' conceptions of
films on the topic of the mass and individual terror in the mirror of Russian cinema:
- terror during the civil war, as the fratricidal war itself was the tragedy of the Russian
people;
- mass terror of the 1920s – early 1950s was the consequence of an anti-human policy of
Lenin and Stalin;
- terror, whatever form it takes, can not be justified, neither can be the ideology that gave
start to it.
Genre modifications: drama (war, historical), western, tragic comedy, melodrama, comedy,
parable. The styles are also different. Besides traditional realism (The Sign of Misfortune, The Law,
Nikolai Vavilov', etc.) some grotesque, ironical films are made (The Feasts of Valtasar, 10 Years
without the Right of Correspondence, etc.), and there is an exquisite stylization of the visual
manner, as in 'The Late Stalinism' (Moscow Parade). Shocking films, that show mass terror and
violence really close, appear (Go and Watch, From Hell to Hell).
Dominating models of a plot:
- mass terror of Nazis during the Second World War and terror of the Communism regime
towards its own citizens as well, destroyed human personality, turned people into hangmen and
victims of the totalitarian dictatorship (Go and Watch, From Hell to Hell, Advocate Sedov, Enemy
of People - Bukharin, etc.). This model showed itself especially visibly in the films about mass
deportations of Caucasian people in the 1940s (A Golden Cloud Slept, Coldness, A Road to the
Edge of a Life);
- an ordinary man, trying not to be involved in politics becomes a victim of Stalin's terror
and is imprisoned in a concentration camp. Only there does he realize the anti-human character of
the communist regime (Coma, Lost in Siberia, What a Wonderful Game, etc.), or people who
believe in the justice of the communist ideas one day from experience the Stalin terror themselves,
but they see it clearly only too late (Tomorrow Was the War, Inner Circle, Burnt by the Sun');
- 'Revolutionary terror' and 'ideological terror' attracts people with the aggressive desire of
power in the first place, psychos who this way or the other, want to leave their bloody trace in
history (Tsar’s Murderer, Trotsky, Romanov - the Tsar’s Family, Plumbum, Special Police Officer,
Made in the USSR, etc.);
- a common man of the second half of the XXth century goes to serve in the army (or finds
himself in the prison or a work camp), where he comes across cruel terror not very different from
that of the Nazis or Stalin's (No Limits, The Guard, The Reed Paradise, Do - one!', etc.);
- in the streets of today's Russian cities mobs terrorize people, the authorities can do
nothing, a hero alone fights against thugs (A Day of Love, Wild Beach, etc.);
- terrorists highjack planes, buses, and ships. Courageous and strong heroes disarm them
(Crazy Bus, Gangsters in the Ocean, etc.).
Thus, at this stage films where terror is categorically disapproved as antihuman method
appear more and more often; films in which mass and individual terror is condemned no matter
whose side is using it.
Conclusions
The topic of the mass and individual terror in the mirror of the Soviet and Russian cinema-
art (the feature films of the sound period)' is important for Russian students, for example, - future
pedagogues, because Russian society needs the true History of Modern Screen-Arts. During the
analysis of the scientific literature and concrete works of Russian cinema art of the 1930s-1990s-
2000s, touching upon the theme of terrorism, students will know the aims and tasks (political,
ideological, moral, aesthetic, etc.), plot, genre models, basic authors concepts of various
interpretations of this theme in Russian cinema. And when students finish the university, they will
teach pupils the true History of Russian Cinema-Art, including the theme 'Mass and Individual
Terror'.
The results will have a practical significance for the Theory and History of cinema-art. The
course of the lecture 'The Mass and Individual Terror in the Mirror of the Russian cinema-art (The
Feature Films of the Sound Period)' may be used for the study of the History of cinema art by
781
scholars in the sphere of Arts and by students of the specials courses in Universities – for the
development of the creative personality of a student, his faculties for the perception, interpretation,
analysis and the appraisal of the author's position in a film. On this basis, the eagerness of a future
teacher for the education of pupils, with the help of the screen arts, is forming.
The aims of the seminar for the students are:
- to see the most typical Soviet and Russian films with the theme of mass or individual
terror;
- to discuss these films with students in the political and social and cultural context.
- the development of the creative & critic mentality of students, their faculties for the
perception, interpretation, analysis and the appraisal of the author's position in the film. On this
basis the eagerness of future teachers for the education of pupils, with the help of the screen arts, is
forming.
- the collective discussion of the film(s): the artistic analysis of the film(s) - the
consideration of the episodes' contents, with the maximum brightness embodying the typical
conformity to natural laws of the film on the whole; the analysis of the logic of author's mentality;
the definition of the author's conception and the basis of the personal attitude of students to that or
another position of the creators of the film(s).
The typical questions:
What is the culmination's episodes of the film? What is the main film conflict? What is the
hero's character? What is the author's conception of this film? What is the author's position about
mass or individual terror? What is the difference between the interpretation of theme of mass &
individual terror in the Soviet and Russian cinema of 1930's, 1940's, 1950s-1970s, 1980s, 1990s, etc.
The criteria of studying the cinema-art's development of a student audience:
- the sensory criterion: the frequency of the association with the cinema art, the skill to
orientate themselves in their stream - that is to choose favorite genres, themes and so on;
- the understanding criterion: the knowledge of the history of Russian cinema art, concrete
works of the cinematograph, including films with the theme of Mass and Individual terror;
- criterion of the motivation: the emotional, hedonistic, compensatory, aesthetic and other
motives of the contact with the cinema art;
- the appraisal, interpretative criterion: the level of the perception, the faculty for the
audiovisual thinking, the independent critical analysis and synthesis of the space and time form of
the narration of the cinema art's work (including , the identification with the hero and author, the
understanding and appraisement of the author's conception;
- the creative criterion: the level of the creative basis in the different aspects of the activity,
first of all - perceptional, aesthetic, analytical.
Basing on the different classifications of the standards of the aesthetic perception, suggested
in the researches, and connected with the problems of the Media education, I came to the following
variant, corresponding to the aims and tasks of my program: the standard of the ''initial
identification'': the emotional, psychological coherence with the screen environment and the plot
/bond of the events/ of the narration; the standard of the ''second identification'': the identification
with the hero of the work of a cinema art; the standard of the ''complex identification'': the
identification with the author of the work of the cinema art, preserving the ''initial'' /primary/ and
''secondary'' identification /with the following interpretation/.
References:
Silverblatt, A. (2001). Media Literacy. Westport, Connecticut. London: Praeger.
2. Turovskaja, M., et al. (1989). Cinema of totalitarian epoch. Moscow.
3. Urenev, R. (1997). Soviet cinema art of 1930-s. Moscow: VGIK.
782
J. Int. Netw. Cent. Fundam. Appl. Res., 2016, Vol. (7), Is. 1

Journal of International Network Center
for Fundamental and Applied Research
ISSN 2411-3239
E-ISSN 2413-7588
Vol. 7, Is. 1, pp. 15-28, 2016
DOI: 10.13187/jincfar.2016.7.15
www.ejournal36.com
UDC 94
The Image of the White Movement in the Soviet Films of 1930s–1940s
Alexander Fedorov

Russian Federation
Doctor of Pedagogical Sciences, Professor
Abstract
This article gives the way for hermeneutic analysis of the topic of the White movement in the
mirror of the Soviet cinema (1930s-1940s, the feature films of the sound period). The
hermeneutical analysis suggests media text comprehension through comparison with historical,
cultural tradition and reality; penetration of its logic; through comparison of media images in
historical and cultural context by combining historical, hermeneutical analysis of the structural,
plot, ethical, ideological, iconographic / visual, media stereotypes and analysis of media text
characters. An analysis of this kind of media texts, in our opinion, is particularly important for
and educators. Thus, the comparative analysis of plot schemes, characters, and ideology of the
Soviet sound films of 1930s-1940s, in varying degrees of affecting the subject of the White
movement, leads to the conclusion about the essential similarity of their media stereotypes.
Content analysis of screen media texts of 1930s -1940s on the topic related to the White movement
allows generally to submit their basic narrative schemes as follows: cruel and treacherous,
cowardly and cunning Whites and their allies are trying to overthrow the Bolshevik power by all
means available to them (military / or guerrilla action, intervention, rebellion, terrorism,
espionage, bribery, etc.), but they tolerate the inevitable defeat.
Keywords: white movement, soviet cinema, films, hermeneutical analysis, Russian, USSR,
film studies, media texts, media literacy.
Introduction
White movement played an important role in the Russian history of the XX century. It was a
military-political movement fighting for an alternative version of the development of our country
after the coming of the Bolsheviks to power. “According to the Soviet tradition, the White
movement was interpreted rather broadly, as all the anti-Bolshevik forces in 1918-1924, whose
allies were foreign invaders. Under this largely propaganda term, it fell not only white government
and the army, members of the Cadet Party and the monarchists, but also socialists, supporters of
the so-called "democratic counter-revolution", as well as "green", as one of the forces of the anti-
Soviet insurgency” [Volkov, 2008]. But in the strict sense of the term "White movement was a
military and socio-political movement, basing on liberal values and a military dictatorship, as the
15
means to end the country's structural crisis. The ideology of the white government personified the
liberal type of modernization of the country with elements of authoritarianism in the crisis of
society" [Volkov, 2008].
In the 1990 there was a huge surge of interest in the history of the White movement.
However, until now the main focus of researchers and publicists was concentrated exclusively upon
the political history" [Volkov, 2009, p.3]. The analysis of screen interpretations of the White
movement was episodic [Bagadasaryan, 2003; Volkov, 2008].
Thus, the research problem stems from the contradiction between the relatively more
scientific designed ideological, political science and historical aspects of the Civil War and the
movement of the White associated with it [Barsenkov, Vdovin, 2005; Zimin, 2006; Kara-Murza,
2003; Kenez, 2007; Kirmel, 2008; Polyakov, 1992; Slobodin, 1996; Tsvetkov, 2000; 2002;
Shambarov, 2002, and others], and also insufficient attention of scientists to the evolution of the
image of the White movement in the cinema of sound period.
Studies Russian film researchers were still focused on the traditional "historical-
revolutionary", "heroic and patriotic", military, etc. topics. For example, in this way it was analyzed
films of the 1930s-1940s in the writings of Film "conservative" school stood on the positions of the
so-called "socialist realism" (S. Ginsburg, A. Groshev, I. Dolinsky, V. Zhdan, N. Lebedev,
N. Tumanova et al.). This topic is not considered separately and in the works of the famous Russian
historians and theorists of cinematic art "liberal" direction 1950s-1990s (L. Anninsky,
Y. Bogomolov, I. Vaysfeld, V. Demin, N. Zorkaya, K. Razlogov , M. Turovskaya et al.).
Thus, it seems to be urgent to explore, organize, and analyze the evolution of interpretations
of the theme of the White movement in the Soviet film industry, taking into account the socio-
cultural, political and ideological context of typology of plot diagrams and characters in the movie,
the key concepts of copyright, etc.

The main materials for this article were the area: the books, articles and films about the
theme of White movement in the Soviet and Russian cinema. I used also the method of
hermeneutic analysis of the cultural context of media texts (Eco, 1976; Silverblatt, 2001).
Purpose of research: by comparative analysis give a coherent response, open features, and
determine the place, role and ideological significance of the theme of the evolution of the image of
the White movement in the Soviet cinema of sound period.
The object of research: the development of the theme of the image of the White movement in
the cinema of sound period.
Subject of research: the evolution of the main ideological concepts and stereotypes theme of
transformation of the image of the White movement in the Soviet cinema sound period 1930s.
This implies the following tasks:
- To determine the place and role of the theme of the evolution of the image of the White
movement in the cinema of sound period of 1930s-1940s;
- To examine the political, ideological, social, cultural context, the main stages of the project
stated in the theme, direction, motivation, foundation, goals, objectives, author's interpretation of
the concept of the subject in the cinema in different periods of history;
- To reveal the bulk of media texts (films), in varying degrees, relevant to the stated theme;
- To carry out the classification and comparative analysis of ideology, content models,
modifications of the genre, functions stereotypes of Soviet cinema (including: the analysis of
stereotypes, ideological analysis, tracking analysis, iconographic analysis, scene analysis, the
characters, and others.) associated with the treatment image of the Russian White movement, to
draw the conclusions about the lessons of this kind of political analysis.
- To characterize trends of perception and audience reaction on the onscreen images of the
White movement.
The methodology of our research consisted of the key philosophical positions about the
connection, interdependence and integrity of the phenomena of reality, historical and social unity
in cognition. The main philosophical methodological concept study - the theory of cultural dialogue
of M. Bakhtin & V. Bibler - based works on cultural mythology and memory J. Assmann (2004),
P. Berger (1995), and Y. Lotman (1999). We relied on substantial research approach (identifying
16
the content of the studied process, taking into account the totality of its elements, the interaction
between them, of their nature, refer to facts, analysis and synthesis of theoretical conclusions, etc.),
the historical approach - consideration of the concrete historical development Statement Topics in
cinema of sound period. The effectiveness of this methodical approach has been proven as the
Western (R. Taylor and others), and Russian (E.V. Volkov, Y. Kondakov, N.M. Zorkaya
E.A. Ivanyan, M.I. Turovskaya, A.O. Chubaryan) researchers.
Discussion
It is known that the interpretation of the history in media texts is changeable and often
exposed to fluctuations in exchange of political regimes. After the peak of the Stalinist era, when
the Soviet-screen images of the White movement was dominated by an evil grotesque, political and
social "thaw" of the late 1950s - early 1960s influenced upon the situation toward a more
believable, and sometimes even sympathetic portrayal of Whites (the most striking example - the
drama of Gregory Chuhray Forty first, 1956).
Soviet history has the period of long domination of the general policy of the USSR, cultivated
an implacable struggle against the "exploiting class", "such abusive epithets against participants in
the White movement as" bandits", "scoundrels", "mercenaries of imperialism," etc. Then there
were the terms containing negative connotations: "White Guard", "Kornilov affair", "denikinshina",
"kolchakovschina", "vrangelevschina", "dutovschina", "krasnovschina", and others. ... Others work,
which were not orthodox in terms of official ideology, appeared only in the crisis of the Soviet
political system in the second half of the 1980s. It began rethinking the turning points of Soviet
history in the conditions of pluralism of opinions, assessments and approaches" [Volkov, 2009,
p.26-27], which continued as in the 1990s and in the XXI century.
And if in the images of the White movement in the Soviet cinema accentuated mainly
negative traits (terror against the Bolsheviks and the people, violence, moral decay, political and
financial dependence on the US, British and French allies, and Japanese) until the early 1950s,
then starting with the "thaw" the mid-1950s, these images began to look more patriotic. Whites
more often were brought on-screen worthy - brave, intelligent and noble adversaries. However, in
varying degrees, giving individual representatives of the White movement positive features, "the
Soviet films never showed reformist policy of white governments with the aim of bringing the
country out of crisis, workers' participation in armed groups Whites and a number of other
important aspects of the history of the White movement" [Volkov, 2008].
The totalitarian regime was aware of the political and ideological importance of the theme of
victory over the White movement. Although this topic did not have a dominant place in the Soviet
cinema, its advocacy role has been very high. With millions of viewers inculcated the need for
"revolutionary terror" against the "whites" "white guard swine", "class enemies", "alien elements",
etc.
Results
The total socio-cultural, political and ideological context of the 1930s:
- Intensive introduction of communist ideology (in its Stalinist interpretation) with an
equally vigorous suppression of all other ideologies and activities of all religious denominations;
- Total elimination of private property (it was reviving during the New Economic Policy of
1920s);
- Intensive industrialization (mainly heavy and military industry) with the price of incredible
tension of human resources;
- Intensive militarization of the country, unleashing military conflicts;
- The mass terror of the totalitarian state in relation to the peasantry, which led to the
infamous famine in the first half of 1930s;
- The mass repression of the 1930s, which affected millions of people in the Soviet Union –
from the lowest to the highest strata of society.
Before cinema, affecting the subject of the White movement, in order to support the main
lines of the state policy of the Stalinist regime clear advocacy objectives were set. They served as the
basis for the author's concepts of the movie:
- to show that the Bolsheviks’ violence and terror of revolution era and civil war were the
necessary measure, a response to the terror and violence of counter-revolution; to convince the
17
audience that the so-called "revolutionary terror" Bolsheviks and / or security officers was
committed with the most noble aspirations, and the Bolsheviks themselves and / or security
officers were honest, loyal to "wonderful idea of the future of Communism "advocates" of the
oppressed and the working masses";
- To prove that the enemies of the Bolsheviks / Communists / people (including the
"remnants of the Whites") are masked and ready to commit terrorist acts and to seize power at any
moment;
- To show that the terror against the "enemies of the people" is justified and inevitable;
- To convince the audience that any of their relatives, neighbors and acquaintances may be
"class enemies", which is necessary to expose and destroy.
Genre modification: mostly drama (military, historical). The style of these films was
determined by strict rules of the so-called "socialist realism": instead of the experimental
(especially in the form) of the Soviet cinema of the 1920s there was arose the style of home
plausibility (in fact, often embellished), coherent narrative, frankly theatrical acting…
In relation to the characters of the White movement Soviet cinema of the 1930s used a variety
of negative paint designed to cause adverse reactions in the audience. For example, in the movie
Girlfriends (1935) by L. Arnshtam White Guard officers looked very much caricatured, grotesque,
"they immediately instructed gun to the girls. Little officer immediately kicked one of the girls in
the stomach. Then he noticed brewed soup, his eyes began to glisten greedily, with the thin voice he
squeaked: "Look, Sergei Timofeyevich, it is chicken." Whites pulled the chicken from the pot, broke
it off and began to eat voraciously. Finished eating, elderly officer ordered the girls to become the
wall"[Kondakov, 2012].
The 1930-s are one "of the most complex, controversial and contrasting periods in the history
of Soviet cinema" [Yurenev, 1997, p.5]. In particular, it was shown that the "socialist realists artists
... were compelled to bless, and even glorify mass repressions ... in short, to facilitate the
introduction into the mass consciousness the ideological myths of Stalinism" [Yurenev, 1997, with
34]. Such films became visible base for the introduction into the mass Stalinist thesis that with the
development of socialism, the class struggle must be intensified and become hardened ... When
Stalin's regime with its "pragmatic and ideological approach to the movies took place, practically
there were no any places for free expression of filmmakers views. Screen image of participants of
White movement were relegated to the second place, so how they were overshadowed by the
external enemies and characters of "lurking traitors." Among Whites there were featured not only
former tsarist officers and representatives of political parties hostile to the Bolsheviks, the non-
proletarian social strata, but also former colleagues of Stalin failed in the inner-party struggle"
[Volkov, 2009, p.33].
So, unlike the Soviet period of silent film, the topic of the Civil War (and the White movement
too) was introduced not so widely in the 1930s. So "from 1919 to 1932 there were left at least
114 films on the screens of the country, which subjects’ actions were unfolding during the Civil
War. They accounted for about 10% of all established at this time film works" [Volkov, 2008]. But
in the period of 1933 to 1939 it was filmed only 30 movies, anyway narrating the events of the civil
war. However the number of films about the Civil War (and, consequently, the number of
characters that could, somehow, be attributed to the White movement) dramatically increased in
the yeas of the so-called "anniversaries". So for six years - from 1931 to 1936 it was screening
17 films about the Civil War, but only for two years –in the anniversary of 1937 (20 years after the
October Revolution of 1917) and post-anniversary of 1938 – it was screening 11 films of similar
subjects.
The images of the "Whites" (among whom, in fact, there were included diverse groups of
people, one way or another in conflict with the Bolsheviks), took place in peripheral tissues movie
scene. The images of the Reds, of course, turned out to be in the center of the story. Almost all the
characters, which to some extent could be attributed to the White movement, were put on display
in the main negative features (although in some cases, such as in Chapaev (1934) by Vasilyev
brothers, Whites could have been shown clever (Colonel Borozdin) and courageous (Whites,
reaching full height in the attack by machine gun fire of the Reds) enemies.
In this rigid ideological scheme was not allowed to represent the Reds at least in some more
or less negative light. In extreme cases, Reds (as in the same Chapaev) could be "not very
18
competent," and overly emotional, but all this was redeemed with interest by their devotion to the
"revolutionary ideals", folksy roots and romanticism.
The terror of the Bolshevik power in relation to the so-called "class enemies" and "enemies of
the people" and the terror of "class enemies" and "enemies of the people" against the Bolsheviks
and their allies / sympathetic held a special place in the Soviet cinema of the 1930s (The Great
citizen by F. Ermler, Aerograd by A. Dovzhenko, Party Card by I. Pyriev, Lenin in 1918 by
M. Romm). The apologia of revolutionary violence, piercing Leninist films of M. Romm (especially
the film Lenin in 1918), was clearly intended to justify massive repression" [Yurenev, 1997, p.50].
I must say that in the films by F. Ermler, A. Dovzhenko, I. Pyriev and M. Romm, which we
have noticed above, a generalized image of the "class enemy" was created, and it was not always
clearly belonged to the White movement. In the drama Lenin in 1918, for example, there were the
socialist revolutionists (Fanny Kaplan appeared on-screen as a ruthless fanatic with poisoned
bullets in the revolver). The main enemy in the Party Card by I. Pyriev was a spy. F. Ermler has
generally shown a nest of "enemies of the people and pests," took the high and relatively high
government positions.
As for films about collectivization, "they all present a dramatic stereotype that means poor
people immediately see the advantage of the collective farm, middle peasants fluctuate, fists are
going to use sabotage and assassination" with the help of the Whites and foreign residents, priests
and merchants who undertook nowhere [Yurenev, 1997, p.69].
Even "children's films of Stalin era are teeming with enemies. In the 1930s, when Stalin
destroyed the peasantry, the enemies often went aspiring fists and Whites, whose help has
consistently allegedly relied spies and saboteurs. Reliable support of external enemies and furious
haters of Soviet power and the clergy were: because at that time, thousands of Russian martyrs
accepted death at the hands of godless power" [Mamatova, 1995, p.105].
It is important to emphasize that none of the Soviet films of thirties and forties of
XX century, regarding the White movement in one degree or another, cannot be regarded as more
or less truthful, documental reflection of a true story.
For example, in Chapayev the Whites officers attack Reds as on parade. In fact, they were not
officers, and they never used the black uniforms (all these invented specifically for the movie). They
did not go to a psychic attack against Reds. It was the famous workers’ Izhevsk Brigade. It was an
amazing piece of Kolchak's army, formed entirely of the Ural workers. Tasted commissar power,
the proletariat rebelled and put forward the slogan: "For the Soviets without the Bolsheviks!" Hard
to believe, but they fought against the Reds under the red banner! Izhevsk Brigade selected their
officers and referred to them "Comrade Officer" or "Comrade Colonel," and they moved in the
attack on Reds on the 9-th of July in 1919 near Ufa, furiously playing harmonica the revolutionary
"Warszawianka"! Their psychological attack has occurred in full growth without a shot. It has been
done not from the good life but because it just finished cartridges... So they went flashing bayonets
and gritting her teeth ... But all this did not fit into the scheme of the civil war which has been
imposed by the winners - communists in the 1930s. Are the workers against the Bolsheviks? Yes,
God forbid, someone knows!" [Busina, 2009].
With regard to another Red commander – N.A. Schors (1895-1919), the official version of his
death looked like this: "The 30-th of August in1919 Schors has come under fire Petliurist gunner
and died at the hands of his deputy Ivan Dubovoy, who bandaged his head" [Kosinchuk, 2008].
At the same time, there are two completely different versions.
First: N.A. Schors was killed "by a secret decision of the Revolutionary Military Council,
allegedly because he has refused to obey the order to pull his division to Kiev for countering
Petliurists and Germans. In the archives of the Revolutionary Military Council there were
discovered telegrams which were addressed his boss by trusted person of Trotsky - Aralov. There
was "anti-Semitism, banditry, drunkenness are developed in the division of Schors", "the colonel
feels himself some kinglets."
Version two: in June 1919, "it was signed an agreement about the military-political union of
the Soviet republics, which included the subordination of Ukrainian troops of the Red Army to the
commands of Kremlin, but N.A. Schors shied away from the reorganization of his division until
August 15.
Not only N.A. Schors, but other well-known Red commanders such as V.N. Bozhenko (1871-
1919), G.I. Kotovsky (1881-1925), A.S. Shary-Bogunskiy (1899-1919), T.V. Chernyak (1891-1919)
19
were under suspicion of unwillingness to be reconstructed. Order on their destruction came from
Trotsky" [Kosinchuk, 2008].
But then again, we should emphasize that my research is devoted to the analysis not real
historical events associated with the White movement, but the analysis of cinematic interpretations
of this phenomenon as the image of anti-Bolshevik White Russia.
But these interpretations for the most part have always relied on the romantic myths.
And here is absolutely right E.V. Volkov: "Myths, of course, distort the real picture of past times,
but without them, society cannot exist. Historical myths, first, have an explanatory function to
justify the present, referring to the past. In addition, the historical myths perform regulatory
function in the community, participating in the organization of social, economic and cultural life of
society, prescribing rules of behavior and determining the system of values. You can also argue that
historical myths are involved in solving these problems. First, they help to self-identify society.
Second, it seeks to forecast the preferred model of the future. And third, they are the means of
fighting of social and political groups with internal and external enemies"[Volkov, 2008].
The same tendency was considered in the works of J. Assmann [Assmann 2004, p.54-55; 83-
84], E. Levkievskaya [Levkievskaya, 2003, p.61-62] S.Y. Neklyudov [Nekludov, 2000, p.17-38],
R.G. Pihoya [Pihoya, 2002, p.201-202], J.T. Toschenko [Toshchenko, 2000, p.4], where they
underlined the increased emotional degree of historical mythology, its tendency to rectilinear,
exaggerated division of characters into "bad" and "good", the electivity or ignoring, hushing of
certain historical events, conjunctural binding of interpretations of historical events up to the
actual political, ideological and social agenda.
In general, in many images of the White movement "there are certain kind of traditional
religious integration and the new Soviet consciousness. Enemies are often portrayed as devils that
the Bolsheviks opposed. They were represented as "saints" of the new world, the world of social
justice "[Volkov, 2009, p.36].
Several looking ahead, I want to note that such kind of theme, as "holiness", is especially
clearly manifested in The first Russians (1967) by E. Schiffers and A. Ivanov, the half prohibited by
Soviet censors. In this adaptation of the poem Pervorossiisk (1950) by Olga Bergholz, the
Petrograd workers, building the commune in Altai in 1918, in fact, thematically and visually were
fed by fanatical "Red saints" without fear and without reproach.
From this point of view – it was not so important to show a real historical figure. It was more
important to show him in the mythological screened context, and it was the most important to
underline why he was depicted that way and not otherwise at a particular historical period.
Detailed historical analysis of the Soviet / Russian films associated with the White movement, is
not the task of our study, therefore, we will concentrate our attention on the identification of
stereotypes within this feature films topic.
Comparative analysis of the plot schemes, characters and ideology of Soviet films in one
degree or another, affecting the subject of the White movement, leads to the conclusion about the
essential similarity of their media stereotypes. At the same time the dominant genre of these grades
– until 1950 – was a drama, because not only the strict censors of a totalitarian regime, but also the
relative temporal proximity of the Civil War, the living memory of its bloody events, as a rule, did
not give the filmmakers a lot of opportunities for and melodramatic, especially comedy genre turns.
The structure of the stereotype image of the White movement in the Soviet
feature films of the 1930s
Historical period, the place of action: Russia, the Soviet Union, in rare cases - the
other countries at any period of time from 1918 to 1924 years (sometimes a later time period).
Furnishings, household items: the modest dwellings, forms and objects of everyday life
of Soviet characters, neat houses, the shape and household items of white characters (especially -
the high command).
Methods of depicting reality: quasi-realistic (Volochaevsk days, Chapaev and others.)
or conditionally grotesque depiction of the life of the characters of the White movement (Friends
from the camp, Girlfriends, Fiery years and others.), the picture of life the characters of the White
movement.
20
Characters, their values, ideas, clothes, physique, vocabulary, facial

expressions, gestures: positive characters (Reds) support advanced communist ideas; negative
characters (Whites) support inhuman, militaristic, monarchist, bourgeois, imperialist ideas.
Characters are shared not only by social, but also material status. Whites’ characters are tended to
be rude and cruel enemies, with repulsive looks, gestures and facial expressions of the power,
unpleasant timbre of voice. They are dressed, of course, richer than the poor and humble Reds. As
for the body, there is allowed variants – Whites on the screen could be (depending on the task) as
the slender "rotten intelligentsia", or just stupid (like, for example, a character of S. Martinson in
the Friends from the camp), so athletic-looking men. Such kind of gender orientation character of
the White movement was dominated. However, among their enemies of the Communists
occasionally women were met mostly completely dependent on their men.
A significant change in the lives of the characters: negative characters,
(representatives of the White movement) by means of violence, fraud and bribery (war, terrorism,
espionage, cooperation with the invaders, the bourgeois imperialist West and so forth.), are going
to put their anti-communist, anti-Bolshevik idea into life.
A problem: the life of the Red characters and the existence of the Bolshevik state are at risk
as a whole.
The search for solution to the problem: the struggle (various types and methods) of
positive Red characters with negative Whites.
Solution: the destruction or arrest of White characters.
Taking into account the plots of "enemies of the people", entrenched in the Soviet Union of
the 1930s, let us focus still on the films, where representatives of the White movement occupied, if
not central, then at least prominently place in the plot, where they were not as the post-war spies
and saboteurs ( furthermore merged with the Trotskyites, and Western intelligence agencies), but
they have been shown in the form of a tangible force or mass public opponents of the Bolsheviks
during the Civil War.
Examples:
Chapaev. USSR, 1934. Directed by Vasilyev brothers. Drama

historical period, the place of action: The Civil War, 1919, the Ural.
furnishings, household items: The Ural spaces, headquarters of the Red division
commander V.I. Chapaev, the house of White Guard colonel Borozdin; the modest way of life and
the form of Reds, the neat way of life and the form of Whites.
methods of depicting reality: they are quasi-realistic, preserving the appearance of
documentary objectivity; Drama genre is sometimes combined with comic episodes / details /
remarks.
characters, their values, ideas, clothes, physique, vocabulary, facial expressions,
gestures: Whites are shown as cruel and brave enemies of strong physique with unpleasant voice
and appearance. O.A. Buzina aptly wrote: “Do you remember that man with a smoking cigar in his
mouth? He was worse than the Japanese samurai - the Russian snazzy suicide man directly
running to the machine gun, but would not want to live in a country of victorious
socialism?"[Busina, 2009]; The Reds, on the other hand, are represented as a purely positive –
they are the purposeful, strong, honest (though often - poorly educated) fighters for Communism
and the Bolshevik power, with colorful folk vocabulary, gestures and facial expressions.
a significant change in the lives of the characters: Whites tend to suppress and
destroy the Reds’ division and personally - Chapaev.
a problem: the life of positive characters, which are called Reds, is under the threat.
the search for solution to the problem: the team of Chapaev develops the plan for the
defeat of White parts;
solution: Reds, reflected the attack of Whites, go on the offensive; positive characters are
winning (though in the finals this victory is marred by the death of Chapaev: trying to swim across
the river he was shot by the Whites).
Love and hate. USSR, 1934. Directed by A. Gendelnshteyn. Drama with elements of a
pamphlet.
21
historical period, the place of action: The Civil war, 1919, Donbass.
furnishings, household items: Donbass settlement, the modest life, the clothes of
miners' families, the nice shape of Whites.
methods of depicting reality: There is the synthesis quasi-realistic image (relative to the
miners' families and the Reds) and the grotesque caricature (relative to Whites).
gestures: Whites are shown as cruel, vile and lustful enemies of strong physique with unpleasant
voice and appearance; the residents and soldiers of the mining town, on the contrary, are mainly
depicted purely positive. They are purposeful, strong, honest fighters for Communist power, with
colorful folk vocabulary, gestures and facial expressions.
a significant change in the lives of the characters: under the onslaught of the White
Guard troops of General A.I. Denikin the men of mining town are retreating with Reds.
a problem: the White Guard troops occupy the mining town where there were almost only
women, children and old people. The life of the civilian population is under the threat.
the search for solution to the problem: the wives of miners are working on a plan of
rebellion against the whites;
solution: the rebellion of women occurs to be successful, the Red Army comes to help them.
That leads to the destruction of the Whites (though in the finals this victory is marred by the death
of the main character - the leader of "Women’s rebellion").
Shchors. USSR, 1939. Directed by A. Dovzhenko. Romantic drama.

historical period, the place of action: The Civil war, 1919, Ukraine.
furnishings, household items: There are the Ukrainian steppes, the Red army
commander N.A. Shchors, the troops of Petlurites; the modest way of life and the form of Reds, the
neat way of life and the form of their enemies.
methods of depicting reality: There are the romantic events with distinct idealization of
them and positive characters.
gestures: Petliurists in the movie are the cruel enemies of strong constitution with unpleasant
voice and appearance; The Reds, on the other hand, are represented as purely positive – they are
the purposeful, strong, honest fighters for Communism and the Bolshevik power, with colorful folk
vocabulary, gestures and facial expressions. Himself N. A. Shchors is shown, in the words of
A.P. Dovzhenko, “with a face lit by the inner light, expressive eyes, which reflect the crystal honest
of his soul.”
a significant change in the lives of the characters: The Petliurists seek to destroy the
Red forces, leading the successful attack.
a problem: the life of positive red characters is under the threat.
the search for solutions: N.A. Shchors is developing the plan of defeating Petlyura’s
army.
solution: positive characters are winning (though in the finals this victory is marred by the
death of Shchors).
Thus, the comparative analysis of plot schemes, characters, and ideology of the Soviet sound
films of 1931-1939, in varying degrees of affecting the subject of the White movement, leads to the
conclusion about the essential similarity of their media stereotypes. Content analysis of screen
media texts of 1930s on the topic related to the White movement allows generally to submit their
basic narrative schemes as follows: cruel and treacherous, cowardly and cunning Whites and their
allies are trying to overthrow the Bolshevik power by all means available to them (military / or
guerrilla action, intervention, rebellion, terrorism, espionage, bribery, etc.), but they tolerate the
inevitable defeat.
The period of the 1940s
Beginning of the War with Nazi Germany has significantly changed the socio-cultural,
political and ideological context in which developed the Soviet cinema. During the war, the class
struggle as the struggle against religion was retreated. There was no mass repression against the
peasantry, but the problem of opposition to the Third Reich (with which in the summer of the 1939
22
Stalin's regime signed an agreement on non-aggression and cooperation. It was in force until June
22, 1941) came to the fore.
There is the total socio-cultural, political and ideological context of the 1940s:
- Military action on the Russian territory from 1941 to 1944 and the war in Europe and the
Far East in the 1944-1945; Germany's capitulation in May 1945, and Japan’s capitulation in
September 1945;
- The mass terror of the Nazis against the Russian population in the occupied territories
(concentration camps, mass executions, etc.);
- Intensive development of Soviet military industry, conversion of many factories on a war
footing with the cost of the incredible stress of human resources;
- Adaptation of the communist ideology to the patriotic slogans;
- The establishment of totalitarian regimes, completely dependent on the Kremlin in almost
all countries of Eastern Europe in the second half of the 1940s;
- Intensive recovery of Russian economy which were destroyed by war in the second half of
the 1940s.
- The returning to the practice of mass repression during the second half of the 1940s - early
1950s (the struggle against cosmopolitanism, anti-Semitic campaign, etc.).
Clearly, in this context, the relevance of films about the Civil War and the White Guards was
substantially declined: the bulk of the feature films of 1940s were filmed on the material of the
Great Patriotic War.
The dominant theme of the movie: the fighting at the front, the guerrilla movement, the
terror of the enemies against the civilian population, the labor enthusiasm of the "home front."
Genre modification: mostly drama (military, historical). The style of these films was differed a little
from the previous decade, but the show of military life has become more realistic.
And if in 1941-1942 it was filmed six films about the Civil War, conceived even before the
Nazi attack on the Soviet Union (The First Cavalry by E. Dzigan, The defeat of Yudenich by
P. Petrov-Bytov, Alexander Parkhomenko by L. Lukov, His name is Suche-Bator by A. Zarhi and
I. Heyfits, Kotovsky by A. Fainzimmer and Defense of Tsaritsyn by Vasilyevs brothers), then from
1943 to 1950 the plots of World War II firmly dislodged this theme from cinema repertoire. Soviet
feature films 1947-1948 noted modestly even the 30-year anniversary of the establishment of the
Bolshevik regime…
Soviet feature Films of 1940-1942 in relation to the interpretation of the image of the White
movement in general repeated the common scheme of the stereotypes of the 1930s: Whites were
brought as evil, cruel and insidious enemies of the purely positive Bolsheviks. Thus, the enemy
image continued to be operated actively that means "a representation of one subject (individual or
collective) to another as the carrier of the threat to the existence of society. The main task of
designing and broadcasting of enemy image is the consolidation of society in the face of new
challenges of time" [Volkov, 2009, p.6-7].
In this respect it is interesting to trace the reasons of the ban on the issue of drama The First
Cavalry (1941). The script was based on the previously received a positive assessment of the
government play of one of the most famous playwrights of the Stalinist era - Vsevolod Vishnevsky
(he also wrote the script for this film). Staging was assigned to Efim Dzigan - also a winner and
order bearer - the author of the "historical-revolutionary" film We are from Kronstadt (1936)
approved by the authorities and criticism. The basis of the story was a polished version of the Civil
War fighting of Reds and their commanders - M.S. Budenny and K.E. Voroshilov (remember that
in the 1930s, and in 1940 they occupied the prominent military posts).
It seemed that it was enough to please the authorities. However, the period of application of
the film from the script to the filming and editing is quite long. And that seemed to be appropriate
and relevant until 22 June 1941, later turned against the creators of The First Cavalry. First, the
Poles who were considered to be the Soviet Union enemies before the Nazi attack, suddenly became
if not the full-fledged allies, then at least the "friends in misfortune". And secondly, in the
hostilities in 1941 nor Voroshilov nor Budenny could not declare themselves as more or less skilful
military commanders. For these reasons, The First Cavalry, depicting the Poles no less dangerous
and cruel enemies of the Bolsheviks than Whites, and unrestrainedly praising the same Voroshilov
and Budenny, was politically outdated and, despite of all the regalia of the authors of the film, was
sent "on the shelf".
23
In contrast, the first part of the Defense of Tsaritsyn (1942) by Vasilyev brothers (also
conceived long before June 1941), where the image of Stalin as a great army strategist has
dominated, and the enemies were not the Poles, but the Whites, was allowed to hire and prized at
the highest level ...
No interference was released on screens and another film on the subject of the Civil War -
action movie Kotovsky (1942), if only because that glorified not acting marshal, but the bandit who
was killed for a long time, with the light hand of the writer A. Kapler and director A. Fainzimmer,
and who turned into almost an epic hero, the Public Defender and "ardent revolutionary"...
By the way, M. Donskoy felt sharply changed situation in time - and in the film adaptation of
the novel N. Ostrovsky How the Steel Was Tempered (1942) brought to the fore the episodes
associated with the German occupation of Ukraine in 1918, rightly believing that such a treatment
would be much more relevant to the subject of the next appeal "Reds and Whites".
cinema of the 1940s
Historical period, the place of action: There is any period of time from 1918 to 1924
(sometimes a later time period), Russia, the Soviet Union, in rare cases - the other countries.
Furnishings, household items: There are the modest dwellings, forms and objects of
everyday life of Soviet characters, neat houses, the shape and household items white guard
characters (especially - the high command).
Methods of depicting reality: It is the quasi-realistic (The First Cavalry, Defense of
Tsaritsyn, The defeat of Yudenich and others.) or the semi-grotesque image (Alexander
Parkhomenko, Kotovsky) of life of the characters of the White movement.
Characters, their values, ideas, clothes, physique, vocabulary, facial
expressions, gestures: The positive characters (Reds) are the supports of advanced communist
ideas; the negative characters (Whites) are the inhuman, militaristic, monarchist, bourgeois,
imperialist ideas. Characters are shared by not only social, but also material status. White
characters are shown as rude and cruel enemies, with the repulsive appearance, facial expressions
and gestures and unpleasant voice tones. They are dressed, of course, richer than the poor and
humble Reds. As for the body, there is allowed options - Whites on the screen (depending on the
task) are the subtle or "rotten intelligentsia", or - the type of athletic men.
A significant change in the lives of the characters: The negative characters
to put their anti-communist, anti-Bolshevik idea.
A problem: The life of the Red characters, for that matter, and the existence of the
Bolshevik state as a whole is at risk.
The search for solution to the problem: there is the struggle (various types and
methods) of positive Red characters with negative Whites.
Solution: there is the destruction / arrest White characters
Examples:
The First Cavalry. USSR, 1941. Directed by E. Dzigan. Drama.

historical period, the place of action: The Civil War, the south of the Soviet Russia.
furnishings, household items: There are steppes, the headquarters of the First Cavalry of
the Red Army, the modest way of life and a form of Reds, the neat way of life and a form of Polish
troops and Whites (recall that at that time there was a formal expression of "White Poles",
synthesizing these two concepts).
methods of depicting reality: They are quasi-realistic preserving the appearance of
documentary objectivity; Drama genre is sometimes combined with comic episodes / details /
remarks.
gestures: "Whites" are shown as the cruel enemies of strong build, with unpleasant voice and
appearance; Reds, on the other hand, are represented as a purely positive – they are the
24
purposeful, strong, honest (though often - poorly educated) fighters for Communism and the
Bolshevik power, with colorful folk vocabulary, gestures and facial expressions.
a significant change in the lives of the characters: White Poles seek to destroy the
Reds and in particular, the troops of the First Cavalry.
a problem: the life of positive characters, which are Reds, is under the threat.
the search for solution to the problem: the headquarters of the First Cavalry is
developing a plan to defeat the enemy;
solution: Reds take the offensive and gain victory.
The defeat of Yudenich. USSR, 1941. Directed by P. Petrov-Bytov. Drama.

historical period, the place of action: 1919, the Civil War, Petrograd, the area adjoined
to Petrograd.
furnishings, household items: the modest life, a form of Reds, high-quality form of
Whites.
methods of depicting reality: There is the quasi-realistic picture of events.
gestures: Whites are shown as the cruel enemies of strong build, with unpleasant voice and
appearance; Reds, on the other hand, are represented as a purely positive – they are the
purposeful, strong, honest (though often - poorly educated) fighters for Communism and the
Bolshevik power, with colorful folk vocabulary, gestures and facial expressions.
a significant change in the lives of the characters: the Whites troops under the
command of General N.N. Yudenich (1862-1933) seek to destroy the Reds and seize Petrograd.
Whites have allies inside the city: there is the white hiding, plus his supporters who joined the
Bolshevik leaders, hypocrites – L. Trotsky (1879-1940) and G. Zinoviev (1883-1936).
a problem: the life of the Red characters, for that matter, and the existence of the Bolshevik
state as a whole are at risk.
the search for solution to the problem: contrary to supporters of L. Trotsky and
G. Zinoviev who sneaked into the center of the leadership of the Bolshevik (they are insidiously
offer to let the troops of N. Yudenich to Petrograd, then to allegedly win street fights) the true Reds
are developing the plan for the defeat of the troops of N. Yudenich on the approaches to Petrograd;
solution: Reds take the offensive and gain victory, conspirators are exposed.
Defense of Tsaritsyn. USSR, 1942. Directed by Vasilievs brothers. Drama.

historical period, the place of action: the Civil War of 1918-1919, the south of Russia,
Tsaritsyn.
furnishings, household items: the South Russian steppes, the Red Army is under the
leadership of Stalin and Voroshilov; White Guard troops; the modest way of life and a form of
Reds, the neat way of life and a form of Whites.
methods of depicting reality: quasi-realistic.
gestures: the positive characters (Reds) are the carriers of advanced communist ideas; the
negative characters (Whites) are the carriers of inhuman, militaristic, monarchist, bourgeois,
imperialist ideas. Characters are shared not only by social, but also material status. White
characters are shown as rude and cruel enemies, with the repulsive appearance, facial expressions
and gestures and unpleasant voice tones. They are dressed, of course, richer than the poor and
humble Reds.
a significant change in the lives of the characters: the Whites seek to destroy the Red
forces.
a problem: the life of the positive red characters is under the threat.
the search for solution to the problem: Stalin and Voroshilov are developing a plan to
defeat the Whites.
solution: positive characters win a victory.
Movie interpretations of White movement in the Soviet screen early 1950s were
approximately the same as in 1930 – 1940s. In the most important film of that period (of those that
relate to events of 1918-1924) - super pathetic Unforgettable 1919 by M. Chiaureli – there were
25
aggressively argued that it was Stalin, who won the civil war thanks to his brilliant gift of the
commander
Conclusion
films of 1930s-1940 s, in varying degrees of affecting the subject of the White movement, leads to
the conclusion about the essential similarity of their media stereotypes. Content analysis of screen
media texts of 1930s-1940s on the topic related to the White movement allows generally to submit
their basic narrative schemes as follows: cruel and treacherous, cowardly and cunning Whites and
their allies are trying to overthrow the Bolshevik power by all means available to them (military /
or guerrilla action, intervention, rebellion, terrorism, espionage, bribery, etc.), but they tolerate the
inevitable defeat.
References:
1. Assmann, J. (2004). Cultural memory. Moscow: Languages Slavic culture, 368 p.
2. Bagdasarian, V.E. (2003). The image of the enemy in historical films 1930-1940-ies //
National History. № 6, 32-46.
3. Barsenkov, A.S., Vdovin, A.I. (2005). Russian history. 1918-2004. Moscow: Aspect
Press.
4. Baskakov, V.E. (1981). The confrontation of ideas on the western cinema screen // West
Screen: problems and trends. Moscow: Knowledge, 3-20.
5. Berger, P., Luckmann, T. (1995). The Social Construction of Reality. A treatise on the
sociology of knowledge. Moscow.
6. Busina, O. (2009). These chic Whites ... http://from-ua.com/voice/570a6bae81ed5.html
http://www.from-ua.com/voice/6eaa4b1cd2f97.html
Vasilchenko, A.V. (2010). Spotlight of Dr. Goebbels. Cinema of the Third Reich. Moscow: Veche,
320 p.
7. Chernova, N.V. (2007). Generalship image of Stalin during the Civil War in the
treatment of Soviet cinema art of the second half of the 1930s - early 1950s. Ph.D. Dis.
Magnitogorsk.
8. Dolmatovskaya, G.E. (1976). The historical fact and its ideological interpretation in
modern cinema // Screen and ideological struggle. Moscow: Art, 214-228.
432 p.
11. Eco, U. (2005). The role of the reader. Studies on the semiotics of the text. St.
Petersburg: The Symposium, 502 p.
at the student audience // Innovations in education. № 4, 60-80.
13. Fedorov, A.V. (2011). Structural analysis of media text: stereotypes of the Soviet cinema
of the image of war and V. Vinogradov’s film "Eastern Corridor" (1966) // Questions of Cultural
Studies. № 6, 110-116.
14. Fedorov, A.V. (2012). Analysis of audiovisual media texts. Moscow, 182 p.
15. Fedorov, A.V. (2015). Transformation of Russian image in the Western Screen. Moscow:
Information for All, 221 p.
16. Gunther, H. (2000). Archetypes of Soviet Socialist Realism // Socialist Realism Canon.
St.Petersburg, 743-784.
17. Halbwachs, M. (2005). The collective and historical memory // Emergency ration, № 2-
3, 40-41.
18. Halbwachs, M. (2007). Social frameworks of memory. Moscow.
19. Hobsbawm E. (2000). Introduction: Inventing Traditions. In: Hobsbawm, E. and
Ranger, T (Eds.) The Invention of Tradition. Cambridge, 2000, pp.1–14.
20. Kara-Murza, S.G. (2003). The Civil War (1918-1921). The lesson for the XXI century.
Moscow: Exmo, 384 p.
21. Keen, S. (1986). Faces of the Enemy. San Francisco: Harper and Row.
22. Kenez, P. (2007). Red Attack, White resistance. 1918-1918. Moscow: Center Poligraf, 287 p.
26
23. Kirmel, N.S. (2008). White Guard intelligence services in the Civil War. 1918-1924
years. Moscow: Kuchkovo Field, 512 p.
24. Kolesnikova, A. (2006). The image of the enemy in Soviet cinema // Posev. № 9, S.24-30.
25. Kondakov, Y.E. (2007). Civil War on the screen. White movement (the era of silent
movies) // Clio. 85-91.
26. Kondakov, Y.E. (2012). Mapping the Civil War in the Soviet cinema of 1930-40-ies.
http://statehistory.ru/3420/Otobrazhenie-Grazhdanskoy-voyny-v-sovetskom-kinematografe-
1930-40-kh-godov/
Kosnichuk, E. (2008). Film True: Shchors and bricks from which it was built // Aspects. № 4.
http://www.2000.net.ua/c/46048
27. Kondakov, Y.E. (2015). Civil War on the screen. White Movement: a tutorial. St.
Petersburg: Elexis, 362 p.
28. Levkievskaya, E.E. (2000). Russian idea in the context of mythological models and
mechanisms of their sacralization // Myths and Mythology in Modern Russia. Moscow: AIRO-XX,
61-62.
29. Lotman, Y.M. (1999). Inside minded worlds. Man - the text - the semiotic sphere -
history. Moscow.
30. Malkova, L.Y. (1995). The face of the enemy // Cinema: Politics and people (1930s).
Moscow: Mainland.
31. Menashe, L. (2005). Chapayev and Company: Films of the Russian Civil War //
Cinéaste. 2005. Vol. 30. No. 4, pp. 18-22.
32. Nekludov, S.Y. (2000). Structure and function of myth // Myths and Mythology in
Modern Russia. Moscow: AIRO-XX, 17-38.
33. Nusinova, N.I. (2003). When we go back to Russia ... Russian cinema abroad. Moscow:
Eisenstein Centre, 464 p.
34. Pihoya, R.G. (2002). Historical memory: a case study through the eyes of a historian //
National History. № 3, .201-202.
35. Polyakov, Y. (1992). Civil War: the emergence and escalation // National History. № 6.
36. Razlogov, K.E. (2004). Specifics of feature films as a historical source // The history of
the country. History of Cinema. Moscow, p.30.
37. Ricoeur, P. (2004). Memory, history, oblivion. Moscow.
38. Shambarov, V.E. (2002). White Guard. Moscow: Eksmo-Press.
39. Shlapentokh, D. and V. (1993). Soviet Cinematography 1918-1991. New York: Aldine De
Gruyter, 278 pp.
41. Slobodin, V.P. (1996). White movement during the Russian Civil War (1918-1924).
Moscow: Moscow Law Institute.
42. Small, M. (1980). Hollywood and Teaching About Russian-American Relations. Film and
History, N 10, p.1-8.
43. Sokolov, A.K. (1999). The course of Soviet history, 1918-1940. Moscow: Higher School.
44. Strada, M. (1989). A Half Century of American Cinematic Imagery: Hollywood’s
Portrayal of Russian Characters, 1933-1988. Coexistence, N 26, p.333-350.
45. Strada, M.J. and Troper, H.R. (1997). Friend or Foe? Russian in American Film and
Foreign Policy. Lanham, Md., & London: The Scarecrow Press, 255 p.
46. Taylor, R. and Spring, D. (Eds.) (1993). Stalinism and Soviet Cinema. London and New
York: Routledge, p.131-141.
47. Toshchenko, J.T. (2000). Historical consciousness and historical memory // Modern
and Contemporary History. № 4, p.4.
48. Tsvetkov, V.G. (2000). White Movement in Russia. 1918-1924 years. // Questions of
history. № 7, 56-73.
49. Turovskaya, M.I. (2003). Blow up. Moscow: MIC, 288 p.
50. Vlasov M.P. (1962). Soviet historical and historical-revolutionary film. Moscow, p.16.
51. Volkov E.V. (2009). White movement in the cultural memory of Soviet society: the
evolution of "enemy image". Ph.D. Dis.. Chelyabinsk.
27
52. Volkov, E.V. (2003). Image of Kappels’ in Vasilyev brothers film Chapaev // Kappel and
kappels. Moscow, 529-544. http://www.pobeda.ru/index2.php?option=com_content&task
=view&id=4892&pop=1&page=0
53. Volkov, E.V. (2004). White movement in the domestic screen: the evolution of cultural
memory // Age of memory, the memory of the century. Experience of dealing with the past in the
twentieth century. Chelyabinsk: Stone Belt, 251-268.
54. Volkov, E.V. (2008). White movement in the cultural memory of Soviet society: the
evolution of the image of the enemy in feature films. http://orenbkazak.narod.ru/kino.doc
55. Volkov, E.V. (2013). Kolchak in the Soviet feature films // New Historical Journal. № 35.
56. Yurenev, R.N. (1979). A brief history of the Soviet cinema. Moscow, p.30.
57. Yurenev, R.N. (1981). The book movies. Moscow: Art.
58. Yurenev, R.N. (1997). Soviet cinema of the thirties. Moscow: VGIK, 110 p.
59. Zimin, V.D. (2006). White matter rebellious Russia: Political regimes of civil war of
1918-1920. Moscow: Russian University of Humanity.
60. Zorkaya, N.M. (1998). Spinning, spinning blue ball ... Ten masterpieces of Soviet
cinema. Moscow: Knowledge, 85-86.
28

ISSN 1339-6773
E-ISSN 1339-875X
The Image of the White Movement in the Soviet Films of 1950s – 1980s
Alexander Fedorov
Dr. (Pedagogy), Professor
Abstract
mirror of the Soviet cinema (1950s-1980s, the feature films of the sound period).
The hermeneutical analysis suggests media text comprehension through comparison with
historical, cultural tradition and reality; penetration of its logic; through comparison of media
text characters. An analysis of this kind of media texts, in our opinion, is particularly important for
Soviet sound films of 1950s -1980s, in varying degrees of affecting the subject of the White
Content analysis of screen media texts of 1950s-1980s on the topic related to the White movement
allows generally to submit their basic narrative schemes.
Keywords: white movement, Soviet cinema, films, hermeneutical analysis, Russian, USSR,
film studies, media texts, media literacy.
Introduction
mirror of the Soviet cinema (1950s-1980s, the feature films of the sound period).
The hermeneutical analysis suggests media text comprehension through comparison with
historical, cultural tradition and reality; penetration of its logic; through comparison of media
text characters. An analysis of this kind of media texts, in our opinion, is particularly important for
Soviet sound films of 1950s-1980s, in varying degrees of affecting the subject of the White
Content analysis of screen media texts of 1950s-1980s on the topic related to the White movement
allows generally to submit their basic narrative schemes.

The main materials for this article was the area: the books, articles and films about the
theme of White movement in the Soviet cinema. I used also the method of hermeneutic analysis of
the cultural context of media texts (Eco, 1976; Silverblatt, 2001).
The methodology of our research consisted of the key philosophical positions about the
connection, interdependence and integrity of the phenomena of reality, historical and social unity
in cognition. The main philosophical methodological concept study - the theory of cultural dialogue
of M. Bakhtin & V. Bibler - based works on cultural mythology and memory J. Assmann (2004),
P. Berger (1995), and Y. Lotman (1999). We relied on substantial research approach (identifying
the content of the studied process, taking into account the totality of its elements, the interaction
23
between them, of their nature, refer to facts, analysis and synthesis of theoretical conclusions, etc.),
the historical approach – consideration of the concrete historical development Statement Topics in
cinema of sound period. The effectiveness of this methodical approach has been proven as the
Western (R. Taylor and others), and Russian (E.V. Volkov, Y. Kondakov, N.M. Zorkaya
E.A. Ivanyan, M.I. Turovskaya, A.O. Chubaryan) researchers.
Discussion
Of course, the individual aspects of the image of the White Movement in the Soviet films were
touched on before. For example, Western scientists have published many books and articles about
“the image of enemy", i.e. Red Russia on the screen (Keen, 1986; Strada, and Troper, 1997; Taylor
and Spring, 1993). During our study we examined historical and film studies publication of the
Soviet period (V.E. Baskakov, A. Groshev, M.E. Zack, N.A. Lebedev, R.N. Yurenev et al.), where the
"interpretation and evaluation of the history of "White Guard" were often based not only on the
real facts of the past, but were fitted under the scheme set up under the Marxist class approach"
[Volkov, 2009, p.26], post-Soviet work of V.E. Bagdasarian (2003), A.G. Kolesnikova (2006),
N.V. Chernova (2007), in varying degrees, dedicated to the subject of the Civil War and the White
movement in the screen. A more extensive approach to the subject of the White movement with
respect to its reflection in art peculiar research E.V. Volkov (2003, 2008, 2009), and
Y.E. Kondakov (2007, 2012, 2015).
Results
The Period of 1950s
General socio-cultural, political and ideological context of the 1950s (the

period after 1955, after the death of Stalin):
- Liquidation of mass terror of the state against its own citizens while the local struggle
against the "dissidents" is preserved (with Boris Pasternak, etc.), there is a partial amnesty for
prisoners;
- Exposure of the so-called "cult of personality" of I.V. Stalin (since 1956);
- The rejection of the thesis of the class struggle within the country, the announcement about
the creation of a single Soviet people, which has no national, ethnic, class, racial problems;
- The official rejection of the idea of world revolution and universal dictatorship of the
proletariat, the proclamation of the policy of "peaceful coexistence between the socialist and
capitalist systems" while the so-called "ideological struggle" is maintained;
- Despite this – intense militarization, the unleashing of local military conflicts (in Africa and
Asia), and intervention in Hungary (1956); support, including military, pro-communist regimes in
developing countries are continued.
- Further industrialization (mainly heavy and military industry) is continued, though at a
slower pace;
- Attempt to implement agricultural reforms, including the development of virgin lands;
- The beginning of "space age" (the world's first flight of the satellite);
- The continuation of the intensive implementation of communist ideology (in the updated,
focused on the works of Lenin and post-Stalin ideologists treatment) with less intensive than, for
example, in the 1920s, but is still an open struggle against religion.
Genre modification subjects of the White movement: drama (military, historical), at least -
romance, western, comedy.
Large-scale adaptation of A. Tolstoy's novel The Road to Calvary, which was screened by
G. Roshal in 1957-1959; it embodied the typical stereotypes of (the movie) Drama of 1930s–1940s
on the "historical-revolutionary theme," colored with a certain degree of sympathy to some
representatives of the "alien elements": the poor enthusiastically takes the power of the Bolsheviks,
"middle class" and intellectuals hesitate, the terror, blood, war are frightened them. But in the end,
wavering understands that the Bolsheviks were forced to go to these repressive measures, for the
sake of the future benefit of the poor. So doubters’ characters come to understand the correctness
of the theory of revolutionary terror, violence and dictatorship of the proletariat ... (by the way,
24
these stereotypes were so tenacious that with certain modifications they successfully lasted until
the 1980s).
No less ambitious And Quiet Flows the Don (1958) by S. Gerasimov was tougher in texture
(the novel by M.A. Sholokhov has been in the basis of it): throwing Gregory Melikhov between
Reds and Whites embodied the tragedy of fratricidal civil war. And then the episode where
M. Gluzsky clearly played a White Guard officer who shouted before being shot in the face of their
murderers everything what he thought about the Bolsheviks and their leader Lenin sharply hit a
spectator memory...
The second account of a novel by N. Ostrovsky How the Steel Was Tempered, released under
the name Pavel Korchagin (1956), despite the expressive visual language and desperate
romanticizing like the main character, and "commissars in dusty helmets", was, actually much
closer to the "old" than to the "new". Young filmmakers at that time A. Alov and V. Naumov
seemed important to clean "the bright image of the communist idea" from subsequent accretions of
Stalinism. But the main opposition in relation to the Reds and Whites, they remained in the
orthodox positions, hence the frantic manic faithful soldier of Bolshevik Revolution Pavel
Korchagin was emotionally played by V. Lanovoy.
But a romantic intelligence of White Guard officer Govorukha-Otrok from (melo)drama of
Gregory Chuhraj Forty first (the first film adaptation of the story of B. Lavrenev Forty first was
filmed back in silent films of the 1920s, but then the censorship was much softer than in the period
of 1930s -1940s) has become the real breakthrough across banal stereotypes associated with on-
screen interpretation of the image of the White movement.
Officer Govorukha-Otrok of the Forty first (1956), by fate was on the island alone with a Red
sniper Maryutka, was endowed with inconceivable for the Soviet cinema of previous years
attractive features, "soft, emotional sensitivity and attention to the beloved" [Shneiderman, 1965,
p.64]. A wonderful performer of this role - Oleg Strizhenov wrote about the principal novelty film-
image of the White Guard officer: "When at the end of the film I, or rather, Officer Govorukha-
Otrok was killed, the audience wept. And not only abroad, where the grown old officers lived, but
also at our place people brought up on hatred for the Whites. Suddenly, the audience realized that
all of us - Whites and Reds - the Russian people fighting with each other, engage in an abnormal
case; destroy our love, and thus the soul"[Strizhenov, 2001].
This explains why the way of Forty first on the screen was so heavy. For example, at the Arts
Council of Mosfilm masters of those days said that "in this picture all positions ideologically are
vicious: the hero and heroine are isolated from society, they are on a deserted island. The heroine
falls in love with the White Guard, the enemy" [Schneiderman, 1965, p.31].
Even the screenwriter of Forty first - G. Koltunov indignant by the humanist interpretation
of the story, wrote to the director of Mosfilm I.A. Pyriev the following note: "Dear Ivan
Aleksandrovich. I have just looked at the material paintings of the young director Chuhraj. I put
you on notice that under this White Guard cooking I will not put my good name" [Razzakov, 2007].
To its credit, I.A. Pyriev did not listen to this denunciation, and Forty first not only went out
on the wide screen, but received a well-deserved recognition of the audience, critics and festival
juries.
The onset of the political "thaw" allowed the filmmakers to expand the domestic genre
spectrum of films related to the activities of the White movement. So Samson Samsonov in the
Miles of Fire practically the first time in the Soviet sound film (we, of course, remember the dumb
Red Devils) turned to the genre of western. The famous film historian and critic V.P. Demin wittily
wrote about this film as follows: "Let's try to put a secret agent in the coach. It made a screenwriter
N. Figurovsky and director S. Samsonov in the film Miles of Fire (1957). Composition this "road
western" copied from Stagecoach, did not suffer from the fact that in the same carriage were close
security officer, riding to his own, to help the besieged city, and masked a White Guard, hurrying
there, just the opposite purpose - to lead an uprising against the Bolsheviks" [Demin, 1980, p.63].
In 1959 it was time for comedy - in the Green Van director Henrich Gabay managed to
convey the originality of the story by A. Kozachinsky, served as the basis for the scenario: richly
sculpted characters sad humor and eccentricity.
... Odessa, 1919. The power changes in the city almost every day: invaders, Whites, Reds,
Greens ... Sometimes town becomes a "draw", and sometimes the authorities - just three. And each
has its own "state border." Especially in this atmosphere of "quiet Odessa", flooded by the same
25
gang of thieves, the hapless schoolboy Petya enters. And the transition from one "state borders"
Peter and his grandfather were detained. The camera stops at the dull eyes of brash ensign. Shot -
and Peter, frantically clutching his chest, settles on the ground ... Is it the dramatic denouement?
Not at all – a few seconds later Peter opens his eyes and pulls from his pocket a thick volume of
The Three Musketeers. And a warm lead falls from a broken piece of the book...
The whole movie by G. Gabay is built in such a collision of drama and comedy. Sporadic
images of Whites are exaggerated stereotyped, but at the same time turned toward the grotesque
comedy. So if you want you can discover the stylistic and genre roots as the dashing Elusive
Avengers (1966) by E. Keosayan so eccentric Intervention (1967) by G. Poloka.
cinema of the 1950s (after 1955)
historical period, the place of action: any period of time from 1918 to 1924, Russia.
furnishings, household items: a modest dwelling, forms and objects of everyday life of
Reds and sympathizers characters, neat houses, the shape and household items of white guard
methods of depicting reality: it is realistic (And Quiet Flows the Don), or conditional: in
the framework of the comedy (Green Van), thriller (Oleko Dundich) or western (Miles of Fire)
image of the life of characters of the White movement.
and gestures: positive characters (Reds) are the supporters of advanced communist ideas; White
characters are differentiated: on the one hand, it is the traditional negative characters are the
supporters of inhuman, militaristic, monarchist, bourgeois, imperialist ideas (The Poet, Miles of
Fire, Golden Train). On the other (as, for example, in the film Forty first) it is intelligent people
who defend their principles and ideas of honor, good and evil.
Characters are shared by not only social, but also material status. Whites are dressed, of
course, richer than the poor and humble Reds. As for the body, there is allowed options - Whites on
the screen (depending on the task) are the subtle, intellectuals or athletic looking men.
These white characters are shown not only as rude and cruel enemies, with a repulsive
appearance, facial expressions and gestures domineering and unpleasant voice timbres, but also
(sometimes) as subtle and charming beauties with impeccable manners and refined vocabulary.
Male characters, personified the White movement, still dominated, however, among the
enemies of the Communists there were also women, often beautiful and charming...
a significant change in the lives of the characters: negative characters,
to put their anti-communist, anti-Bolshevik idea (Golden train, The Poet, Storm, etc.). Option:
intelligent charming characters from the circle of the White movement are drawn into the
revolutionary events in the maelstrom of civil war, trying to keep their romantic value (Forty first,
The Road to Calvary).
state as a whole are at risk, and the life of intelligent charming characters that have fallen under the
"red wheel" is in danger too...
the search for solution to the problem: the struggle (various types and methods)
positive Red characters with negative Whites; fluctuations charming intelligent characters are
attracted to the ideology of the White movement.
solution to the problem: the conscious destruction / arrest the negative White characters;
forced destruction / oscillating / or intelligent, romantic White characters are arrested. Option:
oscillating White characters realize that the Bolsheviks were forced to go to the revolutionary
repressive measures, for the sake of the future benefit of the poor. So doubters heroes of the White
movement come to the understanding the correctness theory of revolutionary terror, violence and
dictatorship of the proletariat.
Examples:
Forty first. USSR, 1956. Directed by G. Chukhray. Melodrama.
historical period, the place of action: civil war, the former Russian empire.
26
furnishings, household items: a desert terrain, sea, clothes of characters - both Reds
and Whites are rather worn out.
methods of depicting reality: a conventional (within the romantic melodrama) image life
of characters.
and gestures: positive characters (Reds) are the supporters of advanced communist ideas.
Personification: Red sniper Maryutka, has personally shot 40 enemies; White character is
presented by charming and intelligent officer Govorukha-Otrok, who defends his principles and
ideas of honor, good and evil. Characters are shared by social status. And Maryutka and
Govorukha-Otrok are young, beautiful. Charming officer has good manners and refined
vocabulary. Vocabulary of Maryutka is rude, she clearly comes from a poor, uneducated
environment.
a significant change in the lives of the characters: a charming and intelligent
character of the White movement is caught up in the revolutionary events and in the maelstrom of
civil war, trying to keep his romantic value.
a problem: the life of the main characters - the Red Maryutka and White Officer, who fell
under the wheel of bloody civil war, is under the threat ...
the search for solution to the problem: there are fluctuations of the main characters
between the mutual love and war debts (in Red / White sense of the term).
solution: the boat is approaching to the island, where the lovers found their shelter....
There is the forced (forty-one in a row) Maryutka’s sniper shot in an intelligent and romantic
officer. Her weeping is over the body of the murdered lover.
The Poet. USSR, 1956. Directed by B. Barnet. Drama.

historical period, the place of action: the period of 1917-1920, Russia.
furnishings, household items: the modest life and cloths of Reds, rich life and a good
form of Whites.
methods of depicting reality: a quasi-realistic picture of events.
and gestures: Whites are shown as cruel enemies of strong constitution. One of the officers is a
former poet, speaking before the Civil War on the same poetry readings along with the current Red
sympathetic character. White guard poet is imposing, educated, his speech is full of exquisite turns.
However, the "moment of truth" exposes his negative class essence. Red poet is simpler, more
modest, he is portrayed purely positive, and he is a purposeful, honest fighter for the Bolshevik
power, with colorful vocabulary, gestures and facial expressions.
a significant change in the lives of the characters: the White troops seize the town
and seek to destroy the Red underground. Red poet is arrested.
a problem: the life of the poet and the other Red characters is under the threat.
the search for solution to the problem: Reds devise a plan to defeat the whites.
solution: Reds gain victory, Red poet survives.
And Quiet Flows the Don. USSR, 1958. Directed by S. Gerasimov (film adaptation of the
novel by M. Sholokhov). Drama.
historical period, the place of action: civil war, the south of Russia, Don expanses.
furnishings, household items: the South Russian steppes, the Red Army, White Cossack
troops; the modest way of life and a form of Reds, neat way of life and a form of White.
methods of depicting reality: realistic.
and gestures: after Sholokhov's novel S. Gerasimov was broken the established stereotypes in the
Soviet cinema that positive characters (Reds) are certainly supporters the advanced communist
ideas, and negative characters (Whites) are supporters the inhumane ideas. The characters in the
film are not almost shared by any social or financial status (and the one and the other side - the
Don Cossacks), it is a little different and their vocabulary (with the exception of senior officers).
White characters look usually worthy opponents.
a significant change in the lives of the characters: Red and White Cossacks fighting
with each other.
27
a problem: the life of the main characters - under threat.

the search for solution to the problem: the protagonist of the film - Don Cossack
Gregory Melikhov - torn between the Reds and Whites ...
solution: torn by insoluble contradictions, the main character dies in a fratricidal civil war
...
The period of 1960s

- The continuation of intensive introduction of communist and anti-religious
ideology;
- Gradual clotting of criticism of Stalinism on the background of total tendency to the state
celebration of all sorts of Soviet-Communist anniversaries of national importance;
- The continuation of the policy of "peaceful coexistence between the socialist and capitalist
systems" while maintaining hard "ideological struggle" with "the imperialist West" and the intense
militarization of the country, accompanied by the unleashing of local military conflicts (in Africa
and Asia), the Soviet intervention in Czechoslovakia (1968), support including military, pro-
communist regimes in developing countries.
- The continuation of industrialization (mainly heavy and military industry), space
exploration (the world's first space flight of the rocket with a man on board in 1961), combined
with the attempts to somehow solve the everyday problems of the population and housing;
- The continuation of the struggle against "dissidents" (with A. Sinyavski, A. Solzhenitsyn and
others.).
Before cinema, affecting the subject of the Civil War, with the aim of maintaining the main
lines of the state policy of the authoritarian Soviet regime, clearly advocacy objectives were set.
They served as the basis for the author's concept of the movie:
- To show that the terror era of the civil war was a necessary measure, which brought Russia
much suffering; to pass over in silence, or at least to hide the true extent of the mass terror of this era;
- To convince the audience that the so-called "revolutionary terror" of Bolsheviks was
accomplished with the noblest aspirations, and the Communists and their supporters were honest,
loyal to the idea of the noble defenders of the rights of the oppressed.
Subjects of genre modification of the White movement: drama (military, historical), the
detective, romance, tragicomedy, comedy, western.
The style of the majority of these films is not governed by strict canons of "socialist realism."
Besides very traditional for this area screen versions (Optimistic Tragedy, Iron Stream), dashing
adventure like Elusive Avengers and New Adventures of Elusive Avengers were on the screens.
The action of these films was set in the era of the Civil War, and the mutual hatred of the warring
parties was filed as the necessary condition for the genre game. The extermination of dozens people
on the screen looked like a certain attraction.
A special place in this series of adventure films took the tape (in the genre mix detective and
thriller) about clever communists and security officers, with "clean hands", sword and fire burning
out "hostile plague" (that is, millions of people, in varying degrees, do not agree with the Bolshevik
regime) from the ground Russian (In the name of the revolution, Security Officer, Operation
"Trust").
However, despite the general trend, even in these films the Whites were shown as
increasingly intelligent and brave enemies. For example, the events of Operation "Trust" and
Crash unfolded to become a complex game of chess, where players competed almost equal
mastery. So detective by S. Kolosov Operation "Trust" (1967, based on the novel by L. Nikulin
Swell, actress L. Kasatkina brilliantly played the White émigré leader - Mary Zakharchenko-
Schultz. On the screen - "she is strong, ambitious and at the same time charming woman, loving
their homeland. She is ready to save her leave Paris and, exposing themselves to danger, to wade in
the Soviet Union, there to be active in fighting against the Bolshevik regime. Zakharchenko-Schultz
is died with a revolver in hand, surrounded by security officers, but she is not broken"[Volkov,
2008].
No less charismatic enemies of Soviet power the actors V. Samoilov and E. Matveev have
played in a detective by V. Chebotarev Crash (1968): the version of the elimination of the terrorist
28
organization of Boris Savinkov. The Colonel Pavlovsky (E. Matveev) is especially remembered – he
is powerful, strong, shrewd and bright. And Savinkov himself (played by actor V. Samoilov) is
shown contrary to the canons of former enemies’ unambiguous villains: ironic intellectual, a man
undoubtedly talented and extraordinary.
E. Lebedev is shown as ambiguous and tired White Guard colonel in the colorful performance
of the drama by G. Panfilov No path through Fire (1967). He also has his own ideas about good and
evil, his own truth.
It is worth noting that the trend of "stereoscopic" display figures of the White movement
encompasses most of the films about the period of 1918-1924 years, screened in the Soviet Union in
the second half of 1960s.
So, the image of White General M.V. Khanzhin was presented very impressively and clearly in
the military drama of the battles between the Reds and the troops of Admiral A.V. Kolchak
Thunderstorm over White (1968, directed by E. Nemchenko and C. Chaplin). The convincing
performance by Yefim Kopelyan shows us that General is a smart and intelligent patriot and
selfless fighter for Russia without Bolsheviks. "In this regard, he even corrects his adjutant to use
the word "enemy", instead of the phrase "red gang". General understands how strong Red Army,
and tries to anticipate the intentions of its Command"[Volkov, 2008].
Thus the attempt of A. Askoldov in the drama The Commissar (1967) to reveal the true
tragedy of the Civil War and the inhuman essence of revolutionary terror and violence was
merciless suppressed: the film had been banned for twenty years ...
At the same time, "the next generation of Soviet filmmakers, whose representatives began to
create outstanding in terms of art, but very vulnerable to the class positions of the product, picked
up the baton from Chuhraj decade later" [Razzakov, 2008], such as, for example, There were two
comrades (1968), The adjutant of his Excellency (1969) and others.
It seems that the film's director of There were two comrades (1968) - Eugene Karelov neither
before nor after did not achieve such a significant artistic result.
... Intelligent photographer Andrey Nekrasov (O. Yankovsky) and a sincere fighter for the
communist ideology Karjakin (R. Bykov) were ordered to conduct aerial reconnaissance on the eve
of the storming of Whites’ Perekop in autumn of 1920. But one of them is waiting for the bullet of
White Guard officer Brusnetsov (V. Vysotsky)
Talented work of the director E. Karelov and screenwriters E. Dunsky and V. Frid were
reinforced by the brilliant actor's work. Vladimir Vysotsky played his charismatic hero in a state of
collapse of personality: fiercely brave, strong, intelligent and uncompromising, he cannot come to
terms with the collapse of the White movement and emigration... In a series of dramatic and
ironic-comic plot twists clearly visible tragedy of the Russian nation which is ruthlessly divided into
Reds and Whites. This theme culminated in the famous episode with the suicide of Vysotsky’s
character on the deck the ship committed to Istanbul... And for a long time the viewing memory
"scrolled" the frames with Brusnetsov’s horse resignedly dissecting the cold waves of the sea ...
In a series of detective interpretations of the events of the civil war, perhaps the television
serial by E. Tashkov The adjutant of his Excellency (1969) was the most striking.
It is known that "the heart of the detective is the ugly underside of society - this is a real life
trash, dirt and vulgarity of the crime, blood, tears and suffering. And the life of spies, of course, has
its unattractive side too - fraud, corruption, hypocrisy, murder and blood, and much, much more
difficult, painful, unsightly little suitable as a subject for light entertainment. This gloomy life
material going to build an adventure story should be somewhat overcome, canceled or deleted
altogether. Thus, between the reality of the life of the material and a convention of the genre there
is a tense conflict collision. In the plane of this conflict there is the problem of the nature, the
problem of the image of man" [Fomin, 1980, p.28]. That is why the authors of Adjutant, choosing
the detective genre, did not become, of course, to violate the traditions and possibly avoided the
reefs of historical truth. Their task was not a documentary recreation of the actual realities and,
even romanticized, but the challenge of orthodox notions of past years about the "bad Whites" and
"good Reds".
...Red spy Koltsov (Y. Solomin), intelligent and clever, is at the headquarters of Denikin's
army. There is a psychological duel between Koltsov and corps commander General Kovalevsky,
who is also the smartest and intelligent man ... Agree that this situation was unusual story for the
audience, "educated" on Schors or Chapayev, where whites (or sympathizers) were brought to the
29
screen as the cruel enemies... Of course, in the The adjutant of his Excellency primarily detective
intrigue attracted: caught or not caught, learn or do not learn, work, or not work? But having a
partner-opponent such a great personality as General Kovalevsky, Koltsov undoubtedly gained
extra points at a mass audience.
General Kovalevsky (V. Strzhelchik) was impressive, imposing, intelligent, and ironic, he is
not resembled cardboard characters from many films of past years. "The image of General
Kovalevsky seems focused the whole history of the Russian officers. Stout, round-shouldered, it is
impossible to imagine him any nimbly prancing on horseback or famously clicking spurs or flying
in the whirlwind of the mazurka. You can imagine him just the way as he is today: tired, bent over
a staff table. And yet in his swollen eyes, in the turn of the head, in a tone of voice betrays the noble
shine that for centuries surrounded the notion of "a Russian officer."
The tradition produced for centuries, ideals, culture - that is what stands behind Kovalevsky-
Strzhelchik, makes him very expressive, large-scale" [Zabozlaeva, 1979, p.120-121]. I would say
more, Kovalevsky was already at the end of 1960s, aroused sympathy and empathy.
But unfortunately the supporters of the "White ideas", a charming hero of Yuri Solomin, who so
suited the uniform of volunteer army, was not with him, but with the fanatical "fighters for the
bright future of mankind..."
In addition, this film has the "scenes that previously would have been unthinkable for the
Soviet cinema. Five white officers and two Bolsheviks, a Red Army soldier, the other Red Army
commander, being together in captivity bandits make a daring escape. Getting rid of the chase, and
sitting almost the entire company on a cart, they are joyfully going through their happy
deliverance; they laugh together and play each other. And only then, remembering their political
sympathies, they prudently go to different directions: Whites - to the east, Reds - to the west"
[Volkov, 2008]. As a result, The adjutant of his Excellency campaigned against the Soviet power
better than any "enemy's voice," cooing the night of Western money by BBC"[Busina, 2009].
The poetic drama by Miklós Jancsó Stars and soldiers (Reds and Whites, 1967) is a complete
apart in a line of Soviet films about the Civil War. Even at the level of the scenic development of the
Soviet-Hungarian productions Mosfilm’s strict censors tried to do everything possible to mitigate
the pacifist pathos and equally unacceptable for that communist morals eroticism of film by M.
Jancsó. The history of conflict of Red Hungarian squad with the Whites in the summer of 1918,
presented by the director in his favorite manner of fascinating geometry ballet patterns of male
figures in the form of prancing riders and naked female bodies taken by the mobile camera, the
result it was released in two versions: in the Soviet which is strong reduction and overdubbed
(Stars and soldiers) and in author’s version - Hungarian (Reds and Whites) [dramatic details of
this history, please, read in the book: Country of Jancsó... , 2002, p.76-92].
One way or another, but in both versions the representatives of the White movement are
shown tired, perhaps doomed, but the strong men fighting for their ideals. "This is not your war," -
says in the film White Guard officer (wonderfully played by G. Strizhenov) to Hungarian soldiers
caught up in a Red whirlwind by romantic illusions of the world revolution.
Even Soviet censorship smoothed version of the film by Miklós Jancsó caused rejection by
the semi-official criticism of those years, reproached Stars and soldiers in the abstract pacifism,
blurring the ideological position, encoding meaning, excessive portrayal of violence and the
author's view on the cold civil war: "All action the film is based on the principle of contrast:
beautiful nature and cruel people. Wild hatred, murder, chases, betrayal, violence prevails among
the people ... but sympathy for the victims is not born, because the screen is not real people and
scenic pieces. Directed completely ruled psychology. All of this is taken in the abstract. Dance of
Death. Rhythm. Installation. Plastic. Continuous camera movement"[Pogozheva, 1972].
Of course, in the West, Reds and Whites takes quite differently: this movie was recognized as
the best foreign film in France, its importance, outstanding artistic quality of film were marked by
experts in the XX & XXI centuries [Menashe, 2005].
In my opinion, the anti-war message of the film is very relevant today, especially in light of
the civil war which was broken out in eastern Ukraine in 2014...
Another significant film in our topic was a tragicomedy by Alexander Mitta Burn, burn, my
star (1969).
... On the southern Russian expanse The Civil War is blazing, and Reds, Whites and Greens
are jumping by turns along the streets of the small town.
30
But Iskremas (Oleg Tabakov), obsessed by the ideas of the new revolutionary art, has the
dream to create an unprecedented theatrical spectacle ... This tragicomedy, undoubtedly, became
the best in A. Mitta’s film biography (Crew, The Tale of wandering, Border. Taiga novel, and
others).
By the first the role of Iskremas must played by Rolan Bykov (1929-1998). However, at this
time he fell out of favor because of the forbidden film Commissioner. And the role finally went to
Oleg Tabakov. Tabakov played it with inspiration, revealing talented simplicity of his character,
charmed with fireball revolutionary slogans ... The role of his volunteer assistants - illiterate
Ukrainian girl – was remarkably played by young Elena Proklova. Although the film has collected a
whole constellation of the best actors. It is impossible to forget Oleg Efremov (1927-2000) as a self-
taught artist, equally naive and utterly devoted to art as Iskremas ... Likewise, it remains in
memory brilliantly played orchestrated episode where impressive Whites by famous Russian
directors M. Hutsiev, V. Naumov and K.Voinov play with the poor Iskremas in sadistic "cuckoo",
i.e. tying his eyes, blindly firing at him with the revolvers…
Through laughter and tears the idea of illusory hopes for a brighter future of the Reds is very
clear in the film by A. Mitta (screenplay by Y. Dunskiy and V. Frid)…
cinema of the 1960s
historical period, the place of action: any period of time from 1918 to 1924 years,
Russia.
furnishings, household items: a modest dwelling, forms and objects of everyday life of
Soviet characters, neat houses, the shape and household items White guard characters (especially -
the high command).
methods of depicting reality: realistic (No Path Through Fire, There were two
comrades, The adjutant of his Excellency) or conditional - in the framework of the comedy
(The musicians of the regiment, Intervention, The Wedding in Malinovka), thriller
(The Mysterious Monk, The Elusive Avengers, The New Adventures of the Elusive) image of the
life of the characters of the White movement.
characters, their values, ideas, clothes, physique, vocabulary, facial
expressions, and gestures: positive characters (Reds) - supports advanced communist ideas;
White characters are differentiated: on the one hand, it is the traditional negative characters -
inhuman, militaristic, monarchist, bourgeois, imperialist ideas (Sergei Lazo, Exodus, Mysterious
monk, and others.). On the other (such as in the films The adjutant of his Excellency, No Path
Through Fire, Thunderstorm over White, Crash, Operation "Trust", There were two comrades), -
a strong and vibrant identity, defending his principles and ideas of honor, good and evil.
Characters are shared not only by social, but also by material status. Whites dressed richer
than the poor and humble Reds. As for the body, there is allowed options - Whites on the screen
(depending on the task) – are typical intellectual or athletic looking men.
In this case Whites are shown not only as rude and cruel enemies, with a repulsive
appearance, facial expressions and gestures domineering and unpleasant voice tones, and
(increasingly) – intelligent, charming and charismatic personality.
Male characters, personified the White movement, continue to dominate, however, among
the enemies of the Communists there are women sometimes beautiful and charming (for example,
in the Operation "Trust").
a significant change in the lives of the characters: negative characters
to put their anti-communist, anti-Bolshevik idea. Option: smart, charming, courageous characters
of the White movement fighting the Reds for their ideals.
state as a whole are at risk: the charming characters and the life of the White movement, have come
under the "red wheel" is at risk too...
the search for solution to the problem: the struggle (various types and methods)
positive Red characters with (repelling and / or charming) Whites.
31
solution: the destruction / arrest White characters. Rarer option: suicide of White
characters.
Examples:
The New Adventures of Elusive. USSR, 1968. Directed by E. Keosayan. Thriller.
historical period, the place of action: civil war in the south of Russia.
furnishings, household items: the modest life and wear of Reds, nice shape of Whites.
methods of depicting reality: a schematic representation of events.
expressions, gestures: Whites seem cruel enemies of a strong constitution, although sometimes
at the same time – they are clever, with a charming appearance and pleasant voices of
A. Dzhigarkhanyan and V. Ivashov (the last character, among other things sings in the frame
mentally-patriotic song Russian field); Reds depict a purely positive – they are young, motivated,
strong, honest fighters for Communism and the Bolshevik power, with colorful vocabulary,
gestures and facial expressions (one of them - Valery- high-school student, however, is able to
successfully mimic "their" intellectual among Whites) .
a significant change in the lives of the characters: the Whites seek to destroy the
Reds acting in their rear ...
a problem: the life of the Red characters is in danger.
the search for solutions: the Reds develop the plan of destroying the Whites and theft of
secret information;
solution: Reds are winning the victory.
There were two comrades. USSR, 1968. Directed by E. Karelov. Drama.

historical period, the place of action: civil war in Crimea, autumn of 1920.
furnishings, household items: it is the modest way of life and the form of Reds,
unsettled life of White officers, living in the Crimean hotels ...
expressions, gestures: again, following the iconic films of the 1950s, Forty first and And Quiet
Flows the Don, the film by E. Karelov broke the established stereotypes in the Soviet cinema that
positive Characters (Reds) certainly support the advanced communist ideas, and negative
characters (Whites) are the carriers of ideas inhumane. Red komissar in a brilliant performance by
Alla Demidova, not bothering evidence ruthlessly shoot anyone who seemed suspicious to her. Red
Army man Karjakin (by Rolan Bykov) looked in the movie like a minded bigot. Red Army soldier
Nekrasov (by Oleg Yankovsky) was a pretty intellectual. He was with the Reds clearly due to
romantic illusions. A White lieutenant Brusnetsov by Vladimir Vysotsky was shown as a charming,
courageous, strong personality.
a significant change in the lives of the characters: the autumn of 1920. The Reds,
breaking the resistance of the troops of Baron P.N .Wrangel (1878-1928), broke into the Crimea.
a problem: the life of the main characters (Whites and Reds) - is at stake.
the search for solution to the problem: the Whites try to resist the offensive of the
Reds. The Reds seek to clear quickly the Crimea from the Whites.
solution: Crimea are captured by The Reds. Remnants of the White Army swim to Turkey.
Nekrasov and Brusnetsov died in fratricidal civil war ...
The adjutant of his Excellency. USSR, 1969. Directed by E. Tashkov. Detective.

historical period, the place of action: civil war in the south of the former Russian
Empire, the headquarters of the Whites.
furnishings, household items: the high-quality furnishings and form of the Whites.
methods of depicting reality: it is a realistic (as far as censorship and detective genre are
allowed) image of characters’ life.
expressions, gestures: the main positive character is represented by actor Yuri Solomin. His
hero - the intelligent captain Koltsov - is the spy in the headquarters of the Whites. Immediate
superior of the "captain" - no less charming, intelligent and educated White Guard General
(Vladislav Strzhelchik), defends his principles and ideas of honor, good and evil. Such characters
32
are not shared by any intellectual or social status, such kind of people are the people of one circle
who find themselves on opposite sides. They have good manners and refined vocabulary. A brutal
White Guard counter-intelligence officer is presented in contrast / balance.
a significant change in the lives of the characters: a charming and intelligent
Koltsov is on the verge of exposing ...
a problem: Koltsov life is threatened ...
the search for solution to the problem: Koltsov is trying to divert the suspicion of
Whites from himself.
solution: Koltsov successfully performs the task of Red Staff ...
The Period of 1970s
There is the socio-cultural, political and ideological context of the 1970s:
- A decade of relatively stable existence of the country, accompanied by the solemn

celebration of the Soviet-communist anniversaries of national importance;
- The policy of "detente" of international tension, while maintaining of the ideological
struggle against the "imperialist West";
- The continuation of the fight against dissidents (Andrei Sakharov, Alexander Solzhenitsyn,
Vladimir Voinovich, etc.) And the decline of religious persecution;
- The continuation of industrialization (mainly heavy and military industry), space travel
(including the joint Soviet-American space program) and mass housing construction;
- The continuation of the intensive implementation of communist ideology;
- The continuation of the militarization of the country, the unleashing of the local military
conflicts (in Africa and Asia), the beginning of the intervention in Afghanistan (1979), the
maintenance, including military, pro-communist regimes in developing countries.
Genre modification: drama (military, historical), detective, western, tragicomedy,
melodrama.
The style of the majority of these films was no longer determined by the canons of "socialist
realism". There have been some changes in relation to the subject of the Civil War in the film-plots,
despite the preserved seals earlier decades. There were more lenient interpretations of the model of
the Civil War were deprived of fierce ruthlessness and categorical tapes of 1930s – 1940s.
The terror against the class enemies was still supplied with a plus sign, but more and more
emphasis was placed on its necessity, time, sometimes even wrong.
Besides a very traditional for this area of certain adaptations of prose works in the 1970s
starring the dashing adventure type of bloody westerns by Samvel Gasparov, which was set in the
era of the Civil War, and the mutual hatred of the warring parties was filed as a necessary condition
for the genre. The extermination of dozens of people on the screen looked as a kind of attraction
with fountains of blood.
In general the entertaining spectrum towards the subject of the Civil War in 1970s as in
1960s, took about one-third of this part of the genre repertoire. After visual dynamics of westerns
or detective allows you to show an unusual situations and sharply delineated characters of strong
heroes. However, the "bad tradition of the genre was that the noble hero, defending the good, got
the advanced omnipotence. He won because he was pure, generous, compassionate, and not
because this nobility and purity he argued, proved in fact in a bitter struggle with evil. Justice has
not seized in the result of intense battle, it only showed its strength through the hero automatically
programmed by filmmakers. Even enemies somehow suddenly started to play up this automatic
omnipotence of justice. First, we were recommend their as a very clever, quirky, artful. But the
further, the more created the impression of the opponents craziness, all their resourcefulness and
cunning was flew with them as a fluff of a dandelion"[Mikhalkovich, 1980, p.18].
The bloody Civil War westerns of Samvel Gasparov appeared on the Soviet screens of the
1970s. The tendency of S. Gasparov to stylization it was already clearly felt in the film Hate (1977),
perhaps under the influence of Among strangers... by Nikita Mikhalkov, who, incidentally, was the
author of the script together with E. Volodarsky. Events of the Civil War refracted in the film, as if
through a fog glass. A sign of the time has been erased, and the young actors with evident pleasure
33
and enthusiasm were not playing characters of twenties, and their peers, as they were transferred
to the decades ago by an unknown machine time.
Such outright bet on the entertainment director, bypassing the development of character and
reflection of the era, seemed to be very controversial.
Another feature of his directorial mannerisms - the pursuit of the external effect - was
revealed in Hate. So, inviting the actor Boris Khmelnitsky, whose appearance was contrasted with
bright, on a microscopic role of White officer, Samvel Gasparov unrolled the whole episode with
"Russian roulette" (play with death by a revolver) only in order to show how beautiful the officer
put a bullet in his forehead.
Contrary to its name the next western by S. Gasparov - Forget the word "death" (1979) was
literally packed with scenes of murder. It was the impression that the main thing in the movie was
how the rivers of blood effectively flow.
Storylines have been, to say the least, secondary. Instead of the characters there was still
nothing but masks. As before, the external dynamic was the main thing for the producer. It was
based on the "iron" laws of the genre. Alas, Samvel Gasparov is not Sergio Leone: his attempts to
complete the film script "emptiness" by bloody gunfights where, ultimately, no matter who and
whom to shoot, turned film Forget the word “death” in an ordinary brawl against the backdrop of
the Civil War.
The adventure films And in the Pacific Ocean (1973), Let's talk, Brother (1979) by
Yuri Chulyukin were in a similar vein, only a "little blood": clever White enemies / spies against
dashing Red guerrillas.
Another adventure film of those years is Diamonds for the dictatorship of the proletariat
(1975, based on the novel by U. Semeonov) was set by G. Kromanov in genre of detective. One of
the key characters of this film is Prince Vorontsov, who immigrated to Tallinn and threw all his
fortune on the support of the White movement. The defeat of the armies of A.I. Denikin and
A.V. Kolchak did not shake his convictions. In 1921 he is also ready to fight against the Bolsheviks
with all methods available to him that "leads willed, educated person with regard to the bottom of
society, to the crime" [Elmanovich, 1975].
As for the more important films of the "far-Civil", it is worth to note film Run, based on the
works of Mikhail Bulgakov which, in my opinion, belongs to the best works of the directors’ duo of
A. Alov and V. Naumov. In this film there is an epic power, the real drama of a brutal civil war,
bitter irony, and even sad poetry ... "Of course, Alov and Naumov are recognized from the first
frame - wrote S. Rassadin about the film Run. - They're all the same uncontrolled inventors.
And the same strength of passion, from which, it seems, just step into frenzy. And the same interest
in fractures, ups and downs - a fatal moment in life and history" [Rassadin, 1989, in: A. Alov,
V. Naumov, 1989, p.146].
With tremendous force, perhaps on the verge of human capabilities, the role of the White
Guard General Khludov was played by Vladislav Dvorzhetsky – it is a tragedy of Conscience and
Vengeance ... Haunting his character creepy visions are given on the screen in the style of
apocalyptic phantasmagoria. But Bulgakov is Bulgakov! And next to the terrible and terrifying
scenes in the film by Alov and Naumov appear comical, farcical episodes of "cockroach race" card
game of General Charnota with rich Korzukhin. Here it rains the element of the carnival. And it
seems that among the heroes of the picture there is about to appear himself Messer Voland and
offer them another gamble.
Special praise in Run deserves cinematography by Levan Paatashvili: his camera has power
over everything: furious cavalry charges, psychological portraits, expressive world of dreams and
visions, nostalgic landscapes and surroundings tragicomic circus scenes.
cinema of the 1970s
historical period, the place of action: any period of time from 1918 till 1924, Russia.
furnishings, household items: there is the modest dwelling, forms and objects of
everyday life of Soviet characters, neat houses, the shape and household items of white guard
34
methods of depicting reality: they are realistic (Red Square, Days of Turbines),
conditional or quasi realistic: in the framework of thriller (Winner, The End of the Emperor of
Taiga, Let's talk, brother...), westerns (Among Strangers ..., Hate, Seek the wind, Forget the word
"death"), comedy (Bumbarash) and even parodies (Crown of the Russian Empire). Dramaturgic
stereotype of films on historical and revolutionary topic of the Civil War: the poor enthusiastically
accept the power of the Bolsheviks; middle class and intellectuals are hesitating, they are afraid of
terror, blood and war. But in the end, hesitating understands that the Bolsheviks took these forced
repressive actions for the sake of the future benefits of workers (this line was again clearly
manifested in the second in a row adaptation of A. Tolstoy's The Road to Calvary). So the
hesitating characters come to understanding of the correctness of the theory of revolutionary terror
and the dictatorship of the proletariat. In this regard, security officers are deserved a special thanks
of the authors of such films, they burn with fire and sword, with "clean hands” the "hostile plague"
(that is, millions of people) from the Russian land (Peters, Born in Revolution, The collapse of the
operations “terror”, The 20th of December and others.).
expressions, and gestures: positive characters (Reds) are the supporters of advanced
communist ideas; White characters are differentiated: on the one hand, they are traditionally
negative characters - supporters of inhuman, militaristic, monarchist, bourgeois, imperialist ideas.
On the other (as, for example, in the film by Vladimir Basov Days of Turbins) – they are intelligent
people who defend their principles and ideas of honor, good and evil.
Characters are shared not only by social, but also material status. Whites dressed richer than
the poor and humble Reds. As for the body, the options are allowed: Whites on the screen
(depending on the task) are the typical intellectual or athletic looking men.
These White characters are shown not only rude and cruel enemies, with a repulsive
subtle and charming beauties with impeccable manners and refined vocabulary.
a significant change in the lives of the characters: the bloody events of the Civil War
burst into the life of Red and White characters.
a problem: life of the Reds and Whites is under the threat.
the search for solution to the problem: it is the struggle (various types and methods) of
Red and White characters; the hesitations of charming intelligent characters are attracted to the
ideology of the White movement.
solution: it is the defeat of White characters.
Examples:
Run. USSR, 1970. Directed by A. Alov and V. Naumov (film adaptation of the play by
Mikhail Bulgakov). Drama.
historical period, the place of action: Russia, the Civil War, Crimea, 1920. Turkey, the
beginning of the 1920s. France, Paris, 1920s
furnishings, household items: the sturdy life and form of Whites.
methods of depicting reality: they are in general realistic, but some episodes (dreams of
General Khludov) clearly manifested surrealism.
expressions, and gestures: almost all the White characters look like people deserved respect.
The main film's hero is the White Guard General Khludov (in a stunning on the psychological
depth performance by Vladislav Dvorzhetsky). He is a ruthless and cruel man, fighting for his
ideals ... He is chary of words, sleepless eyes look tired ...
a significant change in the lives of the characters: on the background of the collapse
of the White Army in the Crimea Khludov has total depression, phantasmagoric dreams and
hallucinations ...
a problem: the life of the main characters is under threat.
the search for solution to the problem: General Khludov is between reality and
delusions
solution: turned by insoluble contradictions, the main character dies (while the other
Whites and intellectuals sympathetic to the White movement escape from the capture of Crimea by
the Reds and emigrate).
35
Winner. USSR, 1975. Directed by A. Ladynin. Thriller.

historical period, place of action: the scene of civil war, the former Russian empire.
furnishings, household items: the modest way of life and a form of Reds, neat way of
life and a form of Whites.
methods of depicting reality: conventional (within the genre thriller) image of
characters’ life.
expressions, and gestures: positive characters (Reds) support advanced communist ideas.
Personification: Reds are represented as charismatic daredevil, performed by Alexander
Zbruev; Whites – as charming and intelligent officer performed by George Taratorkin defending
his principles and ideas of honor, good and evil, and his cruel and cynical colleague performed by
handsome Vladimir Korenev. Red and White characters are shared by the social and ideological
status.
a significant change in the lives of the characters: the Red Army soldier Spiridonov
(Alexander Zbruev) is in the rear of the Whites.
a problem: the life of the main characters - both Spiridonov and White officers, is under the
threat.
the search for solutions: Spiridonov tries to organize rebel units in the rear of the
Whites.
solution to the problem: in the fight against the Whites Spiridonov wins the victory.
Slave of Love. USSR, 1975. Directed by Nikita Mikhalkov. Melodrama.

historical period, place of action: the scene of civil war, the south of Russia.
furnishings, household items: high-quality form of the Whites, elegant and fashionable
clothes of filmmakers making silent movie ..
methods of depicting reality: it is a quasi realistic picture of events.
expressions, and gestures: Whites are shown as cruel enemies of a strong constitution; the
chief of counter intelligence in the colorful performance of Konstantin Grigoriev is extremely cruel.
Reds, and especially - the cameraman of the underground performed by Rodion Nahapetov, in
contrast, are depicted as purely positive – they are intelligent, purposeful, strong, honest, charming
fighters for Communism and the Bolshevik power, with colorful vocabulary, gestures and facial
expressions
a significant change in the lives of the characters: the Whites seek to destroy
underground of the Reds.
a problem: the life of the Red characters and the operator of the underground is under the
threat.
the search for solutions: the star of silent film, Olga Voznesenskaya (Yelena Solovey),
falling in love with the operator of the underground, tries to help him.
solution to the problem: the victory of the Reds, but the cameraman and the "slave of
love" Voznesenskaya are killed by the bullets of Whites.
The Period of 1980s
- Crisis tendencies became increasingly in the ineffective planned state economy of the USSR
because of the sharp drop in oil prices;
- The policy of "detente" of international tension again replaced by a sharp aggravation of the
"ideological struggle" against "imperialist West" in the first half of 1980s, because of the Afghan
war and the events connected with the Polish "Solidarity"
- After the death of three old-aged Soviet leaders (Leonid Brezhnev, Yuri Andropov and
Konstantin Chernenko), relatively young leader – M.S. Gorbachev came to power in 1985.
He marked a new era of reform such as "perestroika, glasnost and pluralism", aimed at the revision
of many communist dogmas, on the democratization and improvement of socialism;
- The second half of the 1980s characterized by traits such as the phasing out of the
ideological struggle, and the persecution of dissidents, the ending of the war in Afghanistan, the
36
proclamation of the policy of disarmament; the establishment of the state contacts with the
Western world, because of the policies of "perestroika"
About fifty films with topic somehow related to the White movement were delivered in the
1980s. But unlike previous years, most of these films were made in the entertainment genres
(thriller, western, detective and others.).
However, the western by S. Gasparov Bread, gold, pistol (1980) has been a definite shift
toward greater authenticity and psychology. It is again the civil war, the main characters are given
again only with thick strokes. But the leader of the gang Mezentsev is a real live character. Edward
Martsevich managed to "squeeze" the utmost from the role: Mummery bastard Mezentsev appears
in all his unattractive image. The film was well maintained rhythmically: delayed "pause"
alternated with dynamic scenes. Bloody, naturalistic scenes were less. But along with the brilliant
spectacular elements (stunts with horses, for example) annoying setbacks were met due to the
negligence of direction (such as passing the modern car). The plot, developed quite plausible at
first, becomes more far-fetched to the end.
Perhaps one of the most difficult tasks facing the director of adventure, is to follow a sense of
proportion. On the one hand, the picture should not be prolonged, boring, on the other it requires a
certain limit of tricks and dynamics. An example is one more western by S. Gasparov - The Sixth
(1981). In this case, the filmmaker decided to dilute the plot by the comedy episodes. But still, with
pressure, the bloody murder scenes were given. It has been overemphasized the symbols, such as
brand new tunics which were sewn even for the dead. A dramatic finale of the death of the sixth
police chief was leveled by subsequent stage of his miraculous healing. The film, which can predict
the plot twists and living people can be replaced by some types of the human incarnation (silent
athlete who loves kids, sad pharmacist, hairdresser-dandy, grim shepherd, etc.) in the end it
turned out no worse but no better of the rest westerns by Gasparov with good Reds and bad Whits.
That's for the authors of western Who will pay for success (1980), the civil war is "only the
initial situation, declared as a sign. We do not know the names of the characters, but the balance of
power is clear. During the performance "ours" must kill "their" officer, who knew all the members
of the underground. However, the task remains unfulfilled, and underground fighter, which, as it
turns out, is called Antonina Chumak, was arrested by counterintelligence. Three persons
(Red sailor Sergei, playboy and gambler Dmitry, White Guard Cossack Fedor) learning about the
upcoming show trial in attitude of Chumak and taking her for a close confident person, are going to
help her. Salvation of the underground worker is just the plot of the film" [Kudryavtsev, 1980].
The heroes of adventure westerns are usually quite lucky - they often work out things just
fantastic. In the movie Who will pay for success events are incredible, but the eccentric direction of
Konstantin Khudyakov and the good actor works of Vitaly Solomin and Leonid Filatov allows
viewers to believe what is happening on the screen. But for the luck, asit follows from the name of
the movie, you have to pay. And heroes paid the highest price – the price of life. So on this dramatic
chord the film was broken, at first seemed almost as an adventure comedy.
As to the period of "perestroika", it does not have time to reflect for new trends in the topic of
the Civil War. However, a different approach to the Civil War has been done in one of the last films of
the Soviet era - Medical history (1990) by A. Prazdnikov, based on the Red Crown by M.A. Bulgakov.
Here soldier (Alexander Galibin) "at the insistence of his mother goes in search of his younger
brother, volunteered to serve in the White Army. The resulting concussion and death of a young
brotherare brought a former officer with the diagnosis of schizophrenia in a mental hospital. Thus,
the film claimed the idea of meaninglessness and cruelty of fratricidal civil war" [Volkov, 2008].
cinema of the 1980s
historical period, the place of action: any period of time from 1918 till 1924, Russia.
furnishings, household items: the modest dwelling, forms and objects of everyday life of
Soviet characters, neat houses, the shape and household items White characters (especially - the
high command).
methods of depicting reality: realistic (Shores in the fog), quasi realistic or conditional:
in the framework of the westerns (Bread, gold, pistol, The sixth, etc.), thriller (Who will pay for
37
success, Urgenlyt. Confidential. Gubcheka, In shooting wilderness, and others.) where the life of
characters of the White movement is given.
expressions, gestures: positive characters (Reds) support advanced communist ideas; White
characters are differentiated: on the one hand, it is the traditional negative characters - inhuman,
militaristic, monarchist, bourgeois, imperialist ideas. On the other (as, for example, in the movie
Shores in the fog) – they are intelligent people who defend their principles and ideas of honor,
good and evil. Characters are shared not only by social, but also by material status. Whites are
dressed richer than the poor and humble Reds. As for the body, the options are allowed: Whites on
the screen (depending on the task, are - ordinary intellectuals or - athletic looking men.This White
characters are shown not only rude and cruel enemies, with a repulsive appearance, facial
expressions and gestures domineering and unpleasant voice tones, and charming men with good
manners and vocabulary.
a significant change in the lives of the characters: negative characters
espionage, cooperation with the invaders, the bourgeois imperialist West and so forth.) are going to
put their anti-communist, anti-Bolshevik ideas.
option: intelligent charming characters from the circle of the White movement are drawn
into the revolutionary events in the maelstrom of civil war and try to keep their valuables.
state as a whole, are under the threat; but the life of White characters who have fallen under the
"red wheel" is under the threat too.
the search for solution to the problem: there is the struggle of (various types and
methods) Red and White characters; fluctuations of charming intelligent characters which are
attracted to the ideology of the White movement.
solution to the problem: the conscious destruction / arrest of the negative White
characters; forced destruction / oscillating arrest of intelligent, romantic White characters.
Option: hasitating White characters realize that the Bolsheviks took the revolutionary
repressive measures forced, for the sake of the future benefit of the poor. So hasitated heroes of the
White movement come to understanding of the correctness of the theory of revolutionary terror,
violence and dictatorship of the proletariat.
Examples:
A long way in a maze. USSR, 1981. Directed by V. Levin. Detective.

furnishings, household items: a provincial southern city, steppes, way of Reds’life is
rather ascetic, Whites’ things, in this sense, are better ..
methods of depicting reality: the whole contingent (in the framework of the detective
genre) image life of characters is without much psychological depth.
expressions, gestures: positive characters (Reds) support advanced communist ideas; White
characters (including - disguised as a White Guard spy Red) defend their principles and ideas of
honor, good and evil. Characters are shared by social status. The Reds’ vocabularyis rude, Whites
have refined vocabulary.
a significant change in the lives of the characters: Reds suspect that in their ranks a
spy of whites appeared ..
a problem: the life of the main characters - both Reds and Whites - is in danger ...
the search for solutions: Reds try to find the White spy and eliminate the troop under the
leadership of one of the Whites ..
solution: Reds manage to destroy their enemies, but in battle they are having losses too.
Life and immortality of Sergey Lazo. USSR, 1985. Directed by V. Pascaru. Drama.
historical period, the place of action: civil war in the Far East in 1918-1920 (with small
sidebars of episodes, which are set in the first seventeen years of the XX century).
38
furnishings, household items: the modest life, uniforms of Reds, nice shape forms of
Whites.
methods of depicting reality: a quasi realistic picture of events.
expressions, gestures: Whites seem cruel enemies of a strong constitution, the chief of which is
presented in a spectacular image of a black-bearded handsome man (Boris Khmelnitsky); Reds,
and especially one of their leaders - Sergey Lazo (1894-1920), on the other hand, are portrayed
purely positive - a purposeful, strong, honest fighters for Communism and the Bolshevik power,
with colorful vocabulary, gestures and facial expressions. Noble in origion, S. Lazo (this role, like in
the same film in 1968, is playing by a charming Lithuanian actor) is endowed to the same with
good looks and intelligent manner.
a significant change in the lives of the characters: the Whites, in alliance with the
Japanese invaders, seek to destroy the Reds, and the Reds seek to destroy the Whites and
Japanese.
a problem: the life of Red and White characters is under the threat.
the search for solution to the problem: the Reds are developing a plan of holding their
power in the Far Eastern Republic.
solution: the Reds in the end win a victory, but the two main characters of the film - the
White Guard Colonel and S.Lazo are died.
Shores in the fog. USSR, 1985. Directed by Y. Karasik. Drama.

historical period, the place of action: 1921, Bulgaria (where the troops of General
P.N.Vrangel crossed from Turky), Crimea.
furnishings, household items: the modest way of life and a form of Reds, the neat way of
life and a form of Whites.
expressions, gestures: as the main Whites (officers of the army of General Vrangel) and the
main characters of the Reds are presented as the supporters of their ideas, which they regard as the
only true. Between them there are a hasitating characters adjacent to the White movement, but
succumbed to the Bolshevik agitation of repatriation. Red and White characters are divided into
social but not material status because surrounded in exile army of P.N. Wrangel has financial
difficulties. White characters tend to look worthy opponents. In general, Whites are dressed richer
than Reds. As for the body, there is both Reds and Whites, have a variety of textures, facial
expressions and gestures, though, naturally, manners and vocabulary of the White movement are
aristocratic and intelligent, and the Reds and their allies are still simpler and cruder ..
a significant change in the lives of the characters: the Whites led by General P.N.
Vrangel want to get from their Western allies the weapon again in order to start the war with Soviet
Russia.
a problem: the life, both White and Red characters is under the threat.
the search for solutions: Whites and Reds are taking active steps towards each other.
solution: Reds together with the Bulgarian communists steal weapons which were intended
for Baron Wrangel’s Army and ruind the plan of capture of power in Bulgaria by the whites.
However, one of the main organizers of the crash of Whites in Bulgaria is killed and his opponent
Colonel of White Guard commits suicide.
Conclusion
films of 1950s – 1980s, in varying degrees of affecting the subject of the White movement, leads to
the conclusion about the essential similarity of their media stereotypes. Positive characters (Reds)
– supports advanced communist ideas; White characters are differentiated: on the one hand, it is
the traditional negative characters – inhuman, militaristic, monarchist, bourgeois, imperialist
ideas. On the other – a strong and vibrant identity, defending his principles and ideas of honor,
good and evil. Characters are shared not only by social, but also by material status. Whites dressed
richer than the poor and humble Reds. As for the body, there is allowed options - Whites on the
screen (depending on the task) – are typical intellectual or athletic looking men. In this case Whites
39
are shown not only as rude and cruel enemies, with a repulsive appearance, facial expressions and
gestures domineering and unpleasant voice tones, and (increasingly) – intelligent, charming and
charismatic personality.
References:
1. Alexander Alov, Vladimir Naumov (1989). Moscow, p.146.
3. Bagdasarian, V.E. (2003). The image of the enemy in historical films 1930-1940-ies.
Press.
5. Baskakov, V.E. (1981). The confrontation of ideas on the western cinema screen // West
Screen: problems and trends. Moscow: Knowledge, 3-20.
7. Busina, O. (2009). These chic Whites ... http://from-ua.com/voice/570a6bae81ed5.html
http://www.from-ua.com/voice/6eaa4b1cd2f97.html
Demin, V.P. (1980). A film about the spy: semantics space. Adventure film. Ways and searches.
Moscow: Film Institute, 59-81.
432 p.
11. Elmanovich, T. (1975). Review of the film Diamonds for the dictatorship of the
proletariat. Soviet Screen. № 16.
12. Fedorov A.V. (2015). Transformation of Russian image in the West the screen. Moscow:
Information for All, 2015. 221 p.
at the student audience. Innovations in education. № 4, 60-80.
15. Fomin V.I. (1980). Event and character in the adventure film. Adventure film. Ways and
searches. Moscow, 24-38.
16. From the history of the Civil War in the USSR. Moscow, 1961.
17. Gunther, H. (2000). Archetypes of Soviet Socialist Realism. Socialist Realism Canon.
18. Halbwachs, M. (2005). The collective and historical memory. Emergency ration, № 2-3,
40-41.
Ranger, T (Eds.) The Invention of Tradition. Cambridge, 2000, 1–14.
23. Kenez, P. (2007). Red Attack, White resistance. 1918-1918. Moscow: Center Poligraf, 287
p.
24. Kirmel, N.S. (2008). White Guard intelligence services in the Civil War. 1918-1924
years. Moscow: Kuchkovo Field, 512 p.
25. Kolesnikova, A. (2006). The image of the enemy in Soviet cinema. Posev. № 9, S.24-30.
26. Kondakov, Y.E. (2007). Civil War on the screen. White movement (the era of silent
movies) // Clio. 85-91.
27. Kondakov, Y.E. (2012). Mapping the Civil War in the Soviet cinema of 1930-40-ies.
http://statehistory.ru/3420/Otobrazhenie-Grazhdanskoy-voyny-v-sovetskom-kinematografe-
1930-40-kh-godov/Kondakov, Y.E. (2015). Civil War on the screen. White Movement: a tutorial.
St. Petersburg: Elexis, 362 p.
40
28. Kovalov, O. (2014). Freedom comes naked. Séance. 21.03.14. http://seance.ru

/blog/portrait/svoboda/
29. Kudryavtsev, S.V. (1980). Who will pay for good luck. http://www.kinopoisk.
ru/level/3/review/880760/1980
61-62.
history. Moscow.
32. Malkova, L.Y. (1995). The face of the enemy. Cinema: Politics and people (1930s).
Moscow: Mainland.
33. Menashe, L. (2005). Chapayev and Company: Films of the Russian Civil War. Cinéaste.
2005. Vol. 30. No. 4, 18-22.
34. Mikhalkovich, V.I. (1980). When the hero becomes another. Adventure film. Ways and
35. Nekludov, S.Y. (2000). Structure and function of myth. Myths and Mythology in
37. Pogozheva, L. (1972). Budapest notebook. Moscow, p.63.
38. Polyakov, Y. (1992). Civil War: the emergence and escalation. National History. № 6.
39. Razlogov, K.E. (2004). Specifics of feature films as a historical source. The history of the
country. History of Cinema. Moscow, p.30.
40. Razzakov, F. (2007). Light extinguished stars. They left that day. Moscow: Exmo.
42. Schneiderman, I.I. Gregory Chukhray. Leningrad: Art, 1965. 228 p.
44. Shlapentokh, D. and V. (1993). Soviet Cinematography 1918-1991. New York: Aldine De
Gruyter, 278 pp.
47. Small, M. (1980). Hollywood and Teaching About Russian-American Relations. Film and
History, N 10, p.1-8.
48. Smirnov, I. (2008). Admiral: procession from her husband for her lover. Skepticism.
http://scepsis.ru/library/id_2218.html
49. Sobolev, R.P. Hollywood 60 years. Moscow: Art, 1975. 239 p.
51. Strada M. (1989). A Half Century of American Cinematic Imagery: Hollywood's Portrayal
of Russian Characters, 1933-1988. Coexistence, N 26, p.333-350.
53. Strizhenov, O.A. (2001). Confession. Moscow, 21, 90.
55. Toshchenko, J.T. (2000). Historical consciousness and historical memory. Modern and
Contemporary History. № 4, p.4.
56. Trochin, A. (2002). Country Jancso, which invites Alexander Troshin. Moscow:
Research Center Eisenstein film culture. Film Museum, 2002. 240 p.
57. Troshin, A.S. Miklós Jancsó // Encyclopedia of Film Directors. Cinema Europe.
Moscow: Mainland, 2002, 199-200.
58. Tsvetkov, V.G. (2000). White Movement in Russia. 1918-1924 years. Questions of
history. № 7, 56-73.
59. Turovskaya, M.I. (2003). Blow up. Moscow: MIC, 288 p.
60. Vasilchenko, A.V. (2010). The spotlight of Dr. Goebbels. Cinema of the Third Reich.
Moscow: Veche, 2010. 320 p.
41
61. Vladimirov, S. (2014). Sunstroke by Mikhalkov - a film-pilgrimage. Komsomolskaya

Pravda. 13.01. 2014. http://www.kp.ru/daily/26294.5/3172010/
62. Vlasov, M.P. (1962). Soviet historical and historical-revolutionary film. Moscow, p.16.
63. Vlasov, M.P. (1997). The Soviet cinema of the seventies - early eighties. Moscow.: VGIK,
146-147.
65. Volkov, E.V. (2003). Image of Kappels’ in Vasilyev brothers film Chapaev. Kappel and
kappels. Moscow, 529-544. http://www.pobeda.ru/index2.php?option= com_content&task
=view&id=4892&pop=1&page=0
66. Volkov, E.V. (2004). White movement in the domestic screen: the evolution of cultural
memory // Age of memory, the memory of the century. Experience of dealing with the past in the
twentieth century. Chelyabinsk: Stone Belt, 251-268.
68. Volkov, E.V. (2013). Kolchak in the Soviet feature films. New Historical Journal. № 35.
69. Yurenev, R.N. (1979). A brief history of the Soviet cinema. Moscow, p.30.
70. Yurenev, R.N. (1981). The book movies. Moscow: Art.
71. Yurenev, R.N. (1997). Soviet cinema of the thirties. Moscow: VGIK, 110 p.
72. Zabozlaeva, T.B. (1979). Vladislav Strzhelchik. Leningrad: Art, 120-121.
74. Zorkaya, N.M. (1998). Spinning, spinning blue ball ... Ten masterpieces of Soviet
cinema. Moscow: Knowledge, 85-86.
42

European Researcher
ISSN 2219-8229
E-ISSN 2224-0136
Vol. 105, Is. 4, pp. 216-230, 2016
DOI: 10.13187/er.2016.105.216
www.erjournal.ru
UDC 37
The Image of the White Movement in the Russian Feature Cinema

at the Present Stage (1992–2016)
Alexander Fedorov
Anton Chekhov Taganrog Institute,

Dr. (Pedagogy), professor
Abstract
mirror of the Russian cinema at the present stage (1992-2016). The hermeneutical analysis
suggests media text comprehension through comparison with historical, cultural tradition and
reality; penetration of its logic; through comparison of media images in historical and cultural
context by combining historical, hermeneutical analysis of the structural, plot, ethical, ideological,
iconographic / visual, media stereotypes and analysis of media text characters. An analysis of this
historians, culture and art historians, sociologists, psychologists and educators. Thus, the
comparative analysis of plot schemes, characters, and ideology of the Russian feature films of
1992-2016, in varying degrees of affecting the subject of the White movement, leads to the
conclusion about the essential similarity of their media stereotypes. Content analysis of screen
media texts of 1992-2016 on the topic related to the White movement allows generally to submit
their basic narrative schemes.
Keywords: White movement, Russian cinema, films, hermeneutical analysis, Russia, film
studies, media texts, media literacy.
Introduction
Thus, the research problem stems from the contradiction between the relatively more
scientific designed ideological, political science and historical aspects of the Civil War and the
movement of the White associated with it and also insufficient attention of scientists to the
evolution of the image of the White movement in the cinema.
Studies Russian film researchers were still focused on the traditional "historical-
revolutionary", "heroic and patriotic", military, etc. topics. For example, in this way it was analyzed
films of the 1960s-1970s in the writings of Film "conservative" school stood on the positions of the
so-called "socialist realism". This topic is not considered separately and in the works of the famous
Russian historians and theorists of cinematic art "liberal" direction 1950s-1990s (V. Demin,
N. Zorkaya, K. Razlogov , M. Turovskaya). Thus, it seems to be urgent to explore, organize, and
analyze the evolution of interpretations of the theme of the White movement in the film industry,
216
taking into account the socio-cultural, political and ideological context of typology of plot diagrams
and characters in the movie, the key concepts of copyright, etc.
Discussion
Among all the Russian films about the White movement, shot in the modern times, the most
notable discussion revolved around the melodrama Admiral (2009) by A. Kravchuk and drama
Sunstroke (2014) by N. Mikhalkov. Although, in my opinion, drama Fascination of Evil (2006) by
M. Kazakov deserved such a discussion and it was obviously underestimated (by as the audience so
the film critics).
The most ardent opponents of the Admiral, speaking about the latest romantic love of one of
the leaders of the White movement A.V. Kolchak (1874-1920), were ruthless, claiming that the
authors of the film "on top of the computer shooting pasted the melodrama in which all mental
anguish are illustrated by the same expression on the doll lovers little face of the heroine. Because
the Civil war was waged by icon painting White officers and against them "something," that with
the brutal face, blowing his nose with one finger, cuts of any innocent people" [Smirnov, 2008].
Around the same spirit pro-Soviet critics responded to the Admiral, emphasizing that the
Admiral, where "there are ripples in the eyes from the Russian banners, icons and high-flown
words about the glory of the Fatherland, he destroys the firstborn understanding of social justice,
as there is no hero commoner in the film – there are only "noble" gentlemen officers. Common
people in the film are shown as a murderer, (in the image of the Bolshevik sailors), or as a faceless
mass, cannon fodder, whom these officers lead to the attack with the help of bayonets for victory.
…. There is no in them, and apparently never will be their adjutants of his excellency, where Whites
and Reds were presented with the objective position when the bloodshed by both sides would be
divided equally. Instead of it, in the new Russian cinema Whites assigned the role of noble fighters
for bright idea of light, and Reds assigned the role of brutalized cattle, which deserve nothing
except the bullet" [Razzakov, 2008].
It seems to me that in this dispute I.E. Petrovskaya is right. She wrote that in the
melodramatic Admiral "everything is clear and certain: there is the main character without fear
and reproach – he is beautiful, courageous, brave, smart, played by a favorite of the public
Constantine Habensky. There is a heroine beloved hero – she is beautiful, feminine, sacrificial and
elegant - in the performance of public favorite Elizabeth Boyarska. There is another character, she
is Kolchak's wife – she is beautiful, feminine, loyal and also very elegant - in the performance of
another audience favorite Anna Kovalchuk. There are valiant Russian officers – they are beautiful,
noble and courageous, in the gold of epaulettes. In general, they are all handsome, all heroes, all of
them poets - and almost all cause sympathy in contrast to their opponents, Reds, which in fact can
be any color, because the main thing in them is that they are not Reds but that against them for the
great motherland such nice heroes fight. There is no any special psychology in Admiral. But
audience loves to watch costumes and a love story against the backdrop of the war, adding a love
story sharpness and dramatic" [Petrovskaya, 2009].
To put it most generally, the key questions to the authors of Sunstroke were: "What kind of
Russia did we lose? How and why did it happen?".
It is clear that a liberal media critics shop sharpened the long teeth on N. Mikhalkov and his
work in general it treated sharply negative to his Sunstroke, put on the works of Nobel laureate I.
Bunin (1970-1953). Among the most common words used in reviews as guilty, "poster",
"heaviness", "banality", "arrogance", "nationalism", "anti-Darwinism", "monarchism", "heaviness",
"strained", "weakness", "slowness", "boredom", "illustrative", "tastelessness", "vulgarity",
"dishonesty", "false", "anti-liberal propaganda", "compulsive self-citations", etc. [Bezrukov, 2014;
Bogomolov, 2014; Gireev, 2014; Gladilschikov, 2014; Zabaluev, 2014; Zelvenskiy, 2014; Ivanov,
2014; Matizen, 2014; Maslova, 2014; Plakhov, 2014; Solntseva, 2014; Tyrkin, 2014].
One of the main arguments against the author's concept of Sunstroke became the liberal
accusation to N. Mikhalkov that he in his films of the 1970s was for Reds, and now - for Whites, but
always – he was on the side of “The Authorities which was given by God” [Kichin, 2014; Matizen,
2014; Pavlyuchik, 2014]. Of course, some of the liberal critics' community did not escape the
temptation to "go to person", accusing N. Mikhalkov in loss of his former artistic forms that they
once admired [Kudryavtsev, 2014; Stishova, 2014].
217
However, among the critics of the liberal wing there were also those who were bored to
assess the ideology and philosophy of the authors of Sunstroke, because they did not see in him any
artistic merit [Zelvenskiy, 2014].
And it is quite radical in its desperate sense of primitivism of Sunstroke belongs, probably, to
D. Bykov: "Mikhalkov is in the "strike", pardon the pun involuntary, supposed to sound stern
warning - it is necessary, they say, time to eliminate the enemies, not to spare, drop any indulgence
- the children, they say, freedom of speech, they say - and today it is necessary to do everything in
order Russian events of 1917 wouldn’t find any repetition" [Bykov, 2014].
As a result, it seems, the only discordant note in the consolidated opinion of the liberal media
criticism became a replica of A. Dolin: Sunstroke of three hours of emptiness and what is it all
about? “Talk about the inability of the unit to the analysis, I'm sorry. The essence of the film is
simple and clear, it is formulated in two words: Russian Titanic. A story of fleeting love on a ship
and a shipwreck at the end means deluge, the end of the world, and the punishment for sins. It is
the whole structure and distinct idea, which is hard to argue” [Dolin, 2014].
Admirers of N.Mikhalkov from the ranks of the conservative critics in relation to Sunstroke
and its creators actively used the complimentary words and phrases: "perfect", "great", "cinema
event", "skill", "artist", and others. [Vladimirov 2014; Danlova, 2014; Moskvina, 2014;
Ometsinskay 2014; Surikov, 2014; Yampolskaya, 2014].
In response to many of the cited above reproach liberals, the conservative wing media
criticism confidently argued that Sunstroke – is not propaganda, but complex and multi-valued
work of art [Ometsinskaya 2014; Rutkovsky, 2014; Surikov, 2014; Tolkunova, 2014; Haknazarov,
2014].
Then all went here E. Yampolskaya: analyzing the actions of the characters of Sunstroke, she
urged the audience for the prescription of years to rise above the fray of Reds and Whites, "because
in the civil wars there are no any heroes, there are only the victims": "In Sunstroke there are no
abuses of Reds - Mikhalkov is not working frontally. ... There is also no the idealization of White
officers. All are people, all are different. ... Russia was slept like a beloved woman. When they woke
up - she had disappeared behind a bend. Who is now blamed? Whom will we go there? There are
only ourselves. Blacks are accumulated in the emotional holds there is the intoxication of desperate
hatred. One from the cowardice passed a restless captain to the Bolsheviks; another intelligently
and coolly strangled a traitor. Not from the suitcase there is a trail of blood on his hands"
[Yampolskaya, 2015].
So, being in the mirror of Russian media criticism, Admiral and Sunstroke, in fact, has
become an indicator of the political separation of critical plant: in many cases, these films were
analyzed in the first place, not as a work of art, but as social, ideological statements. However, this
is not surprising, because for the stratification among critics stands the stratification of audience.
However, the Russian mass audience as a whole is much more conservative than film critics’
community. And, of course (as eloquently the modest box-offices of Sunstroke and very impressive
of Admiral say), it is more focused on a bright and spectacular component of media culture.
In a few Russian films at the beginning of the XXI century there was an attempt of a
balanced, conciliatory towards the Reds and Whites approach. Red and White characters of dramas
Kromov (2009) by A. Razenkov, Isaev (2009) by S. Ursulyak, The purple colour of snow (2010) by
V. Motyl, Eye for an Eye (2010) by G. Poloka has their own truth, and the directors did not seek to
clear indictment accents ... Approximately the same position was taken by the creators of the series
Wolf Sun (2014), where with the same sympathy were portrayed as White Guard general so the spy
of Reds, made his way to his camp.
Results
- The fall of prices in oil and the crisis of the inefficient state economy, led to the financial,
food and commodity collapse to the beginning of the 1990s, to the attempt of conservative state
coup in the summer of 1991 and to the disintegration of the USSR in December of 1991;
- An official condemnation of the communist ideology and mass repressions.
The rehabilitation of millions of innocent prisoners and dissidents who were shot and repressed;
- A course for the abolition of censorship restrictions and the free exchange of people and
ideas from the West;
218
- The beginning of economic reforms, the revival of private property, "shock therapy"; a sharp
division of society into the few rich and the broad masses of the population who is at risk of
poverty;
- The attempt of illiberal state coup in the autumn of 1993;
- Crisis in the movement of reform, the war in Chechnya, the solution of economic problems
with the help of the West loans, the decline of the Russian industry, including film production;
- Russian financial default of 1998.
At these stages at the actual abolition of censorship authors of Russian media texts for the
first time of many decades had the opportunity to address the most acute, first having taboo
subjects, including the themes of violence, mass terror (including the era of the Civil War) and the
repression of the communist regime. The concept that the era of terror and violence of the
revolution and the Civil War as a fratricidal war itself have been a tragedy of the Russian people it
was dominated on the screen.
At this stage, there is an increasing product where violence and terror of the civil war are
brought as the inhuman, inhumane methods. There were created movies, condemning both mass
and individual terrorism with someone side it has not been used...
As about the style of movies related to the topic of the White movement, in addition to
traditional realism (And Quiet Flows the Don by S. Bondarchuk, Trotsky by L. Maryagin, etc.) it
was made grotesque, ironic movies (Return of the Battleship by G. Poloka).
Genre modification: it’s a drama (military, historical), action or detective.
The prevailing models of the films about the Civil War:
- Mass terror during the Civil War, as well as the terror of the communist regime against its
own citizens deforms the human personality, turns people into torturers and victims - "cogs" of
totalitarian dictatorship (Wolf Blood, Trotsky, White horse, etc.);
- "Revolutionary terror", "ideological terror" involves, first of all, people with aggressive tirst
for power, types of people with mental disorders, who somehow want to leave a blood trail in the
history (Regicide, Chekist, Trotsky, etc.);
At this stage, there are increasing of products where terror during the Civil War and
Revolution is categorically rejected as inhuman. There are created movies, condemning both mass
and individual terrorism with someone side it has not been used...
For example, in western Wolf blood by N. Stambula, which takes place in the era of the Civil
War, he tried to escape from the definitive characteristics. His Reds are not angels, but those who
are against them, too, without a halo over his head. War is shown as a cruel and bloody and largely
meaningless confrontation of strong men. Another thing was that the film was made without the
glitz and comparison with a dashing and stylish movie Among strangers… by Mikhalkov.
But Boris Blank in search of spectacular material for the topic of confrontation of Reds and
Whites referred to the works of A.P. Chekhov which were far away from that kind of problems.
Well, the free fantasy on the theme of famous classical works of art is quite usual in practice.
For example, someone is not only appeared as Hamlet on stage and screen of the last decades: he
was the masochist, and erotomania, and adept of the blue love... So in that sense, the film If only
we know ... (1993) by Boris Blank, staged on the grounds of play Three Sisters (1900) by Anton
Chekhov, is not exactly avant-garde phenomenon. Another thing is that the domestic censorship of
previous years such kind of experiments with the classics were not allowed, and in the 1990s, as
they say, was allowed all ...
The action of the film by Boris Blank takes place in the summer of 1918 at the station of the
southern town of N., where three sisters and other Chekhov's characters find themselves.
The decadent theatrical action is unfolded on the screen under the melody of Peter Leshchenko and
Alexander Vertinsky. One of the sisters is a lesbian, the other like a cat is in love with his pupil,
schoolboy, due to which it becomes a victim of gang rape... In short, the filmmakers are doing
everything in their power that the intelligent Chekhov's characters will appear on the screen telling
the epitome of evils and at best will be pathetic mixed with disgust, and the rhymes of atmosphere
of collapse on the turn of the 1920s and 1990s would be noticeable even the most sophisticated
viewer ...
To remove a stylish kitsch, it is necessary to have the talent of Pedro Almodovar, or even to
rise to the level of House under the stars (1991) by Sergei Solovyov. Stylish kitsch suggests cinema
going visuality, virtuosity of installation, subtle sense of parody, ironic and detached play of actors,
219
which, however, is not in the movie by Boris Blank, where eroticized characters casually recite the
famous Chekhov's replicas. Undoubtedly, Boris Blank is a gifted artist on whose sketches the iconic
world of famous films by Elem Klimov, Alexander Mitta and Emil Lotyanu were created, and in his
work as a director, he was able to show off the skill of creating the interiors and decorations.
But the advantages of the film If only we knew ... it seems to me, are limited.
As for the immediate rehabilitation of the White movement, then perhaps its first cinematic
attempt was made in the film White Horse (1993) by G. Ryabov, where a positive image of Admiral
A.V. Kolchak appeared the first in the Russian film.
The structure of the stereotype image of the White movement in the Russian
cinema of the 1990s
historical period, the place of action: it is any period of time from 1918 till 1924,
Russia.
furnishings, household items: the modest dwelling, uniform and everyday objects of
Red characters, neat houses, the uniform and household items of White characters (especially - the
high command).
methods of depicting reality: realistic (And Quiet Flows the Don) or conditional - in the
framework of the western (Wolf blood) image of the life of characters of the White movement.
expressions, and gestures: Red and White characters are differentiated: on the one hand,
these are negative characters that support the inhumane ideas, on the other hand - these are people
who defend their principles and ideas of honor, good and evil. Characters are shared by not only
social, but also material status. Whites are dressed as a rule, richer and humble than poor Reds.
As for the body, there is allowed options - Whites on the screen (depending on the task) are the
subtle or intellectuals or athletic looking men.
These White characters are shown not only rude and cruel enemies, with a repulsive
subtle and charming beauties with impeccable manners and refined vocabulary.
Male characters, personified the White movement, still dominated above a significant change
in the lives of the characters: negative characters (both Reds and representatives of the White
movement) through violence and fraud are going to implement their ideas.
Option: intelligent charming characters from the circle of the White movement are drawn
into the revolutionary events in the maelstrom of civil war and try to keep their romantic value.
a problem: the life of Red and White characters, for that matter, and the existence of the
state as a whole are at risk: at risk is charming and intelligent life characters who are trying to
maintain neutrality.
the search for solution to the problem: the struggle (various types and methods) of
Red and White characters; hesitations of charming intelligent characters.
solution to the problem: the conscious destruction / arrest of Red or White characters;
destruction / arrest hesitated / or intelligent, romantic Whites characters.
Russian brothers. Russia, 1992. Directed by N. Fomin. Drama.

furnishings, household items: the White Guard detachment in the vicinity of the
convent, the modest life of characters of all categories.
methods of depicting reality: quasi realistic.
expressions, and gestures: the characters in the film are shared by the social status. Whites are
dressed richer than the poor and humble Reds. With regard to the constitution, all the male
characters look strong and sturdy, worthy of each other's enemies ... These white characters (one
handsome officer in the performance of V. Ivashov worth something!) are shown mainly by people
with pleasant voice tones, appearance and vocabulary.
a significant change in the lives of the characters: Reds and Whites tend to beat
each other.
a problem: the life of the main characters is under the threat.
220
the search for solution to the problem: the main characters – each in his own way –
are developing plans for destruction of each other in a fratricidal civil war ...
solution: but in this fight, when his brother goes with the weapon at his brother in the end,
all are doomed to failure, if not physical, moral ...
Wolf blood. Russia, 1995. Directed by N. Stanbula. Western.

historical period, the place of action: civil war, the Urals.
furnishings, household items: the Ural mountains and forests, the Red squad, the White
Cossack detachment; the modest life of characters in all categories.
methods of depicting reality: quasi realistic.
expressions, gestures: the characters in the film almost are not shared by any social or financial
status (and the one and the other side are the Cossacks), and their vocabulary is little different. (for
except White Guard colonel in the colorful performance of R. Adomaytis who before dying regrets
only one thing: that, together with his troops fought with the Germans, and he did not open them
the way to Moscow, where the bloody Bolsheviks are now). With regard to the constitution, all the
male characters look strong and sturdy, worthy of each other's enemies.
a significant change in the lives of the characters: the Cossack troops are seeking to
defeat one another.
a problem: the life of the main characters is under the threat.
the search for solution to the problem: the main characters - each in his own way - are
developing plans for destruction of each other in a fratricidal civil war ...
solution to the problem: in this struggle, built largely by the laws of the spaghetti
westerns of S. Leone, Reds luckier: they manage to destroy the enemies.
If you like to know... Russia, 1992. Directed by B. Blank (based on fragments of the play
of Anton Chekhov Three Sisters). Drama.
historical period, the place of action: the Crimea of 1918.
furnishings, household items: interior station, designed in art deco style, train-station
hotel rooms, a restaurant, a park, Colonnade, nice officer's uniform, elegant women's dresses.
methods of depicting reality: a quasi-realistic picture of events.
expressions, gestures: White officers are shown ironic and tired intellectuals who are not
without their perversity, they are educated, they have refined vocabulary, they have extremely
negative attitude to the entire Soviet-Bolshevik (Bolsheviks themselves, Reds are not hardly shown,
their negative images appear essentially only in conversations of officers).
a significant change in the lives of the characters: the representatives of the officers,
the bourgeoisie and the intelligentsia cannot leave the Crimean city because of the lack of trains ...
a problem: the life of the main characters is under a potential threat to their arrest by the
Bolsheviks.
the search for solution to the problem: the main characters are trying to survive by any
means available to them ...
solution: a few months later it is certainly the train comes to the station..
The period of the 2000s
- The presidency of Vladimir Putin (including a four-year break for the presidency of
D. Medvedev) with a specific vertical centralization of state power;
- The official end of the war in Chechnya;
- The increase in oil prices, which allowed, at least until the global financial crisis of 2008, the
development of raw materials economy of Russia;
- The military conflict between Georgia and Russia in South Ossetia in August of 2008;
- The financial crisis of the second half of 2008 with subsequent slowdown in Russian (as,
indeed, the world) economy;
221
- Political and economic problems of 2014-2016 associated with the state coup in the
Ukraine, entrance of the Crimea to Russia, the civil war in the Donbass, the sharp fall in oil prices
in the autumn of 2014 and the mutual sanctions between Russia and the West of 2014-2016.
The line for the rehabilitation of the White movement (already indicated in the 1990s) was
continued in Russian cinema 2000s.
It was mostly the work of traditional realism (The Romanovs - Crowned Family by
G. Panfilov, Doctor Zhivago by A. Proshkin, Fascination of Evil by M. Kazakov, Isayev by
S. Ursulyak, The White Guard by S. Snezhkin, The purple colour of snow by V. Motyl, An eye for
an eye by G. Poloka and others.).
Genre modification also continued the baton of 1990s: drama (military, historical), action
and detective.
The prevailing model of the film of the 2000s about the Civil War:
- Mass terror during the Civil War, as well as the terror of the communist regime against its
own citizens, deformed human personality, turning people into torturers and victims - "cogs" of
totalitarian dictatorship (The Romanovs - Crowned Family, Fascination of Evil, Admiral, Doctor
Zhivago, The purple colour of snow, etc.);
- "Revolutionary terror", "ideological terror"… First of all it is the good chance for people with
aggressive love to power, the types with mental disorders, who somehow wants to leave a trail of
blood in the history (The Romanovs - Crowned Family, Nine Lives of Nestor Makhno);
- The faith and the truth are on the side of the Whites in the fight of Reds and Whites, but due
to a number of circumstances, they still lost (Admiral, Gentlemen Officers: Save the Emperor,
The White Guard, Steep mountains).
The structure of the stereotype image of the White movement in the Russian
cinema of the 2000s
historical period, the place of action: any period of time from 1918 till 1924 years,
Russia.
furnishings, household items: the modest dwellings, uniform and everyday objects of
Red characters, neat houses, the uniforms and household items of Whites characters (especially -
the high command).
methods of depicting reality: it is a realistic (Doctor Zhivago, Fascination of Evil,
Isayev, And Quiet Flows the Don, The purple colour of snow, The White Guard, Sunstroke) or
conditional (Chapaev Chapaev, Gentlemen Officers: Save the Emperor) image of characters life of
the White movement.
expressions, gestures: Red and White characters are differentiated: on the one hand, these
negative characters are inhumane ideas (in the films of the 2000s these are basically Reds), on the
other hand - these are people who defend their principles and ideas of honor, good and evil (the
representatives of the White movement). Characters are shared not only by social, but also by
material status. Whites were dressed richer than the poor Reds. As for the body, there is allowed
options - Whites on the screen (depending on the task) are either intellectuals or athletic looking
men. Reds on the contrary, are rude and violent, with a repulsive appearance, facial expressions
and gestures domineering and unpleasant voice tones. Male characters, personified the White
movement, continue to dominate.
a significant change in the lives of the characters: the negative Red characters
through violence and fraud are going to implement their ideas. Option: intelligent charming
characters from the circle of the White movement are drawn into the revolutionary events in the
maelstrom of civil war and try to keep their romantic value, partly trying to understand 'Red truth'.
a problem: the life of Red and White characters, for that matter, and the existence of the
state as a whole are at risk: charming and intelligent life characters who are trying to remain
neutral is at risk too.
the search for solution to the problem: the struggle (various types and methods) of
Red and white characters; fluctuations of charming intelligent characters.
solution to the problem: the conscious destruction / arrest of Red or White characters;
destruction / arrest of oscillating / or intelligent, romantic White characters.
222
Examples:
Admiral. Russia, 2008. Directed by A. Kravchuk. Melodrama.

historical period, the place of action: the civil war, the former Russian empire.
high command).
methods of depicting reality: conventional (within the romantic melodrama) image of
characters life.
expressions, and gestures: Red and White characters are shared by the social and material
status. Positive characters (representatives of the White movement) – are the carriers of positive
ideas of Russia's revival, a personification – is Supreme Ruler of Russia Admiral A.V. Kolchak
(1874-1920), a charming and intelligent man, honestly and courageously stands up for his
principles and ideas of honor, good and evil. He has excellent military bearing, good manners and
refined vocabulary. Red characters – are on the contrary, brutalized, with repulsive looks, facial
expressions domineering and unpleasant voice tones.
through violence and fraud are going to realize their communist ideas. The positive characters -
representatives of the White movement, headed by Admiral A.V. Kolchak stand up for the values of
one and indivisible Orthodox Russia, organizing armed resistance to the Bolsheviks.
a problem: during the Civil War the life of positive characters are under a potential threat.
the search for solution to the problem: in a hard struggle with the Bolsheviks Admiral
A.V. Kolchak tries to enlist military support of the Western allies.
solution to the problem: Western allies actually betray A.V. Kolchak, in battles with the
troops of the Reds his Army takes a beating, A.V. Kolchak is captured, he is judged, and February 7,
1920 he is shouted .
Gentlemen Officers: Save the Emperor. Russia, 2008. Directed by O. Fomin. Action.
historical period, the place of action: the summer of 1918, the Civil War, the former
Russian empire
furnishings, household items: effect of genre features of a movie that mostly takes place
in nature, there is no emphasis on housing and household items of Whites and Reds: and they both
dressed in military / paramilitary form, those and others have weapons.
methods of depicting reality: it is conventional (within the genre thriller) image of
characters life.
expressions, and gestures: Red and White characters are shared by the social and material
status. Positive characters (representatives of the White movement) are the carriers of positive
ideas of Russia's revival and salvation of the Emperor Nicholas II and his family captured by the
Bolsheviks. This charming people, honestly and courageously defending their principles and ideas
of honor, good and evil. They have excellent military bearing, pleasant appearance. Red characters
are on the contrary, rude and violent, with a repulsive appearance.
through violence and fraud are going to realize their communist ideas, they are arrested and
remanded the arrest of the royal family in Yekaterinburg. The positive characters - representatives
of the White movement - decide to release the emperor and his family.
a problem: the life of the positive character is under the threat.
the search for solution to the problem: a detachment of officers make plan to release
the royal family and tries to carry it out.
solution to the problem: in spite of the heroism of the White movement, which they had
shown in the fight against the Reds, they still cannot save the royal family and the emperor himself
from execution
223
Isaev. Russia, 2009. Directed by S. Ursulyak (screen version of Y. Semenov’ novels).

Drama.
historical period, the place of action: civil war, the Far East early 1920s.
high command).
methods of depicting reality: (quasi)realistic.
expressions, gestures: the characters in the film almost are not shared by any social or material
status: Red spy Isaev comes from the same environment as the representatives of the Far East of
the White movement; and their vocabulary is little different. White characters look worthy
opponents of Isayev. ...
a significant change in the lives of the characters: Whites and Reds tend to beat
each other in the fight for the Far East.
a problem: the life of Red and White characters is under the threat.
the search for solution to the problem: the protagonist of the film Isaev tries to fulfill
his mission, and the white counter-intelligence tries to do the same .
solution to the problem: White movement and their allies defeat the Japanese in the Far
East, which becomes the part of Soviet Russia...
Conclusion
Thus, our analysis showed that all - in USSR / Russia and abroad - from 1931 to 2015 it was
filmed 297 movies, anyway affect the subject of the White movement. In the genres attitude clearly
dominated the drama (208), and then were: action (35), detective (18), romance (12), western (10),
comedy (9). Naturally, the majority of these films were placed in the Soviet period: 259 films,
including 179 dramas, 34 actions and 16 detectives, 9 melodramas, 9 westerns, 8 comedies. At the
same time significantly (Table 1) beginning since the middle of 1960s, the topic of the civil war in
the Soviet cinema more often was given into the entertainment perspective, about which the
growing number of actions, detectives and westerns became evident. During 1992-2015 years the
theme of the White movement found its implementation only in 38 films, 29 of which were dramas.
Table 1: The figures for the production of Soviet, Russian and Western feature films related to
the topic of the White movement (1931-2015)
(Compiled by Alexander Fedorov)
The Soviet period

Year of the The number of distribution of films by genre:
film: feature films
related to the topic
Romance
Detective
Western
of the White
Comedy
Drama
Action
genres
movement
Other
1931 1 1
1932 3 2 1
1933 4 4
1934 5 5
1935 3 3
1936 4 3 1
1937 6 5 1
1938 7 6 1
1939 4 3 1
1940 2 2
1941 2 2
224
1942 5 3 1 1
1948 1 1
1951 1 1
1953 2 2
1954 3 2 1
1956 6 5 1
1957 5 4 1
1958 11 10 1
1959 3 2 1
1960 2 2
1961 2 2
1963 5 4 1
1964 4 1 1 1 1
1965 10 7 1 1 1
1966 3 1 1 1
1967 16 11 1 2 2
1968 9 6 2 1
1969 6 3 1 1 1
1970 8 6 1 1
1971 12 7 1 1 2 1
1972 2 1 1
1973 8 5 2 1
1974 3 2 1
1975 9 5 1 1 1 1
1976 7 7
1977 8 6 1 1
1978 6 2 2 1 1
1979 5 3 1 1
1980 7 4 2 1
1981 10 3 3 2 2
1982 6 5 1
1983 9 5 3 1
1984 5 1 3 1
1985 6 4 1 1
1986 3 1 2
1987 6 5 1
1988 2 2
1990 2 2
Total for 259 179 34 16 9 9 8 4
the Soviet
period
Russian period
Year of the The number of distribution of films by genre:
film: feature films
other genres
related to the topic

Romance
Detective
of the White
Western
Comedy
| Action
Drama
movement
1992 4 4
1993 4 4
1995 3 1 1 1
1996 1 1
2000 1 1
225
2002 2 1 1
2005 1 1
2006 2 2
2007 1 1
2008 3 1 1 1
2009 4 2 1 1
2010 3 3
2011 1 1
2012 3 3
2013 2 1 1
2014 2 2
2015 1 1
Total for 38 29 1 2 3 1 1 1
the
Russian
period
TOTAL 297 208 35 18 12 10 9 5
The totalitarian regime of the Stalinist era was aware of the political and ideological
importance of the topic of the civil war in the movies. And although it did not occupy a dominant
place in the Soviet screen, its advocacy role has been very high. Millions of viewers (especially –
young) was indoctrinated the necessity of brutal acts of violence against the "class enemy", "alien
elements", etc. Such films became visible base for the introduction of the mass Stalinist thesis that
with the development of socialism, the class struggle must be intensified and become hardened.
Of course, this interpretation of the Civil War on the screen helped stereotyping image of "the
enemy from the White Guard", which is usually attributed all sorts of negative traits (desire to
return to autocracy, complete dependence on foreigners, anti-people, depravity, cruelty, terrorism,
etc.). In addition, the Soviet cinema screen tried to simplify and consolidate the single term
"Whites" ("White Guard") the broad spectrum of anti-Bolshevik groups - representatives of all
without distinction of hostile organizations and parties (monarchist, bourgeois-liberal, democratic,
socialist) and the classes and estates (nobility, clergy, bourgeoisie, prosperous peasants, a large
part of the intelligentsia).
Of course, about the most severe and ruthless Red terror in the era of the Civil War (and after
it) in the films of the Soviet period and it were rarely mentioned and only in a positive context - as a
necessity, but the necessary opposition to all the same "white guard".
As rightly observes E.V. Volkov, "characteristic of the enemy, as a rule, is a projection of its
own fears, weaknesses and complexes. If the image over time loses its credibility and power, the
ideology, united society ceases its effective function. Therefore, the former state and social system
enters into a period of crisis and decline" [Volkov, 2009, p.6-7].
That is why so immutable, it would seem, a negative image of the White movement, formed
in the Soviet cinema of the 1930s - 1940s, gradually began to change. For example, since the middle
of 1950s, in the Soviet cinema of the civil war topic they are becoming increasingly began to rise the
topic of choice of those or other characters between Reds and Whites, and the characters of the
White movement is increasingly taking shape of opponents worthy of respect (Forty first, Adjutant
His Excellency, There were two comrades, and others.).
This process was continued in the post-Soviet era, when in the number of films truly goodies
characters became Whites (Gentlemen Officers: Save the Emperor, Admiral, Sunstroke, Red
Mountain). On the other hand in the Russian cinema of the period there were movies where with
the same sympathy there were portrayed both White and Red characters (Isayev, The purple
colour of snow, Eye for an eye, Wolf Sun).
References:
2. Bagdasarian, V.E. (2003). The image of the enemy in historical films 1930-1940-ies.
226
Press.
5. Bezruk, M. (2014). Sunstroke: Bad anecdote. Tribune. 11/16/2014.
6. Bogomolov, Y (2014). Sunstroke in the service of the anti-liberal propaganda.
10/12/2014. http://www.echo.msk.ru/blog/bogomolov_y/1416986-echo/
7. Bykov, D. (2014). Hard breath. Profile. 10/10/2014. https://ru-
ru.facebook.com/BykovDmitriyLvovich/posts/841875235856637
8. Chernova, N.V. (2007). Generalship image of Stalin during the Civil War in the
treatment of Soviet cinema art of the second half of the 1930s - early 1950s. Ph.D. Dis.
Magnitogorsk, p.27.
9. Danilova, E. (2014). There are no ready answers. There is no right or wrong. On the
screens of the country a new film by Nikita Mikhalkov appeared - Sunstroke accoring Bunin.
Spark. 2014. № 40, p.40. http://www.kommersant.ru/doc/2583718VP
10. Dolin, A. (2014). Mikhalkov. Abstracts. 08/10/2014. https://www.facebook.com
/adolin3/posts/10204176005176576GE
12. Eco, U. (1998). Lack of structure. Introduction to semiology. St. Petersburg:
Petropolis, 432 p.
14. Fedorov A.V. (2015). Transformation of Russian image in the West the screen.
Moscow: Information for All, 2015. 221 p.
15. Fedorov, A.V. (2008). Analysis of the cultural mythology of media texts in the
classroom at the student audience. Innovations in education. № 4, 60-80.
17. Fomin V.I. (1980). Event and character in the adventure film. Adventure film. Ways
and searches. Moscow, 24-38.
18. From the history of the Civil War in the USSR. Moscow, 1961.
19. Gireiev, I. (2014). Bunin motives. Your leisure. 09/10/2014.
http://www.vashdosug.ru/ cinema/movie/551046/tab-reviews/review74524/
20. Gladilschikov, Y. (2014). Why Mikhalkov needed Bunin. Forbes. 9.10.2014.,
Http://stengazeta.net/?p=10041411.
21. Gunther, H. (2000). Archetypes of Soviet Socialist Realism. Socialist Realism Canon.
22. Haknazarov, E. (2005). 89 circles of hell, Sunstroke by Nikita Mikhalkov. Fontanka.ru.
10/11/2014. http://calendar.fontanka.ru/articles/1848/
23. Halbwachs, M. (2005). The collective and historical memory. Emergency ration, № 2-
3, 40-41.
Ranger, T (Eds.) The Invention of Tradition. Cambridge, 2000, 1–14.
26. Ivanov, B. (2014). Mr. little officer // Film.ru. http://www.film.ru/articles/gospodin-
oficerik
29. Kenez, P. (2007). Red Attack, White resistance. 1918-1918. Moscow: Center Poligraf,
287 p.
30. Kirmel, N.S. (2008). White Guard intelligence services in the Civil War. 1918-
1924 years. Moscow: Kuchkovo Field, 512 p.
31. Kichin, V. (2014). Kick to the solar plexus of Bunin. 10/10/2014. http://valery-
kichin.livejournal.com/488564.html
227
32. Kondakov, Y.E. (2015). Civil War on the screen. White Movement: a tutorial.
St. Petersburg: Elexis, 362 p.
33. Kudryavtsev, S.V. (2014). The worst in Sunstroke - is Sunstroke! 05/11/2014.
34. Kulanin, R. (2015). Much ado about nothing. 01/30/2015. https://afisha.mail.ru/
cinema /movies/812117_leviafan/#review
61-62.
history. Moscow.
37. Malkova, L.Y. (1995). The face of the enemy. Cinema: Politics and people (1930s).
Moscow: Mainland.
38. Maslova, L. (2014). For the Motherland, for the old. Komersant. № 185. 13.10.2014.
C.14. http://kommersant.ru/doc/2588555
39. Matizen, V. (2014). Sun is in the apoplexy. Novye Izvestia. 10/13/2014.
http://www.newizv.ru/culture/2014-10-13/208881-solnce-v-apopleksicheskom-udare.html
40. Mikhalkovich, V.I. (1980). When the hero becomes another. Adventure film. Ways and
41. Moskvina. T. (2014). Sunstroke by Nikita Mikhalkov. The Hollywood Reporter.
02/10/2014. http://thr.ru/features/5081
42. Nekludov, S.Y. (2000). Structure and function of myth. Myths and Mythology in
43. Ometsinskaya, E. (2014). Someone has to pull up the bell-ringer. SK-news. № 10, p.12.
44. Pavluchik, L. (2014). Sunstroke or a solar eclipse? Trud. № 144. 14.10.2014.
http://www.trud.ru/index.php/article/14-10-
14/1318473_solnechnyj_udar_ili_solnechnoe_zatmenie.html
45. Petrovskaya, I.E. (2009). Stirlitz is so young, but Kolchak is just ahead.
http://yarcenter.ru/content/view/25293/168/ 03.11.2009.
47. Plakhov, A. (2014). Russia is about both ways. Kommersant. 2014 (b). № 187.
15.10.2014, p.14. http://www.kommersant.ru/doc/2589474
48. Polyakov, Y. (1992). Civil War: the emergence and escalation. National History. № 6.
49. Razlogov, K.E. (2004). Specifics of feature films as a historical source. The history of
the country. History of Cinema. Moscow, p.30.
50. Razzakov, F. (2008). It is the revenge of losers. About the film "Admiral", and not only.
Soviet.Russia.http://www.sovross.ru/modules.php?name=News&file=print&sid=4109
52. Rutkovski, V. Mikhalkov’s Time: 8 reasons to watch Sunstroke. Snob. 10/13/2014.
http://snob.ru/selected/entry/82207?preview=print
56. Small, M. (1980). Hollywood and Teaching About Russian-American Relations. Film
and History, N 10, p.1-8.
57. Smirnov, I. (2008). Admiral: procession from her husband for her lover. Skepticism.
http://scepsis.ru/library/id_2218.html
59. Solntseva, A. (2014). White-red war with yellow-blue lining. Novaya Gazeta. № 114.
10.10.2014. http://www.novayagazeta.ru/arts/65627.html
60. Stishova, E. (2014). How did this happen? 10/13/2014. http://kinoart.ru/blogs/kak-
vse-eto-sluchilos
61. Strada M. (1989). A Half Century of American Cinematic Imagery: Hollywood's
Portrayal of Russian Characters, 1933-1988. Coexistence, N 26, p.333-350.
228
63. Strizhenov, O.A. (2001). Confession. Moscow, 21, 90.
65. Tolkunova, A. (2014). Blow Mikhalkov Music. True. № 20.
66. Toshchenko, J.T. (2000). Historical consciousness and historical memory. Modern and
Contemporary History. № 4, p.4.
67. Trofimenkov, M. (2015). Skeleton is in the suitcase // Kommersant Weekend. № 3.
30.01.2015. S. 18 http://kommersant.ru/doc/2650884?isSearch
68. Tsvetkov, V.G. (2000). White Movement in Russia. 1918-1924 years. Questions of
history. № 7, 56-73.
69. Tyrkin, C. (2014). Very dark alleys. http://webcache.googleusercontent.com
/search?q=cache:5C0FLJbadYoJ:gorodakterov.com.ua/article.php%3Far_adr%3Darticle3169860
+&cd=5&hl=ru&ct=clnk&gl=ru
70. Tyrkin, S. (2015). Clinical portrait. Komsomolskaya Pravda. 01/13/2015.
http://www.kp.ru/daily/26235.7/3117203/
71. Vladimirov, S. (2014). Sunstroke by Mikhalkov - a film-pilgrimage. Komsomolskaya
Pravda. 13.01. 2014. http://www.kp.ru/daily/26294.5/3172010/
74. Volkov, E.V. (2013). Kolchak in the Soviet feature films. New Historical Journal. № 35.
75. Yampolskaya, E. (2014). There is some sun in cold water. Culture. 10/10/2014.
http://portal-kultura.ru/articles/cinema/64168-nemnogo-solntsa-v-kholodnoy-
vode/?print=Y&CODE=64168-nemnogo-solntsa-v-kholodnoy-vode
76. Zabaluev, Y. (2014). Treason and Homeland // Gazeta.ru. 07/10/2014.
http://www.gazeta.ru/culture/2014/10/07/a_6253261.shtml
77. Zelvensky, S. (2014). Sunstroke by Nikita Mikhalkov. Afisha.ru 09/10/2014.
http://vozduh.afisha.ru/cinema/solnechnyy-udar-nikity-mihalkova-ona-utonula/.
УДК 37
Образ Белого движения в российском кино.

Характеристика на современном этапе (1992–2016 гг.)
Таганрогский педагогический институт им. Чехова,

филиал Ростовского государственного экономического университета, Российская Федерация
Аннотация. Статья предоставляет возможность провести герменевтический анализ

по теме белого движения в отражении российского кино на современном этапе
(1992-2016 гг.). Данный герменевтический анализ предполагает постижение медиатекста
через сопоставление с исторической, культурной традицией и действительностью;
проникновение в его логику; через сопоставление медийных образов в историко-культурном
контексте, сочетая исторический, герменевтический анализ структурных, сюжетных,
этических, идеологических, иконографических / визуальных, СМИ стереотипов и анализ
медиатекста, содержащего символы. Анализ такого рода медиатекстов, на наш взгляд, имеет
229
особенно важное значение для медиа-грамотности будущих историков, культурологов,

искусствоведов, социологов, психологов и педагогов. Таким образом, сравнительный анализ
схем сюжета, персонажей и идеологии российских художественных фильмов 1992-2016 гг., в
той или иной степени затрагивающих тематику Белого движения, приводит к выводу о
существенном сходстве их медийных стереотипов. Контент-анализ СМИ экран тексты
1992-2016 гг. на тему, связанную с белым движением, как правило, позволяет представить
их основные повествовательные схемы.
Ключевые слова: белое движение, русское кино, фильмы, герменевтический анализ,
Россия, киноведение, медиатексты, медиаграмотность.
230
International Journal of Media and Information Literacy, 2016, Vol. (1), Is. 1

E-ISSN: 2500-1051
Vol. 1, Is. 1, pp. 11-17, 2016
DOI: 10.13187/ijmil.2016.1.11
www.ejournal46.com
The Image of the White Movement in the Western Feature Cinema (1931–2016)
aAnton Chekhov Taganrog Institute, branch of Rostov State University of Economics, Russian
Federation
Abstract
mirror of the Western cinema (1931–2016). The hermeneutical analysis suggests media text
comprehension through comparison with historical, cultural tradition and reality; penetration of
its logic; through comparison of media images in historical and cultural context by combining
historical, hermeneutical analysis of the structural, plot, ethical, ideological, iconographic / visual,
media stereotypes and analysis of media text characters. An analysis of this kind of media texts, in
our opinion, is particularly important for media literacy education of future historians, culture and
art historians, sociologists, psychologists and educators. Thus, the comparative analysis of plot
schemes, characters, and ideology of the Western feature films of 1931–2016, in varying degrees of
affecting the subject of the White movement, leads to the conclusion about the essential similarity
of their media stereotypes. Content analysis of screen media texts of 1931–2016 on the topic related
to the White movement allows generally to submit their basic narrative schemes.
As for the film of CIS countries, here is, as before, the history of the civil war in Russia,
probably will be somewhere in the periphery of the repertoire.
Keywords: White movement, Western cinema, films, Russia, film studies, media literacy.
1. Introduction
Based on the research of Western scientists (Keen, 1986; Lafeber, 1990; Levering, 1982;
Small, 1980; Strada, 1989; Strada and Troper, 1997), we can conclude: the political, ideological,
historical, socio-cultural aspects of the theme of the evolution of the screen image of the White
movement is still poorly understood. Of course, some aspects of this subject were touched on
before. For example, Western scientists have published many books and articles about “the image
of enemy", i.e. Red Russia on the screen (Keen, 1986; Strada, and Troper, 1997; Taylor and Spring,
1993, etc.). However, these authors did not set a goal of comparative analysis of the transformation
of the image of the White movement in the Soviet, Russian and Western cinema.

The main materials for this article was the area: the books, articles and Western films about
the White movement in Russia. I used also the method of hermeneutic analysis of the cultural
context of media texts (Eco, 1976; Silverblatt, 2001). This method connected with the key concepts
11
of media literacy education (media agencies, media categories, media language, media
technologies, media representations, media audiences etc.).
3. Discussion
In general, foreign feature films rarely refers to the events of the Civil War in Russia and the
White movement, but on the heels, in the 1920s, this theme was reflected in Western movies more
noticeable.
I believe that among the main reasons of ignoring by Western cinema of the 1930s – 1940s
the topic of the White movement was relatively expensive show of fighting the civil war in Russia
with dubious prospects for big box-office. That's why in those rare films that have had at least some
relation to the specified topics, White officers, the Cossacks, etc. were shown already in exile, where
they boozed, sang songs and danced in restaurants (Balalaika) fell in love with beautiful women,
etc.
Many of the films that will be analyzed further, for decades found themselves outside the field
of view of local and foreign culture experts, political scientists, historians and film experts.
For example, in Soviet time it was "not accepted" in general to mention that in Nazi Germany films
on a Russian theme were made. Even in solid monograph by N.I. Nusinova devoted to Russian
cinematic frontier of 1918-1939, published in the XXI century, this topic gets round (Nusinova,
2003). And this despite the fact that in the cinema of the Third Reich there were active not only
famous star Olga Chekhova (1897-1980), and director Victor Turzhansky (1891-1976), actors
Nicholas Kolin (1878-1966), Boris Alekin (1904-1942) and others. The researcher of the history of
the Nazi A.V. Vasilchenko in his book about the cinema of the Third Reich (Vasilchenko, 2010) did
not focus their attention on the Russian subjects of German films of the period as well.
On the shooting of German films on a Russian theme, of course, specific events that occurred
during the 1930s – 1940s influenced. With the coming to power of Hitler a trend of confrontation
of the Third Reich and the USSR was clearly denoted. Therefore, in a Nazi movie there were two
concepts of reflection "Russian world": Russian Tsars and Russian emigrant which could receive
positive cinematic interpretation (Favorite of the Empress, This ravishing ballroom night,
Midnight and others.), while Bolshevism and the Council, on the contrary, always look negative on
the screen.
In this respect, it is interesting movie by Karl Anton (1898-1979) under the eloquent title
Battleship "Sevastopol" - White slaves (1937), where clearly used myth of the rebellious Battleship
"Potemkin" (1925), brilliantly created by Sergei Eisenstein. And this is no accident as yet in 1933 at
a meeting with German filmmakers then leader of culture department - Minister Joseph Goebbels
said the following about the movie Battleship "Potemkin": “This is a wonderful film. From a
cinematic point of view, it is incomparable. One who is not firm in his beliefs, after its seeing,
perhaps could become a Bolshevik. It proves once again that a masterpiece can be successfully
incorporated a certain tendency. Even the bad ideas can be promoted by means of art”
(Vasilchenko, 2010: 5). So, it was a sort of state order for the creation of the Nazi analogue to film
by Eisenstein.
And in 1937 this order was made by K. Anton. In the movie Battleship "Sevastopol" - white
slaves on the ship, like Eisenstein, sailors revolted as well. But this event was given with the
opposite sign - the rebellion on Battleship "Sevastopol" is raisin by evil and cruel Bolsheviks who
kills the noble officers, priests, raping women, burning Orthodox icons... But, thank God, there is a
Russian officer, Count Konstantin Volkov, who collects these loyal Russian sailors, disarms the
rebels and frees prisoners. At the end of the film count Volkov says the conceptual phrase:
"This trouble is not only Russia. The enemies of civilization must be destroyed. The struggle
continues!". And then some of the companions echoes: "People do not notice this danger...".
It should be noted that after the German attack on the Soviet Union in June of 1941, the royal
and the émigré Russian went clearly in the cinematic shadow of the Third Reich, at best, found
themselves on the periphery of the subjects (e.g., in the form of images of individual Russian in the
episodes), while in melodrama We live (1942) in fascist Italy representatives of the Russian "old
world", rendered under the power of the Bolsheviks, were shown a close-up and highly positive.
But unlike the Soviet cinema, where from July 1941 to December 1942, was filmed over 70 shorts
and full-length feature films, directly reflecting the current events of the war with Germany, the
Nazi cinema made a major bet for operational military chronicle.
12
As for the Western cinema as a whole, it, like German, being the product of the mass /
popular culture in films on a Russian theme, was based on folklore and mythological sources,
including traditional ideas of the Western world about the "mysterious Russian soul”.
As a result, in the western films it is clearly felt these promotional messages:
- Greatness of Russia was left in the distant past, when it was an empire in which culture
flourished (a comedy about the life of Russian nobility epoch of Empress Elisabeth - A favorite of
the Empress, musical melodrama about the life of P.I. Tchaikovsky This ravishing ballroom night
and others);
- However, in the past imperial policy of Russia could be dangerous for other European
countries (Warsaw Citadel, Cadets);
- After 1917 the sympathy may cause only Russians, suffered from the Bolsheviks, / or have
emigrated to the West (Battleship "Sevastopol" - White slaves, Midnight, Crimson Dawn, Knight
without armor, Balalaika, We live, and others.);
- The Bolsheviks carried out mass terror - both in relation to the elite of society and the
civilian population, and strive to turn the Russian people into slaves (Battleship "Sevastopol",
Heroes of Siberia);
- Armed resistance to the Bolsheviks is justified and necessary (Battleship "Sevastopol",
Heroes of Siberia).
Since the beginning of the "cold war" the topic of the White movement almost completely
disappeared from the Western screens, apparently lost all relevance in the eyes of Western
filmmakers. Subjects of Soviet military threat and espionage came to the fore (Fedorov, 2015).
Russian in last appeared on the screen as a relatively frequent film adaptations of Russian classics
(A.P. Chekhov, F.M. Dostoevsky, L.N. Tolstoy, N.V. Gogol), novel Michael Strogoff by Jules Verne,
in the history of the murder of Rasputin and miraculous resurrection of the murdered daughter of
Nicholas II – Anastasia.
The most notable Western movies, somehow relating to the topic of the White movement,
became melodramatic adaptation of Boris Pasternak's novel Doctor Zhivago (US, 1965) by David
Lean and the drama of the death of the royal family Nicholas and Alexandra (UK, 1971) by
Franklin Schaffner. In 1974, a small episode of the execution of the Romanov family by the
Bolsheviks appeared in a large-scale drama The whole life by C. Lelouch. The drama of the era of
the Civil War in Estonia Shot of Mercy (1976) by German director F. Schlöndorff and British
teleplay The White Guard (1982) taken after had far less international attention.
The events of the second half of the 1980s in the Soviet Union a significantly influenced upon
the reflection of the Russian theme on the Western screen, for example, it is appeared quite
friendly movies depicting the Soviet people. However, the growing interest in the subject of the
White movement didn’t find its reflection in the foreign movie. On the contrary, I could not find a
single Western film of 1986-1990, where the Whites have appeared, even in exile.
In the post-Soviet 1990s Russian topic remained quite popular in Western cinema. However,
but it was a special the demand - in the form of a series of films about the brutal Russian mafia,
prostitution for export, the atrocities of Stalinism and the other negative (I want to note for justice
that there were other foreign films about Russia in the 1990s, for example, adaptation of Russian
literary classics). In the cinema the theme "far abroad" of the White movement was touched upon
in the last quarter of a century in only two films - melodramatic adaptation of the novel Zoya (US,
1995) by D. Steele and another film version of Doctor Zhivago (UK-Germany-United States, 2002).
In both films Western cinema reflected the Russian topic in line with previous decades, showing
sympathetic representatives of the "old world" and negatively - representatives of the new, Red.
Undoubtedly, the history of the White movement was much closer to Russian neighbors from
the Baltic countries, Finland and Poland, which from the 1940s to the 1980s for obvious ideological
reasons, avoid touching this subject in their films. But, having found support from the European
Union, these countries over the last decade have put some dramatic movies on the theme of the
Civil War: Guards of Riga (Latvia, 2007), Order (Finland-Germany, 2008), 1920. War and Love
(Poland, 2010) and Battle of Warsaw, 1920 (Poland, 2011).
Drama Order, which talks about the cruelty of the civil war, looks White crow among these
films in Finland in 1918. In fact, the authors decided to go against the current basic cinema-
treatment of White movement inherent in XXI century: the White Finns are shown in the "Order"
as severe brutalized animals who raped and then shot captured Red girls. And one of the Whites,
13
using his authority, vile induces another to intimate relations (again somehow "un-European", it
turns out quite politically incorrect!).
In the Guards of Riga Whites are also shown very negative, but here, on the contrary,
respected and politically correct, and patriotic component is not forgotten by them: it's Russian
White Guards, who, in the autumn of 1919 entered into an alliance with unwilling to admit defeat
by German armies, set out to capture the independent Riga ...
Prince led the Whites P.R. Bermont-Avalov (1877-1974) appears in the Guards of Riga
grotesquely, almost in the spirit of the comedy The Wedding in Malinovka - sulfate, drunken bully.
His German ally - General Rudiger von der Goltz (1865-1946) is given with a great enjoyed respect
as a worthy adversary.
But the author of Battle of Warsaw, 1920 – Jerzy Hoffman – seeks to show the balance of
opposing forces: on the one hand on the side of the army of Marshal Józef Piłsudski (1867-1935)
brave White Cossack troops fight, and on the other – no Red monsters, but worthy opponents with
their believe.
In a realistic interpretation of J. Hoffman crushing defeat of the Red Army from the Polish
troops led by Józef Piłsudski, the incident was on the August, 13-25, 1920, was the dramatic history
of the collision not only the Red and White ideas, but also the Communist obsession with world
revolution...
However the Polish film 1920. War and Love, screened the year before, depicts a little Red as
well as in the Soviet cinema of the 1930s were shown "White Poles" (a vivid example of this - Fiery
Years, 1939). The Russian soldiers in this Polish TV series look like vile, arrogant, brutal boors who
kill civilians, cut drafts captive, raped girls and noble Polish, etc. Polish officers and soldiers, on the
contrary are the heroic defenders of their homeland, charming and intelligent people, loyal military
oath and code of honor.
It is known that the Polish military campaign in 1920 was one of a few examples of the final
victory of the anti-communist forces over the Reds during the Civil War. In times of socialist
Poland, the topic was, of course, strictly censored in the film – as in Soviet and so in Polish.
But now, during the anti-Russian sanctions, which since 2014 actively supported by the Polish
government (as well as the governments of the Baltic countries), it is safe to assume that certainly
the war of 1920 would just become a source for the demonstration of the Polish (and Baltic)
patriotism and anti-Russian trends on the screen.
4. Results
The structure of the stereotype image of the White movement in the Western movies of the
1930s - 1940s
Historical period, the place of action: any period of time from 1918 to 1924, taking into
account the presentation of life in exile this period can capture 1920–1940.
Furnishings, household items: there are the modest dwellings, forms and objects of everyday
life of the poor characters (as they may be former White officers in exile), neat houses and
household items of the rich characters, luxurious furnishings life of the Russian aristocracy before
the Bolshevik revolution. Household items of Bolsheviks are shown with the share of the grotesque.
Methods of representation of reality: as a rule, it is a quasi-romantic image of the life of the
characters of the White movement, grotesquely exaggerated image of the Reds.
Characters, their values, ideas, clothes, physique, vocabulary, facial expressions, and
gestures: Red and White characters are differentiated: on the one hand, it is negative Red-
Communist personages – the carriers of inhumane ideas, on the other hand – these are people who
defend their principles and notions of honor, good and evil (the representatives of the White
movement). Characters are shared by not only social, but also material status. Whites dressed
richer the poor Reds. As for the body, there is allowed options – Whites on the screen (depending
on the task) are either intellectuals or athletic looking men. These White characters are shown as
generally refined and charming man with impeccable manners and refined vocabulary.
Red characters – on the contrary, are rude, cruel, with a repulsive appearance and unpleasant voice
tones. Characters Bolsheviks are usually wearing uniforms with the appropriate attributes (leather
jacket, gun belts, revolver, etc.), They have a strong constitution, although they may have mediocre
physical data; physiognomically they look unpleasant in most cases.
14
Male characters, personified the White movement, continue to dominate, however, among
the enemies of the Communists you may find a beautiful and charming woman.
Russian characters of tsarist times as Russians, who emigrated from the Bolshevik regime to
the West, are dressed according to the social status: the luxury of the imperial court, the expulsion
of modesty, etc. Appearance of these characters is usually attractive, especially for persons of
aristocratic descent;
Characters-victims of Bolshevik terror are dressed according to their social status, their
physique varies widely and depends on the context of a particular film; the appearance of female
characters as a rule are attractive.
Traits characters: cruelty, meanness, sexual obsession, dedication, hostility, cunning,
strength (Bolshevist characters); nobility, strength, determination, courage (positive characters -
the Whites, aristocrats, immigrants, people of creative professions, intellectuals and so on.).
In general, the nature of all the characters of foreign films on a Russian topic is depicted by a
dotted line, without going into psychology.
A significant change in the lives of the characters: the destruction peaceful, serene and
happy life of the people by the Bolsheviks, the seizure of a ship and the town by them, the massive
communist terror (shootings, executions, torture, etc.) against the civilian population, including
women;
A problem: the life of the White characters, for that matter, and the existence of the state as a
whole are at risk: charming and intelligent life characters who are trying to remain neutral is at risk
too...
The search for solution to the problem: this is the struggle of the best representatives of the
Russian people - Whites - to the Bolsheviks; there is the emigration of characters from the circle of
the White movement in one of the Western countries.
Solution to the problem: there is the conscious of destruction / arrest White characters by
Bolsheviks; there is the salvation of the White characters in exile.
The structure of the stereotype image of the White movement in the Western films of 1950s
– 1980s
Historical period, the place of action: any period of time from 1918 to 1924, taking into
account the presentation of life in exile during this period, it can capture 1920–1950.
life of the poor characters, neat houses and household items of the rich characters, luxurious
furnishings life of the Russian aristocracy and the bourgeoisie before the Bolshevik Revolution.
Household items of Bolsheviks are usually shown without much grotesque.
Methods of depicting reality: they are mainly relative to conventionally romantic characters,
to some extent related to the White movement and Tsarist Russia.
Characters, their values, ideas, clothes, physique, vocabulary, facial expressions, gestures:
Red and White characters are differentiated: on the one hand, they are negative communist
characters having inhumane ideas, on the other hand – these are people who defend their
principles and ideas of honor, good and evil (the representatives of the White movement or
intellectuals who have fallen under the Bolshevik hammer). Characters are shared not only by
social, but also material status. Whites are dressed richer the poor Reds. As for the body, there is
allowed options - Whites on the screen (depending on the task) are either intellectuals or athletic
looking men. These White characters are shown as generally refined and charming man with
impeccable manners and refined vocabulary. Red characters, on the contrary, are brutalized, with
repulsive looks, gestures and facial expressions of the power and unpleasant voice tones.
Characters victims of Bolshevik terror are dressed according to their social status, their physique is
varied widely and depends on the context of a particular film; the appearance of female characters
are attractive.
A significant change in the lives of the characters: it is the destruction of peaceful, calm and
happy life of the people by the Bolsheviks;
A problem: the life of the White characters, for that matter, and the existence of the state as a
whole are at risk; charming and intelligent life characters who are trying to remain neutral is at risk
too.
15
The search for solution to the problem: it is the struggle of the best representatives of the
Russian people - Whites - to the Bolsheviks; there is the emigration of characters from the circle of
the White movement in one of the Western countries.
Solution to the problem: the conscious destruction / arrest White characters by Bolsheviks;
there is the salvation of the White characters in exile.
The structure of the stereotype image of the White movement in the Western movies of the
1990s – 2000s
Historical period, the place of action: any period of time from 1918 to 1924 years, taking into
account the presentation of life in exile, this period may be extended.
life of the poor characters, neat houses and household items of the rich characters, luxurious
furnishings life aristocracy and bourgeoisie before the Bolshevik revolution. Household items of
Bolsheviks are usually shown without much grotesque.
Methods of depicting reality: conventionally romantic (Zoya, 1920. War and Love), realistic
(Battle of Warsaw, 1920, Order) with respect to the characters, to some extent related to the White
movement.
In the films of Western countries (Zoya, Doctor Zhivago), all presented as former cinema decades:
negative communist characters are the carriers of inhumane ideas (Reds) and the people who
defend their principles and ideas of honor, good and evil (the representatives of the White
movement or intellectuals who have fallen under the Bolshevik press). Characters are shared not
only by social, but also material status, etc.
In the series 1920. War and Love Polish officers and soldiers are charming patriots and Reds
are brutalized, often they are with a repulsive appearance and unpleasant voice tones.
In the drama Guards of Riga charming patriots are shown Latvians, but the Russian Whites
are failed invaders confused with the Germans.
A significant change in the lives of the characters: Bolsheviks destructed of the peaceful,
serene and happy life of the people;
A problem: the life of all the characters, as, indeed, and the existence of the state as a whole
are at risk: the lifes of charming and intelligent characters who are trying to remain neutral is at
risk too.
The search for solution to the problem (in the Polish-Baltic film version): there the fight of
the best representatives of the people with Red troops or Russian Whites.
Solution to the problem (in the Polish-Baltic film version): a victory of patriotic forces over
the Red and White danger.
5. Conclusion
Western screen in Soviet times preferred to interpret the topic of the White movement in the
genre of melodrama, sympathetically developing the theme of enemy’s exile of Soviet power.
This movie about the White movement in 1931-2015 occupied a very modest place in the Western
repertoire. So from 1931 to 1991 on Western screens out only 12 films that are at least in part can be
attributed to the subject of the White movement: romance Crimson Dawn (USA, 1932), the drama
The world and the flesh (US, 1932), drama Heroes of Siberia (Poland, 1936) and Battleship
"Sevastopol" (Germany, 1937), a melodrama Knight without armor (US, 1937), Balalaika (USA,
1939), We live (Italy, 1942 ), Doctor Zhivago (USA, 1965), the drama Nicholas and Alexandra (UK,
1971), The whole life (France-Italy, 1974), Shot of mercy (Germany-France, 1976), The White
Guards (UK, 1982).
In the post-Soviet period, interest in the history of the White movement in the West is almost
disappeared: the American and English cinema in a quarter century was marked by only two films
– melodrama Zoya (US, 1995) and the drama Doctor Zhivago (UK-Germany-USA, 2002).
In the XXI century the topic of civil war was naturally more interested in the country that
were included at one time in the part of the Russian Empire. In the movies (Guards of Riga, 1920,
War and Love, Battle of Warsaw. 1920) patriotic theme of liberation of the motherland from
invaders (both Reds and Whites) was on first place.
16
Apparently, in the Russian cinema in the nearest years, "balanced" trend images of the Civil
War and the White movement will get its further development, while in Eastern Europe and the
Baltic’s theme of the Civil War, most likely, will be developed in the military-patriotic spirit.
As for the film of CIS countries, here is, as before, the history of the civil war in Russia,
probably will be somewhere in the periphery of the repertoire. A screened-scale film about alien
and distant Civil is expensive and financially risky. And the image of the enemy – If you need it –
you can always dazzle much more cheaply: for example, using a proven period of "cold war" spy
mania...
References
Assmann, 2004 - Assmann, J. (2004). Cultural memory. Moscow: Languages Slavic culture,
368 p.
Berger and Luckmann, 1995 - Berger, P., Luckmann, T. (1995). The Social Construction of
Reality. A treatise on the sociology of knowledge. Moscow.
Eco, 1976 - Eco, U. (1976). A Theory of Semiotics. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
Eco, 1998 - Eco, U. (1998). Lack of structure. Introduction to semiology. St. Petersburg:
Petropolis, 432 p.
Eco, 2005 - Eco, U. (2005). The role of the reader. Studies on the semiotics of the text. St.
Fedorov, 2015 - Fedorov A.V. (2015). Transformation of Russian image in the West the
screen. Moscow: Information for All, 2015. 221 p.
Fedorov and Levitskaya, 2016 - Fedorov A., Levitskaya A. (2016) Modern Media Criticism
and Media Literacy Education: The Opinions of Russian University Students. European Journal of
Contemporary Education, Vol. (16), Is. 2, p. 205-216.
Halbwachs, 2005 - Halbwachs, M. (2005). The collective and historical memory. Emergency
ration, № 2-3, 40-41.
Halbwachs, 2007 - Halbwachs, M. (2007). Social frameworks of memory. Moscow.
Hobsbawm, 2000 - Hobsbawm E. (2000). Introduction: Inventing Traditions. In:
Hobsbawm, E. and Ranger, T (Eds.) The Invention of Tradition. Cambridge, 2000, 1–14.
Keen, 1986 - Keen, S. (1986). Faces of the Enemy. San Francisco: Harper and Row.
Kenez, 2007 - Kenez, P. (2007). Red Attack, White resistance. 1918-1918. Moscow: Center
Poligraf, 287 p.
Kirmel, 2008 - Kirmel, N.S. (2008). White Guard intelligence services in the Civil War.
1918-1924 years. Moscow: Kuchkovo Field, 512 p.
Lotman, 1999 - Lotman, Y.M. (1999). Inside minded worlds. Man - the text - the semiotic
sphere - history. Moscow.
Nusinova, 2003 - Nusinova, N.I. (2003). When we go back to Russia ... Russian cinema
abroad. Moscow: Eisenstein Centre, 464 p.
Ricoeur, 2004 - Ricoeur, P. (2004). Memory, history, oblivion. Moscow.
Praeger, 449 p.
Small, 1980 - Small, M. (1980). Hollywood and Teaching About Russian-American Relations.
Film and History, N 10, p.1-8.
Strada, 1989 - Strada M. (1989). A Half Century of American Cinematic Imagery:
Hollywood's Portrayal of Russian Characters, 1933-1988. Coexistence, N 26, p.333-350.
Strada and Troper, 1997 - Strada, M.J. and Troper, H.R. (1997). Friend or Foe? Russian in
Taylor and Spring, 1993 - Taylor, R. and Spring, D. (Eds.) (1993). Stalinism and Soviet
Cinema. London and New York: Routledge, p.131-141.
Vasilchenko, 2010 - Vasilchenko, A.V. (2010). The spotlight of Dr. Goebbels. Cinema of the
Third Reich. Moscow: Veche, 2010. 320 p.
Volkov, 2009 - Volkov E.V. (2009). White movement in the cultural memory of Soviet
society: the evolution of "enemy image". Ph.D. Dis. Chelyabinsk.
17
Propaganda in the World and Local Conflicts, 2014, Vol. (2), Is. 2

ISSN 2500-1078, E-ISSN 2500-3712
Vol. 2, Is. 2, pp. 109-139, 2014
DOI: 10.13187/pwlc.2014.2.109
www.ejournal47.com
UDC 37
The Western World in the Soviet cinema during the Cold War
aAnton Chekhov Taganrog Institute,
Abstract
Cinema (thanks TV, video, DVD and internet technologies) is an effective means of influence
(including political, ideological) to the audience. Therefore, the study of the transformation of the
image of the Western world on the Soviet screen today is still important. Among the objectives of
this study — the definition of the place and role of the theme of transformation of the image of the
West in the feature Soviet cinema since 1946 (the start of the post-war ideological confrontation) to
1991 (fall of the Soviet Union) year; the study of political, ideological, social, and cultural context,
the main stages of development, goals, objectives, concepts of this topic in the Soviet films;
classification and comparative analysis of ideology, content models, modifications genres
stereotypes of Soviet cinema, associated with the image of the Western world.
The research methodology is based on key philosophical positions of the theory of dialogue
between cultures (M. Bakhtin – V. Bibler). The study is based on substantial research approach
(identifying the content of the process under study, taking into account the totality of its elements,
the interaction between them, of their nature, refer to the facts, analysis and synthesis of
theoretical opinions, etc.), the historical approach — consideration of the particular historical
development of the Western world topic Soviet cinema.
An analysis of this kind of media texts is particularly important for media literacy education
of future historians, culture and film art historians, sociologists, linguists, psychologists and
educators.
Keywords: hermeneutical analysis, Soviet, USSR, West, USA, cold war, film, film studies.
1. Introduction
109

development of the Western world topic Soviet and Russian cinema.
It is known that the interpretation of media texts changeable and often subject to fluctuations
of the political regimes courses. After the peak of the ideological confrontation (1946-1953), when
the screen enemy image prevailed mutual evil grotesque, "thaw" of the late 1950s – e arly 1960s
affected the situation of ideological confrontation in the media sphere in towards a more plausible
picture potential enemy. The political reasons for ideological media confrontation mentioned by
both Western and Russian researchers (Jones, 1972; Keen, 1986; LaFeber, 1990; Levering, 1982;
Shlapentokh, 1993; Small, 1980; Strada, 1989; Strada and Troper, 1997; Whitfield, 1991; Ivanyan,
2007; Klimontovich, 1990; Kovalov, 2003; Kolesnikova, 2015: Turovskaya, 2003; Shaw,
Youngblood, 2010).
Hence it is clear that the Soviet scientific and journalistic literature on the topic of
"ideological struggle on the screen" (Ashin, Midler, 1986: 83; Baskakov, 1981: 16-17; Kokarev, 1987:
5-6; Kukarkin, 1985: 377) was anti-West orientation (Fateev, 1999).
Now I'm interested in the image of the Western world, seen by the Soviet and later the
Russian cinema, because, despite all the changes, even positive image of aliens in a number of
Russian / Western films of the last twenty-five years, "enemy image" continues today actively used
in the practice of international relations, used both as a tool of social and political mobilization of
the state’s population, leading an aggressive foreign policy, and for the formation of a negative
international image of competitor countries" (Kolesnikova, 2010).
I examined the dynamics of the production of Soviet and Russian films, associated with
western world topic, from 1946 to 2016. Around 800 feature films, associated with western
countries and western people topic, were delivered to the Soviet Union and Russia during this
period.
Table 1. Western countries’ feature films related to Soviet / Russian topic and Soviet feature films
related to Western countries/people topic (1946–1991)
The Soviet period (1946–1991)

Year of Total Countries
release of feature
the film on films on
countries:
countries
Germany
the screen these topics

Western
Canada
France
Other
USSR
tonal
Italy
USA
UK
1946 4 2 2 1 1
1947 5 3 2 2
1948 8 2 6 5 1
1949 12 4 8 7 1
1950 10 3 7 5 1 1
1951 8 1 7 6 1
1952 18 1 17 16 1
1953 12 4 8 6 1 1
1954 12 4 8 4 1 2 1
1955 24 11 13 6 3 2 1 1
1956 14 6 8 3 2 1 2
110
1957 16 5 11 9 2
1958 22 9 13 5 3 2 2 1
1959 13 4 9 4 2 2 1
1960 21 10 11 5 3 2 1
1961 24 14 10 3 5 1 1
1962 24 10 14 5 3 3 2 1
1963 27 8 19 3 7 1 1 4 1 2
1964 25 6 19 6 5 4 1 2 1
1965 40 19 21 4 4 2 3 5 1 2
1966 28 4 24 8 7 2 2 4 1
1967 29 6 23 1 6 11 2 1 2
1968 27 11 16 4 7 1 1 1 2
1969 27 12 15 4 4 2 2 2 1
1970 24 11 13 2 4 3 2 2
1971 21 10 11 3 3 2 1 1 1
1972 31 20 11 3 1 3 4
1973 23 10 13 4 2 2 2 3
1974 25 9 16 6 2 2 2 2 2
1975 17 9 8 2 1 2 1 2
1976 22 15 7 1 1 2 1 2
1977 18 9 9 3 2 1 2 1
1978 27 21 6 4 1 1
1979 35 24 11 2 7 1 1
1980 29 18 11 7 2 2
1981 30 19 11 2 5 1 2 1
1982 30 21 9 4 1 2 2
1983 32 23 9 4 3 1 1
1984 39 25 14 5 3 3 1 1 1
1985 55 26 29 19 7 2 1
1986 44 31 13 5 4 1 2 1
1987 40 19 21 14 2 2 1 1 1
1988 31 11 20 14 1 1 1 3
1989 29 18 11 8 1 1 1
1990 34 14 20 8 4 1 3 3 1
1991 34 24 10 3 1 1 2 3
Total 1120 546 574 242 121 59 54 45 9 44
The ratio between the Western feature films related to Soviet / Russian topic, and Soviet
films on the western countries/people theme in 1946-1991 (Table 1) is as follows: 574 Western
countries’ feature films related to Soviet / Russian topic (242 from USA) on 546 Soviet feature
films related to Western countries/people topic, i.e. approximately identical.
The data in Table 1 shows that the peaks of the Soviet interest in the Western
countries/people topic on the screen occurred in 1955 (11 films), 1960-1962 (from 10 to 14 films
annually) 1965 (19 films), 1972 (20 films), 1976-1991 (an average of 20 films per year) years.
In other words, the level of common West-Soviet cinema interest reached its peak during the
time of the Cuban missile crisis, the change of power in the USSR and the 'perestroika' times.
Although, of course, feature films production differs substantially from the process of creation of
media texts in the press, on radio and television: the creation of movies is a long process.

The main materials for this article was the area: the books, articles and Soviet films about
Western World. The methods of theoretical research: classification, comparison, analogy,
induction and deduction, abstraction and concretization, theoretical analysis and synthesis; and
methods of empirical research: collecting information related to the research subjects. The
111
effectiveness of such methods has been proven as the Western (R. Taylor, D. Youngblood,
A. Lawton et al.), And Russian (N. Zorkaya, E. Ivanyan, A. Kolesnikova, M. Turovskaya)
(Eco, 1976; Silverblatt, 2001). This method connected with the key concepts of media literacy
education (media agencies, media categories, media language, media technologies, media
representations, media audiences etc.).
3. Discussion
The era of the "cold war" and ideological confrontation between the West and the Soviet
Union has created many cinematic myths.
The first myth: the famous Soviet film art masters tried to be higher than the "ideological struggle",
so the ideological confrontation has become the lot of artisans class "B".
Even a cursory look at the filmography 1946-1991 easy to refute this thesis. Both on the west
side and the Soviet side, such famous directors as Costa-Gavras, J. Losey, S. Lumet, S. Pekinpah,
B. Wilder, P. Ustinov, A. Hitchcock, J. Huston, J. Schlesinger, G. Alexandrov, A. Dovzhenko,
M. Kalatozov, M. Romm and, of course, dozens of famous actors of different nationalities, were
involved in the process of "ideological struggle".
Moreover, among the Soviet actors, of course, have been let and not so famous, but the
talented Russian performers with "western" appearance, immediately specializing in the roles of
foreigners (mostly – hostile to the USSR and Russia). Here I can recall A. Fait (1903-1976) –
83 roles, 46 of them – the role of foreigners; G. Plaksin (1925-2008) – 56 roles (episodic), 43 of
them – the role of foreigners.
Myth Two: Soviet anti-Western films have always been less truthful than the anti-Soviet
Western movies.
Here, again, it is not so simple. Yes, some of the anti-Western films (for example, Silver Dust
by A. Room or Conspiracy of the Doomed by M. Kalatozov) created a false image of the Western
world and people. And Nicholas and Alexandra by F. Sheffner and Assassination of Trotsky by
J. Losey were much more truthful and convincing. However, the anti-Soviet Red Dawn or Amerika
look, to put it mildly, implausible even in comparison with the Soviet militarist movie Solo Voyage,
which became a kind of counter-reaction on winning the pathos of the American Rambo...
Myth Three: "confrontational" films are so weak that they do not deserve any attention, any
critical analysis.
In this regard, I can say the following. On the one hand, we can find among media products
from cold war times the significant works of art (I am Cuba by M. Kalatozov, Dead Season by
S. Kulish, Assassination of Trotsky by J. Losey, Reds by W. Beatty, 1984 by M. Redford and
others). And on the other — there is no method can not be considered exhaustive to media text
analysis, "because even the most primitive film is a multilayer structure comprising different
levels of latent information revealed only in the interaction with the socio-political and
psychological context. ... As if tendentious – or, on the contrary, unemotional – nor was the
author of the film, it captures a lot more aspects of time, what thinks and knows itself, starting
from the prior art, which he uses, and ending with the ideological myths that it reflects"
(Turovskaya, 1996: 99).
The term cold war is closely related to such concepts as information-psychological war,
ideological struggle, political propaganda, ideological propaganda and the enemy image. According
to the just determination of A. Fateev, enemy image is the ideological expression of social
antagonism, dynamic character hostile to the state and the citizen forces, a policy tool of the ruling
groups in society. The image of the enemy is an essential element of "psychological warfare",
which is the deliberate and systematic use of political opponents propaganda, among other
means of pressure for the direct or indirect influence on the opinions, sentiments, feelings and
behavior of the enemy, allies and their populations in order to force them to act in pleasing to the
government directions" (Fateev, 1999).
A. Kolesnikova, in particular, reasonable to notes that the most common in Soviet films were
the following characters are foreigners who helped audience in their perceptions of "alien to the
West": “West German, British and American spies and saboteurs, former exiles (switched to the
service in the Western European and US intelligence centers), the US military, industrial
magnates, Western scientists (specializing in prohibited military developments), as well as
112
former Nazis, the SS and the ranks of the Third Reich. The spectrum of cinematic images of the
enemy in the Soviet Union included and internal characters — the so-called enemy accomplices —
former nobles, the Whites; inclined to luxury and the Western way of life of Soviet citizens:
fashions, representatives of the "golden youth" people "liberal professions" (professionals in the
field of art, journalists, scientists), having contacts with foreigners. Criminal movie characters
were also often associated with the West (such as smugglers)” (Kolesnikova, 2010).
The positive western characters in the Soviet cinema, of course, were presented of the
"socialist orientated democratic society", "the working class", "oppressed by imperialist nations",
and similar figures.
The era of the "cold war" has become a source of creating a plurality of anti-Soviet / anti-
communist and anti-western / anti-bourgeois films released in theaters within the time period
1946-1991.
In April-May 1949 the Soviet Union developed a special Action Plan to strengthen the anti-
American propaganda in the near future, which included "systematic printing of materials,
articles and pamphlets exposing the aggressive plans of US imperialism, anti-popular character
of the social and political system of the United States, debunks the fable of the American
propaganda about the "prosperity" of America, showing the deep contradictions of the US
modern America" (Plan ... 1949).
In addition, the external threat was "a convenient excuse for Soviet problems and
contradictions in the socio-economic and political system, which could otherwise be perceived
residents of the Soviet Union as evidence of his imperfections" (Fateev, 1999), for the Stalinist
socialism with its "methods and orders with them to set up social order, life and social psyche
became possible in Russia only because he mutatius mutandis, with the corresponding time
variation degrees and qualities revived the traditional type of hostel, which is characterized by a
dominance of ruthless and overpowering state" (Konchalovsky, 1969: 17).
4. Results
General socio-cultural, political and ideological context of the second half of 1940s – the
first half of 1950s:
- The restoration of the war-torn Russian economy by the exertion of all human resources;
- The rapid development of military industry, nuclear development, equipping many factories
trophy (German) equipment;
all countries of Eastern Europe;
- A return to the practice of mass repression (the struggle against cosmopolitanism, anti-
Semitic campaign, etc.);
- A slow turn toward easing repression and ideological offensive of some companies after the
death of Stalin.
D. Konchalovsky, based on an analysis of Soviet society, has come to the right conclusion that
Russia in the 1930s - 1940s, has turned "in a hierarchically constructed society absolutist police-
type class division, hierarchical bureaucracy, strict discipline, lack of freedom and personal
rights. As if stricken 19th century. Return to 18 and even to the 17th century. This is the essence.
But apparently, for the sake of the era and the recent habits, it creates and strongly supported
decoration democracy and freedoms. It is necessary for both internal and external use to create
this duality and contradiction needs to stupefy, confuse people. Hence the propaganda reinforced
at every turn (not to give people time to recover and come to their senses), hence the suppression
of contact with people who saw the West, they neutralized as much as possible, hence the "iron
curtain" (Konchalovsky, 1969: 24-25).
No doubt, the positive characters of the country's "potential enemy" were even in the era of
peak of the "cold war" – as in the United States and the Soviet Union. The positively outlined
foreign characters in the USSR mostly appear in the films adaptations of literary classics, which is
set in the past (at least – until 1917). These were, for example, the American mining engineer,
rescuing a dog from death (White Fang, 1946); thrust British worker, and the conqueror of nature
(Robinson Crusoe, 1947); pretty Negro, Russian sailors rescued (Maximka, 1952); fiery Italian
113
revolutionary who renounces religion (The Gadfly, 1955); another revolutionary, this time – the
boxer of Mexican origin (The Mexican, 1955); naive Spanish knight – an idealist and a hopeless
romantic (Don Quixote, 1957), a charming singing circus – either Austrian, or Hungarian origin
(Mr. X, 1957), and other "good personages", separated in some time interval from the realities of
the Soviet Union.
As for the western world’s characters from the modern period, they could appear in Soviet
films primarily if they are anti-imperialist, anti-bourgeois attitudes and actions, and even better –
direct support of communist ideas. In the Russian Question (1947) by M. Romm American
correspondent, at first, though reluctantly, but agreed to write something critical about the Soviet
Union, however, having been in the Soviet Union abruptly changes his mind about it in a positive
way. In the Meeting on the Elba (1949) by G. Alexandrov shows that some American soldiers
serving in Germany in 1945, the good guys, as sympathetic to the USSR. Especially a lot of positive
pro-Soviet foreign characters (apparently Czech) in the Conspiracy of the Doomed (1950) by
M. Kalatozov.
Of course, the majority of Soviet cold war films on the topic of modern Western life was
filmed with the aim of exposing and accusations of imperialism and the bourgeois world.
Some classics of the Soviet screen – A. Dovzhenko (unfinished film Goodbye, America!,
1951), M. Kalatozov (Conspiracy of the Doomed, 1950), M. Romm (Russian Question, 1947; Secret
Mission, 1950), A. Room (Court of honor, 1947, Silver Dust, 1953) created anti-Western (primarily
– anti-American) films. Almost all the American characters were depicted as spies, saboteurs, anti-
Soviet provocateurs in these propaganda movies (Ivanyan, 2007: 274).
The motive of unsuccessful attempts of Western secret services to seduce of the Soviet
scientists has a particular importance in the plot of cold war movies also. For example, in the film
Academician Ivan Pavlov (1949) “American agent offering Pavlov go to America. The agent
disguises his dirty business cosmopolitans and lackeys of imperialism favorite argument – "is not
important for humanity, where you will be working." In an angry response, the great Russian
scientist Pavlov say: "Science is the fatherland, and the scientist is obliged to have it. I, sir, –
Russian. And my country here" (Asratyan, 1949).
Another acute problem of "aliens" has been put in the Court of Honor (1948) by A. Room,
where American spies try to ferret out the secret biochemical development from the Soviet
"cosmopolitan scientists." And Spyware detective Ghosts Leave the Top (1955) is still worse in the
course of the story it turns out that the owner of Western chemical concern killed Russian scientist,
that no one knows about the detected in the USSR valuable metals deposit...
M. Turovskaya correctly notes that a media "transformation of former allies in the" enemy
image "carried out the plot by a secret bond of Americans (of course, class-alien: the generals,
senators, businessmen, diplomats) with the Nazis, whether "secret mission" of negotiations for a
separate peace, kidnapping patents or manufacture of chemical weapons. The identification of
Americans with the Nazis is the only "secret" the whole package of "cold war" films and
"Conspiracy of the Doomed" have already assimilated Eastern European social democrats as
absolute evil, to the Americans" (Turovskaya, 1996: 100). Among this kind of films can be noted
Meeting on the Elba (1949), They Have a Homeland (1949), Secret Mission (1950), Goodbye,
America! (1951), Silver Dust (1953).
For example, in the Meeting on the Elba (1949) "it was a question about how the Soviet
Army after the victory helped the German people to build a democratic Germany, while the
United States in every possible way interfered with, to what is already robbing the German
population. ... But then all went "Secret Mission" A. Romm (1950). This picture talking about
direct US complicity with Hitler, in which Germany would give the Americans Austria, Hungary,
Czechoslovakia and Poland" (Klimontovich, 1990: 117).
Opinions of M. Turovskaya and N. Klimontovich (1951-2015) shared by A. Kolesnikova.
In her study she clearly showed how the features of a German enemy (cruelty, ruthlessness,
bloodlust) transferred the Soviet media propaganda on the new enemies – in the Western countries
led by the United States (Kolesnikova, 2010). In the Soviet films of this kind, "the spy could be
mistaken for a humble servant of the Soviet, for accountant, for example, because he was dressed
in a blouse, in jodhpurs, was carrying a yellow-bellied portfolio (Outpost in the Mountains,
1953); spy could impersonate the heroic soldier… (Over the Tisza, 1958), he could even get on the
114
guise of a friendly grandmother of the bride of the hero (The Case of Corporal Kochetkov, 1955)"
(Klimontovich, 1990: 118).
Paradoxically, the author of the anti-American film Conspiracy of the Doomed (1950)
M. Kalatozov just seven years after created this famous humanist masterpiece The Cranes Are
Flying (1957), received the Palme d'Or at the Cannes festival. But in 1950, at the peak of ideological
confrontation, M. Kalatozov created a kind of political comics, frame by frame showing the
newspaper editorial of Soviet newspapers Pravda and Red Star.
...In some Eastern European country (all the signs – Czechoslovakia) established a
conspiracy Alliance (nationalists, Catholics, former Nazis, joined by the Social Democrats),
ideologically and financially supported by the US and its "Yugoslav minions" (The film was released
at the height of tensions between Stalin and Tito). The communists are the only force that protects
"the true interests of the working people" in this country. These communists firmly and irrevocably
focused on the Soviet Union ("We swear to Stalin and the Soviet people – to protect the freedom
and independence of our country!"). Dispersed on the Bolshevik pattern of 1917-1918 the local
parliament, the Communists easily defeat the "doomed" parliament (elected, inter alia, through
democratic elections)...
One of the most prominent film critics of described period – R. Yurenev, assessing the
picture of M. Kalatozov as a whole, made standard for Stalinist propaganda conclusion: it is "a
work of art telling the truth about the struggle of freedom-loving peoples under the leadership of
the Communist Party from the dark forces of international reaction, for the construction of
socialism. The film "Conspiracy of the Doomed" – truthful and vivid work of Soviet cinema – a
new contribution to the struggle for peace, for freedom and independence of peoples, for
communism" (Yurenev, 1951).
In this context, film critic M. Shaternikova remembers their school experience (who came at
the turn of the 1940s-1950s) from a collective viewing of this film: "We have not thought of.
Everything was clear: imperialism showed its true brutal face. About what happened in Eastern
Europe, we reported the movie "Conspiracy of the Doomed" – there the reaction using the
Americans wanted to enslave the workers, but they foiled the plot and unanimously voted for the
Communists. How were we to know that in life, not in the movie, a slightly different version
deployed?" (Shaternikova, 1999).
So his political mission in the cold war Conspiracy of the Doomed worked one hundred
percent...
Often thematic parallels mutual ideological confrontation were evident. For example, in the
film They Have a Homeland (USSR, 1949), Soviet agents, overcoming the resistance of the British
secret service, return home patriotic Russian children who have fallen after the Second World War
occupation zone of Western countries. But in the Red Danube (USA, 1950) Soviet citizens who find
themselves in the western zone of occupation of Vienna, did not want to return home for fear of
becoming victims of Stalinist repression...
In this respect, a very curious roll of real events on both sides of the "Iron Curtain." Yes, I can
agree with M. Turovskaya that "the atmosphere of mutual suspicion, rudeness, cynicism, fear,
complicity and disunity, color last years of Stalinism and completely displaced from the Soviet
topics, could only be realized in the construction of "enemy image" (Turovskaya, 1996: 106). But,
alas, the same atmosphere, in spite of all the American democratic tradition, originated in the
process of a "witch hunt", launched at about the same years, Senator McCarthy in relation to many
of the Hollywood director and screenwriter, accused of sympathizing with communism and the
USSR...
At the same times these two mutually hostile media trends found similar version where the
true facts in varying degrees, combined with ideological falsification.
For example, it was due equally distant from the reality of the visual image in the Soviet and
Western films of 1940s – 1950s household details on life in the "enemy countries". Perhaps the
situation in the direction of greater likelihood changed only quasi-documentary visual aesthetics of
a number of inherent 1960s "Cinema Verite" (one of the most striking illustrations of the new style
– deliberately black-and-white spy movie Dead Season (USSR, 1968)...
I can confidently assert that the Western media image of the enemy was formed in the USSR
(as, indeed, and the Soviet enemy in the Western cinema aimed against the USSR) back in the
1920s – 1930s, and subsequently operated effectively for many decades: the vast majority of it was
115
the image of the invader / aggressor alien / spy / criminal, barbarian / degenerate, and if
intellectual, then again, hostile, vicious and cruel.
Epoch "thaw" (1956-1968) and the authoritarian ideological control (1969-1985): the
general context
General socio-cultural, political and ideological context of the second half of 1950s:
- Rejection of the thesis of the class struggle within the country, the announcement of the
creation of a united Soviet people, without political, national, ethnic, class, race problems;
- Official rejection from the idea of world revolution and the universal dictatorship of the
capitalist systems" while maintaining the so-called "ideological struggle";
- Elimination of mass terror of the state against its own citizens, while maintaining the local
fight against dissidents (for example, B. Pasternak, A. Sakharov, A. Solzhenitsyn, etc.) and religion
(atheistic approach);
- The continuation of industrialization (mainly heavy and military industry), though at a
slower pace and without prior voltage of human resources, since the beginning of 1980 due to the
fall in oil prices appeared the crisis tendencies in the inefficient planned state economy;
- The dominant of communist ideology (in the renewed, focused on the works of V. Lenin and
the post-Stalin ideologists of treatment);
- The preservation of the course in the militarization of the country, unleashing local military
conflicts (in Africa and Asia), the intervention in Hungary (1956), Czechoslovakia (1968) and
Afghanistan (1979), the support, including military, pro-communist regimes in the developing
countries of Africa, Asia and Latin America.
"Thaw" tendencies
Death of I. Stalin (March 1953), the negotiations the leaders of the leading countries in Geneva
(1954-1955), anti-Stalin speech of N. Khrushchev at the congress of the Communist Party of
February 25, 1956 resulted in "bipolar world" to the situation of the so-called ideological "thaw",
when the communist regime slightly opened the "iron curtain" between the USSR and the West.
Egyptian and Hungarian events again have exacerbated mutual confrontation between the
USSR and the Western world in October-December 1956. But since 1957, political contacts between
the bastions of "communism" and "imperialism" were again gradually improving: in spite of the
sharp contradictions, two of the world's largest nuclear powers did not want direct military
confrontation, threatens to destroy the entire planet...
The Moscow World Festival of Youth and Students was in the summer of 1957. Western
interest in the Soviet Union fueled flight into space the first satellite in the world (4 October 1957)
and orbiting the earth first in the history of the spacecraft with a man on board (12 April 1961). To a
large extent it is this success in space exploration obliged the advent of a new wave of science-
fiction films of the distant planets in the end of 1950s – the first half of 1960s.
In 1958, the leadership of the USSR and the United States signed an agreement on cultural
exchange, and then in 1959 in Moscow with an excessive successfully passed the American
exhibition that promotes the achievement of the main powers of the Western world in the field of
industry, agriculture, science, education and culture. In 1959, for the first time in many years,
millions of "travel banned" Soviet audiences were able to see the new western films at the Moscow
International Film Festival...
Naturally, the "thaw" trends affect on the subjects of Soviet cinema, associated with the
western world/people topic. Maitre of Soviet comedy G. Alexandrov responded quickly to changes
in the ideological climate in the musical revue Man to Man (1958) and the comedy Russian
Souvenir (1960).
The first of these films showed sympathy performances of foreign artists in Moscow during
the International Festival of Youth and Students in 1957.
The second film told the story of how Western aircraft passengers, made an emergency
landing in Siberia, got acquainted with the achievements of the Soviet Union. They could see with
their own eyes in the huge success of the USSR on the construction of the high-power plants and
local amateur talent (Bakis, 2012).
116
In general, not only in the Russian Souvenir, but also in other Soviet comedies, some western
characters could look quite nice (Green Light, Business People, Foreigner and others.).
Another "thaw" comedy – Leon Garros Is Looking for His Friend (1960) – shows as a progressive
French journalist sought in the USSR old comrade. Along the way, having visited both in Moscow
and in the provinces, he never tired of admiring the achievements and enthusiasm of the Soviet
people...
Melodrama Roman and Francesca (1960) was how an Italian girl in love with a Soviet sailor.
The drama Last Inch (1958) sympathetically showed British pilot Ben. Visual solution of this
film strongly emphasizes human vulnerability in the vast ocean world. The filmmakers skillfully
created a tense atmosphere. And it was not easy to do because practically only two hero in the film
– Ben and his son. In addition, the authors build action is not on the spectacular tricks, and on the
psychological relationship of the characters. Although Ben flew to the remote island is not for
pleasure, but for the sake of money, for the social drama Last Inch, in my opinion, there were no
serious reasons. The main thing here – the struggle of man against the elements, overcome the
fear, pain and despair.
A screen adaptation of A. Belyaev’s novel Amphibian Man (1961) became one of the first
Soviet signs of the genre "ecological fiction" with a topic of responsibility of the scientist for his
discoveries. As a result, Ichthyander – young man with transplanted fish gills – was the victim of
bourgeois society, greedy for sensation. Another story line was a wonderful love duet of young
positive characters.
The mutual confrontation of the USSR and the West once again aggravated due to downed
American spy plane (May 1960), the defeat of the anti-Castro landing in Cuba (1961), the creation
of the Berlin Wall (1961), the outbreak of the Caribbean missile crisis (1962), protracted Vietnam
war (1964-1975) and the "Prague spring" (1968)...
Thus, there are many reasons for political confrontation (Jones, 1972; Keen, 1986; Lafeber,
1990; Levering, 1982; Shlapentokh, 1993; Small, 1980; Strada, 1989; Strada and Troper, 1997;
Whitfield, 1991; Ivanyan, 2007; Klimontovich, 1990; Kovalov, 2003; Turovskaya, 2003; Shaw,
Youngblood, 2010). And in general, "thaw" of the late 1950s – early 1960s is not so radically
affected the situation of the "cold war" in the media sphere. USSR and the West continued hostile
image, but the image of the "potential enemy" has become (sometimes) more plausible.
This is understandable, since the creation of the media image of the enemy "is able to solve
several strategic tasks in the field of preserving and increasing the power, mobilization of human
resources of the state, internal opposition suppression" (Morozov, 2001).
For example, the theme of the Soviet-American confrontation and the nuclear threat
dominated the Black Gull (1962), Night Without Mercy (1961) Submarine (1961), etc. The moral of
the bourgeois world critiqued in films such as Murder on Dante Street (1956), You Can Not Go
Bridge (1960), Crazy Court (1961), 713, First Requests Landing (1962), Business People (1962),
Coin (1962) General and Daisies (1963), March! March! Tra-ta-ta! (1964), Trap (1965), Coast of
Hope (1967) (some of them were adaptations of western prose of critical focus, the others placed on
the original scripts).
Of course, each of the opposing sides chose a more favorable facts, bypassing the "dark
spots". So, for example, the Hungarian and Czechoslovak events, even though they were dosed are
shown in the documentary subjects Soviet cinema / TV-news (where voice narration blamed
"bourgeois West" in the "counter-revolution" and "rabid anti-Soviet"), but not reflected in the
Soviet feature cinema.
But the Soviet feature film willingly turned to winning for ideological propaganda subjects
related to Cuba, Taiwan, Africa, Indochina, the Middle East, the military coup in Greece, etc.
(Emergency, Stronger than Hurricane, Cuban Short Story, Only the Statues are Silent, Black
Gull, Planes Are Not Landed, I am Cuba, The Punisher and others.). Such films were shot on the
material in those regions and countries where it was possible more densely to accuse the bourgeois
world in the imperialist aggression, colonialism, racism, suppression of national democratic
movements, etc.
On the other hand – quite the contrary – many Western films did the image of a hostile,
aggressive, armed to the teeth, but otherwise economically backward totalitarian Russia: with cold
snowy expanse, the poor population, which brutally oppressed evil and treacherous Communists,
117
steeped in corruption and debauchery. The main objective was the same – to convince western
audiences thought about the horrors and evils inevitably decaying Soviet Union.
Between the "thaw" and "perestroika" (1969-1985)
Since coming of L. Brezhnev to power in the USSR, "thaw" began to gradually fade away. The
final turning point in the direction of tightening the "ideological nuts" came in 1968. The first call,
has guarded the Kremlin, became events of May 1968 in Paris, rightly called attempt to "student
revolution".
The reaction of the Soviet authorities (who in the 1960s developed good relations with France
and de Gaulle) to these events has been rather negative. At the same time the Soviet media
especially emphasized the negative character of the Maoist and anarchist riots in May 1968...
The events in Czechoslovakia even more acute for the Soviet Union, because 1968 was the peak of
Prague’s attempts to build a "socialism with a human face" in "a particular state."
Of course, unlike France, in the case of Czechoslovakia, the Kremlin could afford much more
than just criticism and condemnation of certain events and political forces. At first, the attack on
the "Prague Spring" was conducted "in a peaceful way": in March 23, 1968 in Dresden, and on May
4, 1968 in Moscow Soviet leaders expressed open dissatisfaction with the democratic changes in
Czechoslovakia. Political pressure increased in July-August 1968. After confirming that "socialism
with a human face" in Czechoslovakia reforms support the broad masses (and, again, as in France,
– students and young people), and to "pacify" rebellious words fails, the Kremlin decided on
military intervention: troops were deployed on the territory of Czechoslovakia in the night of 20 to
21 August 1968. Naturally, this led to mass protests (including - armed) Czechs and Slovaks against
the occupation. But the forces were too unequal: in April 1969 Prague Spring’s leader A. Dubcek
was removed from his post, and twenty years' of hard socialism began in Czechoslovakia...
So that the reaction of the Soviet cinematic chiefs to events of 1968 was predictable...
However, the film is not newspaper, but an expensive inertial mechanism, deprived of the
possibility of an instant reaction to the political situation. That is why it is not surprising
appearance in 1969, laid back in the thaw years of large-scale international projects with the
participation of world stars: Waterloo by S. Bondarchuk and The Red Tent by M. Kalatozov, where
many of Western world characters have been positive shown. And this even though in The Red
Tent Soviet icebreaker in 1928 saved the polar expedition of General Nobile (1885-1978), approved
by the fascist regime of Mussolini (1883-1945).
Similar trends are generally respectful attitude to the western characters can be found in less
"star" of Soviet films 1969-1971 were as follows: On the way to Lenin, Falling frost, Soviet
Ambassador, Salut, Maria!, All the President's Men, Farewell to St. Petersburg, Man On the Other
Side, Committee of Nineteen. First of all, it is, of course, revolutionaries, representatives of
"working people" and "progressive Western public", but among them there are also persons of the
upper classes of Western society (for example, Soviet Ambassador).
However, despite some fluctuations associated with the US-Soviet "detente" the early 1970s,
post-thaw screen often portrayed the Western world and its representatives in a negative way:
Decoupling (1969), Reshuffle in the Long Side (1969), Black Like Me (1969). Mission in Kabul
(1970), Black Sun (1970), Residence (1972), Fifty-fifty (1972), Night Chronicle (1972), Starling and
Lyre (1974 ), etc.
Another drop mutual political confrontation has been associated with the conclusion in June
1973 of a formal agreement between the USSR and the USA on the contacts, exchanges and
cooperation, which was followed by the much-touted US-Soviet space project "Soyuz-Apollo"
(1974). Ideological "detente" lasted almost until the end of 1979, when the Soviet Union began a
protracted war in Afghanistan, is extremely negatively perceived in the West...
By the way, the victims of this "relaxation" become archaic films Always On the Lookout
(1972) by E. Dzigan Starling and Lyre (1974) by G. Alexandrov. The first was banned by Soviet
censors for almost cartoon show "iron stream" of Western spies and saboteurs seeking to make his
way through the Soviet "border on the lock." The second – due to the unseasonably applied plot
how-Nazi enemies after 1945 replaced the equally vile enemies of the Americans (though the ban
Starling and Lyre there are other, less politicized version). Cool anti-Western stereotypes,
118
enthusiastically greeted the Stalinist regime in the film of the same G. Aleksandrov Meeting on the
Elba (1946), in 1974 seemed outdated and "politically incorrect"...
Perhaps the most significant Soviet film, directly overlooking the theme of "detente" was the
adaptation of the novel M. Wilson Meeting at the Distant Meridian (1977). Outstanding actor V.
Dvorzhetsky (1939-1978) played a role the American physicist, who for is in the intellectual
dialogue with his Soviet counterpart. I personally do not remember so vividly played by Western
actors positive Russian characters (which, of course, were also in the foreign screen; remember, at
least, film Doctor Zhivago).
However, despite the short political "detente" of the 1970s, the Soviet Union and the West
almost up to the "perestroika" remained strong intensity of the ideological struggle, which reached
its apotheosis in the first half of 1980. Even at the peak of the "ideological detente" warring parties
did not forget about the mutual attacks, for example, in line with the themes of espionage and
terrorism.
On the other hand, in my opinion, it is "discharging" allowed the Soviet cinema 1974-1979's
release on the screens of a series of easy entertaining movies on the western material (almost) not
burdened ideological stuffing. They were mostly operetta, musical comedy, musicals (Chanita’s
Kiss, 1974; Straw Hat, 1974; Under the Roofs of Montmartre, 1975; Heavenly Swallows, 1976;
June 31, 1978, D'Artagnan and three Musketeers, 1978; The Bat, 1978; Hanna Ringleaders, 1979,
etc.), and comedy with a dash of melodrama (Journey of Mrs. Shelton, 1975; Dervish Explodes
Paris, 1976; Truffaldino from Bergamo, 1976; Nameless Star, 1978; Duenna, 1978 and others).
The effect of these films tend to unfold in a "safe" past, avoids showing the temptations of modern
Western world life. And even if in Journey of Mrs. Shelton (1975) modern western characters
appeared, they were at sea on a comfortable Soviet cruise ship…
As a rule, the most famous at that time the Soviet actors played in these films, and their
pretty western characters often became quite popular among the general movie / TV viewers who
had the opportunity to at least a few hours to plunge into the colorful world of amorous adventures,
melodic hits and comedic turns.
At the same time, using a western appearance Baltic actors, Soviet cinema, year after year
continues to create on-screen image of the enemy of America and the Western world as a whole,
where urban "yellow devil" celebrates the spirit of greed, hatred, racism, militarism, corruption,
depravity, humiliation of dignity of ordinary working people, etc. Sometimes, as a literary basis for
this kind of films selected novels of critical realism American classics (American Tragedy, Rich
Man, Poor Man). But most revelatory stories were written exactly for the movies. The main task
was to impress the Soviet viewers thought of the horrors and evils inevitably decaying West.
In connection with the invasion of Soviet troops in Afghanistan (1979) and the “star wars”
concept of R. Reagan, ideological confrontation between the Soviet Union and the West increased
sharply (Strada & Troper, 1997: 154; Golovskoy, 1987: 269). As a result – in the first half of 1980s
almost one to one was the post-war peak of cold war’s stereotypes.
In addition to traditional mutual accusations of espionage and aggression (American: Gorky
Park, Soldier, Invasion U.S.A., Third World War, Red Dawn, Secret Weapon, Rambo-II, Amerika
and other. Soviet: The Right to a Shot, Ordered to Take him Alive, Bartender of the Golden
Anchor, We Accuse, In Pomegranate Islands, The Mystery of the Villa Greta, Alarm Departure,
Solo voyage , Interception, No Statute of Limitations, End of Operation "Resident", Hunting the
Dragon, The Man Who I Interviewed and others) are having more sophisticated ideological picks.
For example, Soviet Flight 222 (1985) tried to beat the true story of an escape to the West of the
Soviet ballet star A. Godunov (1949-1995): the plot of the film about the Americans who try to
convince ballet star’s wife to stay in the US, however, contrary to their expectations, she wants to
fly home. The novelty of this confrontational drama were new for Soviet cinema theme (no doubt
inspired Western "political cinema") helplessness of the common man in the face of political games
and intrigues of government intelligence agencies opposing "superpowers".
Curiously, the heavy and pretentious "confrontational" dramas of 1946-1986 years now, as a
rule, look archaic, while less ambitious, open adventure (The Mystery of Two Oceans, From Russia
with Love), or comedy, musical tape (Silk Stockings, Moscow on the Hudson, Nameless Star,
Straw Hat, The Bat) demonstrate the amazing "persistence" in "rating" TV grids.
119
The era of "perestroika" (1986-1991)
Total Russian socio-cultural, political and ideological context of the second half of the 1980s
- early 1990s:
- The proclamation of the policy of "perestroika and glasnost", pluralism, democratization
- Rehabilitation of millions of innocent prisoners who were shot and repressed, dissidents;
- Rejection of the ideological struggle, and the withdrawal of troops from Afghanistan, the
proclamation of the disarmament policy;
- Course for the abolition of censorship and bans, the attempt for free exchange of people and
ideas between USSR and West;
- Economic and ideological crisis, which led eventually to the conservative coup attempt in
the summer of 1991;
- The collapse of the Soviet Union at the end of 1991.
At this stage, when the authors was free from censorship, films had the opportunity to
address the most acute, especially taboo topics. On the other hand, display the "cold war" in the old
ideological schemes, by inertia continued almost until the end of the 1980s (Paddock, 1987; The
Big Game, 1988, All Ahead, 1990 and others.). Overall, however, the beginning of the 1990s, when
the West and the Soviet Union has become increasingly manifest mutual friendly trend, Soviet
cinema became warmer to western characters and western world topic as a whole (The Contender,
1987; The Man from Boulevard des Capucines, 1987; Ruth, 1989; Hitchhiking, 1990; Lost in
Siberia, 1990; Passport, 1990; American Spy, 1991 and others).
In the networks of espionage

Spy theme in cinema is inextricably linked with the genres of thriller and detective. So what is the
difference between a detective and a thriller? Of course, there are many different nuances. But the
main thing is that at the basis of a detective story lies the plot of investigating of a crime whereas a
thriller is based on pursuit (of a criminal or a victim). Furthermore “no thriller can be represented
in the form of reminiscence: there’s no point when the narrator covers all the past events, we even
don’t know if he reaches the end of the story alive” (Todorov, 1977: 47).
However this does not prevent the appearance of synthetic genres which to the lesser or
greater extent combine the elements of the detective story and thriller. Having analyzed dozens of
Arthur Conan Doyle’s short stories about Sherlock Holmes (1859-1930), V. Shklovsky described the
structural scheme of the classical detective story as follows:
I. Waiting, talking about the previous cases, the analysis.
II. The appearance of the client. The business part of the story.
III. The evidence given in the story. The secondary information is the most important, but it
is given so that the reader doesn’t notice them. The material for false explanation is provided
immediately.
IV Watson misinterprets the evidence.
V. Checking the crime scene, often the crime is not committed yet, thus the effectiveness of
the narration is achieved, as well as the introduction of a novel with the criminals into the novel
with the detective. The evidence at the crime scene.
VI. An official detective gives a false clue. If the detective is not present then the false clue is
provided by the newspaper, the victim or by Sherlock Holmes himself.
VII. The interval is filled with Watson’s thoughts, he is clueless. Sherlock Holmes smokes or
practices music. Sometimes he joins the facts into groups without giving the final conclusion.
VIII. The denouement is mostly unexpected. Very often an attempted crime is used for the
denouement.
IX. Sherlock Holmes makes an analysis of the facts. (Shklovsky, 1929: 142).
Despite the variety of plot lines, this plot scheme still persists in many detective stories – in
literature, on the stage, on the screen.
Another master of the classical detective, Agatha Christie (1890–1976) has advanced much
further than her predecessor in the sense of plot diversity. Here D. Bykov distinguishes not one (as
V. Shklovsky did with respect to A. Conan Doyle) but ten key plot schemes (Bykov, 2010):
120
1) The traditional scheme of a “fireplace detective”: the killer is someone form a closed circle
of suspects;
2) “The gardener is the killer”, when there was somebody unaccounted in the circle of
suspects;
3) “Everybody killed”. An overturn in the genre – usually you have to choose one in a dozen,
but here everybody is guilty;
4) It is unknown whether the murder took place or not. Everybody is searching for the culprit
but the victim is alive;
5) The victim is the killer, i.e. he was alive at the moment but played dead so that nobody
would think that was him;
6) Committed suicide and shifted the blame on others;
7) Was killed due to circumstances or some natural phenomenon but everybody is searching
for the guilty one;
8) The killer is the one who accuses, gossips and demands the investigation louder than the
others;
9) The investigator is the killer;
10) The author is the killer.
We can easily notice the difference in the structural approaches of V. Shklovsky and
D. Bykov. The first one reveals the construction of the detective plot with respect to the detective,
and the second one – with respect to the criminal. Naturally if we judge A. Conan Doyle’s detective
stories from the point of view of the typology of crimes, it won’t come to just one plot scheme.
On the other hand if we try to approach Agatha Christie’s detective novels about Hercule
Poirot we shall get something like this:
1) By invitation or accidentally detective Hercule Poirot appears at the crime scene, the crime
is often not committed yet. In most cases it is a place isolated from random characters (a mansion,
an island, a train, etc.) The clues are at the scene. The most important minor information is given
so that the reader doesn’t notice them. Immediately the material for false explanation is given to
the reader.
2) The false explanation is given by one of those present, or the reader is supposed to give it
himself;
3) The interval of action up to its finale is filled with Hercule Poirot’s thoughts (unknown to
the reader for the time being), his questioning of witnesses; often new crimes are committed on the
way;
4) The denouement, mainly unexpected, often combined with Poirot’s public analytical
conclusions.
At the same time “the situations investigated by Hercule Poirot often contain a certain
artificiality to force up the tension to the limit. By the character of Agatha Christie’s narration for
example it is necessary that the mysterious murder took place not just in the train which goes
across Europe from Istanbul to Calais, but necessarily in the very moment when the train stops
because of the snow drifts, cut off from the world, thereby any external interference in the events
are excluded. The manor where the murder described in “The Endhouse Mystery” must be
necessarily located at the outskirts, forming a sort of a self-contained little world. Other Christie’s
detective are like this, including “Ten Little Niggers”, where the events are taking place in a
luxurious mansion on an island separated from the mainland by a wide strait, and on top of that
a storm breaks out so that the characters were totally isolated.” (Zverev, 1991).
I must also note that the elements of thriller with its usual psychological suspense and sense
of pursuit are often present in A. Conan Doyle’s and A. Christie’s detectives. Another recognized
master of detective and thriller, not in literature but in cinematography, was Alfred Hitchcock
(1899-1980), who for the most part didn’t need a professional detective like Holmes or Poirot. One
of Hitchcock’s favorite plot schemes is as follows: an ordinary person (sometimes an American in a
foreign country) who is far from the criminal world, by force of circumstance is dragged in a
dangerous affair concerning crimes and/or espionage. Moreover, he himself has to fight the
criminals and/or prove his innocence at his own risk: The Thirty-Nine Steps, 1935, Saboteur, 1942,
North by Northwest, 1959.
Perhaps I can agree with the fact that "all existing texts in the history of human culture –
artistic and non-artistic – are divided into two groups: one as it answers the question: “What is
121
it” (or “How does this work?”), And the second – “How did this happen?” (Lotman, 1973). The
texts of the first group of Y. Lotman (1922-1993) conditionally called plotless, second – story,
exactly specifying that "plotless texts assert some order, regularity classification. (...). These texts
are by nature static. If they describe the movement, the movement is repeated regularly and
correctly, always equal to themselves" (Lotman, 1973).
This Y. Lotman’s view almost coincides with reflections of V. Demin (1937-1993) that the
famous detective characters – Sherlok Holmes, Hercule Poirot and Maigret – "shape rather
conditional, prudently designed to perform its functions. The illusion of life there as our sense of
their successful response constructedness. (...). Aristotle’s famous phrase about the drama, which
is impossible without intrigue and without characters, nowhere is as relevant, both in relation to
the detective. Detective story is possible without a detailed description, with no landscape
beauties and memorable performance, without deep social background and gray nuances in
dialogues. But detective story is not possible without ingeniously designed intrigue" (Demin,
1977: 238).
Of course, the detective plots in movies are often associated with espionage. And, as already
noted, a spy theme occupied an important place in the general stream of mutual accusations of
Western-Soviet / revelations. In the USSR, prominent examples of this kind were Secret Mission,
Dangerous Path, Footprints in the Snow, Shadow of the Pier, Over the Tisza, Operation "Cobra",
Case № 306, The Case of Corporal Kochetkov, The Mystery of Two Oceans, A Person Changes the
Skin, Border Silence, The Game Is Not a Draw, Black Business, A Man Without a Passport,
Isolation, Scuba at the Bottom, Fifty- Fifty, Dead Season, Blunder and many other films, often
inheriting the tradition of spy films of the 1930s.
Similar spy movies appeared on the screens in the Western world...
One of the common Soviet plot stereotypes espionage topic was the story of the talented
scientists and inventors who have made an important scientific discovery, which seek to find out /
steal / buy Western intelligence agencies (Shot in the Fog, Next to the Ocean, Hyperboloid of
Engineer Garin, Failure of Engineer Garin, Labeled Atoms, Castling in the Long Side, Death on
the Rise, etc.).
For example, in a Dangerous Path (1954), spies and saboteurs trying to (of course, without
success) to destroy the results of the most valuable development of Soviet microbiologists. In Shot
in the Fog (1963) KGB persistently accompanies (at work, on a business trip, hunting, at home,
etc.), top-secret Soviet physicist, for the military developments which hunts Western intelligence.
In Next to the Ocean (1964) Soviet scientists invent a gas mixture, allowing divers descend to a
great depth, but here the enemy spy right there – in cold blood builds their evil plans...
But, however, often spy stories do without scientists. For example, in the Game Without
Rules (1965) "Americans are eager to stretch our secrets ... do not stop cooperation with the Nazis
and questioned our brave Young Communists completely Gestapo methods and, most
importantly, they are forced to hold in their zone of occupation of the Soviet people..." (Stishova,
Sirivlya, 2003: 13). In the Case of the Corporal Kochetkov (1955) the whole spy nest is near to the
Soviet military base... In Over the Tisza (1958) foreign spy and assassin prepares bridge explosion
in the Carpathians... In a word, before "it was the enemy, friendly and clear – the Nazis. Now
place the Nazis rose Americans. The totalitarian state can not exist, even in the most "vegetarian"
thaw times, without an enemy image" (Stishova, Sirivlya, 2003: 13).
The films for children also strongly inculcated in Soviet spy movie plots. Screen pioneers not
just study well and rested, but also simultaneously exposed or helped catch hardened enemy agents
(Sea Gull, Young from the Schooner "Columbus", Scuba at the Bottom, The Passenger With the
"Equator", The Gate "Red Rocks", etc.).
Of course, not all Soviet films, involving to topic of "ideological confrontation", were frankly
sketchy. Recall, though it is politically correct Dead Season (1968) by S. Kulish, who showed the
Soviet and Western spies as worthy opponents (the scene of the spy exchange on the border).
Although Dead Season in some way was also the heir of the old ideological approach, as the enemy
in this film had pronounced Nazi features, appealing to the mass consciousness of the Soviet
audience, formed of military propaganda (Kolesnikova, 2007).
The image of Western spy was portrayed in Residents’ Error (1968) with the unexpected
sympathy, but the truth, just because in the next series, this resident had worked for Soviet
intelligence...
122
Overall, however, the Soviet spy films made in 1950s – 1960s (Footprints in the Snow,
Shadow of the Pier, The Mystery of Two Oceans, Blue Arrow, Intruders, A Person Changes the
Skin, Do Not Remember the Track, Ten Steps to the East, Operation "Cobra", Border Silence,
Where Edelweiss Bloom, Man Without a Passport", Game Without a Draw, Duel in the
Mountains, Decoupling, Castling in the Long Side, etc.), and in 1970s – 1980s (Labeled Atoms,
I am the Border, State Border, Throw, Ring from Amsterdam, Death on the Rise, Executive
Decision: Taken Alive, We accuse, Bartender of the "Golden anchor", Human Dossier in the
Mercedes, Interception and others.) were built quite stereotyped: Western agents penetrated into
the territory of the USSR for ferret out military secrets, commit sabotage, recruiting, and staff of
the Soviet secret polices (often with the help of ordinary citizens) try to arrest, or kill these agents.
Or it was the history of Soviet agents, successfully operating in Western countries (Dead Season,
Fifty-Fifty, Starling and Lyre, Stargazer and others.).
In the Soviet films about spies this period we can find a clear hierarchy image of the enemy,
"the enemy number 1 (the external enemy: as a rule, the head of one of the Western intelligence,
foreign intelligence, diplomatic staff or foreign journalist); accomplice of the external enemy of
the first plan (citizen of the USSR with a dark past, former speculator or a war criminal) and an
accomplice of the external enemy of the second plan (citizen of the USSR, as a rule, a
representative of the "golden youth," messing currency fraud, gambling, speculation, antiques
and others.) ... Negative shades are gathering around the image of any foreigner, regardless of
his profession. A foreigner already suspicious because he is a foreigner, a representative of the
enemy camp, other than a stranger. The viewer is inspired image of the USSR as a besieged
fortress: around capitalist countries, Western intelligence constantly preparing sabotage, spies
are sending. Foreign citizens in the Soviet films of the period under review, as a rule, fully
confirm their status hostile elements" (Kolesnikova, 2007: 166).
Of course, the spy and detective topic so popular – both in the Soviet and in the Western
world cinema – in the previous decade, was not forgotten after the collapse of the Soviet Union in
the 1990s and 2000s. All these years, Russian directors filmed quite traditional variations on the
spy theme (The Road to Paradise, Transit for the Devil, Parisian Antique Dealer, Big Game, Trap,
Invincible, Spy Game, Remission: Spy Melodrama, Lecturer and others.). However, it has
acquired and comic-parodic tone (Good Weather on Deribasovskaya Street, or Raining Again on
Brighton Beach, 1992; The Pistol with a Silencer, 1993; Dashing Couple, 1993; Three Hundred
Years Later, 1994; Do Not Play the Fool, 1997, and others.). In general, the professional level of
these films, in my opinion, leave much to be desired.
For example, the director and screenwriter of Pistols with Silencers (1993) V. Khovenko
wanted to show how two American spy, performing the task in Russia, found themselves on the
territory of a mental hospital, and, subsequently, its inhabitants, and thence took orders for post-
communist restructuring...
But ... this kind of parody and eccentric plot claimed by the authors of a filigree design of
each gag, each replica of characters, each gesture, magnificent knowledge of spy film classics, etc.
Alas, in the Pistols… it was nothing like that…
Comparing Russia with a huge madhouse already has beaten, worked out dozens of writers
and satirists, humorists artists. As, however, and the idea that foreigners will never understand
Russian orders and customs. As a result, despite the participation of a talented actors, Pistols with
Silencers, in my opinion, it has turned out not funny, rather boring...
As for other trends, the classic tradition of the detective and thriller in the cinema at the
beginning of the XXI century were subjected to further transformations: Russian and foreign
filmmakers are increasingly began to create designed for multi-layer perception, carefully designed
postmodern film, under the guise of entertainment genres hide "reefs" citations, parallels lines
parody, playing with rethought motifs adventure classics (Taken by P. Morel, Unknown by Collet-
Serra, The Spy by A. Andrianov).
These products of the postmodern, in my opinion, absolutely not applicable highly
controversial scheme of the classical detective story as a whole, developed by well-known culture
and semiotics T. Todorov:
1. There must be one detective, one criminal and at least one victim (dead body) in a
detective.
123
2. The accused must not be a professional criminal or detective, he must kill for personal
reasons.
3. There no place for love in the detective.
4. The accused must have a certain status: he must not be a lackey or a maid in life, he must
be among the main characters in the book.
5. Everything must be explained rationally, without any fiction.
6. There no place for descriptions and psychological analyses.
7. A certain homology of storytelling should be kept: “author: reader = criminal: detective”.
8. Banal situations and solutions should be avoided (Todorov, 1977: 49).
Across the seas, the waves ...

In the 1950s – 1980s, the anti-Western tendencies in the Soviet media texts clearly also
purchased "naval painting... The military confrontation at sea – perhaps the only area where we
have a certain parity with America, where we played on equal terms. They have ships – we have
ships, they have radars – we have radar, they have missiles – we have missiles... We have every
reason to start a small war games on the screen, where ours, of course, win. There's the fun and
patriotic education, and mobilization impulse: they say, you quietly live, work, breathe the air,
and peace between the hanging in the balance, the enemy is ruthless and cunning and just
dreaming to start a third world war... For the mass audience it was preferable to take a picture,
where the image of the enemy was drawn without unnecessary details enemy of bourgeois life.
After all, competition in the field, so to speak, "light industry", we had already lost, and all sorts
of Western clothes, drinks, cars and so caused the population unhealthy excitement. Soviet
filmmakers would need to be extremely careful with the demonstration of foreign consumption’s
objects in the screen. And naval conflict in this sense to portray was somehow calmer..."
(Stishova, Sirivlya, 2003: 13-15).
That is not the full range of maritime confrontations with the Soviet side: In the Days of
Peace (1950), The Mystery of Two Oceans (1956), Blue Arrow (1958), Submarine (1961), Neutral
Water (1969), Courtesy Visit (1972), Right on the Shot (1981), Case in the Square 36-80 (1982)
and Solo Voyage (1985), Pirates of XX Century (1979), Mystery of Madame Wong (1986),
Gangsters in the Ocean (1991), Alpha Project (1990)...
Naturally, the confrontation on the water both Soviet and Western filmmakers supplemented
subjects of military confrontation in the air (The Rocket Attack on the United States, Your Peaceful
Sky, Fire Fox, We Blame and others.) and the earth (Prisoner of War", Amerika, World war III,
Rambo 3).
Under the scorching of Hispanic sun...

A pro-Soviet revolutionary Cuba caused a keen interest in Soviet cinema to the Latino topic
(The Cuban Short Story, Black Gull, I am Cuba and others.). A military coup in 1973, established
the Chilean military dictatorship, gave a series of "Latin American" politicized films of various
artistic level, denouncing "the machinations of imperialism, militarism and fascism" (Night Over
Chile, 1977; Santa Esperanza, 1980; The Fall of the Condor, 1982; Winning Lone Merchant, 1984,
Jaguar, 1986; Centaur, 1978; Life is Beautiful, 1978; The Pomegranate Islands, 1981; Selected,
1982; Traces of the Werewolf, 1986).
Perhaps the best Soviet films "Latin American series" was the Selected (1982) by S. Solovyov.
Frankly, I have a special relationship to the works of "early" Solovyov. I like their spirituality, shaky
elegiac, fine music and visual sophistication. I like the author's attention to detail, to the nuances of
the psychology of the characters, smooth frame slowness, where you can "enter", plunged into the
atmosphere of nostalgia...
The Selected, of course, immediately recognize his directing style. Fast wave enters the wind
out of the window a small barber shop. It sounds sad-clear music, and a slender girl in a white robe
sad, wide-eyed looks like curtains inflate the sails as sliding on the parquet pieces of carved glass.
She slowly leans over them, and the only visitor, B.K., understand that he is in love with this
mysterious girl. And she, meek gaze touched his face, understands this too... The wind dies down,
everything seems the same, but the characters in a relationship, everything changed in a few
seconds...
124
If you watch this episode separately from the picture, it would seem that the Selected is a
lyrical film about love. But the author's concern in the Selected other problems. This is the political
drama, convicting conformism.
...1944. Germany. Aristocrat B.K. the price of a "small" concessions (he signed a paper on
cooperation with the Nazis) gets the opportunity to emigrate to Colombia. B.K. thinks that this is
the last compromise, and now he will live in full harmony with their "humanistic ideals of
democracy"... But "ideals", "principles", "belief" good for B.K. only when he himself is not in
danger…
B.K. is intelligent, charming, quite sincerely hated Nazism. The trouble is that all his
liberalism is just words…
In the fantasy world

In addition to espionage-adventure genre, a negative image of the West actively cultivated by
the Soviet cinema and sci-fi films, where scientific discoveries become the property of violent
maniacs who want to become masters of the world (Hyperboloid of Engineer Garin, Air Seller,
Professor Dowell's Testament).
In this respect, interesting to follow the transformation of the typical Soviet science fiction
movie as a Planet of Storms (1961) in the American film Voyage to the Prehistoric Planet (1965)
and Voyage to the Planet of Prehistoric Women (1968).
A special branch of this topic is (often pacifist) films about the consequences of nuclear war
(American: Five, On the Beach, Selected Survivors; Soviet: Dead Man's Letters, Visitor to a
Museum, etc.). These a nightmare of madness nuclear and space wars, the collapse of human
civilization have become quite accustomed to screens" bipolar world". This is a special kind of
fiction, it is today, when on the planet many so-called "local conflicts", scares its relevance.
Very impressive topic of the ecological disaster has been disclosed in a fantastic movie
K. Lopushansky Dead Man's Letters (1986) on nuclear apocalypse Earth's downfall of human
civilization.
... A certain (Western) country... Hazel tone underground bunkers, alarm sirens, ruined city,
lonely figure of few survivors... In these frames have no approximately fiction conventions.
The director builds the film in the strict way. It aims to show the action, as if filmed with a hidden
camera, unafraid of naturalistic details. And these items often produce effects of shock, such as, for
example, in a scene Children's Hospital. The film's protagonist - an old professor - mentally
addressing his, probably long dead son, trying to figure out how to outstanding scientists have been
able to turn brilliant scientific discoveries in the instruments of death…
Later K. Lopushansky continued his reflections on environmental issues in the philosophical
parable Visitor to a Museum (1989) about ecological catastrophe. Among other "environmental"
films in the foreign material I can recall Aquanauts (1979) and Day of Wrath (1985).
Quite a popular material for Soviet film adaptations, beginning with 1960, there were stories
and novels and science fiction storyteller Alexander Green (1880-1932), which is set in the
conditional western southern countries. Suffice it to recall such films as Scarlet Sails (1961),
Running on Waves (1967), Assol (1982), The Man from the Country's Green (1983), Shining
World (1984), The Golden Chain (1986)... The authority of A. Green allowed Soviet filmmakers,
leaning on his subjects, legally go into romantic "foreign" world, (almost) without fear of
demagogic accusations of "bowing to the West."
Not escaped the raid mannered exoticism and the film The Testament of Professor Dowel':
why it was necessary to transfer the action of the famous novel by A. Belyaev (1884-1942) Professor
Dowell's Head in 1980? I don’t know… But ironically, the very lively figure of the film was... the
head of Professor Dowell. Actor O. Kroders devoid of movement, body sculpture, and in a good part
of the picture - even voice, still managed to create a memorable character of the outstanding
scientist, whose brilliant invention, in the wrong hands, could lead to disastrous consequences for
humanity…
Sc-fi Hotel "Dead Mountaineer" (1979) was made in a different way.
...The police inspector has an almost insoluble problem. The cut off from all over the world at
rock avalanche (traditional for detectives situation "enclosed space") committed a crime. How is
the murder? Maybe the representatives of extraterrestrial civilizations? Some of the guests are
125
ordinary people, the other ... Who is who? Is it possible to judge the alien from outer space on earth
laws? Where is the line of duty and basic humanity?
Create a visual solution of the sci-fi movie is not an easy task. This film has hyperrealism
style... Using light and colors and mirror images of neon glare, the operator Y. Sillart (1943-2011)
made sure that everything is happening as if in a very real situation, but the reality of the…
fantastic world: a mountain peaks surrounding the hotel, seem distant fragments planets with
sounds unusual music, through which almost punched words in some incomprehensible language.
Figures dancing, writhing in mirror chilly purple hues, create the impression of detachment from
the earth, a fabulous flight... Visual solution is fully subordinated to drama: an imaginary fun hotel
guests felt the hidden drama... The tension in the film is gradually but steadily increases as
development actions.
But, perhaps, the only A. Tarkovsky managed to bring the genre of science fiction to the level
of profound philosophical generalizations.
...There are strange and mysterious events on the space station, in orbit distant planet
Solaris… Using the canvas of the famous science fiction novel by S. Lem (1921-2006), A. Tarkovsky
(1932-1986) in Solaris (1972), it seems to me, created one of his philosophical masterpieces. His
film not only thinking about the consequences of possible contacts with extraterrestrial
civilizations. Grand Master created attractive images of the planet Earth, which is poured warm
rain, and thoughtfully roam over the transparent river sad horse... "Man needs a man." This phrase
is the key to understanding the author's conception of the film, which raises the perennial
problems of conscience, guilt, compassion, understanding, Ecosphere and, of course, love...
Seven years later, Andrei Tarkovsky created a fantastic parable "Stalker" (1979): the
philosophical reflections about the problems of conscience, belief, human responsibility for their
actions, about the environmental and moral catastrophe... Led by a stalker - a conductor in a
dangerous and mysterious zone - the characters of the film want to get into some kind of a magical
room with a well, where the alleged fulfilled all the dreams come true... and this way it becomes
important in their lives the spiritual and moral test...
It should be noted that in the late 1980s, there was the fashion for the genre in the Soviet film
called fantastic parable with elements of a horror movie (for example, The Departed (1987), Veld
(1987), Third Planet (1991).
One might think, after the gloomy films of K. Lopushansky (Russian Symphony, Dead Man's
Letters) and other supporters of the genre usually called futuristic fantasy with element of horror,
that the fashion would have faded. Russian cinema and video viewers prefer the technically perfect
American scare movies to our boring and indistinct mix. In contrast with the old Romantic stories
about men-fish and astronauts, however, the heroes of many Russian films of 1990s continue their
agonizing, hard traveling across The Zone, and if they leave the surface of the Earth, they do so only
to hide in another planet's gloomy caves or dungeons.
Often the action of these pictures takes place under some dictatorship. On the land and in the
air the services of liquidation move, armed with lethal weapons. For photography dirty and
turbid water slowly drops from the ceiling. Hysterical characters with matted hair and eternal bags
under eyes rush about the ruined labyrinths and sandy ridges. They may keep silent for a long time,
staring into cracked mirrors or, contrariwise, burst out in endless superintellectual monologues.
Here dark old oaken doors creak vilely and swampy puddles stick underfoot (a variant: the
unsteady sand is creaking). The beautiful and mysterious women from time to time throw off their
covers, and their naked bodies shine in the semi-darkness...
where, in imitation of A. Tarkovsky's works (Solaris, Stalker), a lot of extraordinary things happen
to the heroes. There is uncertainty at every step: malicious mutants, werewolves, dog-cannibals,
maniacs, and so on.
The motives “inspiring” authors of this Russian fantastic movie-land are understandable.
They want to create something epochal on the theme of humankind's responsibility for its actions
on the planet; to condemn the principle of “the end justifies the means”; to think about the
problems of ecology and nature, psychology and intellect. As a rule, however, philosophical
concepts are hardly visible through the steam of cinema clichés, rented for the occasion.
126
The authors of such films often claim famous literary origins. But their modest “based on”
postscript only affords an opportunity to make a middling movie out of any original story or novel
once it is provided with meaningful pauses. These, deprived of a psychological basis, serve only to
lengthen the picture.
It's hard for even talented actors to play in these films, because their heroes are submitted to
the firm laws of the marionette. It's easier for less-gifted actors but that, obviously, doesn't add
artistic pluses. Perhaps only cinematographers and designers feel themselves free there, hoping to
surprise spectators with defined compositions, whimsical plays of light and color. Unfortunately,
poor budget are quite clearly evident. The technical backwardness of Russian cinema is obvious in
the productions' primitive shooting; their horrors don't frighten. Fantasy today can't be made with
ancient means: the gap in effects, tricks and technology is too great between Russian fantastic
movie-land and any of the works of Robert Zemeckis, James Cameron or John Carpenter.
One way out for Russian fiction is as old as cinema world - studying the films of Spielberg
and Lucas - but the disorder of our economics does not evoke optimism...
Visiting a fairy tale

The Russian cinematic fairy tale also has old traditions, founded by A. Row (The Frosty Fire,
Water and Cooper Trumpets, Morozko, etc.) and A. Ptushko (The Stone Flower, Sadko). Until
recently, however, fantasy films had to submit to two unwritten rules: all except a few were made
for a children's audience, and the action had to take place in ancient times, in a faraway kingdom.
The first rule dictated an understandable style for the fairy tale, with vivid, clear pictures and
vocabulary, and villains looking not very fearful but on the contrary, usually, funny and harmless.
The second rule was very seldom infringed, because magicians, witches, demons and other fairy
characters - according to "highly placed" thought - could be perceived as an embodiment of the
authors' mysticism intruding on a modern background. In these cases, when magic and witchery
were admitted into our days (as in The Snowy Fairy Tale by E. Shengelaya and A.Saharov),
unintended associations and parallels appeared.
by Stanley Kubrick for the Russian screen couldn't be even imagined until 80-s. In 1990s the
However, if we analyze the filmography of Soviet films 1946-1991 years, you may find that
most of fairy tales’ action unfolded in a certain Western world. Basically it was the film adaptation
of the famous fairy tale of foreign authors (Cinderella, 1947; Star Boy, 1957; Cipollino, 1961; The
Snow Queen, 1966; The Old, Old Story, 1968, King-Deer, 1969; The Shadow, 1971; The Prince and
the Pauper, 1972; Cipollino, 1972; The Princess and the Pea, 1976; The Little Mermaid, 1976,
Magic Voice of Gelsomino, 1977, Little Red Riding Hood, 1977; Wandering lights, 1979; The
Nightingale, 1979; Sold laughter, 1981; The Tale Told by Night, 1981; Donkey Skin, 1982; Mary
Poppins, goodbye, 1983; The Tale of the Star Boy, 1983; Autumn Gift Fairies, 1984; Peppi
Longstocking, 1984; The Old Wizard's Tales, 1984; The Mystery of the Snow Queen, 1986; Wild
Swans, 1987; Peter Pan, 1987; Mad Lori, 1991; The Shadow, or Maybe Everything Would Good,
1991, etc.).
In addition to adaptations of foreign fairy tales Soviet screen had and fairy tales of Soviet
authors, exposing the monarchist, "bourgeois-imperialist" and other persons, undesirable for
USSR (Cain the XVIII, 1963; The Kingdom of Crooked Mirrors, 1963; The City of Masters, 1965;
Three Fat Men, 1966; In the Kingdom of Far Far Away..., 1970; The Adventures in the City, Which
is Not, 1974; As Long as the Clock Strikes, 1976, etc.).
Sometimes this was done with talent (City of Masters, Three Fat Men and others.),
sometimes was not. The philosophical tale (Ordinary Miracle, 1965; 1978; Kill the Dragon, 1988
and others) rarely appeared where. In fact, there was no propaganda, but it was ironic reflections
on the essence of eternal problems of life... I remember The Tale of Wanderings (1982) by A. Mitta,
in the style of Western European folklore. History of poor orphans and Martha and May was in the
spirit of fairy tales of the Brothers Grimm.
It is clear that this type of entertainment media texts have sustained structural codes, in other
words, have a strong fairy, mythological foundation. Here, the best guides in their analysis may
127
serve as works of V. Propp, which clearly highlights the main plot of the situation and the typology
of the characters fairy tale genre (Propp, 1998: 60-61).
In our previous publications cited examples of the analysis of specific audiovisual media texts
(Fedorov, 2008: 60-80; Fedorov, 2009: 4-13), based on the methodology of V. Propp. On a similar
principle is based analysis of media texts and other mass genres, such as detective and thriller
(Bykov, 2010; Demin, 1977: 238; Shklovsky, 1929: 142; Eco, 1960: 52; Todorov, 1977: 49).
However, for more complex and ambivalent on the genre spectrum analysis of media texts
such technology is not enough. "If Propp's methodology is focused on the fact that from various
texts, presenting them as a bunch of variants of the same text, calculate the underlying single text
code, the method of Bakhtin (...) the opposite: in a single text singled out not only different, but
that is especially important, mutually untranslatable subtexts. The text reveals his inner conflict.
In the description of the text tends to Propp’s equilibrium: precisely because it considers narrative
texts, most notably that the movement, in fact, no - there is only a fluctuation around a
homeostatic regulations (balance - imbalance - rebalancing). In the analysis of Bakhtin's
inevitable movement, change, the destruction is hidden, even in the static text. Therefore, it is the
plot, even in those cases when it would seem, is far from the plot problems. The natural area for
the text, according to Propp, the tale turns out, according to Bakhtin, - the novel and drama. (...)
In any detail how any civilization known to us, we are confronted with texts of very high
complexity. Under these conditions, a special role is played by setting pragmatic audience that
can activate in the same text "Propp’s" or "Bakhtin’s" aspect" (Lotman, 1992: 152, 155).
However, it is a controversial point of Y. Lotman that the dialogue "author" and "recipient"
different "not only common code two juxtaposed sentences, but also the presence of a particular
shared memory at the sender and the recipient. The absence of this condition makes the text non-
decoded. In this regard, we can say that any text is characterized not only code and message, but
also focus on a specific type of memory (memory structure and the nature of its filling)" (Lotman,
1992: 161).
In my opinion, audience can decode of media text audience in any case, regardless of the
"shared memory". Another thing, what will be the level of the decoding. Moreover, the presence of
shared memory at the sender and the addressee does not guarantee that the author is satisfied with
the level or direction of their interpretation of the text recipient. Whatever the depth decoding of
media text, it is possible a variety of contradictory interpretations of his audience.
Moreover, the message is some empty form, and can be attributed to a variety of values (Eco, 1998:
73). The message becomes an aesthetic function when it is built in such a way that is ambiguous
and directed on itself, i.e. it aims to draw the attention of the recipient to the way it is built.
Function can coexist in the same message, and usually in everyday language they interweave,
though some one is dominant. Message from the aesthetic function is controversial, especially in
relation to the expectations of the system, which is code for (Eco, 1998: 79).
Conclusion
Soviet cinema stereotypes of the era of "ideological confrontation" (1946-1991)
The era of the "cold war" movies quite amenable to the generalized analysis and can be
organized according to the dominant stereotypes (on issues, ethics, ideological message, plot
patterns, types of characters, images and techniques, etc.). In addition, a comparative analysis of
the films’ plot schemes, character and ideology of the Western and Soviet era of "ideological
confrontation" (1946-1991) leads to the conclusion that the essential similarity of their media
stereotypes (Fedorov, 2010).
A content analysis of media texts of the era of "cold war" allows to represent their basic
narrative scheme as follows:
- Spies penetrated into the territory of the USSR / US / Western country, to commit acts of
sabotage and / or ferret out military secrets (Secret Mission, Blue Arrow, Case № 306, The
Mystery of Two Oceans, Over the Tisza, The shadow of the pier, The Case of Corporal Kochetkov,
Shot in the Fog, Labeled Atoms, We Blame, Prize, From Russia with Love, Topaz, Prize, Fire fox,
The Fourth Protocol, No Way Out, etc.);
- The enemy is preparing a secret attack on the USSR / US / Western world, creating this
secret bases with nuclear weapons (The Mystery of Two Oceans, World War III, Secret Weapon,
128
and others). Option: landing of the occupying forces (Black Gull, Red Dawn, Amerika, etc.).
Nuclear strikes, destroying the United States, and even the entire planet (Five, On the Beach, etc.);
- An inhuman pseudo-democratic or totalitarian regime oppresses his own people (USSR /
US / other countries), often spending over it risky medical experiments or throwing into
concentration camps (Conspiracy of the Doomed, Silver Dust, The Man Who Interviewed, The
First Circle, One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich, Gulag, Goodbye, Moscow, etc.).;
- Dissidents leave / are trying to leave the country, which, in their opinion, stifle democracy
and the freedom of the individual (Flight 222, Iron Curtain, The Red Danube, Escape to the Sun,
Moscow on the Hudson, White Nights, etc.);
- Ordinary Soviet / westerners explain misled by propaganda of the Soviet / western military
/ civilian visitors that the USSR / US / Western country - a stronghold of friendship, prosperity and
peace (Russian Souvenir, Leon Garros Is Looking for His Friend, Ninotchka, Silk Stockings,
Russian, etc.);
- In the way of love / couple appear obstacles associated with the ideological confrontation
between the USSR and the Western world (Roman and Francesca, Falling Ideas, Flight 222,
American Spy, Silk Stockings, One, two, three, Cowboy and the Ballerina, etc.).
In general, this kind of Soviet stories "based on a series of simple "dichotomies": 1. peaceful
society builders of communism and hostile to the bourgeois world; 2. positive, moral, faithful
communist ideas characters and villains, spies / saboteurs; 3. The sacrifice / heroism and
cowardice / betrayal; 4. love for the country / faithfulness and work for money, etc. Thus, the
visual design based on oppositions: a basic artistic technique used antithesis; using it achieved a
positive total composition of positive images, while the image of the enemy elements are acquired
even more negative connotation"(Kolesnikova, 2010).
We are focusing on identifying stereotypes under the topic of ideological confrontation in the
Soviet feature films of various genres.
The structure of the Soviet drama’s "confrontational" stereotypes

Historical period, the place of action: any period from 1917 to 1991, the Soviet Union, the
United States and other countries.
Furnishings, household items: a Soviet modest dwelling and characters everyday objects,
luxury homes and objects of everyday life western characters.
Methods of reality representation: quasi-realistic or quasi-grotesque depiction of life in the
"hostile states".
An example of the Soviet version of events: New York is the city of the "yellow devil", the
sparkling lights of the advertisements. City of cruel and heartless rich white people, despising
Negroes. A city where there is no place humanity and sincere feelings. Moscow is modern and cozy,
bright and vibrant city with friendly people, ready to come to the aid of the first comer.
The characters and their values, ideas, clothes, physique, vocabulary, facial expressions,
gestures. Positive characters have a democratic ideas; negative characters have inhuman,
militaristic ideas. Characters shared not only social, but also material status. Western characters
are often rude and violent men with scowling faces, active gestures and nasty vocal timbres.
A significant change in the lives of the characters: the negative characters are going to put
their anti-human ideas.
A problem: the life of positive characters, as, indeed, and the lives of entire peoples / nations
in jeopardy.
The search for solutions: the struggle of positive to negative characters.
Solution: destruction / arrest of negative characters, the return to civilian life.
Conspiracy of the Doomed. USSR, 1950. Directed by M. Kalatozov.

Historical period, the place of action: A certain Eastern European country, like
Czechoslovakia. The second half of the 1940s.
Furnishings, household items: a modest life of ordinary people, luxurious interiors of
apartments of the bourgeoisie and the top of the Catholic clergy.
Methods of reality representation: quasi-realistic preserving the visibility of documentary
objectivity.
129
gestures: the supporters of socialism and the Soviet Union; their enemies - the bourgeoisie and
religious figures, show false and cynical, with florid vocabulary and unpleasant voice and
appearance. Proponents of the "socialist road", on the contrary, depicts a purely positive - a
purposeful, strong, honest fighters for peace and democracy, with business vocabulary, restrained
gestures and facial expressions.
A significant change in the lives of the characters: the supporters of communist ideas,
focused on the Soviet Union (the authors do not even reflect on the extent to mock / revelatory
sounds of their slogan: "We swear to Stalin and the Soviet people to protect the freedom and
independence of our country!"), seeking to take away power from the local bourgeoisie and the
Catholic church, which, with the support of Western countries and "betrayed the cause of
socialism" of Yugoslavia, seeking to consolidate the country's capitalist regime.
A problem: the life and freedom of positive characters - the supporters of socialism - under
threat.
The search for solutions: spokesmen for the interests of working people and socialism come
into struggle against the bourgeoisie and its allies.
Solution: the Communists easily defeat the "doomed" parliament...
The Life and Death of Ferdinand Luce. USSR, 1976. Directed by A. Bobrowski.
Historical period, the place of action: Germany, the end of the 1960s.
Furnishings, household items: modern offices of the German weapons concern, luxurious
furnishings a life of its leader.
Methods of reality representation: realistic, preserving the visibility of documentary
objectivity.
gestures. Soviet professor and the heads of the German company. They shared a contrasting
ideological status. Soviet professor charming, intelligent, honest, modestly dressed in his proper
literary language, facial expressions and gestures correspond to the canons of the intellectual.
Leaders of the German company are false, cynical possessed nuclear weapons and the suppression
of democratic ideas... Their vocabulary is primitive, vulgar gestures and facial expressions.
A significant change in the characters' lives: learning about the insidious plans of his father
to acquire nuclear weapons, the son of the head of the concern sends secret documents to the
journalist…
A problem: the life of goodies, but the lives of millions of people (in the case of the nuclear
group plans) under threat.
The search for solution to the problem: the Soviet professor, finding allies, expose the plans
about nuclear weapons.
Solution: Nuclear plans collapsed.
Contract of the Century. USSR, 1985. Directed by A. Muratov.

Historical period, the place of action: 1970s – 1980s. West Germany.
Furnishings, household items: office of the Soviet trade mission, restaurants, city streets.
objectivity.
gestures. Soviet trade officials and their West German counterparts. They shared a contrasting
ideological status. The head of the Soviet delegation, charming, intelligent, honest, dressed in a
neat suit, his right speech, facial expressions and gestures correspond to the canons of Soviet
diplomacy. His German colleagues also dressed in neat suits, it is businesslike professionals.
A significant change in the lives of the characters: the Soviet delegation arrives in Germany
for talks with the responsible German banks to grant credit for the Soviet gas pipeline "Siberia -
Western Europe".
A problem: the CIA seeks to prevent this transaction, and the Germans want to give credit to
the Soviet partners under very high percentage.
The search for solution to the problem: the head of the Soviet delegation trying to negotiate
with the Germans more favorable credit terms, but it does not give a reason to abandon the deal.
130
Solution: the victory of the Soviet commercial diplomacy: "deal of the century" concluded in
the most favorable conditions for the USSR.
The structure of the Soviet stereotypes of thriller or detective "confrontational" movie
Historical period, the place of action: any period of time from 1917 to 1991, the Soviet Union,
the United States and other countries.
Furnishings, household items: a Soviet modest dwelling of characters’ everyday objects,
luxury homes and Western characters’ everyday objects (however, in the territory of a hostile
country, spies adapted to the housing and living conditions of the enemy).
Methods of reality representation: conditionally grotesque and realistic portrayal of life in
the "hostile states".
gestures: positive (border guards, counter-intelligence officers, intelligence agents / spies,
saboteurs) and negative (the same persons). Divided by ideology and worldview (bourgeois and
communist) characters usually have a strong constitution: Western Spies can for some time (up to
expose, for example) to look pretty, but then be sure to find its ugly essence... Western characters
(spies, the CIA and others.) are shown gross and brutal, with a primitive vocabulary, inconspicuous
persons, active body language and tone of voice annoying rumor... Soviet characters (border
guards, KGB, etc..) depicts honest, intelligent, charming people in dialogue, ruthless enemies. Their
vocabulary, perhaps, does not shine delights, but the available have smiling faces, confident
gestures and pleasant tone of voice...
A significant change in the lives of the characters: negative characters commit a crime
(illegal crossing of the border, sabotage, espionage, blackmail, theft of state secrets, murder).
A problem: violation of the law.
The search for solution to the problem: crime investigation, prosecution negative characters.
Solution: the positive characters / catch / kill negative.
The Case of Corporal Kochetkov. USSR, 1955. Directed by A. Razumny.

Historical period, the place of action: the Soviet Union of the 1950s. Military unit. The
provincial Soviet city.
Furnishings, household items: a modest overhead environment military camp, soldiers'
barracks, the house where the main character lives.
Methods of reality representation: quasi-realistic in relation to the positive Soviet
characters; grotesque light in relation to the spies (though at first they show rather positive),
furnishings, interiors look quite realistic.
gestures. Negative characters are Western spies; positive characters –are Corporal Kochetkov and
his co-workers, bosses. All the characters are dressed modestly - in accordance with their status
(Kochetkov dressed military uniforms, have spies – in discreet civilian clothes). Kochetkov initially
looks a bit naive and gullible, but in the end he is morally resistant Soviet soldiers. His vocabulary
is simple, his smiling face and a pleasant tone of voice. Corporal Kochetkov has communist ideas,
there is no doubt.
A significant change in the lives of the characters: Western Spies eager to find out from
Corporal Kochetkov military secrets.
A problem: pretending to be a simple Soviet saleswoman, beautiful spy girl luring Kochetkov
to her home...
The search for solutions: Kochetkov shares his suspicions with the Soviet officer.
Solution: Western spies exposed and arrested.
Resident’s Error. USSR, 1968. Directed by V. Dorman.

Historical period, the place of action: the USSR the second half of the 1960s.
Furnishings, household items: streets and apartments of the Soviet city.
Methods of reality representation: neutral correct on the part of the image of Western spy
(singularity of this technique is explained in the next series about "resident" in that he moves to the
side of the Soviet intelligence; here felt the new trends of epochs: Western spies had not had before
131
any positive traits); positive with respect to the employees of the Soviet counterintelligence;
gestures. Really negative characters are only Western security officials. Positive characters: a Soviet
agent "Snipe" and employees of the Soviet secret police. All the characters - a slender, smart,
dressed about the same - in a good clothes.
A significant change in the lives of the characters: Western intelligence agencies entrusted
his experienced resident in the USSR perform an important task.
A problem: the USSR State secrets have new target.
The search for solution to the problem: the Soviet counterintelligence service sends one of
his best agents to neutralize Western resident.
Solution: the Soviet secret service arrested a western resident.
Death on the Rise. USSR, 1982. Directed by H. Bakaev.

Historical period, the place of action: the USSR, Moscow beginning of the 1980s.
Furnishings, household items: laboratory, the streets of Moscow, the interiors of apartments
and a country house.
Methods of reality representation: household furnishings, and all the characters are depicted
quite realistically, without grotesque.
gestures. Negative character is Western spy woman (slender, pretty, well-dressed, purposeful,
smart, secure, cleverly masquerading as a Soviet intellectual); positive character is ambitious young
physicist.
A significant change in the lives of the characters: spy woman meets with Soviet physicist
and soon luring him to the cottage of "friends": the resident place of Western spies.
A problem: Western spies try to recruit Soviet physicist.
The search for solutions: Soviet physicist abandons "tempting offers" and tries to leave.
Solution: physicist killed in a car accident, the representatives of the Soviet secret police
exposes and arrests of spies.
The structure of the Soviet stereotypes of "confrontational" action genre
Furnishings, household items: a Soviet modest dwelling and characters’ everyday objects,
luxury homes and Western characters everyday objects; the unified billing military facilities: bases,
cabins of planes and tanks, decks warships, submarines compartments.
Methods of reality representation: as a rule, quasi-realistic portrayal of life in the "hostile
states".
gestures. Positive characters (any military, civilians) have a democratic ideas; aggressors (military,
saboteurs, terrorists) have inhumane ideas. Divided by ideology and worldview (bourgeois and
communist), characters usually have a strong constitution: in Soviet films western characters
(soldiers, officers) shows the crude and brutal, with a primitive vocabulary and unpleasant tone of
voice.
(armed aggression, sabotage, murder).
A problem: violation of the law - a life of positive characters, and often, and the lives of all
peaceful democratic characters of the country in jeopardy.
The search for solution to the problem: the armed struggle of positive characters from enemy
aggression.
Solution: destruction / capture of the aggressors, the return to civilian life.
Alarm Departure. USSR, 1983. Directed by V. Chebotarev.

Historical period, the place of action: the territorial waters of the USSR, the beginning of the
1980s.
132
Furnishings, household items: an enemy ship, the cabin of the Soviet helicopter.
Methods of reality representation: texture, interiors, uniforms, etc. look quite realistic.
gestures. Positive characters are the brave and skilled border guards; negative characters are their
Western counterparts. The vocabulary of all the characters uncomplicated. Facial expressions and
gestures are often exaggeration.
A significant change in the lives of the characters: the enemy spy boat violates the Soviet
border.
A problem: violation of the law on the state border of the USSR.
The search for solution to the problem: the Soviet border guards trying to neutralize the
enemy crew boats.
Solution: spy boat neutralized.
Single Voyage. USSR, 1985. Directed by M. Tumanishvili.

Historical period, the place of action: the Pacific Ocean. The mid-1980s.
Furnishings, household items: Soviet and American ships. Military life of seafarers.
Methods of reality representation: texture, interiors, costumes, etc. are shown in a realistic
manner.
gestures. Positive characters are simple cute Soviet sailors; negative characters are American
sailors. Those and others dressed in military uniform, they have a strong physical training, enjoy a
simple and clear vocabulary of short phrases. Soviet sailors, of course, look nicer.
A significant change in the lives of the characters: during the military maneuvers, CIA picks
a dangerous provocation.
A problem: the threat of a catastrophe.
The search for solution to the problem: the Soviets attempt to prevent a catastrophe.
Solution: disaster threat is successfully eliminated.
Charged Death. USSR, 1991 (with the participation of US filmmakers). Directed by

V. Plotnikov.
Historical period, the place of action: the Far East, maritime coastal area. Beginning of the
1990s.
Furnishings, household items: ships, military supplies (form, weapons, etc.).
Methods of reality representation: texture, interiors, costumes, etc. look quasi-realistic,
without expensive special effects.
gestures. Escaped from prison dangerous criminals, smugglers, border guards, American pilots...
Thanks to perestroika times, positive courageous characters here not only the Soviet border guards,
but also American boys from the Coast guard, fighting with the bandits. Vocabulary is simple and
the characters associated with military characteristics. Facial expressions and gestures of the
characters often exaggeration. Clothing and most of the characters are a military uniform. Their
physical development is clearly above average.
A significant change in the lives of the characters: dangerous criminals run from the strict
regime camp.
A problem: the normal life of the positive character is threatened.
The search for solution to the problem: the Soviet border guards together with the Americans
to defeat the bandits.
Solution: a victory over the bandits.
The structure of the Soviet stereotypes of "confrontational" melodramatic

genre
Historical period, the place of action: any time from 1917 to 1991, the Soviet Union, the
rich homes and objects of everyday life of western characters.
133
Methods of reality representation: it is quite realistic (within the genre), although sometimes
with elements of the grotesque.
gestures. Male and female characters with contrasting ideological and social status. Characters
tend to have a slender physique and look quite nice. Their clothes, facial expressions and
vocabulary are "average" framework.
A significant change in the lives of the characters: a meeting of male and female characters.
A problem: the ideological and social misalliance.
The search for solution to the problem: the characters overcome the ideological and social
obstacles in the way of their love.
Solution: wedding / love harmony (in most cases), death, separation characters (as an
exception to the rule).
Roman and Francesca. USSR, 1960. Directed by V. Denisenko.

Historical period, the place of action: Italy, 1940s – 1950s.
Furnishings, household items: streets and interiors of the Italian seaside town, a Soviet ship.
Methods of reality representation: accentuated the positive characters of lovers; grotesque in
relation to the negative characters. Italian city depicted in the conventional manner.
gestures. Soviet sailor and simple Italian girl. Roman and Francesca shared contrasting ideological
status of their countries. Both differ slender physique and good looks. Vocabulary of characters is
easy. Facial expressions and gestures are emotional.
A significant change in the lives of the characters: on the eve of June 22, 1941 the Soviet ship
moored in the Italian port. Sailor Roman meets Italian Francesca. They fall in love...
A problem: the next day the war broke out between Germany and the USSR, the Nazis
drowned Soviet ship...
The search for solutions: Soviet sailors managed to escape, swim to the shore, and even join
the resistance movement. But Roman is still dreaming of a meeting with Francesca... And she
dreams for the Roman...
Solution: Returning after the war in the USSR, Roman again became a sailor and visits an
Italian port. Roman looks for Francesca. But he can see her on the shore only when the ship sailed
into the sea…
Honeymoon in America. USSR, 1981. Directed by A. Grikyavichus.

Historical period, the place of action: the United States, the USSR, 1980s.
Furnishings, household objects: the interiors of apartments, the city streets.
Methods of reality representation: the positive characters and realistic image of life in the
United States.
gestures: a man and woman. They dressed in a good clothes, cute.
A significant change in the lives of the characters. Mans and Woman married.
A problem: soon after the wedding, man and woman are separated by as much as 13 years,
during which time man became a US citizen.
The search for solutions: Woman finds man in the United States.
Solution: Woman hopes that the "honeymoon" will return to her old love, but, alas, it's too
late ...
American spy. USSR, 1991. Directed by L. Popov.

Historical period, the place of action: the United States, 1945.
Furnishings, household items: a Soviet ship, an American port city.
Methods of reality representation: it is quite realistic (within the genre), the main characters
are shown with sympathy.
gestures. Charming and cute Soviet naval officer Nicholas and the American woman, Mary; they
are separated by a contrasting ideological, social status. Both differ slender physique. He is dressed
in a military uniform. Vocabulary of characters is easy.
134
A significant change in the lives of the characters: Soviet officer rescues drowning American,
flashes mutual love.
A problem: the way of the lovers there is a series of obstacles that the seaman on unjust
charges goes to prison...
The search for solution to the problem: the Soviet sailor and American girl trying to
overcome the obstacles in the way of their love.
Solution: In the struggle for the happiness sailor escapes from prison...
The structure of the Soviet stereotypes of "confrontational" comedy

Methods of reality representation: as a rule, quasi-grotesque in relation to the lives of people
from the "enemy states", and exaggerated positive about life in the USSR.
gestures: Soviet and Western characters with contrasting ideological and social status. They appear
according to the settings sources of media texts: Western characters are often displayed a
caricature, they have a "bourgeois" vocabulary, fake smiles and unpleasant tone of voice; Soviet
characters charming, cheerful, patriotic, charged with socialist slogans.
A significant change in the lives of the characters: the characters encountered in the funny /
eccentric circumstances in this case, either the Western or the Soviet characters are on foreign soil.
A problem: the "culture shock", mutual misunderstanding.
The search for solutions: in a series of funny / eccentric situations the characters overcome
the ideological obstacles in the way of understanding.
Solution: Western characters are convinced of the sincerity of Soviet citizens and admire the
achievements of the Soviet Union.
Russian Souvenir. USSR, 1960. The director and screenwriter G. Alexandrov.

Historical period, the place of action: Moscow and Siberia, 1960s.
Furnishings, household items: airliner salon, the best buildings in Moscow, scale
construction and Siberian forests. Simple, but Solid life of the Soviet people.
Methods of reality representation: conditional, hyperbole. Soviet characters are shown with
sympathy, western characters are depicted in a spirit of frank cartoons. Foreign and Soviet
character separates contrasting ideological, social and material status.
gestures. Foreigners dressed "for overseas," the Soviet characters dressed in good-quality clothes,
no frills. Foreigners flaunt 'bourgeois' vocabulary, fake smiles, they often unpleasant tone of voice;
Soviet characters charming, cheerful, patriotic, charged with socialist slogans.
A significant change in the lives of the characters: the plane with foreigners on board makes
emergency landing in Siberia.
A problem. The collision with the realities of Soviet life foreigners experiencing "culture
shock"...
The search for solution to the problem: adjusting to the Soviet way of life, the aliens are
trying to overcome the difficulties.
Solution: in spite of its initial bias, foreigners are convinced that the Soviet people want peace
and, indeed, achieve great success in the construction of hydroelectric power stations and space
missions.
Foreigners (short story from the movie Top seriously). USSR, 1961. Directed by
E. Zmoyro.
Historical period, the place of action: Moscow beginning of the 1960s.
Furnishings, household objects: the streets of Moscow, the hotel interiors, interiors of the
Soviet apartments.
135
Methods of reality representation: conventional (within the genre), the main character is a
journalist posing as a foreigner, is shown with sympathy; young Muscovites (and the mother of one
of them), submitted a caricature.
gestures. Soviet journalist is positive pseudo-American character. He dressed in good-quality
clothes. Clothing of young Soviet characters is vulgar, they unanimously admired by all foreign, i.e.,
in full accordance with the title of the film, they have the stereotypical negative function.
A significant change in the lives of the characters: a Soviet journalist saw in the hotel lobby,
young western-orientated friends, and he decides to be “American” for them, and after that - to
write a satirical report about fans of the Western lifestyle.
A problem: fans of the Western lifestyle, naively believing in the sincerity of his new
"American" friend, invited him to his home, where they tried to establish with him a primitive
business (exchange of gifts' a la russe in the overseas thing). But the main task of a journalist is to
prepare a report.
The search for solution to the problem: the journalist cleverly fooled "fans", every moment
gaining more and more material for his future article.
Solution: performing his task, the journalist opens for "hipsters" a true face...
Travel of Mrs. Shelton. USSR, 1975. Directed by R. Wasilewski.

Historical period, the place of action: London, the Soviet cruise ship.
Furnishings, household items: decks and interiors of the Soviet ship.
Methods of reality representation: conventional (within the genre), Soviet situation and
characters are shown with sympathy. Western characters (Mrs. Shelton and emotional young
Englishman) showing slightly caricatured, but it is not evil, but rather good-natured caricature.
gestures: a nice young man and a dressmaker Shelton, impersonating Rich Girl; the captain and
the doctor of the Soviet ship. Soviet sailors and British passengers contrasting ideological divides,
social status. Soviet patriotic personages, charming, polite, helpful, ready to help foreigners,
dressed well, they are easy on their vocabulary and gestures depend on the situation. Mrs. Shelton
dressed in rich costumes, often actively gesticulating emotionally unbalanced.
A significant change in the lives of the characters: Mrs. Shelton decides to make a sea cruise
on a Soviet ship...
A problem: the western rival firm is preparing a provocation in order to achieve the
cancellation of the contract with the Soviet cruise ship.
The search for solutions: in a series of funny / eccentric situations…
Solution: After going through a chain of comic adventures, Mrs. Shelton finds his new love.
Provocation of western rival firm fails...
The structure of the Soviet stereotypes of sci-fi "confrontational" films

Historical period, the place of action: distant / near future. The USSR, the United States,
other countries, space.
Furnishings, household items: a soviet modest dwelling and characters’ everyday objects,
interiors of spaceships, luxury homes and objects of everyday life western characters;
Methods of reality representation: quasi-realistic or futuristic image of events in "their
countries, spaceships" conditionally grotesque depiction of life in "hostile countries and
spaceships."
gestures. Positive characters (astronauts, soldiers, civilians) are Soviet people with a democratic
ideas; aggressors (the cosmonauts / astronauts, soldiers, saboteurs, terrorists) are inhumane,
bourgeois ideas. Clothing: Form cosmonauts / astronauts, military uniform, plain civilian clothes.
Build: sports, strong. Vocabulary is business, facial expressions and gestures are subject to the
current function.
(option: "the role of "negative character" takes a storms, disasters, etc.).
A problem: the violation of the usual state of affairs. The life of positive characters, as often, and
the lives of all civilians characters are in danger.
136
The search for solutions: the struggle of positive characters from enemy aggression or
natural disaster.
The solution: the destruction / capture of the aggressors, the victory over the elements, the
return to normal life (option - open anxious finale).
Planet of Storms. USSR, 1961. Directed by A. Klushantsev.

Historical period, the place of action: the relatively near future.
Furnishings, household items: Soviet spacecraft, the planet Venus.
Methods of reality representation: quasi-realistic image of events.
gestures. Spaceship crew: Soviet cosmonauts and an American astronaut, plus an American robot.
They are dressed in specific costumes, their spacesuits. Their vocabulary is stingy, businesslike.
American astronaut has pragmatic gloomy. Soviet cosmonauts are friendly, always willing to help a
colleague.
A significant change in the lives of the characters: the astronauts landed on Venus.
A problem: due to the eruption of the volcano, lives of astronauts are in danger.
The search for solution to the problem: the astronauts are trying to survive, to get to the ship.
Solution: despite all the difficulties, the characters find the strength to get to the space ship
and fly to Earth...
Day of Wrath. USSR, 1985. Directed by S. Mamilov.

Historical period, the place of action: the enigmatic zone.
Furnishings, household items: a grim, depressing environment, meager household items.
gestures: a positive character is television director, a strong, brave man; and negative characters
are nonhumans and evil maniac professors, they heartless, cruel, and their incredible ability to
direct towards the bad goal - to turn all humans into werewolves - obedient robots...
A significant change in the lives of the characters: television director goes on a dangerous
journey into the forbidden zone, where mysterious events occur.
A problem: the life of a positive character is threatened: at every step in danger…
The search for solutions: the positive character tries to solve the mystery of the restricted area.
Solution: Maniac exposed...
Dead Man's Letters. USSR, 1986. Directed by K. Lopushansky.

Historical period, the place of action: the near future. One of the Western countries.
Furnishings, household items: a nuclear catastrophe ruined city, underground bunkers.
Methods of reality representation: realistic. The authors show the action, as if filmed with a
hidden camera, unafraid of naturalistic details. And these details sometimes produce shock effects.
gestures: a positive character is the old professor; negative characters are heartless, cruel, cynical
people, having an unpleasant appearance. A certain official who refuses to accept salvation in the
bunker of children, condemning them to inevitable death... The vocabulary of the characters is simple.
A significant change in the lives of the characters: there was a nuclear disaster in the world...
A problem: the life of people, for that matter, and the existence of all life on Earth is
threatened.
The search for solution to the problem: the old professor trying to figure out how to
outstanding scientists have been able to turn brilliant scientific discoveries in the instruments of
death. Through misted glass of old-fashioned glasses professor sadly looks at a few former
colleagues, who then uttered loud revelatory speech, the doomed attempt to adapt to the new
"conditions of existence."
Solution: The motif of hopelessness is gaining momentum in the scenes when the flooded
basements leisurely swim swollen manuscript ancient books... The camera peering into the faces of
children and professors, and they stood as if unspoken question to the audience: "Did you make
that happen?"...
137
References
Action plan - Action plan to strengthen the anti-American propaganda in the near future.
Moscow, 1949. RTsKhIDNI. F. 17. Op. 132. D. 224. L. 48-52.
Asratyan, 1949 - Asratyan, E. Glory Russian science // Literary newspaper. 1949.
12 February.
Bakis, 2011 - Bakis, C. "Russian souvenir". 2011. http://bakino.at.ua/publ/ grigorij_
aleksandrov /quot_russkij_suvenir_quot/43-1-0-64
Bykov, 2010 - Bykov, D.L. Christie’s country // Izvestia. Sep 14, 2010. http://www.izvestia.ru
/bykov/article3146076/
Demin, 1977 - Demin, V.P. First person: the artist and screen arts. Moscow: Art, 1977. 287 p.
Demin, 1966 - Demin, V.P. The film without intrigue. Moscow: Art, 1966. 220 p.
Eco, 1998 - Eco, U. From Gutenberg to Internet: text and hypertext. 1998. 20.05.1998.
http://www.philosophy.ru/library/eco/internet.html
Eco, 1984 - Eco, U. Future sample 1984. 16.11.2007.
Eco, 1998а - Eco, U. Lack of Structure. Introduction to semiology. St. Petersburg: Petropolis,
1998. 432 p.
Eco, 2005 - Eco, U. The role of the reader. Research on the semiotics of the text. St.
Petersburg: Symposium, 2005. 502 p.
Fateev, 1999 - Fateev, A.V. The image of the enemy in Soviet propaganda, 1945-1954.
Moscow: Publishing House of the Russian Academy of Sciences, 1999. http://psyfactor.
org/lib/fateev0.htm
Fedorov, 2012 - Fedorov, A.V. Analysis of audiovisual media texts. Moscow, 2012. 182 p.
Fedorov, 2008 - Fedorov, A.V. Analysis of the cultural mythology of media texts in the
classroom at the student audience // Innovations in Education. 2008. № 4. 60-80.
Fedorov, 2010 - Fedorov, A.V. Transform the image of Russia in the western screen: from the era
of ideological confrontation (1946-1991) to the modern phase (1992-2010). Moscow, 2010. 202 p.
Ivanyan, 2007 - Ivanyan, E.A. When people talk muses. The history of Russian-American
cultural relations. Moscow: International Relations, 2007. 432 p.
Klimontovich, 1990 - Klimontovich, N.Y. They're like spies // Art of Cinema. 1990. № 11, 113-
122.
Kolesnikova, 2010 - Kolesnikova, A.G. Formation and evolution of the image of the "cold
war" the enemy in Soviet cinema (mid-1950s - mid-1980s.). Ph.D. Dis. Moscow, 2010.
Kolesnikova, 2008 - Kolesnikova, A.G. Knights era of the "cold war" (the image of the enemy
in Soviet adventure films 1960s-1970s. // Clio. 2008. № 3, 144-149.
Kolesnikova, 2007 - Kolesnikova, A.G. The image of the enemy during the Cold War the
Soviet feature film 1960s - 1970s // Russian history. 2007. № 5, 162-168.
Konchalovsky, 1969 - Konchalovsky, D.P. Russian Way. Paris: YMCA-PRESS, 1969. 261 p.
Lotman, 1992 - Lotman, Y.M. Articles on semiotics and cultural topology. Tallinn: Alexandra,
1992. 247 p.
Lotman, 1973 - Lotman, Y.M. The semiotics of cinema and film aesthetic problems. Tallinn:
Eesti Raamat, 1973. http://biblioteka.teatr-obraz.ru/node/4480
Morozov, 2001 - Morozov, I. Formation in the national consciousness "image of the enemy"
as a means of political mobilization in Russia // "Our" and "alien" in the Russian historical
consciousness. St. Petersburg, 2001, 54.
Mystery of Two, 1957 - Mystery of Two Oceans // Teacher's Newspaper. 1957. № 42. April 6.
Propp, 1976 - Propp, V.Y. Folklore and Reality. Moscow: Art, 1976, 51-63.
Propp, 1998 - Propp, V.Y. The morphology of the fairy tale. The historical roots of the fairy
tale. Moscow: Labirint, 1998. 512 p.
Shaternikova, 1999 - Shaternikova, M.S. Where did McCarthyism // Herald. 1999. № 9.
http://www.vestnik.com/issues/1999/0427/win/shater.htm
Shaw and Youngblood, 2010 - Shaw, T. and Youngblood, D.J. (2010). Cinematic Cold War: The
American and Soviet Struggle for Heart and Minds. Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 301 p.
Praeger, 449 p.
Shklovsky, 1929 - Shklovsky, V.B. (1929). On Theory of Prose. Moscow: Federation.
138
Stishova & Sirivlya, 2003 - Stishova, E. & Sirivlya, N. Nightingales on 17th Street [discussion
materials about anti-Americanism in the Soviet cinema, Pittsburg University, May 2003] // Art of
Cinema. 2003. № 10, 5-21.
Strada, 1989 - Strada, M. (1989). A Half Century of American Cinematic Imagery:
Hollywood’s Portrayal of Russian Characters, 1933-1988. Coexistence, N 26, pp.333-350.
Strada and Troper, 1997 - Strada, M.J. and Troper, H.R. (1997). Friend or Foe?: Russian in
Todorov, 1977 - Todorov T. (1977). The poetics of prose. Paris: Ithaca.
Turovskaya, 1993 - Turovskaya, M. (1993). Soviet Films of the Cold War. In: Taylor, R. and
Spring, D. (Eds.). Stalinism and Soviet Cinema. London and New York: Routledge, pp.131-141.
Turovskaya, 2003 - Turovskaya, M.I. Blow up, or Heroes of no heroes time - 2. Moscow:
MIK, 2003. 288 c.
Turovskaya, 1996 - Turovskaya, M.I. The films of "Cold War" // Art of Cinema. 1996. № 9,
98-106.
Yurenev, 1950 - Yurenev, R.N. So we will win! // Soviet art. 1950. 27 June.
Zorkaya, 1994 - Zorkaya, N.M. Folklore. Splint. Screen. Moscow, 1994.
Zorkaya, 1981 - Zorkaya, N.M. Unique and replicate. Mass media and reproduced art.
Moscow: Art, 1981. 167 p.
Zverev, 1991 - Zverev A. Agatha Christie. 1991. http://www.syshiki.com/agata-kristi.html
УДК 37
Западный мир в советском кинематографе в период холодной войны
Александр Федоров a , *
aТаганрогский институт имени А.П. Чехова,
Аннотация. Кино (благодаря ТВ, видео, DVD и интернет-технологиям) - эффективное

средство воздействия (в том числе политического, идеологического) на аудиторию. Таким
образом, изучение трансформации образа западного мира на советском экране сегодня по-
прежнему актуально. Среди задач данного исследования – определение места и роли темы
трансформации образа Запада в художественном советском кино с 1946 года (начало
послевоенного идеологического противостояния) до 1991 (распад СССР) год; изучение
политического, идеологического, социального и культурного контекста, основных этапов
развития, целей, задач, концепций этой темы в советских фильмах; классификация и
сравнительный анализ идеологии, модели содержания, модификации жанров, стереотипов
советского кино, связанных с изображением западного мира. Методология исследования
основана на ключевых философских позициях теории диалога культур (М. Бахтин – В. Библер).
Исследование основано на следующем исследовательском подходе: определение содержания
изучаемого процесса, принимая во внимание совокупность всех элементов, взаимодействие
между ними, их природу, анализ и синтез теоретических взглядов и т.д.), рассмотрение
конкретного исторического развития темы западного мира в советском кино. Анализ такого
рода медиатекстов особенно важно для медиаобразования будущих историков, культурологов,
киноведов, искусствоведов, социологов, лингвистов, психологов и педагогов.
Ключевые слова: исследование, герменевтический анализ, Советский, СССР, Запад,
США, холодная война, фильм
Адреса электронной почты: mediashkola@rambler.ru (А. Федоров)
139

Researcher
ISSN 2219-8229
E-ISSN 2224-0136
Vol. 13, Is. 3, pp. 178-186, 2015
DOI: 10.13187/ejced.2015.13.178
www.ejournal1.com

UDC 372.8
Theological Media Literacy Education and Hermeneutic Analysis of Soviet

Audiovisual Anti-religious Media Texts in Students’ Classroom
Alexander Fedorov

Abstract
This article realized the Russian way of theological media education literacy and hermeneutic
analysis of specific examples of Soviet anti-religious audiovisual media texts: a study of the process
of interpretation of these media texts, cultural and historical factors influencing the views of the
media agency / authors. The hermeneutic analysis suggests media text comprehension through
text characters. An analysis of such audiovisual media texts, in our opinion, is particularly
important for media literacy education in the training of future historians, culture, art historians,
sociologists, linguists, theologians, psychologists and educators.
Keywords: media literacy, media education, information literacy, hermeneutical analysis,
Soviet, USSR, audiovisual, anti-religious, media texts, students, classroom
Introduction
Following their Western counterparts (Pungente, O'Malley, 1999; Zasepa, 2005 and others)
Russian theologians and clerics in recent years, are increasingly turning to the problems of film /
media literacy education (Dukhanin, 2005; Ilyashenko, 2006; Patriarch Kirill, 2009; Posadsky,
2006; Prokofiev, 2006 and others). In particular, the Chairman of the Synodal Information
178
Department Vladimir Legoyda supported the proposal of the director Nikita Mikhalkov on the
introduction of film education for pupils of 6-7 classes (Legoyda, 2012).
Unfortunately, such a balanced coexistence between Russian church leaders and a media
sphere was not always. So over the years of Soviet power a media created thousands of anti-
religious media texts: books, articles, radio / television programs and films. Many media texts of
this kind are available now on Internet portals.
In connection with this it is important to define the modern media educational stance
towards media anti-religious topics.
In my previous works (Fedorov, 2008; 2011; 2012), I appealed to the technology of
hermeneutical analysis of media texts (Eco, 1998; 2005; Eco, 1976; Silverblatt, 2001, p. 80-81).
This time this technology will be used as an example of Soviet feature films on the anti-religious
theme. An analysis of such audiovisual media texts, in my opinion, is particularly important for
media literacy education of future historians, culture & art historians, sociologists, linguists,
theologians, psychologists and educators.

Materials: media and film studies literature, media texts (films) with anti-religious topics.
Methods: following the methodology developed by Umberto Eco (Eco, 2005, p. 209),
C. Bazalgette (Bazalgette, 1995) and A. Silverblatt (Silverblatt, 2001, pp. 80-81), I try to make a
hermeneutical analysis of Soviet feature films on the anti-religious topic, based on media literacy
keywords: media agencies, media / media text categories, media technologies, media languages,
media representations and media audiences. In my opinion, the hermeneutic analysis of specific
examples of Soviet anti-religious audiovisual media texts we can do in this way: a study of the
process of interpretation of these media texts, cultural and historical factors influencing the views
of the media agency / authors. The hermeneutic analysis suggests media text comprehension
through comparison with historical, cultural tradition and reality; penetration of its logic; through
text characters. An analysis of such audiovisual media texts, in my opinion, is particularly
important for media literacy education in the training of future historians, culture, art historians,
sociologists, linguists, theologians, psychologists and educators.
Discussion
During the seventy years of the last century religious approaches to mass education in Soviet
Union have been virtually banned. And at a time when the religious development of the peoples of
Western countries by the beginning of 1960 led to the creation of the theological course in media
education (Zasepa, 2005), the contact between the Russian Church and media has been rather
confrontational for many years.
For example, Orthodox scholars always emphasize the harm caused to the spiritual and
religious education of the Soviet atheistic movies. "I remember - writes V. Ulyahin - how much
films in the 50-70 years was a humiliating nature of the name of God, the faith of Christ, of the
Church. On a variety of studios, from Mosfilm to Dovzhenko feature films were produced in which
faith is declared to shame Christians appeared as a double-dealers, the Pharisees, hypocrites.
My mother told me that in the 20 years it has been even worse" (Ulyahin, 2006).
Only in the last 20-25 years, the Russian Christian teachers were not only able to openly
express their views, but also to publish the works on issues related to media literacy education.
According to the responsible editor of the Moscow Patriarchate, senior lecturer of St. Tikhon
Humanitarian University S. Chapnin, "theologians ignore the television, although all the cultural
and moral context of our life is defined by the mass media and missionary activity of the Church
and its presence in the space of social and political life - is, in fact, broadcasting values and ideas
using a variety of media" (Chapnin, 2010).
Let's try to analyze the experience of post-Soviet media education in theological aspect,
taking into account the fact the theological model of media literacy education (Dukhanin, 2005;
Chapnin 2010, and others.). This model is based on, first of all, theological, ethical and safety
theories of media education. This is a spiritual and religious education of the audience with the
179
dominant religious values of art and the divine and the Earth on media. It is assumed that the
media are able to form certain spiritual, ethical / moral, aesthetic values of the audience (especially
for minors). For example, the "orthodox view of the work of art is not satisfied with the secular
understanding, it should feature more penetration. For the Christian, it is important through the
actions and words of the characters felt in their whole spirit, inner spirit, to understand, to use the
philosophical language of their value orientation" (Dukhanin 2005, p.17).
Supporters of theological model of media literacy education, seeing the danger of the media
in a kind of pseudo-religion, expect the media not "pagan materialism", but maybe the "inner
development of the human personality, the disclosure of the spiritual process in man, revealing his
inner spiritual growing, closely associated with the Christian idea of repentance - the possibility of
a change of heart, mind and will under the influence of a controlled didactic life experience God
directly sent by God of insight, as well as with the Christian idea of the feat - stress limit of human
strength in the fight against departed from God and the world himself" (Posadsky, 2006). It is
worth noting that in this context the theologians reject the relativistic concept of postmodernism
(Chapnin, 2010).
It is clear that the value orientation of teachers, theologians depend on the particular
religious context, with significant differences for the Christian, Muslim, Buddhist or other faiths.
The main purpose of this kind of media literacy education - the development of spiritual
identity, its religious world, familiarizing the audience to a particular pattern of behavior to the
value orientations that meet one or another religious dogma. Educational strategy is based on the
study of the theological, philosophical and ethical aspects of media and media texts to be
implemented in the following main tasks:
- The acquisition of theological knowledge (the result - an understanding of man, that
"screen, the script of the film - it's not a place where people can meet Christ. Man meets with the
Lord only in the temple and in prayer" (Dukhanin 2005, p.155);
- The formation of the electoral attitude towards the media repertoire (Ishchenko, 2012;
Legoyda 2012; Prokofiev, 2006; Chapnin, 2010);
- Training of a critical reflection on the read / heard / seen, the correlation of the content of
media texts with the basics of religion and the life around: "The other person is so beautiful to us,
as we do with the warmth and love to treat him. TV-Idols deprive us of this love, take it to himself,
thereby removed from the heart of man the main core of his life. Just leaving a virtual reality, we
can see the beauty of a genuine reality. ... Only renouncing of media-idols, you can see the beauty of
other people" (Dukhanin 2005, p.58).
In our view, this theological approach to media literacy education may be synthesized not
only from an ethical and safety / protection, but also the ideological, aesthetic, ecological theories
of media literacy education and with the theory of critical thinking.
So safety / protective theory of media literacy education is well correlated with the following
views expressed by V. Duhanin: "Many confuse well-known thesis: first see, and then judge?
Insidious trick: Orthodox want first drink Narcotic provoking fantasy and heavy impression drink,
and only then to answer them, good or bad. ... And sometimes the soul of the viewer captured the
impressions of the film, it is no longer able to soberly evaluate it. ... Is it worth it to take drugs,
jump from an airplane without a parachute, closer to the epicenter of a nuclear explosion, only then
to say: "All this is bad"? (Dukhanin 2005, p.170).
M. Prokopenko write that the secular media give the false (to some extent) information and
"watching TV today been considered sinful deed" (Prokopenko, 2010). A. Ilyashenko fully agree
with him: "In today's television is dominated by the vulgarity, rudeness, moral impurity, sounded
offensive to the audience vulgar language" (Ilyashenko, 2006).
Even more bluntly expresses his judgment A. Vishnevsky, noting that "TV rating is needed in
order to pay for expensive advertising. ... For the rating fool the greedy vile body, filmmakers
exploit the basest instincts. "With youthful nails" cripple the sexual instinct. Provoke brutal
aggression. Shows how "relish cheat, kill, loot - and carouse till you drop." Intuitively convinced
that to enjoy life does not necessarily make hard work "(Vishnevsky, 2001). And S. Posadsky,
arguing that "the pagan materialism of modern cinema should be decisively rejected Christianity
claiming uncompromising spiritual and material values, calling man to the heavenly gathering,
intangible wealth, requiring non-biased relation to the earth material benefits" (Posadsky, 2006).
180
However, some the teachers of theology expressed different views, the essence of which can
be reduced to the fact that for the Church today to turn away from the media is counterproductive,
since "it is clear that for millions of people in the television much more than a religion, creates
images and symbols which give an answer to the fundamental questions: "Who am I?",
"How should I live?". In this sense, theologians and missionaries quite undeservedly ignored by
modern TV series and "soap opera" on the one hand, and advertising clips on the other. ... Genre
soap opera as a morality play about modern life plays an important role in maintaining the national
outlook. ... Studying contemporary religious, seeking to systematize and analyze contemporary
forms of spirituality, it is impossible to ignore these elements of mass culture "(Chapnin, 2010).
Moreover, some supporters of theological media education think that is very useful - and in
terms of faith, in terms of ethics (the ideas of purity, the Christian frankness, courage, righteous
opposition to evil and defeat it) the aesthetic characteristics - many humane films of the Soviet
period (eg, tales), plus such films as "Braveheart," "Ben Hur", "Pop", the television series
"The Idiot" and others (Dukhanin, 2005, p.41; Patriarch Kirill, 2009; Prokofiev, 2006).
As correctly noted S. Posadsky, media often reproduce those various aspects of the Christian
worldview, as a rule, drawing on the cultural heritage of the Christian era the time when
Christianity was the dominant religion of the state, and the Christian system of values permeated
all aspects of human life. "By the same Christian-oriented cinema should be assigned and the few
secular works of cinema that is extremely sharpened the struggle between good and evil in man,
reveal the complexity of the formation of human moral consciousness, thereby reproducing a
pagan moral conflict, devoid of true knowledge of God, but keep intact the ability to discern both
good and evil - conscience "(Posad, 2006).
However, the secular media texts (including those that are devoted to religious subjects) are
often accused by the Russian theologians in the absence of providential idea (representation on the
management of the destinies of the world by God), as preference is given to the pagan idea of an
impersonal chance, or - even worse - the desire for material values. According, theologians, another
serious disadvantage of modern media - ignoring the internal spiritual and religious dimension of
the person, displaying mostly "psychophysical life, combining it with all the psycho-physical
activity of the animal world, and striving for material comfort, experiencing sexual desire, having a
wide range of emotions and rational operations - from the dedication and benefactor to the genetic
risk assessment program to create a home, family, public institutions (eg, ants and termites) and
skills to the feasibility of using natural forces "(Posadsky, 2006).
In addition, teachers, theologians see the danger that the media world can dislodge from the
world of human consciousness of God as "sins, addictions, vices, it seems, are still out there behind
the screen - its forgotten compared to that seen in traveling personnel" (Dukhanin 2005, s.51-52);
Of course, not all teachers of theology in the categorical rejection of the modern media
culture. For example, under the patronage of the President of the International Orthodox Film
Festival "Meeting" nun Sophia (Ishchenko), Ministry of Culture and Education Department of the
Kaluga region teachers have developed guidelines on the use of films of spiritual and moral content
of the educational process in the school (28 films, recorded on 10 discs, plus Toolkit) (Ishchenko,
2012; Druzhkova, 2012). This theological media education should entice the audience "a beautiful
movie about animals, interesting discussion about the pressing issues and, finally, talk about the
meaning of life," and "Orthodox public channel due to its public to be a missionary, but because of
the maximum non-religious audience - extremely unobtrusive in his missionary work" (Shchukin,
2006).
Russian theologians also offer ways to use the media educational possibilities of television,
media texts which should be directed to the successive stages of knowledge (Shchukin, 2006):
aesthetic vision of life: nature and art, interpretation, analysis of the special transmission of highly
skills; asceticism and respectable values (family, homeland, national culture, law, social and
political veracity); from private property - to the absolute religious. It is the practical orientation of
media education in educational institutions of theological orientation: both in the compulsory and
optional disciplines cycles, so for narrow circle / club sessions. (See, for example, discussion of the
film of Pavel Lungin Island in the cinema club of Saint Tikhon's Orthodox University.
181
Results
Technology of hermeneutical analysis of Soviet feature films on the anti-religious topic
The historical, religious, cultural, political, ideological context
Historical context (the dominant concepts: media agency, media category, media
representations and media audience):
a) the particular historical period of the creation of media texts, market conditions, the
process of creating media texts.
I analyzed the Soviet films were created and demonstrated in different periods.
M. Kalatozov‟s film Conspiracy of the doomed (1950) was a typical product of the post-war
Stalinist empire. Movies This should not be forgotten (1954) and The Gadfly (1955) were set and
released in a short period of post-Stalinist "dual power" of G. Malenkov and N. Khrushchev. This
movie largely correlated with the relevant resolutions of the Central Committee of the Communist
Party (from July 7, 1954: "On the major shortcomings in the scientific atheist propaganda and
measures to improve it", and from November 10, 1954: "On the errors in the conduct of scientific
and atheistic propaganda among the population "). Dozens of anti-religious film was conceived and
released (1959-1963) in the period of Khrushchev's "thaw". Approximately the same number of
films with anti-religious motives had a much more long L. Brezhnev‟s era and the period of
adjustment.
Given the fact that since the 1940s the ratio of the Stalinist regime to the Orthodox Church
has become much more tolerant than active godless 1920s – 1930s, an anti-religious aspect of the
"Conspiracy of the doomed" and "Gadfly" was accented directed towards the Catholic church as
Western instrument of influence / pressure on the Soviet Union and its citizens.
After 1956, the situation with the relationship between the Church and the Soviet State has
become more tense. The Central Committee of Communist Party accepted the resolution "On the
lack of scientific and atheistic propaganda" (October 4, 1958), and then media - followed a
government order - began to create of a series of anti-religious media texts (in the press, cinema,
radio and television). To some extent the instruction "to deploy offensive against religious
remnants" was associated with the anti-Stalinist restoration of the so-called "Leninist norms"
(Lenin‟s violent atheism was all well-known), but I think pretty much anti-religious struggle of
Soviet power was necessary as a tool to suppress dissent.
In general, the brunt of a wave of anti-religious feature films (1959-1963) was aimed not so
much at the Catholic and Greek Catholic (Uniate) Church (Ivanna), but to fight with different
religious Protestant sects (Clouds over Borsk, Miraculous, Armageddon, Sinner, End of the World,
Flower on Stone, and others).
The case of a screen conceptual dispute with an Orthodox priests was more rarer (Everything
Remains People (1963) by G. Nathanson).
With Khrushchev‟s departure from the political arena a number of anti-religious films
decreased significantly since anti-religious campaign, as well as many other Khrushchev‟s
initiatives have been attributed to "voluntarism".
However, radical changes in the anti-religious policy of the Soviet government was not going
to. For example, Orthodox priests derided as swindlers in the two film adaptations of the novel
I. Ilf and E. Petrov's "12 chairs", set in the 1970s... In 1974, was made and where more serious anti-
religious film against the Orthodox Church: in A. Manasarova‟s drama I am looking for my destiny
intellectual Orthodox priest renounced his faith in God...
In the 1970s the line of anti-Catholic films was extended in Soviet cinema: at the heart of
drama Until the last minute (1973) was the story of the last period of the life of the famous
Ukrainian publicist Yaroslav Galan, who was killed October 24, 1949 in Lviv. Of course, the film
was the example of propaganda against Ukrainian nationalism and western influences, but overall
revelatory emphasis of the film was largely shifted toward condemnation of the Greek Catholic
Church, represented on the screen as ally of Nazi and anti-Soviet Ukrainian nationalist guerrillas.
The theme was supported by anti-Catholic drama Atonement, the sins of others (1978) and
The Mystery of St. George (1982) directed by V. Pidpaly, the new adaptation of The Gadfly (1980,
directed by N. Mashchenko).
The last outbreak of anti-religious propaganda in the Soviet Union became a drama about a
brutal sectarian mores Hop (1991).
182
b) how knowledge of real historical events of specific period helps the understanding of
these media texts.
With regard to the cinematic context of historical events in the Soviet Union, it should be
noted that along with the traditional and sometimes archaic tapes of the anti-religious series of the
end of 1950 - the first half of 1960s, well known and especially - young filmmakers created the truly
groundbreaking films (The Cranes Are Flying, Unsent Letter, I am Cuba by M. Kalatozov and
S. Urusevsky, Nine Days of One Year and Ordinary Fascism by M. Romm, The Forty-First and
The Ballad of Soldier by G. Chuhraj, I am 20 years old by M. Hutsiev, Walking the Streets of
Moscow by G. Danelia...
The second half of 1960s is often called the final of a "thaw", when a censorship grip became
tighter (the most striking examples - the prohibition of Solzhenitsyn's books, movies The Passion
of Andrew (1966) by A. Tarkovsky, Kiev fresco (1966) by S. Parajanov, Nasty anecdote (1966) by
A. Alov and V. Naumov, Commissioner (1967) by A. Askoldov, Intervention (1968) by G. Poloka).
Thus, one can not but admit that the Russian outstanding masters of the screen as a whole
have sought to distance themselves from the anti-religious themes. The atheistic government‟s
order was carried out mainly by filmmakers of the second and third row.
c) examples of historical references in these media texts.
The anti-religious Soviet-era films of the 1950s - 1980s were a direct reflection of political
decisions with their top features:
- the accusation of the church and the faithful in various sins and an inspiration the atheistic
views to wide audience. A striking evidence of this is the comparison of the anti-religious subjects
in the movie Clouds over Borsk, Miraculous, Armageddon, Sinner, End of the World, I love you,
life, Flower on Stone with the text of the Communist Propaganda Department "On the
shortcomings of scientific atheist propaganda" (09.12.1958).
2. Socio-cultural, ideological, philosophical, religious context (the dominant concept of
media agency, category media / media texts, media representation and media audience).
a) The ideology and philosophy of media texts’ authors in these socio-cultural context.
The Soviet feature anti-religious films can clearly be seen ideological message aimed at
convincing the audience that:
- Ukrainian nationalists are closely associated with the Unitarian and Catholic Church, first
with the Nazis, and then, with the support of Western countries, carried out mass terror against
their opponents and the civilian population as a whole (It should not be forgotten, Ivanna, Until
the last minutes, Atonement the sins of others);
- Religious sect (often supported from abroad) are trying to involve the unstable young
people into the fold, thereby diverting them from the Pioneer and Komsomol and other Soviet
political, labor and cultural life (Clouds over Borsk, Miraculous, Armageddon, Sinner, End of the
World, I love you, life, Flower on stone, Ghosts in captivity and others);
- The sectarians and Orthodox priests were far from Christian ideals in his real life (Queen of
the petrol station, Elusive Avengers, 12 chairs).
b) the world outlook of the people depicted in the media texts (pessimism / optimism,
success / failure, the ability to control their own destiny, the ability to be happy and so forth.), the
hierarchy of values according to the outlook; values; behavior, myths.
The image of a secular world in the Soviet anti-religious feature films:
- An optimistic outlook, based on communist ideology in its Stalinist / Leninist
interpretation, throughout the action (despite the fact that the protagonists die sometimes);
- The hierarchy of values: secularism, anti-religion and anti-nationalism, the Communist
Party, the Young Communist League, the suppression of dissent, the people, family, love;
- The main stereotype of success in this world: to be an atheist, the member of Komsomol
and Communist party, a staunch opponent of religion and nationalism, to be the ruthless enemies,
to be a good worker, a family man.
The image of the religious world in the Soviet anti-religious feature films:
- An optimistic outlook, based on religious, nationalist, bourgeois ideology (in early action of
media text), an pessimistic outlook (closer to the finale of media text, when the negative characters
understand that lost the fight);
- The hierarchy of values: religion, active introduction to the religion of non-believers (first of
all - youth), suppression of dissent, family, love, greed, "bourgeois nationalism". However,
183
sometimes the final one or the other character can be disappointed in religious values, or
completely abandon them (Ivanna, Confessions, I am looking for my destiny, and others);
- The main stereotype of success in this world: to be a true believer, family man, a nationalist,
to cooperate with the occupation forces, foreign organizations.
Meanwhile, the theme of the church during the occupation is not as straightforward as it
appeared in the Soviet anti-religious orientation films. So, Patriarch Kirill explains the situation as
follows: "For the Church, people - the most important. The political context is always important,
but it is secondary to the salvation of the human person. And the Church is called to bear in all
circumstances his ministry. After all, once we, too, criticized, including our overseas brethren: why
do we continue our ministry in the Soviet era? How dare we serve, and pray, and preach in Stalin's
time? It was necessary, they said, to quit, to go underground, open opposition. But the Church was
making his ministry, criticized her for it, and still some who criticize. So, of course, they have been
and will be people who criticize and criticize priests who committed during the occupation of his
ministry. But the vast majority of them were patriots, people support, including the guerrilla
movement"(Patriarch Kirill, 2009).
3. The structure and narrative techniques in these media texts (the dominant concept of
media / media texts category, media technologies, media language, media representations).
Schematically, the structure of the plot, representation, ethics, especially genre modification,
the iconography, the characters can be represented as follows:
a) the place and time of action of media texts: the USSR 1940s – 1980s (sometimes earlier
periods of Russian history), foreign countries (like this and the earlier period), the province, most
of the countryside;
b) typical for these media texts furnishings, household items: a modest furnishings living
rooms of ordinary people, including the believers; luxury housing and consumer goods
representatives of the highest ecclesiastical hierarchy; Catholic / Uniate Church; spacious premises
of educational institutions and public buildings; dark, gloomy rooms (sheds, cellars) where the
sectarians carry out their religious rites.
c) modification of the genre: mostly drama, melodrama, at least - a comedy;
d) (stereotypical) image pickup reality: positive (with respect to the positive character atheist
or just temporarily succumbed to representatives of religious agitation "fledgling youth"); negative
with respect to the negative characters (Uniate, sectarians, Orthodox priests); a negative image on
the screen is often created by the black and white pattern - in the face of negative characters, taken
in a special perspective distorts the proper proportions, falling gloomy dark stripes and spots, etc.
e) type the characters (character traits, clothing, physique, vocabulary, facial expressions,
gestures, characters, the presence or absence of a stereotypical manner of representation of the
characters in these media texts)
- the age of the character: 10-70 years;
- the level of education: primary, secondary (complete and incomplete), at least - higher
education (complete or incomplete);
- social status, profession: varies and depends on their educational and professional status:
the student, an artist, priest, housewife, etc.;
- marital status character: as a rule, the main character is young and has not had time to
marry;
- appearance, clothes, physique character traits of his character, vocabulary. Positive
characters: commitment, emotion, activity, loyalty, optimism, courage. Negative characters:
hypocrisy, cunning, cruelty, purposefulness. Positive characters are dressed modestly (especially -
the villagers), and negative - is clearly richer; Athletic characters - both positive and negative -
varies widely and depends on the context of a particular film. Negative characters are usually
shown unpleasant appearance, with false, hypocritical smiles and gestures, their florid vocabulary.
However, at first they may even produce a positive impression, hiding under the guise of
compassion and mercy. Cultists usually prefer black clothes. Positive characters are the opposite
"code": for it is the stereotypical Soviet screen "correct" figure with a simple and clear vocabulary,
slender physique, comely faces, open smile, emotional pathos, strictness in clothes.
The doubting characters (mostly - a Soviet schoolchildren, young people living in the
province, in the village), are between the "plus" and "minus": they initially drawn to faith in the
Lord, but then (under the influence of a truly positive characters) renounce it.
184
The most indicative of such a scene is V. Ivchenko‟s film Ivanna (1959). Convinced of
hypocrisy of the Uniate Church, because this Church collaborated with the Nazi occupation of
Ukraine, the bishop‟s daughter Ivanna helps the Soviet POWs to escape from a concentration
camp. Soon, however, the Nazis arrested her and sent for execution. And here, in front of the
penalty, Ivanna finally renounced the faith...
By the way, Ivanna was one of the most grossing films of the Soviet "anti-religious series"
(30.2 million viewers for first year of release). It is not surprising that Pope John XXIII in order to
avoid the negative impact of the film on the believers put the anathema on the Ivanna. This
accursed fatal responded to the fate of the performer as Ivanna - actress Inna Burduchenko
(Kyrylyuk). In August 1960, carrying a dangerous double in the fire at the scene of the shooting of
another anti-religious film So no one liked (director Anatoly Slesarenko), she received fatal burns
and died... Two years later, legendary Sergei Paradjanov has finished this film (new name of this
film is Flower on Stone).
f) a significant change in the lives of the characters of media texts:
- plot option number 1: a character involve others / friends, standing in the way of initiation
to the faith (Clouds over Borsk, Miraculous, Armageddon, Confessions, I love you, life, Ghosts in
captivity);
- plot option number 2 option: a character discovers the negative features of their "brothers
and sisters in faith," or the church as a whole (The Gadfly, Ivanna, Sinner, Flower on Stone,
Confession, Atonement, the sins of others, I am looking for my destiny, Hop);
j) the characters problem: the choice between religion and atheism;
i) the characters try to solve the problem: a way to solve the problem (with the help of
positive characters - atheists) - thinking, analysis of the situation and the final abandonment of the
faith.
Students (in the process of hermeneutical analysis) can consider that associative links exist
between the screen and viewers' experience - in varying degrees. The emotional empathy with the
characters and media texts‟ authors occurs first on the basis of an intuitive, subconscious
perception of the dynamics of the audio-visual, spatial and temporal artistic image of the episode.
Then comes the process of analysis and synthesis - identify the values of frames angles, plans, etc.,
and their synthesis, compound the ambiguity of interpretation. Students can analyze not only
psychological and emotional, but also audio-visual, spatial and temporal content of the artistic
image of media text. Students can go from more or less linear interpretation of the historical-
political, socio-cultural context of the narrative scheme, to the associative, polyphonic analysis.
Conclusions
This article realized the way for Hermeneutic Analysis of specific examples of Soviet anti-
religious audiovisual media texts: a study of the process of interpretation of these media texts,
cultural and historical factors influencing the views of the media agency / authors. Our analysis
showed that Russian representatives theological concept of media literacy education, noting
systematizing and negative media influence, rejecting postmodern notions of self-worth, "pure"
nature of art, isolated from the service of Christian religious and moral purposes and, as a
consequence, become dependent on ethical relativism, pagan worldview, increasingly oriented not
only to "protection from the media," but urged to ensure that the Church's mission has evolved and
broadened, including in the information space in order to promote the idea of the unity of the
highest aesthetic value with a nice moral and cognitive values of the Christian religion, the
indivisibility of religious truth, beauty and true morality. Thus, today we can say that the
theological media education in Russia, which had no opportunity to develop almost from the early
1920s until the mid-1980s, is now gaining strength and looking for a practical way to the real
audience.
References:
1. Bazalgette, C. (1995). Key aspects of media education. Moscow: Association for Film
Education, 51 p.
185
2. Chapnin S. (2010). Good News and the "bad news": Christian values in media. 2010.
http://www.pravmir.ru/blagaya-vest-i-ploxie-novosti-xristianskie-cennosti-v-mass-media/
31.08.2010.
3. Druzhkova, M. (2012). A seminar and a workshop on the use of the capacity of the
Orthodox cartoons in preschool in N.Novgorod. Nizhny Novgorod site Metropolis. 2012.
10.03.2012. http://www.nne.ru/news.php?id=345880
4. Dukhanin, V.N. (2005). Orthodoxy and world cinema. Moscow: Drakkar, 190 p.
6. Eco, U. (1998). Lack of structure. Introduction to semiology. St.Petersburg: Petropolis,
432 p.
7. Eco, U. (2005). The role of the reader. Research on the semiotics of text. St. Petersburg:
Symposium, 502 p.
8. Fedorov, A. (2012). The Contemporary Mass Media Education in Russia in Search For
New Theoretical Conceptions And Models. Acta Didactica Napocensia. 2012. N 1, p. 53–64.
9. Fedorov, A.V. (2010). Umberto Eco and Semitic theory of media education //
Innovations in education. 2010. № 5, pp. 56-61.
10. Fedorov, A.V. (2012). Analysis of audiovisual media texts. Moscow, 2012. 182 p.
11. Fedorov, AV. (2008). Analysis of cultural mythology of media texts in the classroom at
the student audience // Innovations in education. 2008. № 4, pp. 60-80.
12. Ilyashenko, A.A. (2006). Concept of the "moral movie." 10.06.2006. http://www.
pravmir.ru /koncepciya-proekta-nravstvennoe-kino/print/
13. Ishchenko S. (2012). About the initiative to introduce the subject in schools "100 best
movies." 2012. http://ruskline.ru/news_rl/2012/07/02/monahinya_sofiya_iwenko_medinskij
_s_mihalkovym_opozdali_s_etoj_ideej/ 02.07.2012
14. Legoyda, V. (2012). 100 best movies you must learn in school, but may optionally //
Synodal Information Department of the Moscow Patriarchate. 3.10.2012. http://www. pravmir.
ru/100-luchshix-filmov-neobxodimo-izuchat-v-shkole-no-vozmozhno-fakultativno-v-legojda/
15. Note by the Propaganda Department of the Communist Party Central Committee of the
Union Republics "On the shortcomings of scientific and atheistic propaganda" from 12.09.1958.
Moscow, 1958. RGANI. F. 4. Op. 16. D. 554. P. 5-13.
16. Patriarch Kirill (2009). The film "Pop" - important and truthful word about the life of the
Russian Church in the difficult years of war. 6.11.2009. http://www.pravmir.ru/film-pop-vazhnoe-
i-pravdivoe-slovo-o-zhizni-russkoj-cerkvi-v-trudnye-gody-vojny/print/
17. Posadsky, S. (2006). Christian and secular cinema: the experience of a comparative
analysis of the basic principles. 2006. http://pokrov-forum.ru/library/cinema/ statia/ pasadsky_
sekularnoe_kino.php?print=Y
18. Prokofiev, S.E. (2006). What movie should be Orthodox? 2006. http://pokrov-forum.ru/
library/cinema/statia/prokofjev_kino_prav.php?
19. Prokopenko, M. (2010). Tear antenna! 21.09.2010. http://www.pravmir.ru/vyrvi-
antennu /print/
20. Pungente, J.J. and O‟Malley, M. (1999). More Than Meets the Eye: Watching Television
Watching Us. Toronto: McClelland & Stewart Inc., 255 p.
21. Shukin, T. (2006). Zaekrannoe missionary. http://pokrov-forum.ru/library /cinema/
statia/schukin_misia.php?print=Y
23. Ulyahin V. (2006). "Code Da Vinci": crafty stuff always uses to fool the human /
http://pstgu.ru/news/university/2006/05/25/6514/. 2006. 15.05.
24. Vishnevsky, A. (2001). Bad addiction. 11.11.2001. http://www.zavet.ru /deti/
vishnevsky.htm
25. Zasepa, T. (2005). Religia i tresci religijne w mass mediach. Biuletyn Edukacji Medialnej.
2005. N 1, pp. 70–77.
186
439
Fedorov, A. (2015). Russia. In: Wolf, M.J.P. (ed.). Video Games Around the World. Cambridge,
Massachusetts, London: The MIT Press, pp.439-449.
RUSSIA
Alexander Fedorov
The history of video games in Russia goes back to the early 1980s. In the beginning of the computer era,
Soviet arcade games, very primitive compared to today’s standard, included a large number of slot machines
or electromechanical arcade games such as Morskoi Boi (Sea Battle, 1981), Tankodrom (1981), Rally-M (1981),
Sniper (1981), and Safari (1982). In Sea Battle, the player had to shell enemy ships, while Rally-M was a racing
game, and in Sniper, the player had to shell the target (see http://www.15kop.ru/en/). These games were coin-
operated; it was necessary to insert fifteen kopecks into the machine, which gave you about three minutes of
play. These kinds of gaming machines were usually installed in urban parks and cinema lobbies, and they were
very popular among Soviet children and adults.
From the late 1970s to the early 1990s, Soviet military factories produced some seventy different arcade
game models like these, but “production of the games ceased with the collapse of communism, and as Nin-
tendo consoles and PCs flooded the former Soviet states, the old arcade games were either destroyed or disap-
peared into warehouses and basements” (Zaitchik 2007).
From 1984 to 1985, Alexéy Pazhitnov developed the first Russian video game, Tetris, which was based on
tetrominoes falling on the screen and disappearing as players filled each row. The game soon became very
popular not only in Russia but also abroad. Tetris was not copyrighted at first, allowing it to spread even faster
than it would have otherwise.
In 1989, Nikita Skripkin created (for the developer Locis) what was a very opportunistic computer game
for the time, Perestroika. Named in honor of the Perestroika movement, the splash screen shows Mikhail Gor-
bachev against the Kremlin wall. The game comes with a soundtrack and a gramophone recording of the song
“Dubinushka” by Feodor Chaliapin (a sort of comparison with the PC computer’s sound system, the speakers).
The game’s objective was to use the keyboard’s arrow keys to send a frog “democrat” through the swamp by
jumping from lily to lily, while trying not to drown or be eaten by other frogs, which were “bureaucrats.” Lil -
ies periodically reduced in size, disappearing and reappearing in other places, all at different rates (overall
speed increased with each level). On some lilies were blue pills that increased the frog’s “welfare” (increasing
the score), and when they were eaten, the frog produced a characteristic “yum” sound. Red pills, on the other
hand, had a negative effect. At higher levels (“milestones”), different colored computer-controlled opponent
440 ALEXANDER FEDOROV
frogs appeared—the “bureaucrats” who would try to catch the player’s frog “democrat.” The round would
end when the lily pad that the frog was sitting on disappeared, the frog jumped into the water, or it “ate” a
bureaucrat. The game was a success with consumers.
Also established in 1991, the Russian company Gamos released successful logic-based video game 7 Colors
(1991) and Color Lines (1992). Gamos managed to enter the foreign market and beginning in 1999 made the
switch to online video games while working with the TV channel TNT. Another company, Nikita (renamed
Nikita Online in 2007), was launched in 1991 by Skripkin and Stepan Zotov and produced educational video
games including Wunderkind (1995), Happy Birthday (1995), Anatomik (1996), Journey through Europe (1996), Twigger
(1996), Magic Dream (1997), Parkan (1997), the arcade game Hunter on the Road (1997), and more. Though Gamos
successfully started in the 1990s, when it later tried to enter the online gaming market, it could not
withstand the competition, and in 2005 it ceased operations.
In 1993, Buka Entertainment entered the video game market and became not only a distributor of
video game consoles from SEGA, Nintendo, and Sony, but also a manufacturer of its own games (since 2010,
for the iPhone). Some of Buka’s games include Education of Neznaika (1999), Magic Chest (1999), and Magic Game
(2012).
The rapid development of the video game industry in Russia, since 1990, contributed to the massive expan-
sion of the Internet in Russia. The early twenty-first century was a turning point for Russia in the intensive
development of multiplayer browser video games on social platforms (such as the social network Facebook),
including Mafia (2006), Virtual Russia (2007), and Soul (2013), and was also the period when Russia began to
develop video games for mobile phones.
It should be noted that almost the entire history of video games in Russia is inextricably linked to video
game piracy. Pirated copies of Western and Russian video games (especially in 1990) successfully took away
profits from legitimate companies. The fight against video game piracy has been conducted and carried out in
Russia through legislation; however, the pirate audiovisual market continues its activity.
Today, social video games are dominant in Russia. The games are created and distributed by companies
Mail.ru Group, Crazy Panda, Plarium, and Social Quantum, which control 50% of the Russian market for video
games (“Review of the game market in Russia in 2011” 2012, 18).
The Reception of Foreign Imports
By the 1990s, the video game market in Russia was basically a pirate one, with many Western novelty games
coming into Russia illegally, and although they probably enjoyed great popularity among the people, it is
almost impossible to find exact figures as to the income they brought in. Even today, a significant percentage
of the video game market in twenty-first century Russia is imported products (almost all well-known foreign
video games, especially hits, can be found in the Russian market), while Russian manufacturers seek to keep
up with the domestic market developments. In 2012, the total turnover of the Russian video game market
441
reached US $1.3 billion, almost one-and-a-half times as much as in 2010. This turnover exceeds the income
received from the cinema box office in Russia, which in 2012 was equivalent USD $1.2 billion. Despite all these
achievements, the worldwide market share of video games for Russia is low, at only 2.2% (“Game Market in
Russia” 2012, 4–6).
The growth in profit of the video game market in the country is largely dependent on increasing the influ-
ence of online games (the market share of the online segment increased in 2012 by 64% to USD $0.9 billion). In
general, their volume has grown from 2010 to 2012 to 2.4 times what it was before, while the market for offline
games dropped by about 12%. (“Game market in Russia” 2012, 4–6).
Significant increases occurred in the spread of video games in Russian social networks, and by the end of
2012, they reached a monthly audience of 52.6 million people. For example, playing video games occupies
about one-third of social networks’ daily audience (which generally includes 9 million users). The average
social network users who play are willing to spend about USD $15 per month to play online games (“Games
market in Russia” 2012, 7).
Massively multiplayer online games (MMOGs) are popular in Russia, in particular because they are free-
to-play games (with no mandatory payments, although gamers can purchase additional in-game objects or
features). Profit from casual games in 2012 dropped significantly; however, due to the fact that these games
are only 1% of the total video game market in Russia, this decline was unobtrusive.
The Russian console game market in 2012 grew by only 2%, mainly due to the Sony PlayStation and PSP.
In the area of video games designed for mobile phones and tablets, Android and Apple’s iOS are the leading
platforms (“Game market in Russia” 2012, 8–10), and due to the fact that the number of users of smartphones
and tablets in Russia is growing, this segment of the market will expand.
The Influence of Russian National History on Video Games
During the Soviet era, in the 1970s and 1980s, the primitive nature of the games produced did not allow his-
torical themes in video games to develop. Games such as Sea Battle (1981) and Sniper (1981) simply perfected
the skills of shooting at moving targets. The communist regimes did not suppress video game production, but
before the 1990s, all Soviet video games were primitive. The Soviet regime did not buy Western video games
so as to save money and not compete with domestic game products. In general, the Communist regime rarely
bought Western audiovisual products (movies, TV shows, etc.). The change came after the fall of the com-
munist regime, when technology had become more sophisticated, and it became possible to develop more
complex plots and themes in games, including historical ones.
Despite the opportunities that Russian history can give for the plots of video games, game developers have
focused mainly on military issues and fighting the battles of the Second World War (Belyantsev and Gerstein
2010, 282). However, there are exceptions. In 2008, 1C Company released a military strategy game, XIII Cen-
tury: Rusich, in which the player can enter into the role of the Prince of Pskov. Employees of the Chelyabinsk
Pr
Regional Juvenile Library created a video game, How the Urals Saved the Battle of Borodino (2012), modeled on
the events of the War of 1812. The main characters of this video game, Ural teenagers, go to war in 1812 to
fight the French. This game attracts lovers of history, adventure, and logic puzzles. One of the most popular
video games about Russian history is the strategy game European Wars: Cossacks XVI–XVIII Centuries (2001)
(see http://www.cossacks.ru).
It is worth noting that in recent years, Russian schoolteachers of history have tried to use video games
in the learning process, as they provide an opportunity in an interactive way to “survive” the historical
events, which boosts secondary students’ interest in historical facts. The best of these video games not
only impart knowledge of history, geography, ethnography, and culture, but they also help students to under-
stand the causes and consequences of certain events and learn about what life was like for people of various
eras. As such, games in historical settings need a certain knowledge base derived from history (Chernov et al.
2009, 46).
There are, in Russia, strategy-based video games that address recent history. For example, The Truth about
the Ninth Company (2010) is a virtual reconstruction of the events of the war in Afghanistan in 1988. Another
example of a game on the theme of contemporary history, Confrontation: Peace Enforcement (2008), opportunis-
tically plays on the military events in Georgia and South Ossetia in August 2008, mixing history with fantasy
(Russobit M 2008).
Unfortunately, historical video games in Russian schools are not extensively used because teachers are
not well trained for such an activity, which reiterates the need for the development of media education
that aims at raising the level of information literacy, media literacy, and media competence of people of
all ages.
Domestic Video Game Production and Exports
One of the first specialized companies in Russia in 1991 was Gamos, created by E. Sotnikov. Gamos’s 7 Colors
(1991) and Color Lines (1992) found success with what was then a fairly narrow domestic audience, those who
had computers. Gamos is best known for such video games as Sobor (1991), Sky Cat (1991), Columbus Discovery
(1992), Balda (1993), Tank Destroyer (1993), Corners (1993), Kalah (1993), Magnetic Labyrinth (1993), Regatta
(1993), Wild Snake (1994), Flip Flop (1997), Snake Battle (1995), Pilot Brothers: On the Trail of the Striped
Elephant (1998), and Pilot Brothers: The Case of the Serial Maniac Sumo (1998).
Gamos’s main competitor was the Russian company Nikita (renamed Nikita Online in 2007; http://www
.nikitaonline.ru), organized by Nikita Skripkin in 1991. From 1992 to 1997, her company released educational
video games Wunderkind (1995), Happy Birthday (1995), Twigger (1996), Magic Dream (1997), Parkan (1997),
and others. During this time she was able to enter into agreements with a number of Scandinavian countries to
obtain data on the educational games used on three thousand computers at kindergartens and schools. Since
1999, Nikita began producing browser-based minigames and entered the German video game market. From
443
2002 to 2003, Nikita, along with 1C Company, developed the first Russian multiplayer online game, Sphere (2004).
In 2006, Nikita released three important projects for the Russian market: the browser-based game WebRac-
ing, the economic strategy game Truckers: Transport Company, and together with the television channel TNT,
the online simulation game House 3, playing on the success of the reality TV show for youth (later, the proj-
ect was called Avatarika). In 2012, Nikita Online relaunched the entertainment portal GameXP (http://www
.gamexp.ru) with dozens of online games and social networking games. By 2013, the number of Nikita Online
users had reached 10 million, and the company had developed more than 100 video games in a variety of
genres.
In 1993, two years after the establishment of Gamos and Nikita, another Russian company, the distribu-
tor and video game producer Buka Entertainment, was created (see http://www.buka.ru/). In 1996, Buka
created its first video game, Russian Roulette. Two years later, the Buka collection added the quest Petka
and Vasily Ivanovich Save the Galaxy (1998). Since 2000, the company has developed new video games for
children under the name “Bukashka.” During the twenty-first century, Buka expanded its offerings, with
Pacific Storm (2004) and Metro: Last Light (2013). Since 2010, the company has produced video games for the
iPhone, such as Adventures of the Hunter (2010) (see http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FHgYX3YZAEY).
Another well-known Russian company, IT Territory, was founded in 2004 and is engaged in developing and
publishing massively multiplayer online games such as Legend: Legacy of the Dragons (2006) and casual games.
In December 2007, IT Territory became a part of the holding company Astrum Online Entertainment, along
with Nival Online, Time Zero, and Nikita Online. Finally, the company Gameland is the leading publisher
of game magazines including Land Games and PC Games, and the owner of the Internet portal http://www
.gameland.ru.
Without downplaying the role of the “old” Russian companies that produced video games, it should be
recognized that today Russia is dominated by relatively “new” companies for the development and creation
of social online video games: Mail.ru Group (http://corp.mail.ru ), Crazy Panda ( http://crazypanda.ru ), Crazy Panda
(http://crazypanda.ru), Plar-), Plar- ), Plarium (http://plarium.com/ru/), and Social Quantum (http://www.socialquantum.ru),
which control 50% of the Russian video game market (“Review: Gaming market in Russia in 2011” 2012, 18). Mail.Ru Group
is the most popular Russian free e-mail service, and also—as the operator of two leading Russian social networks,
MoiMir@Mail.Ru and Classmates—owns a significant stake in the social network Vkontakte. Mail.RuGroup is
actively engaged in browser-based video games (including games in social networks and mobile devices), and
owns the rights to seventy online games in Russia, including the foreign Perfect World (2005), The Lord of the
Rings Online (2007), Warface (2013), and their own developments such as Legend: Legacy of the Dragons (2006),
Allods Online (2010), and more.
The young company Crazy Panda is another developer of social and mobile video games, such as Zaporozhye
(2011), and its online games have (as of summer 2013) more than 50 million registered users. Among Plarium’s
hits are the popular video games Stormfall: Age of War (2012), War of Thrones (2011), MarketCity (2013), and Poker
Shark (2012).
Indigenous Video Game Culture
Today, video games are not only used for entertainment, they are used extensively in teaching languages,
history, geography, art, and science. But they still attract a broad audience, especially games that are fun and
entertaining, with a fascinating story. In the spirit of postmodern trends, modern video games have absorbed
almost the entire arsenal of entertaining tales and myths, comic books (with their brutal one-dimensional
characters), and film genres (action, science fiction, thriller, detective, comedy, romance, erotica, etc.).
According to Savitskaja, for players, the “official role” of mythology in modern computer games is
as a hidden language of the unconscious in common with the style of their dreams, hence the increasing
popularity of psychoanalytic interpretations of games based on the identification of natural, virtual dreams
with mass-market versions of virtualization awareness, one of the most popular formats of high-tech global
mass culture (special effects in blockbuster movies, computer games, amusement parks, computerized laser
shows, etc.). (Savitskaja 2012)
Social communication skills are an important aspect related to video games, which include the ability to
play in a band, the sharing of information about video games in networks, forums, chat rooms, and the use
of mobile communications. For video game players, communication is characterized by the diversity of the
virtual world (which is patterned after the real world or immerses players in a world of fantasy that encour-
ages the development of creative thinking activities); the reversibility of acts done in the virtual environment
(except, perhaps, in MMORPGs); and the anonymity of people entering into voluntary gamer communication
in social networks, which is observed as far as it is acceptable for them (Yugay 2008, 22).The main proper-
ties of the virtual culture of video games (as a product of globalization) include bringing people together in
new subcultures as a form of communication; the formation of new types of relationships that characterize
geographic, democratic, and broad social and cultural differentiation; psychological manifestations of human
creative freedom in virtual environments; and active use of the opportunities that are not available to a per-
son in real life (Yugay 2008,12).
Video games can develop certain abilities, including skills involving working with three-dimensional and
two-dimensional spaces, attention (selectivity and distribution), working memory, logical and strategic think-
ing (in certain game genres), and spatial reasoning. Typically, gamers make informed, deliberate decisions,
but are also willing to take risks. According to some authors, a gamer’s willingness to take risks can be useful
in business (Voiskunsky and Bogacheva 2013, 4–5, 12–13). Negative effects are also possible, such as emotional
enthusiasm that develops into addiction or causes a full withdrawal into the virtual world, resulting in irrepa-
rable damage to the health of the gamer. In addition, many video games that involve the user interactively
in acts of bloody violence can negatively affect the psychological state of players, especially underage ones.
I conducted research regarding the gaming audience in Taganrog, which showed that Russian students tend
to choose exactly this type of game, with virtual worlds that allow one to kill with impunity and beat or fight
opponents (Fedorov 2005, 88–96).
445
Boys are especially emotionally reactive and aggressive while playing video games, enthusiastically
recounting the bloody scenes and weapons list. “My favorite game is about worms,” says Peter W. (seven years
old). “They have ‘wet’ worms, so that the blood is sprinkled on all sides, for it gives life!” (Brevnova 2012, 22).
Of course, video games clearly meet the need to discharge and release aggression in a safe direction for soci-
ety, but the child “still very often confuses fiction with reality, especially since the game involves everyday
activities” (ibid.).
A sociological study in Russia (the survey was conducted in December 2012 in cities with populations of
more than 100,000 people; 2,033 people over the age of thirteen were surveyed) showed that motivation and
behavior in video games is expressed as follows: achievement of goals in a game (76%), the training of intel-
ligence and skills development (73%), immersion in a story and its atmosphere (64%), rest from everyday life
(62%), entertainment (45%), obtaining an aesthetic pleasure from the game’s story/characters, etc. (33%), and
playing with friends (19%) (“Game market in Russia” 2012, 22). At first glance, it seems paradoxical that the
motive of entertainment gained only 45% of gamers’ votes. However, it should be noted that achieving the
game’s objective (76%), immersion in the story and its atmosphere (64%), and rest from one’s daily routine
(62%) in video games are also related to their main function, which is entertainment.
The average age of video game players among the urban population of Russia is thirty-three years (54% of
them women and 46% men), 45% of them are married, and 58% have children (“Game Market in Russia” 2012,
13, 29), which proves that games are interesting to not only teenagers, but also adults. Furthermore, 87% of
the Russian Internet audience plays video games more often than once per month, and 50% of them play every
day. Due to the intense proliferation of tablet computers and smartphones, the number of Russian gamers
who play video games on these devices has increased, to about 40% to 50% of the surveyed Internet users. And
about 60% of Russian Internet users play video games online in cities with populations of more than 100,000
people. Most Russian players spend about 30% of their leisure time playing video games, both on weekdays
and weekends. As much as 75% of Russian gamers are paying for the use of video games, and their spending on
this hobby is approximately 19% of their total spending on leisure. Comparatively, the other major expenses
of Russian gamers are restaurants and cafés (24% of total spending), sports (20%), and cinema (16%) (“Game
Market in Russia” 2012, 24).
Thus, Russian video game players are said to form a subcultural association; “gamers share a certain view
of the world, members of the gaming community have a similar status in the real world (a single age group,
income level, and education). This community is characterized by its own symbolic level (attributes, symbols,
jargon, and subcultural folklore). Gamers are aware of themselves as the elite community Homo ludens, and
are a significant part of the network society, which has already become an integral part of many cultures of
everyday life” (Vasilyeva, Efimov, and Zolotov 2009, 208).
In recent years, Russia has increasingly created special training courses on video games, in which univer-
sity students learn basic approaches and concepts of cultural and anthropological analyses of video games,
the history and theory of media and video games, and the structural and generic features of video games and
computer games, and they learn to competently discuss the problems of the uses of video games in culture
and everyday life. Dr. Dmitry Galkin from Tomsk State University, Russia, developed the following content for
the training course on video games:
• Introduction to the study of the phenomenon of culture studies problems of the game
• Historical and cultural analyses of the development of video games
• Genre structure and variety of video games
• Aesthetic features of computer games
• The narrative and visual structure of video games
• Cognitive effects: video games and the development of age-related problems
• Social effects: the proliferation of video games and violence
• Therapeutic effects: video games as medical instruments
• Gaming experience in a multimedia environment: trends and technologies (Galkin 2008, 2)
Video Game Players in Russia
Russian researchers of the twenty-first century have repeatedly addressed the topic of video games (Fedorov
2005; Tkacheva 2006; Savitskaya 2012; and others). According to I. V. Anisimova,78.1% of video game players
are thirty years old or younger, and 90.3% are male. At the same time, young men prefer games with three-
dimensional graphics, role-playing games, strategy games, and puzzle games, while girls prefer adventure
games and card games (Anisimova 2004, 20). These studies prove that video games have aroused people’s
aggression, anger, addiction to the scenes of virtual violence, emotional alienation (Anisimova 2004, 20), and
are addictive (Lipkov 2008; Piljugin 2010). Similar phenomena were identified in my own study of underage
gamers in Taganrog (Fedorov 2005).
Comparing the responses of children from different years, we find an increase of interest in the virtual
world not only in adults, university students, and grade-school children, but also in preschool children. In
2007, 80% of Russian preschoolers said that they have a home computer; by 2008, this figure had increased to
92%, and by 2009, it had risen to 98%. The percentage who were able to play and enjoyed playing computer
games rose from 58% of preschool children in 2007, to 82% in 2008 and 94% in 2009. An even more rapidly
growing number of children play computer games on their own without the help of adults; from 28% in 2007
to 62% in 2009. The most popular games among preschoolers are various video game simulators that allow the
player to control cars, planes, and helicopters. Boys are usually more passionate about these games, whereas
girls seem to prefer games requiring the care of virtual animals. (Brevnova 2012, 20–21).
While the sociological study of the urban population of Russia (with a sample of 2,033 respondents in cit-
ies with a population of over 100,000 residents) showed that 87% of the urban Internet audience plays video
games more often than once a month, and 50% play every day (“Game Market in Russia” 2012, 11, 20–21),
in the whole of Russia, these figures are much more modest, according to the research company GfK-
Rus, which conducted a survey in April 2010 in fifty-two regions, territories, and republics of the Russian
447
Federation with a sample of 2,205 respondents (including small towns and rural populations, for whom Internet
access is often difficult). According to GfK-Rus, the number of Russians who play video games totaled 28.4
million people (that is, not more than 24% of the adult respondents), 34% of whom play video games each
day, which is 16% less than in cities with a population of over 100,000 residents. The number of video gamers
in rural areas (17.7%) is significantly lower than the urban average in Russia (Davydov and Nemudrova 2011,
110–111).
In general, the share of gamers among Russian men is 32.6% (including 12% who are active), and among
women these figures are much lower (16.5% and 4.9%, respectively). The sixteen- to nineteen-year-old age
group accounts for the peak gaming activity (62.1% of these, including 30.3% with a very high level of activ-
ity). Among Russians ages forty to forty-nine, 15.1% are active players, and with a further increase in age, the
figure is sharply reduced (Davydov and Nemudrova 2011, 111). If 45% urban gamers (in Russian cities with a
population of more than 100) are married (“Game market in Russia” 2012, 13, 29), in general, only 19% of Rus-
sian married respondents play video games.
According to sociological studies, the typical domestic employment of video game players are school or
university students (66.6%), employees with higher education (33.1%), or unemployed (31.5%), with the time
spent by Russian gamers on video games at 126 minutes per day, on average (Davydov and Nemudrova 2011,
111). The largest subgroup, 34.2% of the total number of Russian players, make up the so-called conservatives,
for whom games are an insignificant part of their lives. The average age of its members is 34.6 years, and it is
the only subgroup in which the majority (56.2%) were women. Only 14.5% of “conservatives” play video games
daily. But gamers who are “fans” (9.1% of Russian video game players) are young men with a mean age of 25
years. The average playing time for this group (often spent on online games and social network games) is the
highest of all groups at 195 minutes per day. “These people tend to collect media about their favorite games,
are interested in software development (a little less than half of them also want to become a developer). The
most active fans get their information about new games from the media” (Davydov and Nemudrova 2011,
113–115).
Moreover, among the entire gaming audience, the most popular genres of games were puzzle games and
jigsaw puzzles. They attracted 47.5% of respondents, whereas 30.8% prefer games like everyone else. In sec -
ond place were racing games (41% of gamers’ preferences), and in third, shooting games (27.1%) (Davydov and
Nemudrova 2011, 117).
The Future of Video Games in Russia
As mentioned earlier, in recent years video games have become more and more popular in Russia, which led
to the fact that at the end of 2012, profits from sales of various types of video games for the first time exceeded
the profits of film distribution. Due to the rapid growth in sales of new generation TVs, a significant increase
in games is possible, especially those capable of full HD and 3-D.
Pr
With the development and further expansion of the Internet in Russia (including niche rural areas), we
can expect significant increases in the online game market, and with the increase in sales of smartphones and
tablets will come increased profits from mobile games and cross-platform games.
References
Anisimova, I. V. 2004. Features of computer culture of students in Modern Russia: A sociological analysis. PhD
diss., Ekaterinburg: Ural State University
Belyantsev, A. E., and I. Z. Gerstein. 2010. The image of the country through a computer game: The historical
and political aspects. Bulletin of the Nizhny Novgorod University 6:279–283.
Brevnova, Y. A. 2012. Computer games in the modern subculture of childhood (socio-cultural aspects). PhD
diss., Moscow: State Academy of Slavonic Culture.
Chernov, A. I., A. U. Morozov, P. A. Puchkov, and E. N. Abdullaev. 2009. Computer Lessons for History and
Social Science: A Guide for Teachers. Moscow: Education.
Davydov, S. G., and T. A. Nemudrova. 2011. The experience of the Russian audience segmentation gamers.
Sociology 32:104–123.
Fedorov, A. V. 2005. School students and computer games with screen violence. Russian Education & Society 47
(11):88–96.
Galkin, D. V. 2008. The Work Program of the Discipline:” Computer Games as a Cultural Phenomenon.” Tomsk:
Tomsk State University.
Game market in Russia. 2012. Final Report. Moscow: Mail.ruGroup.
Gulyaeva, E. V. and Y. A. Soloviev. 2012. Computer Games in the Lives of Preschoolers. Psychological Science
and Education 2:5–12.
Lipkov, A. I. 2008. Pandora’s Box: The Phenomenon of Computer Games in the World and in Russia . Moscow:
LKI.
Piljugin, A. E. 2010. Dependence on video games as a consequence of the deficit experienced by adolescent
subjectivity. Herald TSPU 5:115–118.
Review of the game market in Russia in 2011. 2012. Moscow: Mail.ruGroup.
Russobit, M. 2008. Confrontation: Peace Enforcement. http://www.russobit-m.ru/catalogue/item/

protivostoyanie-prinuzhdenie_k_miru/.
Savitskaya, T. E. 2012. Computer games: A step to the culture of the future? Culture in the Modern World 4.
http://infoculture.rsl.ru.
449
Tkacheva, N. 2006. Russian users of computer games. Regular research “Russian Target Group Index”—
TGI-Russia 1:14.
Vasilyeva, N. I., P. I. Efimov, and T. A. Zolotov. 2009. “The man who plays”: A picture of the world in the sub-
culture of gamers. In Internet and Folklore, 202–208. Moscow: Russian Folklore Center.
Voiskunsky, A. E., and N. V. Bogachyova. 2013. The learning potential of computer games. In Third International
Scientific and Practical Conference, “Psychological assistance to vulnerable persons using remote technology.”
Moscow City Psychological and Pedagogical University.
Yugay, I. I. 2008. The computer game as a genre of art at the turn of the twentieth–twenty-first centuries. PhD
diss., St. Petersburg: St. Petersburg University of Humanities.
Zaitchik, A. 2007. Soviet-era arcade games crawl out of their Cold War graves. Wired, June. http://archive
.wired.com/gaming/hardware/news/2007/06/soviet_games

ISSN 2500-1078, E-ISSN 2500-3712
Vol. 3, Is. 1, pp. 32-52, 2015
DOI: 10.13187/pwlc.2015.3.32
www.ejournal47.com
UDC 378
Western World in the Russian Screen (1992–2015)
Abstract
Analysis of the transformation of the image of the West in the Russian screen (1992–2015),
including the ideological, social analysis, stereotypes analysis of a character analysis of
identification, iconographic, plot / narrative, representative analysis, classification of content
models and modifications of the genre allows us to draw the following conclusions. Content
analysis of Russian films created in the post-Soviet period 1992–2015's, allows to represent their
basic narrative scheme as follows: pull the West as a symbol of a better life for the Russians
(emigration to the West, marriage / love relationship, criminal activity, and others in the 1990s,
this story is colored diagram showing the low level of life, deprivation of Russians); the joint
struggle of the Russian and Western intelligence services, military, terrorism and crime (this theme
is characteristic of Russian films of the 1990s); fight the Russian special services or individual
Russians with Western spies and criminals, supported by the West (the scheme became clearly
manifest in the Russian cinema of the XXI century). In contrast to the period of 1946–1991 years,
Russian films on the western topic in 1992–2015 fueled not only confrontational subjects (military
confrontation, spying, mafia, etc.), But also (especially in 1990) history of cooperation, Russia and
the West mutual assistance. But on the whole post-Soviet Russian cinema inherited traditions of
Russian relations with the West: in most feature films image of the West is interpreted as a way of
"Alien", "Other", often hostile, alien to Russian civilization. In view of the above it would be overly
optimistic to expect that evolved over the centuries stereotyped concept of Western World image
on the Russian screens may change in the near future.
Keywords: hermeneutical analysis, Russia, West, USA, film, film studies.
1. Introduction
Post-communist era created a lot of cinematic myths:
The first myth: after the collapse of the Soviet Russian cinema has dramatically increased its
interest in the Western theme.
In fact, the number of Russian films about the West and Western characters decreased: 12 Soviet
film per year from 1946 to 1991 in the USSR, and about 10 per year from 1992 to 2015...
The second myth: Russian cinema completely switched to the creation of a positive image of the
West after the collapse of the Soviet Union.
32
Even a cursory look at the filmography 1992-2015 easily refutes this thesis. After overcoming
the initial euphoria of admiration for the Western way of life in the first half of the 1990s, Russian
cinema of the XXI century in many ways returned to the confrontational model of the Soviet times.
The third myth: West has always been associated with a hostile world in the Russian films in the
post-Soviet period.
Yes, this kind of image of the West continues to be cultivated in a number of Russian films,
but there are many examples of a different kind...

The main materials for this article was the area: the books, articles and Russian films about
methods of empirical research: collecting information related to the research subjects.
The effectiveness of such methods has been proven as the Western (R. Taylor, D. Youngblood,
A. Lawton et al.), And Russian (N. Zorkaya, A. Kolesnikova, M. Turovskaya) researchers. I used
also the method of hermeneutic analysis of the cultural context of media texts (Eco, 1976;
Silverblatt, 2001).
3. Discussion
Serial mass culture has great influence upon the audience. Here the backbone properties of
serials come into action: 1) long-term narration, 2) discontinuity of the narration, 3) special plot
organization of the series which require certain identity of their structure and repetition of separate
parts, 4) the presence of fabulous characters, permanent heroes (or the group of heroes) (Zorkaya,
1981: 59). Besides the creators of media texts of mass culture take into consideration the
“emotional tone” of perception. Sameness, monotony of plot situations often leads the audience to
stop the contact with the media text.
That’s why in the works of such professionals as Steven Spielberg the change of episodes
which cause “shocking” and “soothing” reactions takes place, however with constant happy ending
which causes positive “relaxation”. In other words, among popular media texts there are many of
those which can be easily divided into parts (often interchangeable). Chiefly it is necessary that
these parts were connected by well thought-out mechanism of “emotional drops” – the alternation
of positive and negative emotions felt by the audience.
Many bestsellers and blockbusters are built up according to the similar “formula of success”
including folklore, mythological basis, compensation of these or those feelings lacking in the lives
of the audience, happy ending, the use of spectacular scenes. Their action is usually built up on the
quite fast change of short (in order not to bore the audience) episodes (for recent Russian film
examples I can recall, for example, Take Tarantino, Golden Section, Fort Ross, cinema / TV
version of Spy Novel by B. Akunin, which appeared on the screens called The Spy). Let’s add the
sensational informativeness as well: the events take place in various exotic places, in the center of
the plot is the world of Evil, and the main hero, almost fabulous character, stands against it. He is
handsome, strong and charming. He comes out of all the supernatural situations safe and sound
(a great occasion for identification and compensation). Besides many episodes touch upon human
emotions and instincts (for example, the sense of fear). The serial character of the film is present, it
presupposes sequels.
With more or less technical splendor of a media text of mass success like action movie we can
single out the additional components of success: fights, skirmish, chases, beautiful women,
disturbing music, the feelings of the characters which are bursting forth, minimized dialogues,
maximized physical actions and other “dynamic” attributer which are rightly described by
R. Corliss (Corliss, 1990: 8). Indeed, a contemporary media text (film/television/clip, internet,
computer game) sets up higher claims for eyesight because we must watch every inch of the frame
waiting for flash-like stunts and special effects. Together with their high-speed technical
inventiveness, surface polish and sound cynicism, “dyna-films” are the ideal kind of art for the
generation brought up by MTV, blinded by the light flashes of videoclips, accustomed to films with
bloody scenes (Corliss, 1990: 8).
At that it’s worth mentioning that in many cases the creators of “mass” media texts wittingly
simplify, trivialize the life material which they touch upon, evidently trying to attract that part of
33
the young audience which enthusiastically plays computer games based on these or those actions of
virtual violence. There’s no doubt that there’s logic in this, and N. Berdyaev justly wrote that
culture in the noble sense of this word is difficult for the masses which are not accustomed to the
cultural goods and values, for them technical equipment is relatively easier (Berdyaev, 1990: 229).
At the same time all this is only a part of success of a mass culture media text, because its
popularity depends on the hypnotic influence on perception. Instead of the primitive adapting to
the tastes of “the broad masses”, the “secret subconscious interest of the crowd” on the level of
“irrational feat and intuitive irradiation” is divined (Bogomolov, 1989: 11).
Similar plots having fallen into a common “craftsman’s” hands or, for instance, into Steven
Spielberg’s, gather different scales of audience. Masters of popular media culture have perfectly
mastered the art of creation of multi-level works, calculated on people of different ages,
intelligences and tastes. Thus appear certain half-stylizations and half-parodies alternately with
“half-seriousness”, with countless allusions to the films of the past years, direct quotations,
references to folklore and mythology, and so on, and so forth.
For example for some viewers the media text of Spielberg’s series about Indiana Jones will be
equivalent to viewing the classic The Thief of Bagdad. For others which are more experienced in
media culture it will be a fascinating and ironical journey into the realm of folklore and fairy-tale
archetypes, cinematic associations, delicate parodies. Moreover one of the special features of the
contemporary social situation besides standardization and unification is that popular media culture
adapts the peculiar methods which are characteristic of “author’s” works. This is another example
of pluralism of popular media culture calculated on satisfaction of different demands of the
audience.
In my opinion, this is not due to adequate perception by youth audience of post-modern
standards, allusions and associations. Just a short duration of the clip, a quick change of plans
installation, resilient, dynamic audiovisual rhythm is not allowed audience to miss even the most
inexperienced in the media language. And this is also evident pluralism of popular media culture,
designed to meet the differentiated audience requests.
The therapeutic effect, the phenomenon of compensation is also necessary for the mass
success of a media text. It is natural that a person compensates the feelings and emotional
experience missing in his real life. S. Freud wrote that culture must mobilize all its forces to restrict
the original aggressive desires of man and inhibit their manifestations by means of creation of the
necessary psychological reactions (Freud, 1990: 29).
In his action movie Indiana Jones and the Kingdom of the Crystal Skull (2008) S. Spielberg
collected a bouquet of virtually all usual Western stereotypes with respect to Russia and the
Russians. Indeed, the beast-like Soviet soldiers in full combat gear and with corresponding combat
equipment who somehow managed to get to the USA look mockingly grotesque on the screen.
Wikipedia rightly points out the burlesque “errors”: the commander of the Soviet landing troops
Irina Spalko is acting by order of Stalin, though by the time the actions in the film take place (1957)
he has already been dead for four years; the Soviet soldiers dressed in American military uniform,
are armed with Chinese submachine guns; the Soviet soldiers are openly walking the American
deserts and jungles in Soviet uniform, they drink vodka and dance “kalinka-malinka” to the
accompaniment of balalaika.
Anyhow S. Spielberg turned Indiana Jones and the Kingdom of the Crystal Skull into a
digest of stereotyped perception of the image of Russia and the Russians by the Western world of
cinema…
Thus, among the distinctive features of the present socio-cultural situation in addition to the
standardization and harmonization can be identified adaptation of a popular media culture specific
language techniques inherent only in art house before. In this sense it is very important of clips’
perception characteristic of mass audience. It would seem that there was a paradoxical situation: in
video clips (music video) very often used the opening of the media avant-garde: the quaint,
kaleidoscopic, ragged assembly, complex associative, solarization, the transformation of volumes,
shapes, colors and light, "flashbacks", "rapid" and other special effects. But these clips have the
mass audience for them.
Thus the success of media texts of popular culture is influenced by many factors: the basis on
folklore and mythological sources, constancy of metaphors, orientation toward the consecutive
realization of the steadiest plot schemes, the synthesis of natural and supernatural, the address to
34
emotions through identification (the imaginary transformation into the characters, fusion with the
atmosphere of the work), “magical power” of the characters, standardization (replication,
unification, adaptation) of the ideas, situations, characters, etc., serial and mosaic character of the
work, compensation (the illusion of realization of cherished might-have-been dreams), happy
ending, the use of such rhythmical organization of audiovisual media texts when not only the
contents but also the order of frames influences the emotions of the audience; intuitive guessing of
subconscious interests of the audience, etc.
4. Results
Total Russian socio-cultural, political and ideological context of the period of "reform era"
1992-2015 years:
- Economic reform, revival of private property, the "shock therapy"; a sharp division of
society into the rich few and the masses of the population at risk of poverty;
- The decline of Russian industry;
- An attempted coup in the autumn of 1993;
- The war in Chechnya (1990s);
- Attempt to solve the economic problems with the help of loans from the West (1990s);
- The gradual revival of the economic potential of the country, primarily due to the
revitalization of the oil and gas sector (the beginning of the XXI century);
- The military conflict in South Ossetia in August 2008;
- The economic crisis (since 2008);
- The crisis of Russian reforms abroad 2010s;
- The events in the Crimea and the war in the Ukraine in 2014.
- Western anti-Russian sanctions and Russian anti-Western sanctions (2014-2015).
- Russia's participation in the anti-terrorist war in Syria (2015-2015).
The collapse of the USSR, the beginning of radical economic reforms in Russia in 1992, a
huge drop in the living standards of the population, a rise of a crimes and mass emigration...
Russian screen responded to this surge of the dark movies and films about good rich West.
A comedy of On Deribasovskaya Good Weather, or on Brighton Beach Raining Again
(1992) was among the first Russian movies try to get away from the traditional anti-Americanism
and anti-Western tendencies.
It is interesting to see how the American dream is reflected not only in the subjects, but also
of the names of Russian films of the 1990s: Alaska, Sir (1992), On Deribasovskaya Good Weather,
or on Brighton Beach Raining Again (1992), Our American Borya (1992), American Grandfather
(1993), Bride from Miami (1993), Colorado (1993), A Train to Brooklyn (1994), American
Daughter (1995).
However, despite all the charm of America, Russian filmmakers are still attracted both ever-
burning light Parisian lights and the Italian beauty: Bride from Paris (1992), Italian Contract
(1993), Window into Paris (1993), Cloak of Casanova (1993), Roman "alla russo" (1993), French
and Russian Love (1994), French Waltz (1994), Envy of the Gods (2000)...
For example, in the melodrama Envy of the Gods (2000) Russian married woman falls in love with
a French translator. But their passionate "last tango in Moscow" was in the time the cold war
1983…
In the comedy Bride from Paris, the young woman comes to Saint-Petersburg in order to
find the material for her research paper, but falls in love with the young cute lawyer. The movie is
simple, easy, not claiming for the deep thought irony. Petersburg's streets of the 1990's are shown
as the place for endless meetings, actions of protest. The lawyer's neighbor looks like the cartoon
strip hero, who has robbed and cheated his whole life, and now dreams to get away to France.
The poor lawyer in his thirties, with tired eyes he watches the optimistic enthusiasm of his Paris
guest, for whom all the Russian problems seem like some fun roller coaster: everything is new to
her, everything is interesting - dumb faces of militia men, taking her to the police station, because
she was so careless to walk without her identification card, the absence of cold and hot water, etc.
It's a pity, that the authors didn't (or couldn’t because of finance) invite the French actress for
the main part. Alexandra Zakharova performs the French sometimes funny, however, only the a
little number of audience would believe she came from Paris. Known by the Little Vera (1988)
35
actor Andrei Sokolov plays the Russian lawyer-melancholic without special effort, maybe, having
logically decided that he needn't work out on 100% for the comedy of such level. The standard
patriotic final of the movie (having the chance live in France, the heroes, got married, decided to
stay in Russia) doesn't make the rating of Bride from Paris higher.
Another film with French motives is psychological drama To See Paris and Die.
… The 1960's Moscow. Single mother (performed by T. Vassilieva) gives all her love and
energy to her son – piano player. She tries hard that it was he who will go to the prestigious musical
competition in Paris. Being afraid of the anti-Semitism, a l l these years she concealed from her son
that his father is Jewish. But a new neighbor appears in their building, which learns her secret.
With all this, the plot sounds like the Mexican soap opera however, the director managed to
fill it with many psychological details; lifestyle trifles, not making the special accent on retro style.
However the main success of the movie is the highest of T. Vassilieva. The complicated bunch of
feelings can be seen in her character. From the proudness for her outstanding son, to the fear, from
love to hatred, from boldness to collapsing, from mocking irony to the defendless tenderness.
A "small man" trying to go against his fate. Love, ruined by the regime, suppressing the
freedom of an individual. These themes not new to the Russian art but their version in the movie of
Alexander Proshkin doesn't leave one indifferent. For a long time it was common for Russian critics
to accuse cinema of absence of the professional, three-four star movies: like there's masterpieces of
Tarkovsky or not professionalism. Movies like To See Paris and Die prove that the spectrum of the
“gold middle" in Russia has widened a lot.
As I told, French motifs are very popular in Russia. ―To see Paris and die‖ – the title of a
A. Proshkin film – become the theme of a lot of Russian films. And the characters from Y. Mamin’s
comedy fantasy The Window into Paris can be instantaneously transported between St-Petersburg
communal houses and the center of modern Paris. Y. Mamin plays up the essential difference
between Slav and Western mentalities rather successfully.
One unlucky Frenchwoman, who finds herself almost naked in a dirty Petersburg yard, is
absolutely unable to get used to situations that surround all Russians from childhood, while
Russian citizens – having discovered a magical route to France – in several days begin to trade in
the French stock market and steal whatever isn’t fastened down. Against such a background, the
figure of a failed musician, an aged romantic who just wants to get pleasure from the sudden gift of
fate, seems funny and odd.
Maybe the best joke of the film, in which Mamin sounds the highest note of pitiless sarcasm,
is the sequence about a restaurant musician who moved to France about ten years ago. Lazily
offering cognac to a former friend, he abuses Frenchmen and their customs, sentimentally recalls
Russia and almost cries while saying that he would give everything for an opportunity to return to
St-Petersburg just for one minute. As a gag, his friend fulfils this wish (via the magical “open
window”). But instead of the expected ecstasy, the emigrant – seeing an armored car in front of the
St-Petersburg railway station – falls into despair.
before the cozy foreign fireplaces of restaurants with a view of the Sein, the Thames or the Hudson.
for young businessmen, hanging portraits of political leaders have been replaced by gigantic dollar
symbols), but they are side by side with useless dialogue and events.
The finale of the film – driven by the slogan “We don’t need French shores” – isn’t, frankly
speaking, new. There are, however, more successes in The Window into Paris than stereotypes.
The Prophecy is perhaps the most sorrowful film of E. Riazanov. It even has a gloomy outset:
a famous writer learns from a Gypsy fortune-teller that only a day is left for him to live and he is to
meet with an unexpected man.
In that mystical tone a young man with the same name and same temple scar appears in the
writer’s flat. Who is this mysterious double – phantom or guardian angel? The answer remains
open throughout the film.
So the time of summing-up comes for the tired writer, shaken by life. He is well-to-do in
Russian terms: he has an apartment in the center of Moscow, a car and video camera, and his
books are published in Paris. But, characteristically for a man living in a country of endless
admonitions, distress his look reveals the effect of freedom’s absence. And it’s not because of the
36
peculiarities of his biography (his father perished during the repressions, his mother is Jewish –
which he couldn’t mention for a long time – and his wife died in a car accident). The brand of
unfreedom is stamped on practically everybody in Russia, except those under 20.
In that regard, the choice of actress for the leading female role was perfect: French star Irene
Jacob. Though her character is just a modest cashier in a bank, she can be at once distinguished
from the surrounding Russian fuss by her uncommon expression. She becomes a fairy princess
and, probably, the writer’s last love… for this princess is colored by the shade of nostalgia for
unrealized dreams.
In contrast with Riazanov’s previous works, there is little topical populism – although the
conclusion is connected with one of the most widespread script devices in Russia today (escaping
from Mafia pursuit, the hero tries to leave for Israel). Sensitive to his audiences’ mood, Riazanov
couldn’t but feel that a mass interest in cinematic political investigations and revelations has
almost disappeared, while the need for melodramatic love stories is great.
Actually, The Prophecy can’t be called melodrama. There are comedy episodes (a visiting
fanatic suggests that the writer burn himself in Red Square as protest against something – it’s not
important against something – it’s not important against what, the main thing is to perform the
action), and there are elements of a parable. I don’t find such a genre alloy organic and convincing.
This seems to be the director’s attempt to get a second wind.
One way or another, but in the majority of Russian films end of XX - beginning of
XXI century there were various situations related to emigration and / or marriage / love (happy
and not so) Russian to foreigners or the former Soviet / Russian citizens who have received foreign
citizenship . Sometimes it's a comedy (Our American Borya, 1992; Bride from Paris, 1992; Bride
from Miami, 1993; Mistress from Moscow, 2001; Secret Meeting, 2001; Light Kiss, 2002; Marry
in 24 hours, 2004; Inhibited Reflexes, 2004; Kings Can Do Everything, 2008; Train Moscow-
Russia, 2014, and others), sometimes - melodramas (The Road to Paradise, 1993; Colorado, 1993;
Roman "alla russo" (1993), Russian Bride, 1993; You Are Only One, 1993; Cloak of Casanova,
1993; French and Russian Love, 1994; French Waltz, 1994; American Daughter, 1995; All will be
Well, 1995; The Barber of Siberia, 1998; Envy of the Gods, 2000; The Frenchman, 2003; Paris
love of Kostya Gumankov, 2004; Walking in Paris, 2010; The Spaniard, 2011, etc.) or drama
(The golden Head on the Block, 2004; Yesenin, 2005; Peter. Summer. Love, 2014; Hero, 2015,
etc.).
For example, the writer and director A. Eyramdzhan has 12 film stories (mostly - comedies) is
dedicated topics amorous adventures of Russians and ex-Russians who received an American
passport.
In the 1990s, the image of the West in the Russian cinema was largely accentuated the
positive, which is largely explained by the illusory conviction of many filmmakers and viewers that
the Western world is almost close to the ideal, that there reigns a total democracy, and unlimited
the possibility of success in life opened for any people. In contrast, life in Russia was dark and poor.
So the film of S. Bodrov's White King, Red Queen (1992) began as a biting comedy of
temperaments. A small Russian trade-union delegation comes to a Swiss town for a conference and
stays in a little hotel. This gives the director cause to show the charms of poor Russians who once in
a blue moon can fall greedily upon the West. There are dinners with tinned fish in the room, the
sale of vodka “for a song”, wild joy upon the receipt of 20 or 30 dollars, an occasion for free
refreshment, and so on. The heroine is a mature woman with sings of former beauty who dully
begins a flirtation with an ex-TV commentator while their colleagues drink spirits from morning till
evening. The situation of Russians who find themselves shameful beggars in prosperous
Switzerland may be a little exaggerated; taking into account the almost comedic plot, however, it
doesn’t seem a falsity.
Further on, the comedy turns smoothly into melodrama: an elegantly dressed man appears in
the hotel; 20 years ago he was a famous Russian chess player who moved to the West, and he has
learned that his old love, by the whim of fate, is in Europe for several days… but, alas, one can’t step
in the same river twice, the previous love can’t be renewed, and the Red Queen doesn’t find enough
strength to stay with the White King.
Bergman or Antonioni, is made with European mastery. Bodrov skillfully observes the laws of the
melodramatic genre with its heightening of emotions and expectant pauses, while accenting the
37
differences in mentality, habits and image of his characters so as to make the film understandable
and accessible to a European audience.
Several years later, A. Surikova in the comedy I Want to the Jail (1998), brought the situation
of unbridled desire to join the Russian character Western values to the point of absurdity. Plunge
into the criminal adventure unemployed Semyon decided to be in the comfortable Dutch prison...
The film was based on opposition to the usual stereotypes: foreigners' minds can not
understand Russia, and, in general, they are inferior to any in the whole Russian Ivan the Fool;
they do everything somehow half-heartedly: eat, drink, and work... But Semyon could easily fix any
Japanese unit, invent supercar and fall in love with a rich Dutch women... You say, if he was so
smart, why are so poor? And why are the Dutch-klutz live in the comfort of the human condition,
but clever Russians forced to hook or by crook to seek opportunities to sit in a Dutch prison - like in
the holiday? The authors of the film have one answer: Russian drink a lot, and hence all their
mess…
In the melodrama You Are Only One (1993) director D. Astrakhan succeeds in expressing the
sensations of average Russian who for one wonderful day experience a “holiday of life” in which
there is no place for nostalgic sentiments and hot arguments on spirituality, in which businessmen
accompanied by suave friends drive about in Fords and Mercedes, lazily count wads of dollar notes,
buy foreign delicacies and telephone New York right from their cars.
The life of 40-year-old Eugeny (A. Zbruev) resembles thousands of others. He has a modest
occupation as engineer in some institution, a flat in a standard tall block, a wife (M. Neyolova)
dreaming of escape from the closed circle of humiliating poverty, and a 16-year-old daughter for
whom her ill-provisioned parents are a vivid demonstration of how one mustn’t live – the
embodiment of her dread of destiny.
characters’ lives. Even scenarist O. Danilov’s move into fantasy doesn’t make their performances
But pride prevents Eugeny from becoming dependent on his old friend, although pride is not
the main problem in his affair with Anna: “I don’t love you, you see! Don’t love!” he cries to his
benefactress in a riveting sequence. A lot of things are mixed in Zbruev’s expression. It would be
good if he spoke so because he was deeply in love with his wife, but not at all… love has smoothly
changed into habit. And if it’s possible to live without rapturous love with one woman, then why is
it impossible with another? There is quite another thing, too – fatigue: hopeless awareness of the
fact that his life is over, that he has no strength to restart everything from zero.
The bitterness of this feeling doesn’t disappear after either Eugeny’s return to his wife or a
Felliniesque postscript with a birthday celebration in the snowy garden of his house. Having
escaped the turn of fate, the heroes of You’re Only One will, several days after the touching
departure of Anna for America, again poison each other’s lives with mutual criticism… and dream
about a separate room for their daughter.
But in the film with the program called All Will be Well (1995) D. Astarhan gave the same
actor A. Zbruev play the coveted audience fabulous twist of fate. Former simple boy from a
provincial town, 20 years later he returned as a millionaire, and even with his son - a Nobel
laureate... In this picture D. Astrakhan with pleasure gave his characters happiness… In short, a
kaleidoscope of the most common situations of soap operas. And all this was served in a frankly
kitsch, parody manner…
Probably the most prominent Russian film of the 1990s, directly affects the relations between
Russia and the West, has become a historical melodrama The Barber of Siberia (1998) by
N. Mikhalkov, the core of which was a love story American and Russian cadet in the late nineteenth
38
century. It seems impossible to approach this film of N. Mikhalkov as a psychological drama on a

real historical material, because this is a synthesis of romantic melodrama and comedy.
In much smaller scale than in the Soviet era, it was continued in the Russian cinema of the
1990s - 2000s, naval and air force subjects (Adventure Troop D (1993), Black Ocean (1998),
Mirror wars. Reflection One (2005), 07th changing course (2007). However, the main focus
shifted from pure-specifically anti-West in the direction of anti-terrorism...
Not good relations between Russia and US/ EU at the XXI century led the Russian cinema about
the Western world / people topic to tendencies of confrontation already familiar from the period of
"cold war" (Brother-2, 2000; Parisian Antique Dealer, 2001; Personal Number, 2004; The Big
Game, 2007; Aliens, 2008; Spy Game, 2008; Olympus inferno, 2009; War Correspondent, 2014,
and others.).
So, with the advent of the economic crisis of 1998, with the departure from the political scene
President B. Yeltsin (1999) and the beginning of the era of President V. Putin (since 2000), with
the change of the relative stabilization of the Russian economic life (2000-2007), followed by the
economic crisis (since 2008) and West-Russia / Russia-West sanctions (since 2014), the phase of
Russian "Western euphoria" gradually losing its actuality.
Brother-2 (2000) was the first sign of return to anti-Western (or rather - anti-American) direction
in the Russian cinema.
"A good killer" Danila learns that the death of his friend guilty of a businessman from
Chicago. Without hesitation, Danila and his brother went to America - to restore order... Genre of
Brother-2 deliberately moved towards black humor and irony. America was taken in the spirit of
the stories of one of the leading political commentators of the Soviet Television of the 1960s-1970s
- professor V. Zorin (1925): the dirty neighborhoods, garbage, prostitutes, unemployed and
gangsters...
The spirit of confrontation "cold war" was and in the spy detective Parisian Antique Dealer (2001).
The thriller Personal Number (2004) accused the West of inciting terrorism. The aggressive West
presented and in the action movie Mirror Wars. Reflection One (2005) where former CIA decide to
push in a military conflict the US and Russia. Muslim terrorists and "corrupt representatives of the
American Business" developed a plan of abduction of the Russian aircraft in 07th changing course
(2007).
The thrillers Olympus Inferno (2009) and War Correspondent (2014) dedicated to the
military conflict in South Ossetia (2008) and Ukraine (2014) with the same plot scheme: Honest
American caught in a war zone. He wants to bring the truth (close to the point of view of the
Moscow media) to Western audience, but his videos and reports are rejected by the leadership of
anti-Russian American TV.
Film critic and director M. Brashinsky made thrash horror film Shopping Tour (2013), where anti-
Western trends were bright comedy-parody coloring: Russian tourists, going by bus in Finland,
becoming victims of... Finnish cannibal: they only up to a certain time hided their sinister nature
behind a mask of European political correctness and integrity...
Anti-Western motives clearly manifested in this period and in the films based on historical
material. In the melodrama Admiral (2008) crafty and cunning Western allies betray the noble
Supreme ruler of Russia A. Kolchak (1874-1920). A very negative portrait of the American secret
services appears on the screen in the docudrama Interrupted Flight of Gary Powers (2009), which
tells about the fate of the pilot spy plane shot down over the Soviet Union May 1, 1960.
From the Russian films of modern times I remember the ugly English type in the comedy
Heat (2006), or foreign bad gay in the drama Duhless (2011)...
But a leader of anti-Western sentiments of the 2000s, in my opinion, was a film Aliens
(2008), in which American doctors, who arrived on a charity mission in one of the Islamic
countries, are shown in the densely indictment manner worthy of similar age peak "cold war".
Of course, in a few Russian films the XXI century the plots were about a successful
cooperation of Russian and foreign intelligence services (Apocalypse Code, 2007; White Sand,
2009), but in general the anti-Western tendencies became actualized again.
However, it should be noted that Western cinema of the last two decades as a whole did not
differ pro-Russian sentiments, as I have already had the opportunity to write in detail previously
(Fedorov, 2010).
39
In general, the Russian films on the western topic in the 1990s and the XXI century used the
genres of comedy, melodrama, thriller and detective. As for the genre of fantasy and fairy tales,
they went into deep shadow for economic reasons: their production, usually several times more
expensive filming comedies and melodramas, but commercial success in no way guaranteed.
Unfortunately, expensive fantastic action Inhabited Island (2008) did not live up to
expectations of financial investors and the public. The ambitious television project The Amphibian
Man. Sea Devil (2004), new adaptation of the A. Belyaev’s novel, came out unsuccessful too… Fairy
tale The Nutcracker (2011) by A. Konchalovsky was, unfortunately, too difficult for the child's
perception and too "childish" for adult audiences.
Perhaps the most successful Russian sci-fi movie of the XXI century was the film adaptation
of the story of Strugatsky brothers The Ugly Swans (2005) by K. Lopushansky. Based on previous
experience (Dead Man's Letters and others.) and motives of fantastic films of A. Tarkovsky,
K. Lopushansky created a kind of fantastic parable about the mysteries and the limitless
possibilities of Reason...
The real serials boom was in the Russian film industry of 1990s - 2000s, because the Russian
audience (especially adult) continued to sit at the TV screens and still not in a hurry to the cinema,
even if equipped with surround sound and image system.
And today the greatest influence on the audience (although the students, young people in
large part has already moved on to the Internet and mobile phones) has a TV mass culture, focused
on the creation of large multi-month (or even perennial!) series (including on Western world topic
Spy Game, Lecturer, The Spy, etc.).
A content analysis of Russian films on the western topic, created in the period from 1992 to
2015 allows to represent their basic narrative scheme as follows:
- Attraction of the West as a symbol of a better life for the Russians (emigration to the West,
marriage / love relationship, criminal activity, etc. in the 1990s, this story is showing also the low
level of life, deprivation of Russians);
- The joint struggle of the Russian and Western intelligence services, military against
terrorism and crime (this theme is characteristic of Russian films of the 1990s);
- Fighting the Russian special services or individual Russians with Western spies and
criminals, supported by the West (the scheme became clearly manifest in the Russian cinema of the
XXI century).
The structure of the stereotypes of Russian drams on the Western world topic
Historical period, the place of action: any time, Russia, the Soviet Union, the United States
and other countries.
Furnishings, household items: a modest dwelling and household items of ordinary Russian
and / or Soviet character, luxury homes and objects of everyday life Western characters, and the
"new Russian".
Methods of reality representation: realistic or quasi-grotesque images of people's lives.
gestures. Positive characters have the democratic ideas; negative characters have inhuman,
terrorist, militaristic ideas. Characters often shared not only social, but also material status.
Positive characters (both Russian and foreign) look pleasant in all respects. Negative characters are
often rude and violent types, from primitive vocabulary, evil or sickly hypocritical persons active
gestures and nasty vocal timbres.
their anti-human ideas (for example, a terrorist act or other crime).
in jeopardy.
40
War. Russia, 2002. Director and screenwriter A. Balabanov.

Historical period, the place of action: Begin of XXI century, Moscow, Chechnya.
Furnishings, household items: differentiated, depending on the specific situation in the
episode (Moscow offices, Chechen villages, the old tower, which kept the defense of the main
characters, etc.).
Methods of reality representation: realistic, seeking documentary objectivity.
gestures: Englishman John, his fiancée, the Russian soldier Ivan, his commander - Captain
Medvedev, Chechen rebel Aslan. Characters shared social and material status.
A significant change in the lives of the characters: the Englishman, his fiancée and Russian
soldiers are held captive by Chechen militants.
A problem: the leader of the militants let John and Ivan from captivity, but leaves the
imprisoned John’s bride, appointing for her release large ransom - two million pounds. Life of
John’s bride is under threat.
The search for solution to the problem: John and Ivan have a plan for deliverance of John’
bride and Captain Medvedev from captivity.
Solution: John and Ivan manage to free John’s bride and Captain Medvedev.
Aliens. Russia-US-Egypt, 2008. Directed by Y. Grymov.

Historical period, the place of action: the beginning of the XXI century, the area of inter-
ethnic conflict in one of the Muslim countries, the United States.
Furnishings, household items: a deserted place, the villages, the American luxury villa.
Methods of reality representation: realistic, without grotesque.
gestures: American doctors, their bourgeois values, which, according to the authors, can be
reduced to the thesis of "the immorality of the prudent." Build, facial expressions, gestures and
vocabulary of characters are within the normal standards. Clothing characters are functional.
Facial expressions and gestures of the characters often boosted.
A significant change in the lives of the characters: a group of American doctors arriving on a
charity mission in one of the Muslim countries in the zone of military conflict.
A problem: a conflict is between the couple of American Physicians (wife is cheating on her
husband). The husband accidentally becomes a murderer.
The search for solutions: American doctor calls his wife a whore, but after returning to the
US he say: "America must act"...
Solution: the American doctor and his wife live happily again in a chic mansion ...
Olympus Inferno. Russia, 2009. Directed by I. Voloshin.

Historical period, the place of action: South Ossetia, August 2008.
Furnishings, household objects: the city streets, interiors of offices and apartments,
mountain countryside, military equipment.
Methods of reality representation: realistic.
gestures: Georgian and Russian soldiers and officers. They shared the ideological status.
The Russians are professional, intelligent and honest soldiers, their speech, facial expressions and
gestures correspond to the army charter. Their opponents are very bad, shooting of civilians... And
those and others dressed in military uniform, with sturdy. Their vocabulary is simple and is subject
to combat conditions. But they are not the main characters. The main characters are the American
scientist and a Russian journalist. These are young people wearing comfortable hiking / travel
clothing, they look nice...
A significant change in the lives of the characters: American Michael arrives in South
Ossetia to study rare night butterflies. Together with the journalist Eugenia he see the flying
insects, but...
A problem: invasion of Georgian troops in South Ossetia, the life of the main characters, as,
indeed, and all the people of South Ossetia is under threat.
The search for solutions: Michael and girl trying to take out of the war zone video
documenting the invasion of the Georgian units.
41
Solution: the invaders are doomed to failure...
The structure of the Russian thriller or detective genre stereotypes on the

western world topic
Historical period, the place of action: any length of time, Russia, the Soviet Union, the
characters, luxury homes and household items of Western characters and the "new Russian" (in the
territory of a hostile country, spies adapted to the housing and living conditions of the enemy).
Methods of reality representation: in general realistic, though sometimes some grotesque
depiction of life in the "hostile states".
gestures: positive (counter-intelligence officers, intelligence agents / spies, saboteurs) and negative
(the same persons, plus - the terrorists, criminals, gangsters, maniacs). Divided by ideology and
worldview or without accentuation of it, the characters tend to have a strong constitution and
appear according to the settings of a media text source: spies and criminals can for some time (up
to expose, for example) to look pretty, but then be sure to find its ugly essence... Western negative
characters seem rude and cruel, unpleasant tone of voice...
A significant change in the lives of the characters: negative characters commit a crime (an
act of terrorism, espionage, blackmail, theft of state secrets, murder and so on.).
The search for solution: crime investigation, prosecution negative characters.
Solution: The positive characters catch / kill of negative caracters.
Big Game. Russia, 2007. Directed by V. Derbenyov.

Historical period, the place of action: the USSR, the Western countries, 1980s.
Furnishings, household objects: streets, modest homes, institutions and objects of everyday
life of the Soviet characters; domestic well-being of the western countries.
Methods of reality representation: a whole is quite realistic...
positive (counter-intelligence officers, Russian intelligence / spy) and negative (the same persons,
plus CIA agents). And a double agent Oleg located between them. Divided by ideology and
worldview, characters have a strong constitution and appear according to the settings of a media
text source: Positive characters are attractive, negative, on the contrary... but Oleg is ambivalent.
Clothing of characters (spies) depends on their current mission and the environment...
A significant change in the lives of the characters: the Soviet counter-intelligence suspects
that the "mole", transmits secret information to the West...
A problem: the secrets of the Soviet counterintelligence are under threat...
Finding a solution to the problem: KGB’s services search for "mole".
Solution: a KGB operation was a success, "mole" unmasked and sentenced to a lengthy term
of imprisonment...
Trap. Russia, 2008. Directed by A. Schurihin.

Historical period, the place of action: Russia and the United States, 2000s.
Furnishings, household objects: offices, streets and apartments.
Methods of reality representation: furnishings, interiors (offices, apartments) look quite
realistic.
Characters, their values, ideas, clothes, physique, vocabulary, facial expressions, gestures: a
positive character is a pretty American company employee Yanovska, dressed and brushed
according to business mode differs slender physique. Negative characters are representatives mafia
business, dressed in expensive suits, looks extremely unpleasant, with fake smiles and a stone in
his bosom.
A significant change in the lives of the characters: the Russian security services becoming
aware that Americans connected with the hydrogen engine and alternative fuel.
A problem: these developments may significantly affect the economic status of Russia.
42
Finding a solution to the problem: the Russian special services call to Yanovskaya ...
Solution: overcoming numerous difficulties and deadly danger Yanovska displays expose the
mafia and their leader.
Spy. Russia, 2012. Directed by Andrianov.

Historical period, the place of action: the USSR, Germany, June 1941.
Furnishings, household items: office rooms, a communal apartment, house, Moscow street,
park, basement, modest homes and household items of ordinary Soviet character, luxury Stalinist
empire in the Palace of the Soviets...
quasi-realistic, although with a significant degree of conventionality and grotesque, because we can
see a fantasy world of Moscow in June 1941, established on the patterns unfulfilled in reality
Stalinist radical reconstruction plan of the capital.
positive (Soviet counterintelligence officers, civilians) and negative (German spies). Divided by
ideology and worldview, male characters have a strong constitution. Female characters are divided
into positive (the bride of the protagonist) and negative (spy). Spies can for some time (to expose)
look pretty, but then be sure to find its hostile entity...
A significant change in the lives of the characters: the main character is a young employee of
the Soviet counterintelligence and his boss (an experienced Major) are given the task to find a
German agent named "Wasser".
A problem: the main character in search of a German agent goodie gets into a life-
threatening situation...
Finding a solution to the problem: death / arrest of several German agents does not give the
desired result: the main resident of the Nazi "Wasser" remains elusive...
Solution: the main positive hero manages to survive, but "Wasser" deceived Stalin and
returned to Berlin…
The structure of the stereotypes of Russian action films on the topic of the Western World
Furnishings, household items: a modest dwelling and household items of simple Russian /
Soviet character, Western luxury homes and everyday objects, as well as the "new Russian" mafia
and corrupt officials; unified billing military facilities (bases, cabins of planes and tanks, decks
warships, submarines compartments).
Methods of reality representation: in general realistic, though sometimes grotesque
gestures. Positive characters (any military arms, civilians) have a democratic ideas; aggressors
(military, saboteurs, terrorists) have inhumane ideas. Divided by ideology and worldview, whether
or not these should focus on, the characters tend to have a strong constitution and appear
according to the settings of a media text source: the western characters are often rude and brutal
types with primitive vocabulary and unpleasant tone of voice.
(armed aggression, acts of terrorism, sabotage, murder).
A problem: violation of the law: a life of positive characters, as often, and the lives of all
peaceful democratic character of the country in jeopardy.
aggression.
Solution: destruction / capture of aggressors, terrorists, bandits; returning to civilian life.
Black Shark. Russia, 1993. Directed by V. Lukin.

Historical period, the place of action: Afghanistan, 1990s.
Furnishings, household items: mountains, deserts, drug manufacturing plant, barracks,
luxurious house of a local oligarch Karahan, helicopters and other military equipment, weapons.
43
Methods of reality representation: quasi-realitic.

Characters, their values, ideas, clothes, physique, vocabulary, facial expressions, gestures.
Positive characters are commando and his co-workers have the human ideas; negative character is
drug lord Karahan and his minions have inhumane ideas. Characters are often dressed in military
or semi-military uniform. Facial expressions and gestures of the characters often boosted.
A significant change in the lives of the characters: Karahan’s mafia built a factory,
manufacturing drugs.
A problem: the powerful drug trafficking, organized Karakhan, threatens the lives of
thousands of people...
Finding a solution to the problem: the US intelligence services are trying to capture
Karahan’s factory, but militants from its protection successfully resist...
Solution: US commandos rescued Assistant - Russian military squad: they destroys caravans
with drugs... Helicopter, which Karahan tried to escape, is destroyed too...
Black Ocean. Russia, 1998. Directed by I. Solovov.

Historical period, the place of action: 1990s. Oceans...
Furnishings, household items: Russian military submarine, ships, underwater, overhead
cabinets Chief of Intelligence of Russia.
Methods of reality representation: texture, interiors, costumes are shown in a realistic
manner.
Russian sailors, submariners have a human values, foreign terrorists have an inhuman values.
Most of the characters are dressed in military naval uniform. Facial expressions and gestures of the
characters often boosted.
A significant change in the lives of the characters: foreign terrorists are developing the
project "Jihad", providing a new kind of biological weapons, changing the human genetic code.
A problem: the existence of humanity is threatened.
Finding a solution to the problem: the main Russian intelligence management can not
decrypt the diskette with information about the new biological weapons.
Solution: the Russian submariners with their lives destroyed containers with biological
weapons...
Russian Special Forces. Russia, 2002. Directed by S. Mareev.

Historical period, the place of action: Russia, early XXI century, St. Petersburg.
Furnishings, household items: Street and vicinity of St. Petersburg, military supplies (form,
weapons, etc.).
Methods of reality representation: texture, interiors, costumes appear conditionally, that is
especially noticeable in this peculiar genre scenes fights and shootings.
Positive Russian special forces (depicted in a grotesque, comedy style). Vocabulary of the
characters is easy, associated with the military specifics. Facial expressions and gestures of the
characters often exaggeration. Their physical development is clearly above average.
A significant change in the lives of the characters: St. Petersburg is preparing to celebrate its
300th anniversary and president’s visit, but a group of international terrorists preparing an attack.
A problem: the life of the president, and the simple citizens of the city is at stake.
Finding a solution to the problem: Russian special forces decide to fight the insolent
terrorists.
Solution: a victory over terrorists.
The structure of the stereotypes of Russian melodramatic films on the Western world topic
Soviet characters (if they do not oligarchs and mafia, "new Russian"), luxury homes and household
items Western characters and the Russian rich.
44
Methods of reality representation: as a rule, realistic or quasi-realistic.

gestures. Male and female characters with contrasting ideological and social status, or without it.
Characters tend to have a slender physique and look quite nice. Their clothes, facial expressions
and vocabulary are "average" framework.
A significant change in the lives of the characters: a meeting of male and female characters
A problem: the national, ideological and / or social misalliance, "culture shock", mutual
misunderstanding.
The search for solution to the problem: the characters overcome national, ideological and
social obstacles in the way of their love.
French and Russian Love. Russia, 1994. Director and screenwriter A. Alexandrov.
Historical period, the place of action: Russia 1990, Moscow.
Furnishings, household items: apartments and the streets of Moscow, a modest household
situation of the protagonist.
Methods of reality representation: in general realistic.
French man and Russian woman (her husband in prison, poverty, etc.) with contrasting social
status. The main characters look quite cute. Their clothes, facial expressions and vocabulary are
"average" framework.
A significant change in the lives of the characters: the Frenchman met with Russian woman
and falls in love with her...
A problem: national and social misalliance, "culture shock", sometimes mutual
misunderstanding.
Finding a solution to the problem: the characters overcome national, and social obstacles to
their love.
Solution: a Frenchman and a Russian woman with tickets to Paris, go to the airport, leaving
the Russians little daughter with her grandmother. The daughter was crying, and the Frenchman
knows that it is also necessary to take...
Envy of the Gods. Russia, 2000. Directed by V. Menshov.

Historical period, the place of action: Moscow, 1983.
Furnishings, household items: a modest dwelling and Soviet characters everyday objects,
studio.
French translator and married woman with contrasting ideological and social status. They are not
too young, but have a slender physique and looks very nice. Their clothes, facial expressions and
A significant change in the lives of the characters: passionate affair between the main
characters.
A problem: the national and political contrast.
Finding a solution to the problem: the main characters trying to overcome the ideological
and social obstacles in the way of their love.
Solution: in spite of the mutual love, no way for the marriage, because of the state ideology of
the Soviet Union...
Frenchman. Russia, 2003. Directed by V. Storozheva.

Historical period, the place of action: Beginning of the XXI century. Russia, a provincial
town. France, Paris.
Furnishings, household items: a luxury Baron de Rousseau castle near Paris, and dull
provincial Russian town, modest homes and household items of ordinary Russian characters.
45
Baron de Russo is a hereditary aristocrat who dreams to find a Russian girl Irina, whom he met
through correspondence. Anna is provincial pretty teacher of French language in a provincial
Russian town. For his visit to Russia, Baron dressed quite modestly. Anna dressed too without any
frills. Vocabulary of characters is simple, facial expressions and gestures at times boosted.
A significant change in the lives of the characters: French baron travels to Russia to meet
with Russian girlfriend Irina, whom he met on the correspondence...
A problem: Some criminals robbed Baron, and he found out that he actually does not
corresponded with Irina, but her friend Anna, which is a good French wrote him a letter on behalf
of Irina ...
Finding a solution to the problem: the Frenchman tries to deal with the situation and in the
process falls in love with Anna ...
Solution: Anna meets Baron reciprocate...
The structure of the stereotypes of Russian comedy films on the topic of Western world
Soviet character, luxury homes and everyday objects of Western characters and "new Russian".
Methods of reality representation: the life of people in the "other countries" are often
represented quasi-grotesque.
gestures. Characters with contrasting ideological and social status, or without it. Clothing of
western characters looks better Russian / Soviet (then again, if these do not belong to the "new
Russian"). Build, vocabulary, facial expressions and gestures are differentiated, but in general, if
the main characters on the plot will fall in love, they have a pleasant appearance.
A significant change in the lives of the characters: the main characters fall in love with any
funny / eccentric circumstances with Western, Russian / Soviet characters.
A problem: the national, social, ideological (the last - in the movies of the Soviet era)
misalliance, "culture shock", mutual misunderstanding.
the social and national barriers.
The solution: a joint problem solving, friendship, or marriage / love harmony, humor
painted.
Bride from Paris. Russia, 1992. Directed by O. Dugladze.

Historical period, the place of action: Russia, St. Petersburg, the beginning of the 1990s.
Furnishings, household items: St. Petersburg street early 1990s show as a venue for endless
meetings, demonstrations, protests, Russian characters are no different home comfort.
Methods of reality representation: conventional (within the genre), sometimes grotesque
prevails.
French graduate student and a Russian lawyer. French clothing looks much better than the
Russian. Build, vocabulary, facial expressions and gestures of the characters are differentiated, but
the main characters are good-looking. Vocabulary of characters is simple, facial expressions and
gestures at times boosted.
A significant change in the lives of the characters: the young French will come to
St. Petersburg to find material for the thesis, and falls in love with handsome lawyer...
A problem: the national, social misalliance, "culture shock", mutual misunderstanding.
Finding a solution to the problem: poor man's lawyer jacked-tired eyes watching the
optimistic enthusiasm of his French guests, for which all Russian troubles seem new attraction in
the amusement park. She was all in wonder, everything is interesting.
Solution: having the opportunity to live in Paris, heroes, getting married, decided to stay in
Russia...
46
Window into Paris Russia, France, 1993. Directed by Y. Mamin.

Historical period, the place of action: 1993. Russia, St. Petersburg. France, Paris.
Furnishings, household items: Paris and St. Petersburg streets, school interiors, a restaurant,
a miserable life of Russians.
Methods of reality representation: the grotesque (as part of the genre), St. Petersburg, Paris
atmosphere, Russian and French characters are shown with ironic sympathy.
Pretty Frenchwoman is a representative of the "middle class." Russian characters: a schoolteacher,
his tenacious neighbors, Russian émigré musician. The main characters wear suits their social
status. Some of them are vulgar. Vocabulary of characters is simple, facial expressions and gestures
at times boosted.
A significant change in the lives of the characters: using a magic window Russian characters
come from St. Petersburg to Paris, and the French, on the contrary, come from Paris to
St. Petersburg...
A problem: the social and cultural shock, an absolute inability to understand the realities of
Russia at the French, deft ability to adapt to new conditions in Russian characters.
Finding a solution to the problem: in a series of funny / eccentric situations the characters
overcome obstacles.
Solution: a return to stability: Russian people are again in St. Petersburg, and French woman
is in Paris...
Everything Will be Fine. Russia, 1995. Directed by D. Astrachan.

Historical period, the place of action: a Russian provincial town, 1995.
Furnishings, household items: squalid interiors of the hostel, the streets and roads of the
Russian provincial town, theater, lecture room.
Methods of reality representation: conventional (within the genre), Russian and foreign
characters are shown with sympathy.
Russian characters are rich (the millionaire and his son) and the poor (people cooped up in the
dormitory), foreign characters - Japanese millionaire and his servants. Rich characters dressed
expensive, poor - much worse. Vocabulary of characters is simple, facial expressions and gestures
are often exaggerated...
A significant change in the lives of the characters: Russian millionaire (now, apparently, also
a US citizen) arrives in a provincial town, where he once lived and met his first love... At the
millionaire arrives and his son - a Nobel laureate. There turns out to be a business partner - a
Japanese millionaire...
A problem: the social misalliance...
are trying to overcome social obstacles.
Solution: Russian millionaire understands that the old love has not come back, but his son
successfully finds the love... And Japanese millionaire does not seem to remain in the loser...
The structure of the stereotypes of Russian sci-fi films on the topic of western world
Historical period, the place of action: Far / near future. Russia, the United States, other
countries, space.
Furnishings, household items: a fantastic home, space ships and objects of everyday life
characters - from complete devastation to supertechnologies.
countries, spaceships" conditionally grotesque depiction of life in the "hostile states, the
spacecraft."
gestures. Positive characters (Cosmo/astronauts, soldiers, civilians) have a democratic ideas;
aggressors (Cosmo/astronauts, soldiers, saboteurs, terrorists) have inhumane ideas. Clothing:
Cosmo/astronauts, military uniform, civilian clothes. Build: sports, strong. Vocabulary: business.
Facial expressions and gestures are subject to the current function.
47
A problem: violation of the law - a life of positive characters, as often, and the lives of all
peaceful democratic character of the country in jeopardy. Variation: only a few survivors left after a
nuclear disaster.
aggression or attempt to survivors of the atomic bomb somehow adapt to the new conditions of
existence.
Solution: the destruction / capture of the aggressors; the return to civilian life, or adaptation
of the survivors of the nuclear attack to the new harsh conditions.
Inhabited Island. Russia 2009. Director: F. Bondarchuk.

Historical period, the place of action: the XXII century. A certain future. A totalitarian
regime...
Furnishings, household items: a fantastic home, appliances and objects of everyday life
characters.
Methods of reality representation: conditionally futuristic portrayal of events.
Positive characters (the handsome athlete, astronaut Maxim, in love with his girl) have a humane
ideas; negative characters (rulers, soldiers, and other shady characters) have inhumane ideas.
Clothing: expensive clothes of the ruling elite, uniforms, rags. Build usually - sports, strong.
Vocabulary - business, facial expressions and gestures are subject to the current function.
A significant change in the lives of the characters: positive character gets on the planet,
which is ruled by a totalitarian regime based on the suppression of identity and violence.
A problem: the life of a positive character, how, and the lives of many other characters, in
jeopardy.
Finding a solution to the problem: the struggle of a positive character with the totalitarian
regime.
Solution: the destruction of the totalitarian regime...
The Key Salamander / The Fifth Execution. Netherlands, Russia, USA, 2011.
Directed by A. Yakymchuk.
Historical period, the place of action: The near future. Megapolis. Jungle.
Furnishings, household items: a metropolis with its plush offices, elevators, skyscrapers,
ocean, jungle.
gestures. Positive characters have a democratic ideas; negative characters have inhumane ideas.
Clothing: office uniform, civilian clothes. Build usually - sports, strong. Vocabulary is business,
facial expressions and gestures are subject to the current function.
A significant change in the lives of the characters: the corporation "Farm-Line" received the
elixir of life, supposedly the crucial problem of immortality; there is an epidemic of suicides; on one
of the islands lost Asian international scientific expedition; Rescuers found on this island a secret
laboratory where dangerous experiments were carried out on the animals and humans...
A problem: violation of the law - the lives of all people in the world is under threat of a global
catastrophe.
The search for solutions: the struggle of positive and negative characters.
Solution: positive hero rushes to the central office of "Farm-Line" and he kills the head of
criminals...
Ugly Swans. Russia, 2005. Directed by K. Lopushansky.

Historical period, the place of action: some future, (perhaps Western) country.
Furnishings, household objects: offices, a boarding school, the streets of the ghost town.
Methods of reality representation: quasi-realistic.
The main characters are members of the commission to investigate anomalous phenomena in a
48
ghost town, the representatives of the special services, teachers (mutant space aliens?) and their
students - children with unique intellectual abilities... Characters’ clothes deliberately is "timeless"
character. Children and their teachers look mysterious. Vocabulary of commission members and
intelligence agents is business, facial expressions and gestures are subject to the current function.
A significant change in the lives of the characters: a special commission arrives in a
mysterious city...
A problem: the commission faced with abnormal and unexplained phenomena.
Finding a solution to the problem: one of the characters of the film trying to independently
investigate the situation, because his daughter is among mysterious children.
Solution does not exist in the framework of the philosophical concept of the authors…
Stereotypes politically engaged media texts (for example, the film Olympus Inferno, 2009)
Famous British media theorist L. Masterman has repeatedly stressed the need to educate the
audience an understanding of: 1) who is responsible for the creation of media texts, who owns the
media? 2) how the effect is achieved? 3) What are the value orientations created the world in such a
way? 4) how it treats the audience? (Masterman, 1985). Of course, this kind of approach is more
related to the texts, are outside the scope of the art, and are not suitable for outstanding works of
media culture. However, to the opus, designed for a mass audience, the more clearly politicized,
L. Masterman technology, I think, is quite applicable. Especially, if you see her explicit roll with the
theoretical concepts of Umberto Eco (Eco, 2005) and A. Silverblatt (Silverblatt, 2001: 80-81).
In fact, the words of Umberto Eco that the analysis of a media text should be divided into
three "systems" that are relevant to the work: the author's ideology; market conditions which
determined the plan, process of creation and success; narrative techniques (Eco, 2005: 209),
largely coincide with the concept of media education of L. Masterman.
It would seem that the cold war are gone, and the image of the evil of the "Russian Bear"
much-loved "hawks" of the Western screen is no longer relevant. However, our analysis (Fedorov,
2010) showed that media stereotypes of the Cold War is largely alive today. We prove this by the
example of politically engaged Russian film Olympus Inferno (2009).
Based on the approaches L. Masterman, A. Silverblatt and U. Eco, I can try to analyze this
film.
Market conditions which determined the plan, process create a media text. The short war in
August 2008 between Georgia and Russia. The film marked clearly defined ideological position,
fully meets the political situation prevailing in political science and media official Russian
approaches.
Author's ideology, values of media text. The ideological message of the film is simple and
clear: the superiority of democratic values over the anti-Russian aggressive policy of Georgia.
Historical period, the place of action. South Ossetia and Georgia in August 2008.
When analyzing media texts biased logical use:
• "sifting" of information (a reasoned selection of true and false in media materials, cleaning
information from "rouge" and "shortcuts" by comparison with the actual facts, etc.);
• removing a data halo "typical", "vulgar", "credibility";
• critical analysis of the goals of the agency and interests of a source of information.
It tries to do this by highlighting the following methods manipulative influence:
• "orchestration": psychological pressure on the audience in the form of constant repetition of
certain facts, regardless of the truth. In the case of the Olympus Inferno - a frequent emphasis on
the positive qualities of the main characters, and the negative qualities of the characters of the
enemy camp;
• "Selection" of certain trends, for example, only positive or negative, distortion, exaggeration
/ understatement of these trends. In Olympus Inferno is the only "black" and "white": all the
positive developments related to the actions of the positive characters, and all negative - to the
actions of the characters from the enemy camp;
• embellishment of the facts. In Olympus Inferno Russian military shows exclusively noble
warrior without fear and without reproach;
• "sticking labels" (eg, guilty, offensive etc). In Olympus Inferno all the most negative labels
are glued to the invaders;
49
• "game of plebeian": for example, the most simplified form of information. The plot of
Olympus Inferno is served in a very simplified form, without semitones, without a minimum of
deepening in the psychology of the characters and motives of their actions.
The structure of "confrontational" stereotypes in the Olympus Inferno is very close to the US-
Georgian thriller 5 Days of War (2011) by R. Harlin (albeit with a change from plus to minus).
R. Harlin used similar stereotypes, including "orchestration", "selection", "sticking labels".
The laws of politically engaged media texts, alas, the same...
Curiously, another film was released in 2012 on Russian screens, this time an expensive
blockbuster August Eighth. In this war drama on the theme of the five-day Russian-Georgian war,
the end of the summer of 2008, the emphasis has been placed differently. All political motives were
relegated to the background, and in the center of the story was the fate of a young woman who is in
the midst of hostilities in South Ossetia is trying to find his little baby...
This universal human concept (plus well laid fantastic episodes with robots that arise in the
imagination of boys) have contributed to the fact that August Eight (2012) took place at the box
office is much better than 5 Days of War (2011).
5. Conclusions
Analysis of the transformation of the image of the West in the Soviet and Russian screen -
from the era of ideological confrontation (1946-1991) to the modern stage (1992-2015), including
the ideological, social analysis, stereotypes analysis of a character analysis of identification,
iconographic, plot / narrative, representative analysis, classification of content models and
modifications of the genre allows us to draw the following conclusions:
- Anti-Western, anti-bourgeois orientation of Soviet cinema played an important role in the
Cold War, however, we should not forget that at all times has been the West's policy of largely anti-
Russian, and any increase in Russia (economic, military, geopolitical) was perceived as a threat to
the Western world. Therefore, the response trend of confrontation towards the West can be traced
in many Russian media films, and after the collapse of the Soviet Union (although the Russian
cinema the 1990s and was a short burst of pro-Western);
- Content analysis of media texts of Soviet screen of cold war times (1946-1991) allows to
represent their basic narrative scheme as follows: Western spies penetrated into the territory of the
Soviet Union to commit acts of sabotage and / or ferret out military secrets; US prepares a secret
attack on the USSR, creating this secret bases with nuclear weapons; inhuman Western regime
oppresses its own people or the population of a country, strangling democracy and freedom of the
individual; ordinary Soviet citizens explain misled by propaganda of Western citizens, that the
Soviet Union - a bulwark of friendship, prosperity and peace; in the way of a loving couple having
obstacles associated with the ideological confrontation between the USSR and the Western world;
- Content analysis of Russian media texts created in the post-Soviet period 1992-2015's,
allows to represent their basic narrative scheme as follows: pull the West as a symbol of a better life
for the Russians (emigration to the West, marriage / love relationship, criminal activity, and others
in the 1990s, this story is colored diagram showing the low level of life, deprivation of Russians);
the joint struggle of the Russian and Western intelligence services, military, terrorism and crime
(this theme is characteristic of Russian films of the 1990s); fight the Russian special services or
individual Russians with Western spies and criminals, supported by the West (the scheme became
clearly manifest in the Russian cinema of the XXI century).
- In contrast to the period of 1946-1991 years, Russian films on the western topic in 1992-
2015 fueled not only confrontational subjects (military confrontation, spying, mafia, etc.), But also
(especially in 1990) history of cooperation, Russia and the West mutual assistance;
- But on the whole post-Soviet Russian cinema inherited traditions of Russian relations with
the West: in most feature films image of the West is interpreted as a way of "Alien", "Other", often
hostile, alien to Russian civilization.
In view of the above, in my opinion, it would be overly optimistic to expect that evolved over
the centuries stereotyped concept of Western World image on the Russian screens may change in
the near future.
50
References
Berdyaev, 1990 – Berdyaev, N.A. The destiny of man in the modern world // New World.
1990. № 1, 207-232.
Bogomolov, 1989 – Bogomolov, Y.A. Movies on every day ... // Literary newspaper. 1989.
№ 24.
Corliss, 1990 – Corliss, R. Dean films attacking // Video-Ace Express. 1990, N 1, 8.
Eco, 1984 – Eco, U. Future sample 1984. 16.11.2007.
Eco, 1998 – Eco, U. From Gutenberg to Internet: text and hypertext. 1998. 20.05.1998.
Eco, 1998а – Eco, U. Lack of Structure. Introduction to semiology. St. Petersburg: Petropolis,
1998. 432 p.
Eco, 2005 – Eco, U. The role of the reader. Research on the semiotics of the text.
St. Petersburg: Symposium, 2005. 502 p.
Fedorov, 2008 – Fedorov, A.V. Analysis of the cultural mythology of media texts in the
classroom at the student audience // Innovations in Education. 2008. № 4, 60-80.
Fedorov, 2010 – Fedorov, A.V. Transform the image of Russia in the western screen: from
the era of ideological confrontation (1946-1991) to the modern phase (1992-2010). Moscow, 2010.
202 p.
Fedorov, 2012 – Fedorov, A.V. Analysis of audiovisual media texts. Moscow, 2012. 182 p.
Lotman, 1973 – Lotman, Y.M. The semiotics of cinema and film aesthetic problems. Tallinn:
Lotman, 1992 – Lotman, Y.M. Articles on semiotics and cultural topology. Tallinn:
Alexandra, 1992. 247 p.
Propp, 1976 – Propp, V.Y. Folklore and Reality. Moscow: Art, 1976, 51-63.
Propp, 1998 – Propp, V.Y. The morphology of the fairy tale. The historical roots of the fairy
Shaw, Youngblood, 2010 – Shaw, T. and Youngblood, D.J. (2010). Cinematic Cold War: The
Praeger, 449 p.
Strada, Troper, 1997 – Strada, M.J. and Troper, H.R. (1997). Friend or Foe?: Russian in
Zorkaya, 1981 – Zorkaya, N.M. Unique and replicate. Mass media and reproduced art.
Zorkaya, 1994 – Zorkaya, N.M. Folklore. Splint. Screen. Moscow, 1994.
УДК 378
Западный мир на российском экране (1992–2015 гг.)

Аннотация. Анализ трансформации образа Запада в российском экране (1992–2015),

в том числе идеологический, социальный анализ, анализ стереотипов, иконографический
анализ, репрезентативный анализ, классификация моделей контента и модификаций жанра
позволяет сделать следующие выводы. Контент-анализ российских фильмов, созданных в
постсоветский период 1992–2015 годов, позволяет представлять их основную схему
51
повествования следующим образом: Запад как символ лучшей жизни для россиян
(эмиграция, брак/любовь c иностранцами, преступная деятельность и т.д. в 1990-е годы,
плюс низкий уровень жизни русских); совместная борьба Российских и Западных спецслужб
с терроризмом и преступностью (эта тема характерна для российских фильмов 1990-х
годов); борьба российских спецслужб или отдельные русских с западными шпионами и
преступниками (схема стала явно проявляться в российском кино в XXI веке). В отличие от
периода 1946–1991 гг. российские фильмы на западную тему в 1992–2015 гг. подпитывались
не только конфронтацией (военное противостояние, шпионаж, мафия и т.д.), но и (особенно
в 1990-х) историями о сотрудничестве России и Запада. Но постсоветское российское кино
унаследовало традиции отношений с Западом: в большинстве художественных фильмов
образ Запада интерпретируется как «чужой», «другой», часто враждебный, чуждый русской
цивилизации. С учетом вышесказанного было бы слишком оптимистично ожидать, что
развивавшаяся на протяжении многих веков стереотипная концепция западного мира на
российских экранах может измениться в ближайшем будущем.
Ключевые слова: герменевтический анализ, Россия, Запад, США, фильм.
52

European Researcher
ISSN 2219-8229
E-ISSN 2224-0136
Vol. 111, Is. 10, pp. 524-535, 2016
DOI: 10.13187/er.2016.111.524
www.erjournal.ru
UDC 37
Movies: the Audience Favorites
Alexander Fedorov а
а Rostov State University of Economics, Russian Federation
Dr. (Education), Professor
Abstract
supernatural, and a consistent orientation toward the most popular plot schemes.
Their metaphorical appeal is not to the rational but to the emotional, through identification with
the magic power of heroes and standardization of ideas, situations, characters and so on in
On the basis of the foregoing, it can be concluded that the media texts of popular culture
Keywords: hermeneutical analysis, Soviet, USSR, Russia, screen, audience, film, film
studies.
1. Introduction
Russian cinema today is, like Russia itself chaotic, unpredictable and full of contrasts. No one
can tell if the country will become an equal among equals on the world's professional stages by the
beginning of the 21st century, casting off its poor role as a supplicant to Western artistic leaders.
Anyone who knows even a little history is aware that Russia was virtually outside European
civilization for 75 years of XX century. The Communist regime firmly controlled all spheres of life
for a sixth of the planet's citizens. In spite of totalitarian pressure, however, Russian culture
managed to survive. The best books of Mikhail Bulgakov and Anna Ahmatova, the symphonies of
Dmitry Shostakovich and Alexander Prokofiev, the films of Andrei Tarkovsky and Vassily Shukshin
were created in the years of the most rigid censorship.
Despite bans, prisons and gulags, the artists leaned to speak to their readers and spectators in
524
some sort of language of initiates. Music, without clearly defined plot, made it much easier to do
this. Writers, directors and actors were forced to talk about many things in hints and symbols,
taking advantage of legends, fairy tales and parables.
Russian authorities of the 1960s through the 1980s officially supported the publication and
distribution of classical literature – the works of Lev Tolstoy, Alexander Pushkin, Nikolai Gogol,
Ivan Turgenev, Anton Chekhov, etc. The best film directors knew this, and were aware of weakened
censorial control applied, at times, to screen adaptations. Consequently, the period saw The Nest of
Noble Family (1968) based on Turgenev novel and Uncle Vanya (1971) based on Chekhov's play,
directed by Andrei Konchalovsky.
Nikita Mikhalkov, making films based on Chekhov (Unfinished Piece for Mechanical Piano, 1976)
and Ivan Goncharov (Several Days in the Life of Oblomov, 1980), succeeded in telling more about
the situation in Russia – and the national character – than the majority of his colleagues whose
pictures dealt with the country's modern life. Oblomov embodies the paradoxes of mysterious
Russian soul: intelligence, talent and an innate sense of beauty go poignantly hand in hand with
passivity, laziness, sleepy inaction and abstract dreaming...
The Russian cinematic fairy tale also has old traditions, founded by Alexander Row
(The Frosty Fire, Water and Cooper Trumpets, Morozko, etc.) and Alexander Ptushko (The Stone
except a few were made for a children's audience, and the action had to take place in ancient times,
in a faraway kingdom. The first rule dictated an understandable style for the fairy tale, with vivid,
clear pictures and vocabulary, and villains looking not very fearful but on the contrary, usually,
funny and harmless. The second rule was very seldom infringed, because magicians, witches,
demons and other fairy characters – according to “highly placed” thought – could be perceived as
an embodiment of the authors' mysticism intruding on a modern background. In these cases, when
magic and witchery were admitted into our days (as in The Snowy Fairy Tale by E. Shengelaya and
A. Saharov), unintended associations and parallels appeared.
by Stanley Kubrick for the Russian screen couldn't be even imagined until 1980-s. Now the
Remarkable Russian actors – Oleg Dal (1941-1981), Vladimir Vissotsky (1938-1980), Anatoly
Solonitsin (1934-1982), Vladislaw Dvorzecki (1937-1978), Nikolai Grinko (1920-1989), Alexander
Kaidanovsky (1946-1995) – very often played heroes who stood beyond the usual circle of life on
the screen of the 1960-s and 1970-s. The Fairy Ivans, fools and intelligent outsiders of Oleg Dal.
The hot-tempered, contentious, furious romantics of Vissotsky. The inspired, always doubtful or
cynical, devastated heroes of Solonitsin (Andrei Tarkovsky's favorite actor)... These were in
opposition to the artificial characters distilled in the retort of Socialist Realism.
Censorship was ruthless to the filmmakers. Important scenes, phrases and frames were cut
out of many movies. Yet Tarkovsky's Andrei Rublev (1966), despite all the alterations, extolled
Russian culture and closely connected with the Orthodox faith, while Elem Klimov's The Parting
(1981) remained an angry accusation of the political system of the time, aspiring to destroy this
same culture and religion.
culture became a peculiar national religion; as the only source of spirituality, it allowed people who
could not stand slavery to maintain a dream of Beauty during the hardest years.
Indisputably, politics had a highly negative influence on the development of Russian culture
and education, but the classical legacy of art helped people to survive. Every new truthful book or
film of the masters was perceived throughout the country as a desirable breath of cool wind.
I remember how the books of Alexander Solzhenitsyn were handed around, how the films of
Marlen Hutsiev or Gregory Chuhrai, in the 1960s, were discussed till voices became hoarse. And
what events for Russian viewers in the 1970s were screenings of masterpieces by Federico Fellini
(Amarcord, Orchestra Rehearsal)!
Another paradox of Russian life is that all people hoped for and aspired to the “light future”,
525
yet their ranks included dissenters who were Slavophiles, craving a return to the Russia of 1913,
and dissenters of Western orientation who wanted a rapprochement with America, while the
majority of the so-called “common people” faithfully waited for a near-Socialist paradise of well-
being and, in the name of this, were ready to tolerate “temporary” hardships. Today a lot of Russian
politicians try to find some “middle way” between capitalism and socialism where, to trust the
premises of fashionable leaders, harmony will reign. In the political, economical currents some
Russian filmmakers thoroughly lost their bearings, becoming victims of the whirlpools, submerged
stones and shallows. Having got rid of censorship and having been given carte blanche in freedom
of thought, they began to throw onto the screen what they apparently believed were commercial
and brave statements, but which in fact were monotonous, non-competitive films. The freedom
didn't evoke the expected abundance of masterpieces, because bitter truth alone isn't enough for
the creation of a work of art. Talent is also needed, and it is everywhere in deficit.
Some Russian cineastes, finding it harder and harder to work in the Motherland in a
condition of permanent economic crisis, are gathering under Western’s roofs. It is rather logical:
Russian filmmakers hope that West will become a gate to the world screen for them; at home
indigenous movies are being forced out by American production everywhere. Only the most
entertaining Russian films manage to survive the competition in such conditions, but they, as
usual, copy U.S. pictures and don't hold any special interest as art. Undoubtedly, such work in the
West requires a certain attention to the producers' wishes and an orientation toward middle-of-
the-road European and American viewer's tastes. Well, don't judge and you will not be judged...
The words of Russian great writer Gogol about the Bird-troika – Russia – therefore turned
out to be really prophetic: “Russia, where are you rushing to? Give the answer. No answer”.
2. Material and methods

The main materials for this article was the area: the books, articles and films. The methods of
theoretical research: classification, comparison, analogy, induction and deduction, abstraction and
concretization, theoretical analysis and synthesis; and methods of empirical research: collecting
information related to the research subjects. Effectiveness of such methods has been proven as the
Western (R. Taylor, D. Youngblood, A. Lawton et al.), And Russian (N. Zorkaya, E. Ivanyan,
A. Kolesnikova, M. Turovskaya) researchers. I used also the method of hermeneutic analysis of the
cultural context of media texts (Eco, 1976; Potter, Thai, 2016; Silverblatt, 2001, 2016). This method
connected with the key concepts of media literacy education (media agencies, media categories,
media language, media technologies, media representations, media audiences etc.)
3. Discussion
supernatural, and a consistent orientation toward the most popular plot schemes. Their
metaphorical appeal is not to the rational but to the emotional, through identification with the
magic power of heroes and standardization of ideas, situations, characters and so on in
American critic Richard Corliss noted that for the creators of many Hollywood movies plot is
a thing of past, and these movies are more thrilling than satisfying. Their main impact on most of
the youthful public lies in the expect special effects making spectators gasp in surprise or freeze
with fright. This dynamic cinema, according to Corliss, put higher demands on viewers, because
we have to follow every frame of a shot waiting for the trick (Corliss, 1990). These features of mass
embodiments of the above-mentioned phenomenon of mass success tendencies.
The action in these films moves form one short episode to another (in order not to be boring
to viewers) with sensational informativeness: event take place at various exotic locations in a cruel
world of pirate’s drug dealers, Mafia men, racketeers and prostitutes. Psychological pressure is
active – throughout the stories the idea that sly enemies (inner and external) are scheming is
repeated over and over. Now something mean is planned, now somebody is robbed; now positive
heroes are attacked...
The main hero of these movies is an almost magical, fairy-tale character. Cute, strong and
526
smart, he comes out of al supernatural situations safe and sound (an excellent motif for
identification and compensation). Many episodes’ touch human instincts and emotions (such as
fear). There's even continuity, as each story supposes an endless number of sequels. In spite of an
absence of technical shine and the presence of numerous mistakes of taste or sense, the common
components of these motives are rather professionally presented: fights, chases, shootings, pretty
women, alarming music, strong feelings, a minimum of dialogue, a maximum of movement, and
other attributes of action films. Other favorites of Russian public are made with similar attitudes
and qualities...
pluralistic without dull teaching and officiousness. Only lately has Russian TV started developing
aesthetics for its entertainment packages, rejecting the different demands of the public. There are
some intellectual and game shows – even some mass-culture programming – made on professional
level. But the border between artistic and inartistic is often erased in a tendency toward
documentary, one-day value, “open” formats that reproduce something in its process of becoming
an event. This peculiarity of mass communication is an obstacle in determining the aesthetic
distance. For examples, platitudinous music videos are show all the time on Russian TV; if a viewer
didn't have taste preferences; this could penetrate deep enough into his mind to unconsciously
determine them...
The authors of some research accused popular culture creators that they have used improper
methods of psychological pressure (constant repetition of the facts, regardless of the truth),
distortion of facts and trends, selection of the negative features in the image of political opponents,
“sticking labels”, “rouge guidance”, “playing folksy”, a reference to the authorities in order to justify
a lie, etc. But mass media text creators always been as 1) honest professionals who build their own
stories based on humanistic values, 2) persons who prone to political conformism, and
3) momentary conjuncture artisans.
In fact, media texts relating to the mass (popular) culture, have success is not due to the fact
that they supposedly targeted only at people with low aesthetic taste, subject to psychological
pressure, easy to believing the lie, etc, but because their authors are responsible for real, worthy of
respect and study the needs of the audience, including – information, compensatory, hedonistic,
recreational, moral, etc.
The emergence of the “industrial society with absolute inevitability leads to the formation of a
special type of culture – the culture of commercial, mass, ... satisfying on the basis of modern
technologies a fundamental human need for harmonization of the psychic life of the people”
(Razlogov, 1991, p.10). At the same time, mass culture, inconceivable without the media, it is a
natural component of modern culture as a whole, to which belongs the majority of all works of art
created in the world. It can be considered as an effective way of involving the masses of viewers,
listeners and readers in a variety of cultural processes as a phenomenon born of the latest
technology (first of all – communication), the global integration and globalization (the destruction
of local communities, and the erosion of regional and national borders, and so on).
This definition of mass (popular) culture, in my view, logically fits into the context of the
functioning of the media – the systematic dissemination of information (via the media, print,
television, radio, film, sound / video, Internet) among the numerically large, dispersed audiences
estimates, opinions and behavior of the people.
V. Propp (Propp, 1976), N. Zorkaya (Zorkaya, 1981), M. Turovskaya (Turovskaya, 1979),
O. Nechay (Nechay, 1993) and M. Yampolsky (Yampolsky, 1987) have shown convincingly that the
total successful works of mass culture requires the calculation of their creators in the folk style of
aesthetic perception, and “archetypes of fairy tales and legends, and their associated archetypes of
folk perceptions, meeting, give the effect of the integral mass success favorites” (Zorkaya, 1981,
p.116).
Indeed, the success of the audience is very closely linked with the mythological layer of the
product. “Strong” genres” – thriller, science fiction, western – always based on the “strong” myths”
(Yampolsky, 1987, p. 41). Unusual relationship, but the “real” events – one of the fundamental
archetypes (based on underlying psychological structures that affect the conscious and
subconscious) fairy tales, legends, – is very important for many popular media texts. O. Nechay, in
527
my opinion, very correctly noted the important feature of mass (popular) culture – the adaptation
of the forms of folklore in society. That is, if the author's text ideal emerges through reality (in the
center of the plot – the hero-personality), socio-critical text gives a character taken from the life
around (common man), the mass culture are ideal norms in the real environment (Nechay, 1993,
pp. 11-13).
However, the biggest influence on the audience has a TV mass culture, focused on the
creation of large multi-month (or even perennial!) series of programs and serials. There are
“systemically important properties of serial: 1) the duration of the narrative, 2) intermittent him,
3) special story organizations often-series requires a specific identity of their structure and
replication of individual blocks, 4) availability through characters, regular characters (or groups of
such heroes)” (Zorkaya, 1981, p.59). Plus, these specific properties of TV-show organization as
frequency, headings, software, dosing, translational (providing increased sociability).
In addition, the creators of media texts of popular culture take into account emotional tone of
perception. The monotony plot situations often lead the audience to the suspension from contact
with the media text. That's why professionals arise change episodes, causing shock and soothing
reaction, but certainly a happy ending, giving a positive detente. In other words, we can divide of
many popular media texts – easily and painlessly – into blocks (often interchangeable). And these
blocks were linked clearly thought-out mechanism “emotional extremes” – the alternation of
positive and negative emotions caused by the public.
It is worth noting that in many cases, the creators of the mass media texts consciously
simplify, trivialize their life untouched by the material, apparently hoping to bring that part of the
youth audience, which is now enthusiastically develops computer games, built on those or other
actions of the virtual violence. And this, no doubt, has its own logic, because even N. Berdyaev
quite rightly wrote that “the masses not attached to the goods and cultural values, and culture is
difficult for mass audience in the noble sense of the word, but the technique a relatively easy for
them” (Berdyaev, 1990, p. 229).
At the same time, relying on folklore, entertainment, seriality and professionalism of the
authors is not sufficient for the success of a large-scale media text of mass culture, as well as the
popularity depends on the hypnotic, sensual impact. Instead of primitive devices to the tastes of the
masses, professionals guessed “secret subconscious interest in crowd” at the level of “irrational
heroism and intuitive illumination” (Bogomolov, 1989, p. 11).
The same subjects, getting to the ordinary artisan or, for example, to S. Spielberg,
transforming, collect a variety of audiences on the scale. Masters of popular media culture perfectly
use the effect of “layer cake”: the creation of the works for multi-level perceptions, calculated on the
perception of people of various age, intelligence and taste. There are a kind of semi-stylization,
semi-parody interspersed with semi-really with countless allusions to the classic films of past years,
direct quotations, with references to folklore and mythology, etc.
For example, for some viewers the text of Spielberg’s Indiana Jones will be tantamount to the
vision of the classic The Thief of Bagdad. And for the others, more sophisticated in the media
culture – fascinating and ironic journey into the realm of folklore and fairy-tale archetypes,
cinematic associations, unobtrusive parody. The film Frantic might well be perceived as an
ordinary thriller about the disappearance of the wife of an American scientist, who came to the
Paris medical conference, but can be perceived as a kind of rethinking and mischievously stylized
heritage rich tradition of the detective genre, noire thrillers and gangster sagas – from A. Hitchcock
to the present day, and even – as a veiled autobiography, directed by Roman Polanski ...
Thus, one of the distinctive features of the present socio-cultural situation in (addition to the
standardization and harmonization) is the adaptation of a popular media culture specific art house
language. Video clips are the good example for perception characteristic of mass audience. It would
seem that there was a paradoxical situation: music video very often used the opening of the avant-
garde media – whimsical, kaleidoscopic, ragged assembly, complex associative, solarization, the
transformation of volumes, shapes, colors and light, flashbacks, rapids, and others special effects.
But the audience for them (as opposed to an audience of elite masterpieces and the avant-garde) is
very big, mass.
In my opinion, this is not controversial. For example, the youth audience can perceive of
post-modern standards, allusions and associations just in a short duration of the clip, because a
quick change of plans installation, resilient, dynamic audiovisual rhythm is acceptable even for the
528
most inexperienced in the language of the media person. And this is also effect of pluralistic
popular media culture, designed to meet the differentiated audience requests.
The therapeutic effect, the phenomenon of compensation is also important for the success of
mass media texts. Of course, personality often wants to get away the emotion from the film, which
he/she did not have enough in life. And it is absolutely natural. And Sigmund Freud wrote that
“culture must mobilize all its forces to put a limit aggressive primary urges to humans and slow
down their displays by creating the necessary psychological reactions” (Freud, 1990, p. 29).
However, some researchers doubt this compensatory function of mass culture. For example,
American scientists studied the effects of the behavior of young viewers, depending on the
availability of movies viewed in violent episodes, the levels of aggressiveness were measured for
7 days, the analysis of which led researchers to the conclusion that the negative impact of these
tapes (Parke, et al. 1977, pp. 148-153).
But, in my view, another sociological concept looks more convincing: there is no direct
cause-and-effect relationship between movies and crime, although we can see a great impact in
terms of stimulating aggressive tendencies faced by people with unstable or mental disorders, with
a weak intelligence.
4. Results
It is interesting to see how audience preferences changing with respect to one of the most
common media texts – films. Remember how those or other works of different levels and genres
estimated ten, twenty, thirty years ago, some of them became the favorites of the public. I take the
long-term results of the survey of the popular cinema magazine Soviet Screen. I will compare the
most active audience preferences (readers of Soviet Screen) with the average public tastes (box-
office).
At the same time, of course, I must bear in mind the conditional nature of these figures.
Unfortunately, the Russian society in the 1950s -1980s did not open: distortions were characterized
not only reports on the crops of grain and cotton, but also sociological studies, and sociology of
science itself was in the grip of strong ideological dogmatism. It often happened that the tickets
sold, for example, on the French criminal parody Fantomas took place in official documents under
the guise of income from Soviet cinema... But, of course, the excellent box-office of Russian comedy
Brilliant Hand (1969) and action Pirates of the Twentieth Century (1980) it is impossible to
question.
The differences between viewers opinions’ profiles of different decades are substantial. In the
late fifties and sixties, the Soviet audience chooses (in the Soviet Screen’s survey) the best films of
the year is mainly notable works of art (The Fate of Man (1959) by S. Bondarchuk, Serioja (1960)
by G. Daneliya & I. Talankin, Clean Sky (1961) By G. Chuhray, Nine Days in One Year (1962) by
M. Romm, Hamlet (1964) by G. Kozintsev, We'll Live till Monday (1968) by S. Rostotsky).
I am convinced that such a choice audience besides the artistic quality of the films, not least
due to the time uplifting, arose in the era of the “thaw” mass faith young audiences in a final and
irrevocable overcoming past “errors” and “mistakes” in the progressive construction of a “bright
the future”. Although this historical and cultural period was contradictory and inconsistent, film
critics of those years basically gave viewers loyal artistic landmarks, maintaining significant works
of art that in some way reflected in the audience likes and dislikes.
“Thaw” seemed to disclose the true talent of limitless possibilities. Very expanded film
production: 102 films in 1958 instead of 10-12 in the early 1950's. Mikhail Kalatozov (1903-1973),
Sergey Urusevsky (1908-1974), Mikhail Romm (1901-1971) found its second wind in their
cinematic careers. Bright, impressive director debuts of Gregory Chuhray (1921-2001), Marlen
Hutsiev, Georgy Danelia: movies of these debutants received prizes at festivals, the audience and
the press were discussed about. In the early 1960s confidently declared themselves Andrei
Tarkovsky (1932-1986), Vasily Shukshin (1929-1974), Sergei Parajanov (1924-1990), Elem Klimov
(1933-2003), Larisa Shepitko (1938-1979), Andrei Konchalovsky, Mikhail Kalik and Mikhail
Bogin...
But at the same time, the film of Marlen Hutsiev I Am Twenty was banned for several years.
The young characters of this film honestly tried, but naive and romantic, to understand the history,
the present and themselves… The ambiguity of those years there has been, perhaps, all those who
he wrote of “the era of Khrushchev“.
529
Instead, the idea predominated loyalty to the leader began to cultivate the idea of collectivity
as in "lower", and the "higher" spheres of life. Joyous scenes of factory and amicable collective
teams, school classes, families strong, conquerors of virgin lands, workers of district committees
and regional committees flooded the "average" movies late 1950s – early 1960s. Instead, almost
completely extinct historical-biographical genre, like mushrooms after rain multiplied lyrical
comedy, detective, drama and melodrama, thoroughly revived forgotten by the time.
Thrown from the rostrum of the slogan "Our children will live under communism!" implicitly
or directly defined the ideological orientation of many films. Of course, the authors of these
pictures trying to avoid the extremes of the previous years – the apparent distortion of facts,
outright lies, etc. But still in the course of "sticking labels", "guidance rouge", and "vulgar games"…
One of the ideas dominated considerable number of films that time was intended to assure
the audience that in order to "catch up and overtake" remains only one last effort, the existing
minor flaws can be corrected as soon as possible "healthy team." Cinema conveyor 1960s
(especially their first half), followed by its predecessor the 1930's and 1940's was infused with
propaganda exalted ideals of universal enthusiasm, determined struggle, cheerful and quick to
overcome any difficulties and obstacles. The enemy, however, was different: instead of "enemies of
the people", pests and spyware sixties film heroes fought mainly from the harsh environment,
easily removable disadvantages in everyday life. It was not easy to imagine the entertainment
picture, devoid of this ideological "stuffing"...
As in previous decades, to mass culture in the late 1950's - early 1960's was characterized by
political confrontation, clearly noticeable even in such seemingly exotic picture as Amphibian Man
(1962), the authors of which, along with the spectacular underwater camera did not forget about
the criticism of the "cruel laws of bourgeois society."
With the advent of Leonid Brezhnev began a gradual pullback to the "thaw" position. A solid
"shelf" of banned talented films (Electricity Homeland by L. Shepitko, Angel by A. Smirnov,
The Commissioner by A. Askoldov, Andrei Rublev by A. Tarkovsky, Assya's Happiness by
A. Konchalovsky) formed by the end of the 1960's. Kremlin campaign of "pacification" of the
Czechoslovak democracy (1968-1969) followed by a tightening of censorship and a new blow to the
"unreliable" intellectuals. Such famous filmmakers as H. Gabay, M. Kalik, M. Bogin emigrated from
Russia... Perhaps, 1968 year became a kind abroad, leaving behind the hope for reform, set back in
fear of the "Prague Spring". This was the beginning of a powerful offensive of the conservative
forces in all directions.
In fact, a film needed a society that is slowly but surely went on extensive way to the socio-
political and cultural crisis? Cinema of problems of "moral anxiety"? Cinema, satirically presents
abominations life? Enough joking... Of course, Soviet cinema of 1970s needed a very different
model of "manual", obedient superiors movie, ready for all the most reckless call "from above"
obsequious to take the salute. Cinematograph of 1970s, how it was understood by the then leaders,
desperately needed the film coming out of the servile principle of "What would you like?"
By that time, promise on building by 1980 the material and technical base of communism
were recognized voluntarist. Stopped in mind an explicit "limes" exaggerated slogans calling in a
few years to overtake America in all major economic indicators. Prospects were pushed into the
indefinite future. By the end of the 1970s it came down to the "winged" thesis everywhere are
reminded that the economy of "mature socialism" must be economical...
But it would be wrong to say that Soviet popular culture of 1970d - first half of the 1980s
entirely consisted of conformist films. A. Tarkovsky, V. Abdrashitov, E. Klimov and some others try
to say their independent words in cinema art.
But as in previous years, Soviet mass culture flourishes in a historic theme. Total ideological
trend towards straightening sharp corners, transforming the story into an endless series of
victories, used well-proven in the past reception "figure of silence" (or, in other words, "selection",
the selection of only winning a propaganda term trends). At that time, there were so-called "closed
zone", which was not accepted even mention. For example, many real historical figures are
automatically excluded from the film-plots. A similar fate was with problems associated with mass
repression during collectivization, 1930s-1940s, etc. The attempt to understand the story without
retouching, openly and honestly (Test on the Road by A. German, The Commissioner by
A. Askoldov) met while in the dense bureaucratic-reinsurance bayonets.
In a strong documentary Star of Vavilov (1985) by S. Dyachenko A. Borsyuk the first time in
530
Russian cinema lifted the veil of silence surrounding the vicious activities of Academician Lysenko
and his supporters dearly cost the country's agriculture. Alas, all the previous years, the movie
carefully avoiding the subject, producing iridescent films on how the personal initiative of energetic
young business man executives breaks down any barriers (A man in his place, 1973; With joy and
courage, 1974).
The curious metamorphosis there have been on the Russian screen and in the interpretation
of the theme of Stalinism. The anti-stalinist film by Gregory Chuhraja Clean Sky (1961) won the
main prize of the Moscow Film Festival and earned success with the audience, but... in 1970s has
been securely hidden on the shelf - away from cinemas and television screens. Since the mid of
1960s any mention of the bloody crimes of Stalinism practically disappeared in the Soviet cinema.
The image of Stalin from film to film became more and more impressive and solidity, which
eventually led to Victory (1985) by E. Matveev and Battle for Moscow (1985) by Y. Ozerov.
Almost until Gorbachev's perestroika some film directors seeking to reflect the story without
gloss front, objectively and truthfully, it was necessary to build many of their works on line hints
and allegories, and even in parabola form. A classic example of the historical and political
overtones – the wonderful film My Friend Ivan Lapshin (1981) by A. German, which tells the
dramatic time of 1930s.
But the most bitter truth, as we know, is much more expensive than a sweet lie. Trouble
Russian historical cinema previous decades was that instead of talking about what had happened,
he was all the time trying to dream on what could happen in an ideal circumstances, issuing these
dogmatic fantasy for reality.
So, although the ordinary mass culture film implies (and usually does) rather significant box
office success, it does not pretend to be mandatory laurels rolling leader. Moreover, I will take the
liberty to say that there is even a non-cash mass culture - an inevitable consequence of the
desperate lack of professionalism and creative authors of insolvency.
At first glance, there is a clear contradiction here: how is it - mass culture and without a mass
audience? But in practice, everything is easier: opus, originally conceived as a mass culture,
actually turns helplessly as dull and boring, that suffers a financial collapse. In the West, this also
occurs quite often...
Of course, it would have been very naive view of the relationship "media - audience" in a
unilateral way: the audience tried to view of Andrei Tarkovsky and Alexei German, but Ministry of
Cinematography gave the way for popular culture only. For example, the concentration of the
audience senses to love experiences had a kind of therapeutic sense, allowed to transfer to the
authorities that permitted the channel all the negative emotions that have accumulated in real life
(especially the female half of the audience).
But do they themselves did not have the audience craving for this kind of vivid, emotional
spectacle?
The fact of the matter is that we need sometimes for strong emotional shocks - whether on a
detective or love story. However, it is believed that the mass success of the messages and the
success of true preferences - things sometimes different. Millions can read, listen to some media
text, but the positive appreciation of these media text is another thing. Or, on the contrary, the
opinion of a specialized readers may not be the benchmark for the overall situation, since not all
people read newspapers and have such a steady commitment to culture, to fill out forms and send
them to the editor.
This is partly true. For example, the film chronicles the lead in the questionnaire does not
mean the same championship in the Russian box office, where the first place firmly hold the film
entertainment plan. And it is natural, because the profile of the best films of the year meet, as a
rule, the most active viewers.
However, the total rental statistics confirm the randomness of readers ratings of Soviet
Screen. Almost all (with few exceptions) the leaders of the Russian screen of 1960s - 1980s in some
manner entered the top twenty according to the survey of the magazine. Thus, the Pirates of the
Twentieth Century (1980) by B. Durov, become a truly champion (86.7 million spectators for the
first year), took to the eleventh place in a magazine profile. Melodrama Moscow Does Not Believe
in Tears (1980) by V. Menshov, which has sold over 84 million tickets, - in the first place. Comedy
of L. Gaidai Prisoner of the Caucasus (1967) and The Diamond Hand (1969), collected on
76 million fans turned out in the seventh and eighth places. A dozen leaders were operetta
531
Wedding in Malinovka (1967) by A. Tutyshkin (74 million viewers and eighth place in the
magazine's readers), Crew (1979) by A. Mitty (71 million) and Shield and Sword (1968) of V. Basov
(68 million), got the second place in a poll of readers. The same can be said about the Headless
Horseman (1976) by V. Vaynshtok (68 million viewers), The Dawns Here Are Quiet (1972) by
S. Rostotsky and Amphibian Man (1962) by V. Chebotarev and G. Kazanski (65 million viewers).
In general, the results of the total rental entertaining movies since the late 1960s, more and
more often become leaders. And in all these years, the most popular genres has always been
comedy Gentlemen of Fortune (1972) by A. Sery (65 millions), Ivan Vasilyevich Changes
Occupation (1973) (60 millions) by L. Gaidai, Afonya (1975) by G. Daneliya (62 millions), Office
romance (1976) by E. Ryazanov (60 millions); adventure, detectives, Crown of the Russian Empire
(1974) by E. Keosayan, Tavern on Pyatnitskaya (1976) by A. Faintzimmer (54 millions), Petrovka
38 (1980) by V. Grigorev (53 millions). Ten Little Indians (1988) by S. Govoruhin (33 millinons);
melodrama Stepmom (1973) by O. Bondarev (59 millions), Queen of the Gypsies (1976) by
E. Lotjanu (64 millinons), Guys (1982) by I. Babich (38 millions), etc.
As a result, it can be concluded that the Soviet Screen’s viewers-readers’ preferences
sufficiently representative reflect the tastes of the general audience. And in terms of genre, "cash"
and "personal" leaders are very similar: since the late 1960's to 1980's the comedy, action
adventure and melodrama dominated regardless of the change of years.
However, there are significant differences. Among the box-office favorites the films of high
artistic level were very rare, but we can see a lot of original works of art in the list of the prize-
winners of Soviet Screen.
Here is interesting evolution of personal preferences of the public. In the 1960's in the top ten
of Soviet Screen includes such outstanding works as Welcome, or No unauthorized entry is
prohibited (1964) by E. Klimov, The Road (1954) by F. Fellini and Ashes and Diamonds (1957) by
A. Wajda...
Since the beginning of the 1970 tastes of the audience, of course, began to change in a
different way - in the first place in Soviet Screen’s film winners are increasingly mediocre
artistically tape (Stepmother, Young wife, Guys and others.). Serious cinema (The Beginning by
G. Panfilov, The Red Tent by M. Kalatozov, Monologue by I. Auerbach, Red Kalina by V. Shukshin,
Romeo and Juliet by F. Dzeffirelli, They Shoot Horses, Don't They? by S. Pollack) takes the lead
much less.
My twenty years of experience in Youth film club and a special course on media culture in
several universities, suggests that, at least since the mid 1970s, the preferences of young viewers
were just close to leaders of Soviet Screen: Irony of Destiny (1976), Office Romance (1978),
Railway Station for Two (1983), A Cruel Romance (1984) by E. Ryazanov, Young Wife (1979) by
L. Menaker, Moscow Does not believe in tears (1980) by V. Menshov, You cannot dream... (1981)
By I. Frez...
By the way, the success of movie of I. Frez is explained by the fact that for decades the
Russian films on the so-called youth theme almost always had considerable success with audiences,
but with them, and there were all sorts of metamorphoses. Alas, in some pictures about young
people (Minors, This is What We Do Not Pass, Found Guilty, My Anfisa and others) did not even
attempt to approach the analytic drama of M. Osepyan Three Days of Victor Chernyshev (1968).
The second half of the 1980's - early 1990's drastically changed the theme of the youth
cinema. If the well-known film by J. Raizman And if this is love? (1962) affirmed the right of
students to friendship and love, not overshadowed by petty-bourgeois gossip, then in the late
1970's - early 1980's this right was already the undisputed (At the end of the world, Draw, School
Waltz, You cannot dream...). It was about the diversity, the complexity of thought and feeling
young, their contradictory relationship with each other, to adults, to the first independent steps,
victories and defeats. And finally, the "perestroika" and Little Vera (1988) by V. Pichul became the
first sign in a series of subsequent films defending the right to freedom of young sexual relations.
But, as they say, not a single sex: in a shot in the second half of the 1980 Outsiders by
S. Bodrov openly spoke of society's fault for crippled lives of young characters, you feel useless
freeloaders. Faced with spiritual callousness and bureaucratic world of adults, children from the
provincial amateur ensemble willy-nilly trying to adapt to the world, and paid him the same
indifference...
Breaking the barriers of censorship provoked a stormy tide exposing and convictions of films
532
on youth theme, Russian cinema has tried to catch up. The story of those years (Arsonists, Accident
- daughter of cop, etc.) were transferred from the latrine in the cooler, from dilapidated barn – in
the darkness of the cellar. Violence, drug addiction... Scene motives of the famous Stuffed (1983) by
R. Bykov also been put on stream and perfected, as they say, "one hundred percent". School-
exposing the subject enlarged picture Blackmailer, Temptation, Publish, Dolly, etc.
The appearance of this kind of new conjuncture in the films about youth, in my opinion, was
quite natural: the filmmakers who have received long-awaited opportunity to speak openly about
their everyday concerns, hastened to shout, throw on the screen all that bothered them for years.
Alas, in most cases it was a superficial journalism, made up of collections of similar scenes, moving
from one film to another, which negates the critical pathos declared straightforward ideas.
As a result, in the mid 1990s came the inevitable tide of youth film wave.
About two dozen "youth" films annually came out on Russian screens in 1989-1991. And in
1992 - even thirty. But since 1993 a gradual decline occurred.
Among these films met sometimes worthy of the work of talented artists (Dyuba-dyuba by
A. Hwan, Love by V. Todorovski, Nastya and Heads and Tails by G. Danelia), but overall, I think,
found the desire to reorient youth topic in the direction of pure entertainment, you know,
unfortunately, not at the level of Robert Zemeckis (Back to the future), or Claude Pinoteau (Boom),
and in the spirit of kitsch.
When the Russian political and economic system of the 1970s - 1980s tried to mask the
numerous cancers demagogic talk and promises, it caused a massive rejection, especially among
young people. The mood of frustration, passive, often not fully aware of the silent protest of young
looking output. And found his passion in the "no" rock music, entertainment films, immerse the
viewer in a fabulous and fascinating world with active, purposeful, suffering and finds happiness
heroes...
If on the screen and appear problematic movies, they often found themselves in a situation
"least favored" as in the box office. As a result, the following happened: the critic has lost the
confidence of the reading Film viewers. And, choosing between dull, ponderous "custom-made"
films and entertainment, even a low level, the audience inevitably inclined to the latter.
What movies have received the lowest scores of spectators? In the 1970s worst were called
films, in fact, very weak (Last Days of Pompeii (1973), Hello. River (1979). Boring and bad work is
not saved by the rolling and the questionnaire the failure of even a spectacular and entertaining
genre...
From 1980 to 1985 Soviet Screen did not dare to publish a "black list" of audience dislikes.
This break, in my opinion, is not accidental. At the turn of the 1970s - 1980s most sharply
delineated cinema crisis and the rental system. During the seven seals were data on circulation
patterns and their assigned categories of quality, extremely sparingly published sensations...
Then in the top ten of the magazine editorialized profiles settled tape-burning, more than
superficially reflect the real political and historical events (Event of 36-80 Square, Victory, etc.).
And if each new series about the adventures of the beautiful Angelique gathered about forty
million viewers, it became a real box-office champion "soap" Mexican melodrama Yesenia (1971),
attended by about a hundred million viewers for the first year of the demonstration. She is ahead of
even such acclaimed champions as Pirates of the Twentieth Century and Disco Dancer.
Of course, typical of popular culture phenomenon of compensation - a natural result of the
viewer's contact with art make up the missing human feelings and emotions. This popular movie
differentiated and is designed for people with different tastes. Sometimes the impact of the next
blockbuster based on the professionalism of the director, the actors, the operator, composer, artist,
able to create a bright, attractive shape sight. Or so, at first glance, paradoxical option: the film is
bad and has been forgotten, and the music is so good to him that continues to be performed and
the public likes.
However, the general trend of viewing thrust to mass culture, no doubt, and remained at the
turn of the twenty-first century. Just out of cinema audience moved to the home screen.
5. Conclusion
So, on the basis of the foregoing, it can be concluded that the media texts of popular culture
533
References
1. Berdyaev, N.A. (1990). The destiny of man in the modern world. New World. № 1, 207-
232.
2. Bogomolov, Y.A. (1989). Movies on every day... Literary Gazette. № 24, 11.
3. Corliss, R. (1990). Dina-movies attacking. Video-Ace Express. N 1, 8.
5. Freud, S. (1990). Dissatisfaction of culture. Cinema Art. № 12, 18-31.
6. Nechay, O.F. (1993). Film education in the context of literature. Specialist. № 5, 11-13.
7. Parke, R.D., Berkowitz, L., Leyens, J.P., West, S.J., Sebastian, P.J. (1977). Some Effects
of Violent and Nonviolent Movies on the Behavior of Juvenile Delinquents. Advances in
Experimental Social Psychology. N.Y. Academia Press, № 10, 148-153.
8. Potter, W.J., Thai, C. (2016). Conceptual Challenges in Designing Measures for Media
Literacy Studies. // International Journal of Media and Information Literacy, 2016, Vol. (1), Is. 1,
pp. 27-42.
9. Propp, V.Y. (1976). Folklore and Reality. Moscow: Art, 51-63.
10. Razlogov, K.E. (1991). Paradoxes of commercialization. Screen and Stage. № 9, 10.
11. Sherkovin, Y.A. (1973). Psychological problems of mass communications. Moscow:
Thought.
12. Shestakov, V.P. (1988). Mythology of XX Century. Moscow: Art.
14. Silverblatt, A. (2016). Reflections on Information Literacy. International Journal of
Media and Information Literacy, 2016, Vol. (1), Is. 1, pp. 54-71.
15. Turovskaya, M.I. (1979). Why does the viewer go to the movies. Genres of Movie.
Moscow: Art, 319 p.
16. Usov, Y.N. (1993). Basics of screen culture. Moscow: New School.
17. Usov, Y.N. (1995). In the world of screen arts. Moscow: SVR-Argus.
18. Yampolsky, M. (1987). Polemic notes about the aesthetics of the mass of the film.
Transcript of the meeting of the "round table" of film critics. Moscow, 31-44.
19. Zorkaya, N.M. (1981). Unique and Replicate. Moscow: Art.
УДК 37
Кинематограф: фавориты аудитории
Aлександр Федоров а
а Ростовский государственный экономический университет, Российская Федерация

ул. Инициативная, 48, Таганрог, Ростовская область, 347936
Аннотация. Cовременное искусство экрана над своим успехом обязано

использованию фольклора, мифологии, синтезу естественного и сверхъестественного и
последовательной ориентации на наиболее популярные сюжетные схемы, обращением не
только к рациональному, но и к эмоциональному (в том числе – посредством
идентификации с волшебной силой героев), стандартизации идей, ситуаций, характеров и
т.д.; а в качестве компенсации не реализованных в жизни желаний, возможно, иллюзорный,
534
но счастливый конец. В фильмах, телевизионных шоу и музыкальных видео ритмическая

организация зрительских чувств находятся под влиянием быстрой смены событий.
На основании вышеизложенного, можно сделать вывод, что медиатекстам массовой культуры
свойственны разнообразные факторы успеха. К ним относятся: зависимость от фольклора и
мифологических источников, постоянство метафор, наиболее устойчивых сюжетных схем,
синтез естественного и сверхъестественного, призыв, скорее, не к рациональному, а к
эмоциональному, через идентификацию, магическую силу героев, стандартизацию
(тиражирование, унификацию, адаптацию) идей, ситуаций, персонажей и т.д., мозаику,
серийность, компенсацию, счастливый конец; использование такой ритмической
организации фильмов, телевизионных шоу, клипы, где на чувства аудитории влияет порядок
смены кадров; интуитивное угадывание подсознательных интересов аудитории и т.д.
Ключевые слова: исследование, герменевтический анализ, советские, СССР, России,
экран, зрители, фильм, аудитория.
535

ISSN 1339-6773
E-ISSN 1339-875X
Grigory Rasputin in the Mirror of Western Screen
Alexander Fedorov

Dr. (Pedagogy), Prof.
Abstract
The article argues the approaches to the analysis of Western screen stereotypes of Grigory
Rasputin as a kind of a metaphor of Russia's image in Western interpretation. Thus, as a result of
the analysis it can be concluded that the Western film interpretations using Grigory Rasputin's
image construct an extremely simplistic image of the country. Consequently, a barbaric,
unpredictable, rebellious, mystical, and most importantly – a strange, not compatible with the
normal US-European way of life, image of Russia is created.
Keywords: screen; film; USA; France; Europe; Russia; Rasputin; media education; media
literacy; media competence; analysis; stereotype.
Introduction
I have already observed that Russian classical literature, with its deep "intimate glimpse", is
not enough for Western media culture. The West needs its own image of Russia, corresponding to
the stereotypical representation of mass mentality about "a mysterious Russian soul" [Fedorov,
2012]. While an ideal adaptation of the positive image of Russia for Western audience was the
novel by Jule Verne "Mikhail Strogov" (1875), which takes place in the epoch of Alexander the
Second reign, the image of barbarian, unpredictable, mystic, rebellious Russia was on a large scale
featured on the screen in numerous versions of Western biopics of Rasputin (1869-1916). Grigory
Rasputin, who was called a spiritual advisor, "a holy man", as it's known, had a big influence on
Tzar's family and was assassinated on the 16th of December 1916 as a result of a plot by Duke
F.Yusupov and other nobility, eager to change the course of Russian history.
I have to say that it is most unrewarding in this case to try and look for the historical truth in
Western films about Rasputin. It does not make much sense to point out numerous absurdities and
incongruities in them.
Western cinema first addressed the story of Rasputin in 1917, then, again and again (totally,
about 30 times) they created a television/feature film image with a certain agenda. Certainly, the
commercial success was important. However, the intention to reinforce a stereotypical
interpretation of the riotous nature of "the Russian soul" in the Western society, was much more
important. The Western screen needed not a historical portrait, but an image of G. Rasputin as a
kind of a metaphor for a dangerous and disturbing image of Russia.
It seems that the analysis of this phenomenon of G.Rasputin as an image of barbaric Russia,
adapted to a mass audience of the West, will be very useful for students of many branches of study
– future historians, political scientists, culture, art historians, and teachers.

Applying methodology, developed by Umberto Eco [Eco, 2005, p. 209], Art Siverblatt
[Silverblatt, 2001, p. 80-81], Len Mastermann [Masterman, 1985; 1997], Cary Bazalgette
[Bazalgette, 1995], in my analysis of films dedicated to life and death of Grigory Pasputin, I will
draw upon such key aspects in media literacy as media agencies, media categories, media
technologies, media languages, media representations and media audiences, since all these aspects
24
should be considered when analyzing the values, ideology, market, structure and contents of a
media text.
Let me note that the methodologies of U.Eko [Eco, 2005, p.209] and A. Silverblatt
[Silverblatt, 2001, p. 80-81] are fully consistent with the basic approaches of the hermeneutic
analysis of audiovisual, spatial and temporal structure of media texts. Let us remember that the
hermeneutical analysis of the cultural context (Hermeneutic Analysis of Cultural Context) is a
study of the process of interpretation of a media text, cultural and historical factors influencing the
viewpoint of the agency / author of the work and the point of view of the audience.
The hermeneutical analysis suggests the comprehension of a media text through comparison with
the cultural tradition and reality; penetration into the logic of the work; relationship of artistic
images in the historical and cultural context. Thus, the object of analysis is the media system and
its operation in society, human interaction, language, and use of media.
The ideology of authors in the social and cultural contexts, market conditions which
contributed to the concept, process of production and success of a media text (dominant aspects:
media agency, media category, media technologies, media representations, media audience).
Europe was in the state of the World War I for four years (1914-1918). In 1916–
1917 protracted military actions had already lost its popularity in Russia. The murder of
G.Rasputin, the overthrow of the monarchy and the rise to power of the Interim Government could
not overcome a total crisis in society, which led first to the Bolshevik revolution, and later to a civil
war. Naturally, with this state of affairs the Russian authorities in 1917 did not care much about
cinema art. Cinemas showed dozens of commercial pictures of extremely poor artistic quality. For
example, in 1917 the Russian short-lived films were overflowing the screens, the films which
constructed unfavorable images of G.Rasputin and the royal family ("The drama of the life of
Grigory Rasputin," "Washed in blood", "Dark forces – Grigory Rasputin and his associates "Holy
demon – Rasputin is in hell","People of sin and blood – Tsarskoe Selo sinners","Love affairs of
Grishka Rasputin","Rasputin Funeral","Mysterious murder in St. Petersburg on December 16, "The
royal guardsmen "and others.).
Since Western press had already paved the way for "Rasputin film series", the same year of
1917 almost simultaneously the U.S.A. and Germany featured films picturing Rasputin as a
demonic image of Russia, mysterious and hostile to Western civilization.
Media interest in G.Rasputin did not vanish in the 1920s–1930s: firstly, one could quite
easily explain to the "masses" on both sides of the Atlantic the main reason for the fall of the
Romanov dynasty and the Bolsheviks' rise to power by Rasputin intrigues; secondly, the legends of
the mystical and sexual rites of Rasputin allowed Western filmmakers use them for media
influence; thirdly, for Russian immigrants who worked in the Western film industry, it was a great
opportunity to prove themselves as "experts on Russian history and Russian soul."
It is worth noting that the insatiable passion of filmmakers for the subject matter sometimes
brought them not only profits, but also losses. For example, after the release of the American film
"Rasputin and the Empress» (the USA, 1932) Princess I. Yusupova, who was in emigration then,
demanded from Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer to compensate her moral damage (as she was outraged by
a slanderous interpretation of her image as a raped mistress of "the holy man"), and after a lawsuit,
she received 750 thousand dollars of compensation from the studio.
The Second World War ousted Rasputin theme for a while, however, since the 1950s the
interest in this kind of metaphoric image of Russia once again captured the imagination of foreign
studios and authors who were non-indifferent to Russia.
Among the "Rasputin series" of the1950s – 1960s there was a spot of historic credibility –
Robert Hossein film "J'ai tué Raspoutine" (France, 1967). "I Killed Rasputin" was based on the
memoirs of Prince Felix Yusupov. But on the whole, the storyline and character traits of the
protagonist were correlated with the established tradition: wildly rolling eyes, a giant with a beard
fascinates the royal family and beautiful women, heals the young prince, drinks gallons of vodka,
prophesies and desperately fights for his life in the final scene of his murder.
In 1970s-1980s similar things happened to Rasputin character on the Western screen.
Sometimes ("Nicholas and Alexandra", the USA, 1971) the authors strained for some minimal
likelihood. Sometimes they placed their stake on sexual accents ("Rasputin - Orgien am Zarenhof",
Germany, 1984). On the whole, there was a well-adjusted conveyor of commercial interest.
25
Curiously enough, this tendency has not changed after the collapse of the USSR. Western
films of the 1990s and the beginning of the XXI century, even with famous Russian actors starring
("Raspoutine", France, 2011), in my opinion, are made in a similar vein.
By the way, in the last 20-25 years previously banned in the USSR, Western movies about
Rasputin became quite available to the Russian public, however, unlike in the West, they have not
caused mass interest. Even such an ambitious project as French "Raspoutine" (France, 2011)
starring Gerard Depardieu failed the box office in most film theatres, and was soon released on
DVD and broadcast on television. Most likely, the reason for Russian mass audience's rejection of
the Western "Rasputin stories" is simple: even not evaluating the artistic features of films, the
Russian audience does not accept them as a "raspberry" degree of approximation (i.e. unlikelihood)
to Russian realities and characters.
However, released in 1985 Soviet film distribution (previously banned for a dozen years)
"Agony" by E.Klimov featuring G.Rasputin character, attracted 18 million viewers only for the first
year of screening. In "Agony" the Russian crisis of 1916 was shown with the intrinsic E.Klimov's
synthesis of irony and psychological depth. Farcical, eccentric scenes alternated terrible naturalistic
visions. In the center of the picture is a figure of Grigory Rasputin, powerfully performed by Alexei
Petrenko, who managed to achieve amazing results, switching between volcanic temperament,
animal fear, superhuman strength, humiliated weakness, corruption and religiosity. It was a very
challenging task, but the actor was able to embody the ambiguous character.
Structure and techniques of storytelling in a media text (key aspects: media categories,
media technologies, media language, media representation).
During the group discussion the students come to conclusion that on the whole Western
cinema "Rasputin series" is based on simple dichotomies: 1) barbarian world of G.Rasputin vs.
somewhat European world of the Tzar family and nobility of the Russian Empire; 2) good
characters (royal family, noble beauties, Prince Yusupov and his friends) vs. "crazy monk"
Rasputin; 3) intention to protect Russia from Rasputin's harmful influence (Yusupov and his
friends) vs. Rasputin's boundless lust for power.
Schematically, a structure, a plot, representation, ethics, peculiarities of genre modification,
iconography, and characters in Western film texts about Rasputin can be presented in the
following way:
Historical period, location: Russia in 1905-1916 (most often, 1916, the year of Rasputin's
assassination). Sometimes as a postscript there is a scene of the royal family assassination in 1918,
too.
Environment, everyday objects: luxury palace chambers of St. Petersburg and noble
mansions, modest life of the poor, Russian open fields, forests and rivers. Household items
correspond to the social status of the characters, although many look too "western" (which,
incidentally, is not surprising, because until the 1990s, foreign films about Rasputin due to
ideological reasons, could not be filmed on the Russian territory).
Techniques of depicting reality: positive with respect to the positive characters,
grotesque (sometimes even comedian, as in the British film "Rasputin: The Mad Monk" (the United
Kingdom, 1966) regarding "demonic" G.Rasputin.
The royal family, noble elite (including young pretty ladies), united by monarchy values and
patriotic ideas.
Wildly rolling eyes, a bearded giant G.Rasputin is a religious messiah, the hypnotist, the
fortuneteller who gains the trust of the royal family and the beautiful women, heals the young
prince, drinks gallons of vodka and has excellent appetite.
The royal court is dressed with corresponding luxury, military men wear beautiful uniform.
Characters of noble descent are endowed with graceful physique – especially women.
Their vocabulary is exquisite. Facial expressions and gestures are emotional. Naturally, the tone of
voice of "good" characters (in sound films) is pleasant and smooth.
Rasputin is dressed in a rural merchant-folk style, always with an Orthodox cross. He is
characterized by powerful physique, simplicity and "simple folks" language, facial expressions and
gestures are big, he speaks in bass voice, and inspires awe with his sententious intonations.
A significant change in the lives of the characters: 1905. "A holy man" appears at the
Russian royal court – G. Rasputin, which wins the hearts of the imperial couple and beautiful
26
noblewomen with his mystical prophecies, healings and charisma (alternatively, a film begins in
the 1910s, when Rasputin had already become an influential figure at the royal court, or even in
1916).
A problem: patriotic nobles, led by Prince F.Yusupov, become aware of Rasputin's negative
impact on the royal family and the fate of Russia.
The search for solution: Prince Yusupov and his friends plot a scheme to murder
G.Rasputin.
Solution: Yusupov manages to lure Rasputin into a trap and kill him.
Conclusions
Thus, as a result of the analysis it can be concluded that the Western film interpretations
using G.Rasputin's image construct an extremely simplistic image of the country. Consequently, a
barbaric, unpredictable, rebellious, mystical, and most importantly – a strange, not compatible
with the normal US-European way of life, image of Russia is created.
References:
1. Bazalgette C. (1995). Key aspects of media education. Moscow: Publishing House of
Association for Film Education, 51 p.
2. Eco U. (2005). The role of the reader. Studies on the semiotics of the text. St. Petersburg:
Symposium, 2005. 502 p.
3. Fedorov, A. (2010). Transformation of the image of Russia in the western screen: from
the era of ideological confrontation (1946-1991) to the present stage (1992-2010). Moscow:
Publishing "Information for All", 202 p.
4. Fedorov, A. (2012). Analysis of the media stereotypes of the positive image of Russia in
the classroom in the student audience (for example, the adaptation of the novel by Jules Verne's
"Michael Strogoff"). Innovations in Education, 2012. N 5, p. 67-78.
Literacy in the Information Age. New Brunswick (USA) and London (UK): Transaction Publishers,
p.15-68.
7. Silverblatt, A. (2001). Media Literacy. Westport, Connecticut - London: Praeger, 449 p.
27
Russian Education & Society
ISSN: 1060-9393 (Print) 1558-0423 (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/mres20
The Application of Hermeneutical Analysis to

Research on the Cold War in Soviet Animation
Media Texts from the Second Half of the 1940s
A.V. Fedorov
To cite this article: A.V. Fedorov (2015) The Application of Hermeneutical Analysis to Research
on the Cold War in Soviet Animation Media Texts from the Second Half of the 1940s, Russian
Education & Society, 57:10, 817-829, DOI: 10.1080/10609393.2016.1148951
To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10609393.2016.1148951
Published online: 21 Mar 2015.
Submit your article to this journal
View related articles
View Crossmark data
Full Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at

http://www.tandfonline.com/action/journalInformation?journalCode=mres20
Download by: [Alexander Fedorov] Date: 21 March 2016, At: 23:16

Russian Education & Society, vol. 57, no. 10, October 2015, pp. 817–829.
q 2015 Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
ISSN: 1060 –9393 (print)/ISSN 1558 –0423 (online)
DOI: 10.1080/10609393.2016.1148951
A.V. FEDOROV
Downloaded by [Alexander Fedorov] at 23:16 21 March 2016
The Application of Hermeneutical

Analysis to Research on the Cold War
in Soviet Animation Media Texts from
the Second Half of the 1940s
The Cold War era, which spawned a mutual ideological confronta-

tion between communist and capitalist countries, left its mark on
all categories of media texts, including cartoons and animations.
Cartoons were used by the authorities as tools for delivering the
necessary confrontational ideological content in an attractive
folkloric, fairy-tale packaging in order to influence adults as well
as children.
In our previous works (e.g., Fedorov 2008, 2012) we have

repeatedly applied a hermeneutic analysis to media texts (Eco
1976, 1998, 2005; Silverblatt 2001, pp. 80 –81). This study is
devoted to an examination of Soviet animated media texts in
order to study the topic of the Cold War. The analysis of data in
English translation q 2015 Taylor & Francis Group, LLC, from the Russian
text q 2015 “Mediaobrazovanie.” “Tekhnologiia germenevticheskogo analiza
sovetskikh animatsionykh mediatekstov vtoroi poloviny 1940-kh godov na
temu ‘kholodnoi voiny,’” Mediaobrazovanie, .2015, no. 1, pp. 102–12.
Alexander Fedorov Fedorov, doctor of pedagogical sciences, is a professor
at the Anton Chekhov Taganrog State Pedagogical Institute. E-mail:
mediashkola@rambler.ru
Translated by Kenneth Cargill.
817
818 RUSSIAN EDUCATION & SOCIETY
media texts, in our opinion, will prove useful for training future
historians, cultural studies scholars, art historians, sociologists,
linguists, psychologists, and educators in media education issues.
The historical, cultural, political, and ideological context
A. The historical context

a) the venue of the media texts - the USA, unnamed countries.

b) the time of production: the cartoons we examine were
created in the second half of the 1940s.
c) how did events from the time affect the media texts?
d) what events were taking place at the time the texts were
created? how does knowledge of these historical events
help us understand the texts?
The era of the Cold War became an inspiration for the creation
of many anti-Soviet/anticommunist as well as anti-Western/
antibourgeois media texts from 1946 to 1991 (the period began on
March 5, 1946, when Winston Churchill made his famous Fulton
speech, sharply criticizing the politics of the Soviet Union.
In August –September 1946 the “anti-cosmopolitan” decrees
“On the magazines Zvezda and Leningrad,” “On the repertoire of
theaters and measures to improve them” and “On subscription and
use of foreign literature” were adopted at the initiative of Joseph
Stalin).
The general sociocultural, political, and ideological context of
the second half of the 1940s was characterized by:
—restoration of the war-torn Russian economy by straining all

available human resources;
—rapid development of military production, nuclear develop-
ment, and the equipping of many factories with captured
equipment;
—establishment of totalitarian regimes that were completely
dependent on the Kremlin in almost all the countries of
Eastern Europe;
OCTOBER 2015 819
—return to the practice of mass repressions (the struggle

against cosmopolitanism, the anti-Semitic campaign, etc.).
On the basis of an analysis of Soviet society, the outstanding

Russian philosopher and political scientist D.P. Konchalovsky
was correct to conclude that during the 1930s –1940s Russia was
transformed “into a stratified police state with class divisions, a
hierarchical bureaucracy, strict discipline, and lack of freedom
and personal rights. It was as though the XIX century had been
blotted out and Russia had returned to the XVIII or even the XVII
century. That is what had happened in essence. But it seems like
the attributes of democracy and freedom were established and
supported in every possible way as a nod to the zeitgeist and other
recently acquired habits. These had become necessary both
domestically and abroad. It was necessary to confuse people in
order to create duality and contradiction. Hence propaganda was
reinforced at every turn (to prevent people from coming to their
senses), the suppression of contacts with people who had seen the
West and their “neutralization” so far as possible, and the ‘iron
curtain’” (Konchalovsky 1969, pp. 24– 25).
Undoubtedly, even at the height of the Cold War in both the United
States and the Soviet Union, there were media texts that portrayed
positive characters from the country of the “potential enemy.” In the
Soviet Union, positive foreign characters mostly appeared in film
adaptations of literary classics, which were mostly set in the past (or
at least before 1917). As for Western characters from the 1940s, they
were portrayed in Soviet media texts insofar as they expressed or
carried out anti-imperialist, antibourgeois views and actions, and it
was even better if they directly supported communist ideas.
But, needless to say, most of the Soviet media texts devoted to
the topic of modern Western life during the height of the Cold
War were created with the aim of exposing and making
accusations against imperialism and the bourgeois world.
In this respect, actual events on both sides of the Iron Curtain
were very interesting. We can agree with M.I. Turovskaya that
“the atmosphere of mutual suspicion, rudeness, cynicism, fear,
complicity, and disunity that colored the final years of Stalinism
and completely displaced the focus on domestic ‘topics’ could

be realized only as part of the ‘image of the enemy’” (Turovskaya
1996, p. 106). Despite American democratic traditions, a similar
atmosphere prevailed during the witch-hunt launched at that time
by Senator George McCarthy against many Hollywood directors
and screenwriters who were accused of sympathizing with
communism and the Soviet Union. These mutually hostile
tendencies were reflected in media texts, which combined facts
with varying degrees of ideological and esthetic falsification.

The media image of the Western enemy in the Soviet Union
(as, indeed, the image of the Soviet enemy in Western media texts
that were targeted against the USSR) was developed in the
1920s– 30s and continued to be used for many decades. The vast
majority of these texts presented the image of an aggressor who
was alien and did not adhere to the same belief system. They
frequently were shown as invaders/aggressors, outsiders/unbelie-
vers, spies/criminals, barbarians/degenerates, or, if they were
intellectuals, they were hostile, spiteful, and cruel.
The external threat was “a convenient excuse for domestic
problems and contradictions that plagued the socioeconomic and
political system, which could otherwise be seen as evidence of
the Soviet Union’s imperfections in the eyes of its inhabitants”
(Fateev 1999). Stalinist socialism and its “methods and devices,
alongside with the social order, life, and the social psyche it
created became possible in Russia only because it revived the
traditional type of communal living, typified by the dominance of
a ruthless and overpowering state, at different times and to
varying degrees and qualities” (Konchalovsky 1969, p. 17).
In this context, the Marshall Plan, developed in 1947 by U.S.
Secretary of State George C. Marshall, was interpreted by Soviet
propaganda as constituting a threat to the socialist camp. The
Marshall Plan was implemented in Western Europe (Britain,
France, West Germany, Italy, and the Netherlands) from 1948 to
1951 and, as is well known, it became one of the most effective
economic projects to revive war-torn governments. Billions of
dollars were invested to ensure that European politics would
develop along anticommunist lines.
OCTOBER 2015 821
The Marshall Plan was viewed with hostility in the Soviet

Union; from the late 1940s the Soviet media were full of articles
that opposed it.
The ideological propaganda of the Cold War also impacted the
arts in the USSR. In addition to the Politburo decrees “On the
magazines Zvezda and Leningrad” (1946) and “On the repertoire
of theaters and measures to improve them” (1946) in February
1948, the Politburo also issued the decree “On the opera The Great
Friendship [Velikaia druzhba] by V. Muradeli,” which implicated

composers “whose works present clear formalist perversions and
antidemocratic trends in music that are alien to the Soviet people
and their artistic tastes. The characteristic features of this type of
music include the negation of basic principles of classical music
and the propagation of atonality, dissonance, and disharmony
in the name of ‘progress’ and ‘innovation’ in the development
of musical form, the rejection of such important foundations of
musical works as melody, a dominant chaotic structure, and
neuropathic combinations that turn music into cacophony or
a chaotic jumble of sounds. This type of music is strongly
characterized by the spirit of contemporary modernist bourgeois
music in Europe and America, which provides ample evidence of
the insanity of bourgeois culture and the complete negation of
musical art that has been developed into a dead end” (1948).
Moreover, in April –May 1949, the Soviet Union developed a
special “Action Plan to Strengthen Anti-American Propaganda
in the Near Future,” which provided for the “systematic printing
of materials, articles, and pamphlets exposing the aggressive
plans of American imperialism, the anti-national nature of the
social and political system of the United States that debunks
the fables from American propaganda about the ‘prosperity’ of
America and unveils the profound contradictions within the
US economy, the falsity of bourgeois democracy, the insanity
of bourgeois culture, and the mores of modern America”
(Plan . . . , 1949).
And it should be noted that all three anti-Western cartoons that
were shot in 1949, including Ambulance [Skoraiai pomoshch’],
Mr. Walk [Mister Wolf], and A Foreign Voice [Chuzhoi golos],
comply fully with the stipulations of this plan. The first of these
exposed the perfidy of the Marshall Plan, the second treated the
greed and falsity of the American bourgeoisie, and the third
explored the noxiousness formalism of jazz music.
B. The ideological, political context

The ways for the media texts to reflect, strengthen, inspire or form
a particular ideology.
The term “Cold War” is closely related to such concepts as
“information-psychological warfare,” “ideological struggle,”
“political propaganda,” “ideological propaganda,” “propaganda”
(hereinafter by “propaganda” we mean the purposeful and regular
inculcation of a particular ideology into the mass consciousness
through media in order to achieve a particular intended social
effect), and the “image of the enemy.” According to A.V. Fateev,
“the image of the enemy” is an ideological expression of social
antagonism, a dynamic symbol of forces that are hostile to the
state and the citizen, and a policy tool used by the ruling groups
of society . . . . The image of the enemy is a crucial element of
“psychological warfare,” which makes purposeful and systematic
use of political opponents in propaganda as a means of exerting
pressure in order to directly or indirectly influence opinions,
moods, feelings, and behavior of enemies, allies, and their
populations with the goal of forcing them to act in ways that the
government wants” (Fateev 1999).
In this sense, the animated films Ambulance, Mr. Walk and A
Foreign Voice present a clear propaganda message that is aimed
at convincing the audience that:
—The Marshall Plan, though it masquerades as economic aid,

is built on the evil designs of American imperialists to rob
European countries and plunge them into poverty (Ambu-
lance);
—even though they may pretend to be pacifists for a time, the
Western bourgeoisie will sooner or later reveal their true
aggressive, greedy nature (Mr. Walk);
OCTOBER 2015 823
—The unharmonious and sassy “music of the fat cats”

(jazz, etc.), supposedly attributed to the West, must be
uncompromisingly rejected by true connoisseurs of classical
music and authentic folk tunes (A Foreign Voice).
In general, the ideological and political context of the

worldview depicted in anti-Western Soviet cartoons from 1949
can probably be described as in Table 1 (the key issues are the
depiction of Western figures who belong to ruling circles or

characters who are under Western influence and the depiction of
ordinary characters).
C. The cultural context

The ways for media texts to reflect, strengthen, inspire, or shape
particular cultural attitudes, values, or myths.
As a product of popular culture, Soviet cartoons from 1949 that
explored the topic of confrontation with the Western way of
life relied on folklore texts and fairy tales, including traditional
fairy-tale representations of wolves as negative and evil beings,
magpies as stupid chatterboxes, hares as eternal victims of predatory
animals, and so forth. Thus, Ambulance and A Foreign Voice present
folkloric and fabulous images of animals and birds as substituting
for Western and Soviet value perceptions, helping to strengthen the
image of the West as alien and antagonistic to the USSR.
In particular, the interpretation of jazz music offered by the
cartoon A Foreign Voice clearly resonates with a basic Soviet text
from the Cold War with the eloquent title The Music of Spiritual
Poverty, which clearly states that “the task of modern jazz music
is directly opposed to the goals of people’s dance songs and lyric
music. It does not excite strong, cheerful feelings but rather
dampens and suppresses them. It fails to enthrall its audience with
impulsive passions, choosing instead to mesmerize it through
deadly and cold mechanistic rhythms that are impoverished by
the monotony and poverty of their musical material. And even
when its purpose is to stir up emotion, it resorts only to hysterical
cries” (Gorodinsky 1950, p. 81).
Table 1
The Ideology and Political Context of the Worldview Depicted in Anti-Western Soviet Cartoons from the Cold War
The depiction of the world of Western

figures who belong to ruling circles or
characters who are under Western The depiction of the world of ordinary
Key issues influence characters
What is the ideology of the world Imperialist, bourgeois ideology. The ideology of survival in a dog-eat-dog
represented in the media text? world (Ambulance), the ideology of the
struggle for traditional music against
harmful foreign influences (A Foreign
Voice).
What is the level of optimism/pessimism A high degree of self-confidence and an Low (Ambulance) and high (A Foreign
in the worldview of the characters in optimistic outlook. Voice) degrees of optimism in their
this media text? worldviews.
(Mr. Walk presents no ordinary characters
whatsoever).
What is the hierarchy of values within Wealth – power – fun, entertainment Comfortable living (Ambulance), enjoyment
the worldview of the characters in this of traditional melodies (A Foreign Voice).
media text?
What does it mean to be successful for It means to be an aggressive imperialist It means being able to survive in a dog-
the characters in this media text? and a greedy and deceitful bourgeois eats-dog world (Ambulance) and to win
How do they achieve this success? (Ambulance and Mr. Walk) or a lover of the struggle against the advocates of
discord and disharmony in music harmful alien music (A Foreign Voice).
(A Foreign Voice).
(Continued )
Table 1
(Continued)
The depiction of the world of Western

figures who belong to ruling circles or
characters who are under Western The depiction of the world of ordinary
Key issues influence characters
What kind of behavior by these The characters seek to achieve this In this sense the characters are
characters is rewarded in the media success by any means available to them, stereotyped, but they may possess
text? How stereotypical is this including false propaganda, armed individual characteristics (e.g., the
behavior? aggression, and the persistent inculcation credulity of the hare from Ambulance).
of modernist music among the masses.
Depending on the intent of the creators of
the media text, this type of behavior either
leads to the desired goal (Ambulance and
Mr. Walk) or disaster (A Foreign Voice).
In general, the characters are stereotyped,
but they may have some individual
characteristics (for example, at first Mr.
Walk puts on the mask of a pacifist)
OCTOBER 2015 825
D. Genre modifications
It is mostly the satire genre.
F. Basic dramatic stereotypes of media texts

—The world of ordinary characters is invaded by represen-
tations of Western values, including economic (Ambulance)
and musical (A Foreign Voice) in an attempt to deceive,
entrap, rob, and spoil artistic taste. However, sooner or later

the ordinary characters realize the deceit of these actions and
begin to confront them;
—Western bourgeois characters may pretend to be pacifists for
a time (Mr. Walk) or benefactors (Ambulance). However,
their negative, bestial nature eventually comes out.
Devices for representing reality (iconography)—environment,

household items, and so on:
Ordinary characters are modest in appearance; the Western
bourgeoisie live in luxury. The life of Western capitalists (Mr.
Walk) is shown with a significant element of grotesque.
Character typology (their values, ideas, ethics, clothes, physique,

vocabulary, facial expressions, and gestures):
Age of the character: fifty to sixty years old (Mr. Walk and his
wife). It is more difficult to determine the age of animal
characters, but it is obvious that they are not old . . .
Appearance, clothes, and physique: The characters are dressed
according to their social status, although the poor hare at first
receives a new expensive suit from the bourgeoisie (subsequently
this hare, like the rest of his kind, suffers the sad fate of being
robbed). The ordinary characters are usually attractive, whereas
the bourgeoisie and their henchmen are repellent.
Educational level: The creators do not focus on the education
of their characters.
Social status, profession: The bourgeoisie and ordinary
characters (people or animals) vary significantly in social status.
OCTOBER 2015 827
Their occupation is emphasized only in selective cases (the

greedy businessmen from Ambulance and Mr. Walk, the singers
from A Foreign Voice).
The characters’ marital status depends on the specific plots of
the films. Let us say that Mr. Walk has a family, but the hare from
Ambulance will not be able to form one, since the young female
hare he likes believes that he is a penniless ragamuffin . . .
Character traits: greed, cruelty, meanness, single-mindedness,
hostility, cunning, strength (bourgeois characters); gullibility,

naivety, ability to resist bourgeois influences (ordinary char-
acters). The bourgeois characters are depicted as angry, rude, and
cruel. They have a primitive vocabulary, actively gesticulate, and
speak in an unpleasant tone of voice. The positive characters,
by contrast, are characterized by pleasant voices (especially the
Nightingale from A Foreign Voice). On the whole, the
personalities of all the characters from the media texts mentioned
above are only partially sketched. The texts do not develop the
characters’ psychology in any depth.
Value system (ideological, religious, etc.): All three of these
“confrontational” cartoons from 1949 attribute to their negative
characters bourgeois, imperialist, and modernist values coupled
with a belief in violence as a way of solving problems. The
values of the positive characters are close to “traditional folk”
beliefs.
The characters’ actions, methods of conflict resolution: These
are dictated by the need to develop the stereotypical plots of the
media texts described above.
Significant changes in the plot of the media text and the lives of
the characters, problems encountered, solutions:
The ordinary life of positive characters is disrupted by the
active interventions of negative characters. The problem: As a
result of the machinations of negative characters, the life
(Ambulance), or the artistic values (A Foreign Voice) of the
positive characters are threatened. And there is only one way to
solve this problem: to confront the negative characters and their
foreign influence.
Conclusion
We have applied a hermeneutic analysis, previously used to study
Nazi feature films, to a Russian topic. Such an analysis provides a
way of studying the interpretation of a media text as well as
cultural and historical factors that influenced the points of view
of the agency/creator of the text as well as the audience.
A hermeneutic analysis proposes that media texts be understood
by comparing historical and cultural traditions with reality and
that their underlying logic be exposed. Such a method further

involves the comparison of media images in a historical and
cultural context by combining historical and hermeneutic analysis
to undercover a media text’s underlying structure, plot, ethics,
ideology, and iconography with an analysis of media stereotypes
and characters in a media text. As a result, we conclude that the
Cold War era, which spawned a mutual ideological confrontation
between communist and capitalist countries, left its mark on all
categories of media texts, including cartoons and animations. By
watching cartoons, even based on folklore or fairy-tales, both
children and adults got under the influence of the confrontational
ideological content, regarded as indispensable by authorities.
Filmography
A Foreign Voice. USSR: 1949. Director: I. Ivanov-Vano. Screenwriters: D. Tarasov, M.
Kalinin. Camera man N. Voinov. Composer Yu. Nikolsky. Artists: L. Milchin, N. Stroganova.
Ambulance. USSR: 1949. Directed by L. Bredis. Screenwriter: A. Medvedkin. Camera man
E. Petrova. Composer N. Peiko. Artist S. Belkovskaya.
Mr. Walk. USSR: 1949. Directed by V. Gromov. Screenwriters: V. Dlugach, S. Romanov
(E. Petrov, author of the play The Island of Peace [Ostrov mira]). Camera man M. Druyan.
Composer Yu. Levitin.
References
Eco, U. A Theory of Semiotics. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1976.
———. Otsutstvuiushchaia struktura. Vvedenie v semiologiiu. St. Petersburg: Petropolis,
1998.
———. Rol’ chitatelia. Issledovaniia po semiotike teksta. St. Petersburg: Simpozium, 2005.
OCTOBER 2015 829
Fateev, A. V. Obraz vraga v sovetskoi propagande, 1945–1954. Moscow: Izd-vo RAN. 1999.
http://psyfactor.org/lib/fateev0.htm
Fedorov, A. V., Analiz audiovizual’nykh mediatekstov. Moscow: 2012.
———. “Analiz kul’turnoi mifologii mediatekstov na zaniatiiakh v studencheskoi auditorii.”
Innovatsii v obrazovanii, 2008, no. 4.
Gorodinsky, V. Muzyka dukhovnoi nishchety. Moscow: Muzgiz, 1950.
Konchalovsky, D.P. Puti Rossii. Paris: YMCA-PRESS, 1969.
Plan meropriiatii po usileniiu antiamerikanskoi propagandy na blizhaishee vremia. Moscow,
1949. The Russian Center for the Preservation and Study of Documents from Recent History
(RTsKhIDNI). F. 17, op. 132, d. 224, ll. 48 –52.
Postanovlenie Politbiuro TsK VKP(b) “Ob opere ‘Velikaia druzhba’ V. Muradeli.” Moscow:
10 February 1948.
Postanovlenie TsK VKP(b). “O zhurnalakh ‘Zvezda’ i ‘Leningrad.’” Moscow, 14 August 1946.
Postanovlenie TsK VKP(b). “O repertuare dramaticheskikh teatrov i merakh po ego
uluchsheniiu.” Moscow: 26 August 1946.
Silverblatt, A. Media Literacy. Westport, CT and London: Praeger, 2001.
Turovskaya, M. I. “Fil’my ‘kholodnoi voiny.’” Iskusstvo kino, 1996, no. 9.
J. Int. N. C. Fund. Appl. Res., 2015, Vol. (3), Is. 1

ISSN 2411-3239
Vol. 3, Is. 1, pp. 10-14, 2015
DOI: 10.13187/jincfar.2015.3.10
www.ejournal36.com
UDC 94
Ukrainian Rebels of the 1940s – 1950s in the Mirror

of Modern Ukrainian Screen
Alexander Fedorov
Anton Chekhov Taganrog Institute, Russia, branch of Rostov State University of Economics,
Russian Federation
Abstract
The author, basing on the unit of media criticism and media texts' analysis methodology,
proposed by U. Eco, L. Masterman and A. Silverblatt, compares trends and stereotypes of
O. Yanchuk's films about the activities of the Ukrainian rebels (1940s – 1950s), including a socio-
political analysis, an ideological analysis, an iconographic analysis, a narrative analysis, the
analysis of the characters and others.
Keywords: media criticism; analysis; Ukraine; media literacy education; Ukrainian rebels;
screen; cinema; film.
Introduction
World War II – one of the most difficult and controversial chapters in the history.
The struggle of various rebel groups in western Ukraine, Poland, and the Baltic States in the second
half of the 1940s – the first half of the 1950s was a terrible and controversial echo of this war.
Naturally, the global screen reflected this painful subject (Ashes and Diamonds of A. Wajda,
Nobody Wanted to Die of V. Žalakevičius, Forest Violets of K. Kiisk, White Bird with a Black Mark
of Y. Ilienko and others). For example, in the White Bird with a Black Mark (1970), a multi-
faceted talent of Yuri Ilienko manifested in the symbolism of folk images, metaphorical film
language, in a refined plastic image, amazing musicianship. All this has been fused with a tragic
time for the Ukraine of the 1930s – 1940s. Undoubtedly, the ideological orientation of the 1970s
did not allow Y. Ilienko to reveal the dramatic events of the pre-war, war and post-war years, when
hostility separated people of one nation and language. However, despite this, the picture is
remembered for its expressive drama, directing and bright actors’ work.
However, manners change with the times, as they say… Moreover, for the last twenty years,
the current director of Alexander Dovzhenko’s studio and People's Artist of Ukraine, Oles Yanchuk,
has shot a series of films (Atentat. Assassination in Munich, The Undefeated, and The Company of
Heroes) entirely devoted to the activities of the Ukrainian Insurgent Army (UPA), Ukrainian
nationalists of the 1930s - 1950s, and their leaders - Stephan Bandera (1909-1959) and Roman
Shukhevych (1907-1950).
10
O. Yanchuk’s appeal to this topic is completely justified: the abolition of the communist
censorship and access to many archival documents could have brought significant benefits to
comprehension of the tragic pages of Ukrainian history. However, in fact, we see the screen version
of events with extremely idealized and decisively positive interpretation of UPA’s activities.
Western researchers [Baraban, 2012, p. 312] write about romanticizing of S. Bandera,
R. Shukhevych and their allies in the films by O. Yanchuk. It is obvious that when creating a
cinematic hymn to UPA, A. Yanchuk and his co-authors (writers V. Portyak and M. Shayevich) had
to convince the audience of the correctness of their position. Apparently, the easiest way to achieve
this was to rely on the rich experience of Soviet films about partisans and undergrounders of the
Great Patriotic War (The Young Guard, Girl Seeks Father, Call the Fire for Ourselves, War under
the Roofs, Poem of Kovpak, Front Without Flanks, Front Beyond The Frontline, et al.), since the
stereotypes of these films dominated in the military theme on the USSR screen for forty years.
Presumably, O. Yanchuk did realize that the use of Soviet "guerrilla film series" stamps – i.e.
replacing of the positive Soviet partisans / undergrounders with positive UPA rebels / guerrillas /
undergrounders - would conquer the hearts of contemporary Ukrainian viewers and, potentially,
the world’s audience.

Let us prove it with the help of case studies. On the one hand, we depend on media criticism
that enables us to examine and evaluate a flexible range of diverse media relations, between media
texts and the audience and the society as a whole [Korochensky, 2003, p. 8]. In addition, on the
other hand, we rely on the methodology for media texts analysis proposed by Umberto Eco [Eco,
2005], Len Masterman [Masterman, 1997], and Arthur Silverblatt [Silverblatt, 2001]. We compare
the trends and patterns of the above-mentioned films (including a socio-political analysis, analysis
of stereotypes, an ideological analysis, an identification analysis, an iconographic analysis, a
narrative analysis, the characters’ analysis).
Cinematographic stereotypes of Soviet feature films (dominant genre - drama) associated
with a guerrilla theme historical period, scene of action: any period of time from 1941 till 1944,
German-occupied Soviet territory, the USSR, Germany.
furnishings, household items: modest dwelling places and household items of ordinary
Soviet characters, Spartan living conditions of Soviet partisans - dugouts, a scanty meal by the fire,
shabby clothes, etc. Significantly better life conditions of the Nazi occupationists: they are dressed
in good uniforms and eat well. Soviet partisans, undergrounders, when on duty can also be dressed
in good clothes and live under more or less decent living conditions.
methods of representation of reality: idealized, since any deviations from positive
characteristics of Soviet partisans (as happened, for example, in the film by Alexei German Checks
on the Roads) were penalized by censorship. Similar censorship framework existed for the image of
partisans’ opponents - German occupationists and their collaborators: they were given only
negative qualities.
characters, their values, ideas, clothes, physique, vocabulary, facial expressions, gestures:
positive characters (guerrillas, undergrounders) with Soviet communist values and ideas; negative
characters - German occupationists and their supporters - with inhumane, Nazi ideas. Separated by
ideology and philosophy (communist, Nazi), characters are usually presented according to the
targets of a mediatext source: Nazi characters seem to be rude and violent fanatics (and sometimes
sadists, rapists) with a primitive vocabulary, angry faces (and if they sometimes smile, their smiles
being false and disgusting), an unpleasant and harsh tone of voice... Screen Nazi collaborators from
the local population sometimes look even more disgusting. And, by contrast, Soviet partisans,
undergrounders are shown exclusively on the positive side: as patriots. However, they are usually
romantically in love with their wives and brides, adore children, protect and defend the civilian
population. The Soviet characters sing soulful songs and dream of happy post-war prospects.
Civilians in the Nazi-occupied territory are shown as poor, frightened, suffering, but still at any
moment ready to help the guerrillas to hide the wounded, to share the last crust of bread.
a significant change in the lives of the characters: negative characters (the Nazis) suddenly
attack the Soviet Union and attempt to bring to life their inhuman ideas (to occupy territories and
to enslave the Soviet people).
11
a problem: the life of positive characters (as well as the life of the whole Soviet people) is at
risk.
finding a solution to the problem: positive characters struggle with negative ones.
solution: the destruction / capture of negative characters, return to civilian life. Variant: the
heroic death of some positive characters from ruthless hands of the Nazis.
Case studies of the films: Young Guard (1948), Girl Seeks Father (1959), Call the Fire for
Ourselves (1964), War under the Roofs (1967), Front Without Flanks (1974), The Poem of Kovpak
(1976), Front Beyond The Frontline (1977) and others.
Cinematographic stereotypes of Ukrainian feature films by Oles Yanchuk (dominant genre -
drama) associated with the rebel, partisan theme
historical period, scene of action: any time interval from the 1930s till the 1950s, Ukraine,
the USSR, Germany, Poland.
furnishings, household items: modest dwellings and household items of simple Ukrainian
characters, Spartan living conditions of Ukrainian insurgents, guerrillas - dugouts, scanty meals by
the fire, shabby clothes, etc. Significantly better living conditions of Nazis, Soviet and Polish
invaders: they are dressed in good uniforms and eat well. Ukrainian nationalists - rebels,
undergrounders, when on duty can also be dressed in good clothes and live under more or less
decent living conditions.
methods of representation of reality: idealized, since any deviation from positive
characteristics of Ukrainian UPA fighters can destroy the entire structure of romanticized
“Bandera series” by O. Yanchuk, and here the self-censorship of these media texts authors comes
into action.
characters, their values, ideas, clothes, physique, vocabulary, facial expressions, gestures:
positive characters (Ukrainian nationalists - insurgents, guerrillas, undergrounders) - national
carriers of humanistic values and ideas of the Christian faith; negative characters - Soviet, German
and Polish invaders with inhumane Communist and Nazi ideas. Separated by ideology, belief,
religion / atheism, the characters tend to be presented according to the settings of the media
source: Soviet and Polish characters (mostly undercover men, army men) are rude and cruel people
(and sometimes sadists, rapists) with a primitive vocabulary, angry faces (and if they sometimes
smile, they give a false smile), with unpleasant and harsh voice timbres...
Nazis on Yanchuk’s screen look less disgusting. In addition, since even Oles Yanchuk and his
co-authors have to show (though in passing) that the Ukrainian nationalists of 1941-1942 actively
collaborated with Nazis (in particular, Roman Shukhevych, who served in these years in the
Wehrmacht army). By contrast, Ukrainian UPA fighters, guerrillas, undergrounders are shown
exclusively in the positive way. In this case, they are usually romantically in love with their wives
and brides, adore children, protect and defend the civilian population. They do not forget about the
religious ceremonies, chorus soulful songs and dream of a happy future of independent Ukraine.
Civilians in the occupied territory are shown as poor, frightened, suffering, but still at any moment
ready to help Ukrainian UPA partisans, to provide a shelter to the wounded, share the last crust of
bread.
a significant change in the lives of characters: negative characters (Communists, Nazis, the
Poles) are unwilling to recognize the independence of Ukraine and try to realize their inhuman
ideas (to occupy territories and to enslave the Ukrainian people).
a problem: the life of positive characters (as well as the life of the whole Ukrainian people) is
at risk.
finding a solution to the problem: positive characters struggle with negative characters.
solution to the problem: extermination of a significant number of negative characters, but a
greater part of UPA fighters and their leaders also die fighting against odds.
Case studies of the films: Atentat. Assassination in Munich (1995), The Undefeated (2000),
The Company of Heroes (2004).
The comparison between Soviet fiction films related to the theme of guerrillas and the
cinematographic stereotypes of Oles Yanchuk’s feature films about UPA shows that they are based
on a common stereotyped pattern which idealizes positive characters. However, with an important
ideological difference - Ukrainian nationalists who actually worked closely with Nazis in 1941-1942
are shown as exclusively positive heroes. It is clear that now the supporters of Bandera argue that
they fought against the Stalinist and Communist regime and desired to release their people from it.
12
However, the so-called “heroes” who wanted to “liberate their people” collaborated with Nazi
Germany. It is well known now what kind of the so-called “liberation” Nazis were spreading and
how much did Belarusian, Russian and other peoples (especially, Jewish) suffer.
One more thing. Can we say that the films by Oles Yanchuk about UPA activities were his
personal initiative that does not coincide with the position of the Ukrainian leadership? Certainly
not, since the pro-Bandera position of either The Undefeated (2000) or The Company Of Heroes
(2004) (the production of these films was funded by various sponsors, mostly – from the West),
fully correlates with the actions of the Ukrainian authorities: the installation of dozens of
monuments and opening of museums to S. Bandera and R. Shukhevych, renaming of a number of
Ukrainian city streets in their honor (not to mention the fact that during his presidency Victor
Yushchenko awarded Bandera and Shukhevych the titles of Heroes of Ukraine).
As for the artistic level of Atentat. Assassination in Munich (1995), The Undefeated (2000),
and The Company of Heroes (2004), the Ukrainian media criticism, even nationalistic, rated this
level as very low. For example, O. Bryukhovetskaya believes that The Company of Heroes is a naive
movie, and, like any naive, it has its charm. In fact, this is an amusement ride movie, in which the
narrative logic is almost entirely absent [Bryukhovetskaya, 2004], and E. Cherednychenko writes
that this film “resembles a paper certificate that passed an incredible number of institutions and
whereby became blue with the same number of seals and stamps” [Cherednychenko, 2004].
The personality of the OUN Bureau head is painted in one color – ideally immaculate. And what
kind of person Bandera was, as a matter of fact we did not understand then, since according to
Yanchuk, everything human is alien to him" [Cherednychenko, 2004].
A. Rutkowski believes that Oles Janchuk in The Undefeated (2000) “persistently stigmatizes
and exposes the Soviet totalitarianism, but he does it as he was taught, i.e. in the Soviet style -
elementary, conformally, indiscriminately, without any remorse” [Rutkowski, 2000].
In my opinion, the artistic level of Oles Yanchuk’s films could have been warmer - despite all
their idealizing and posterizing there are well-played parts, skillfully stylized Soviet partisan
representation, and musical emotionality. However, let us not forget that, Yanchuk’s films are
primarily ideological, propaganda products, not art. And in this guise, being frequently rerun on
Ukrainian TV channels they probably fulfill their mission, i.e. offer a distorted, one-sided version of
complicated and contradictory events of the 1930s–1950s both to the younger and older
generations.
Conclusions
The tragic and controversial events of the war years, of course, need adequate understanding.
However, in Oles Yanchuk’s movies Atentat. Assassination in Munich (1995), The Undefeated
(2000), The Company of Heroes (2004) the images of the Bandera movement are romanticized
and idealized. In fact, they are copies of idealized images of heroic partisans from screen series of
Soviet times, which, alas, does not contribute to an objective analysis of the subject.
Acknowledgments
Science Foundation (RSF). Project № 14-18-00014 “Synthesis of media education and media
References:
1. Baraban, E. (2012). Forget the War: Wartime Subjectivity in Post-Soviet Russian Films.
Canadian Slavonic Papers / Revue canadienne des slavistes. 2012. Vol. LIV, NN 3–4, pp. 295-317.
2. Bryukhovetskaya, O. The Company Of Heroes - hit of the season? Mirror Weeks. 2004.
№ 36. http://gazeta.zn.ua/CULTURE/zheleznaya_sotnya__hit_sezona.html
3. Cherednychenko, E. "Glory to Ukraine? No bazaar!". Independence Day was held pre-
premiere screening of the film Oles Yanchuk The Company Of Heroes. Mirror weeks. 2004. № 35.
http://gazeta.zn.ua/CULTURE/slava_ukrayini_nema_bazaru_v_den_nezavisimosti
_sostoyalsya_predpremiernyy_pokaz_filma_olesya_yanchuk.html
4. Eco, U. The role of the reader. Studies on the semiotics of text. St. Petersburg:
A Symposium, 2005. .
13
5. Korochensky, A.P. Media criticism in theory and practice of journalism. Ph.D. dis.
7. Rutkowski, A. Party activists and cinema. Mirror Weeks. 2000. № 45.
http://gazeta.zn.ua/CULTURE/partaktiv_i_ego_kino.html
УДК 94
Украинские повстанцы 1940–1950-х гг.

в зеркале современного украинского экрана

Аннотация. Автор, основываясь на методологии медиакритического нализа,

предложенного У. Эко, Л. Мастерманом и А. Сильверблэттом, сравнивает тенденции и
стереотипы фильмов О. Янчука о деятельности украинских повстанцев (1940–1950-х годов):
социально-политический, идеологический, иконографический, нарративный анализ,
анализ характеров и т.д.).
Ключевые слова: медиакритика; анализ; Украина; медиаграмотность; украинские
повстанцы; экран; кино; фильм.
14
№№1-4(69-72), January-April, 2015 ISSN 2307-0188
Science and education century
_________________________________________________________________
Prof. Dr. Alexander FEDOROV
Taganrog, Russia
RUSSIAN TEACHERS’ ATTITUDE TOWARDS THE PROBLEM OF SCREEN

VIOLENCE
The author would like to thank Dr. Irina Chelysheva for her help in the organization of teachers’ survey.
The problem of the screen violence has attracted more and more attention during the
recent years [for example: Silverblatt, 2001]. While many of my previous researches and
articles were dedicated to the effects of violence scenes on the screen on the young
audiences, this time my objective was to learn the teachers’ attitude to this problem. 57
secondary school teachers took part in the survey. The gender and age differentiation is
shown in Table 1.
Table 1. The number of the teachers questioned, their age and gender
Age groups: Number of Number of Number of Number of

teachers teachers (%) women men teachers:
teachers:
21-30 10 17,54 7 3
31-40 12 21,05 8 4
41-50 11 19,30 7 4
51-60 12 21,05 7 5
61-70 12 21,05 10 2
Total: 57 100,00 39 18
Table 2 gives us a general idea of the teachers’ attitude towards violence in media.
Table 2. The teachers’ attitude towards screen violence
Teachers’ Number of teachers Number of Number of

age/gender (in %) who find teachers (in %) teachers (in %)
themselves drawn to who are repelled whose opinion is
the scenes of violence by the scenes of ambiguous
on the screen violence
21-30 /total 10,00 50,00 40,00
21-30 /male 0,00 33,33 66,67
21-30 /female 14,28 57,14 28,57
31-40/total 25,00 58,33 16,67
21-30/male 25,00 50,00 25,00
21-30/female 25,00 62,50 12,50
41-50/total 0,00 81,82 18,18
41-50/male 0,00 75,00 25,00
16
41-50/female 0,00 85,71 14,28
51-60/total 8,33 75,00 16,67
51-60/male 20,00 60,00 20,00
51-60/female 0,00 85,71 14,28
61-70/total 8,33 83,33 8,33
61-70/male 0,00 100,00 0,00
61-70/female 10,00 80,00 10,00
All age 10,17 70,17 19,30
groups/Total
All age groups/male 11,11 61,11 27,78
All age 10,26 74,36 15,38
groups/female
If we take a look at the total numbers, according to them, the number of teachers who
are fascinated by the scenes of violence on the screen, is slightly over 10 per cent, while
the number of those who are repelled by the screen violence is seven times more - 74%.
However, the analysis of the age groups of the teachers reveals that there are twice as
many teachers who accept violence on the screen in the age group of 31-40 (25%), and
accordingly, less people who are against it (58%). In the age group of 21-30 the voices are
divided evenly- 50% to 50%.
The gender analysis of the Table 2 data shows that on the whole, women teachers are
less inclined to watch violent scenes, although in some age groups (e.g. from 21 to 30
years old) the number goes up to 14%. So, the “pros” of the screen violence are more often
to be found under the age of 40, and their number is slightly more among men (although to
my mind, the difference in 1% cannot be considered as a significant).
Compare to the similar study among teenagers: there were 17% of the violent
programs fans, 49% of the adversaries of it. Thus, although the teachers in general turned
out to be more “peaceful” compared to their pupils, the gap between their preferences is
not that big, as it seems and is proclaimed by some teachers. It is in fact just 7% (17% for
students and 10% for teachers). However there are much more people who resent screen
violence among teachers (by 25% more than among students), which sounds rather
optimistic.
Table 3. Factors attracting teachers to screen violence
Age/gender Identi Infor Compens Recre Dynam Professio Outstan Outstan

Entert ficati matio atory ation ics/spee nal ding ding
ainme on n d of directing acting special
nt action effects
Number of teachers (%) who have chosen this answer
21-30 /total 30,00 60,00 20,00 0,00 20,00 20,00 20,00 0,00 0,00
21-30/male 0,00 66,67 0,00 0,00 0,00 33,33 33,33 0,00 0,00
21-30/female 42,86 57,14 28,57 0,00 28,57 14,28 14,28 0,00 0,00
31-40/total 1,67 16,67 16,67 33,33 25,00 33,33 25,00 25,00 25,00
21-30/male 5,00 25,00 25,00 25,00 25,00 50,00 25,00 25,00 25,00
21-30/female 5,00 12,50 12,50 37,50 25,00 25,00 25,00 25,00 25,00
41-50/total 3,64 36,36 27,27 27,27 27,27 54,55 27,27 27,27 9,10
41-50/male 0,00 25,00 25,00 25,00 50,00 75,00 25,00 25,00 0,00
41-50/female 1,43 42,86 28,57 28,57 14,28 42,86 28,57 28,57 14,28
17
51-60/total 3,33 25,00 25,00 16,67 25,00 33,33 41,67 41,67 16,67
51-60/male 0,00 20,00 40,00 20,00 20,00 60,00 40,00 40,00 20,00
51-60/female 2,86 28,57 14,28 14,28 28,57 14,28 42,86 42,86 14,28
61-70/total 3,33 33,33 41,67 16,67 8,33 25,00 33,33 25,00 25,00
61-70/male 0,00 50,00 50,00 0,00 0,00 50,00 50,00 50,00 50,00
61-70/female 0,00 30,00 40,00 20,00 10,00 20,00 30,00 20,00 20,00
All age 0,35 33,33 26,31 19,30 21,05 33,33 29,82 22,81 15,79
groups /Total
All age 3,33 33,33 27,78 16,67 22,22 55,55 33,33 27,78 16,67
groups/male
All age 5,59 33,33 25,64 20,51 20,51 23,08 28,20 23,08 15,38
groups/female
These data show that the main appealing factor is entertainment (40%). Other factors
(Identification Factor; Information Factor; Recreation Factor; Dynamics of Action;
Professional Directing; Outstanding Acting; Special Effects) got the ratings from 20 to
33%. Gender differences on this level of general results are not significant, the main one
being the bigger percentage of men teachers (55%) compared to women teachers (28%)
who lay emphasis on the dynamics of action. There are some differentiations of opinions
inside the age groups; however the small number of teachers within one age group (10-12
people) does not allow us to draw any justifiable conclusions.
Entertainment was the leading factor in students’ motives for watching violence, too.
But in contradistinction to teachers, pupils did not attribute much importance to the skills
of the director (2%), information factor (7%) and compensatory (7%) factor of screen
texts. Both groups- teachers and students agree on the main point- that entertainment is still
the leading factor drawing people to media violence.
Table 4. Reasons for resentment against screen violence
age/gender Aversion to Disgust Avoiding Belief that Fear of

violence of towards to violence on violence of
any kind seeing experienc the screen any kind
blood and e negative increases
tortured/ emotions violence in
injured real life
people
Number of teachers (in %)
21-30 /total 20,00 50,00 30,00 70,00 10,00
21-30/male 0,00 0,00 0,00 100,00 0,00
21-30/female 28,57 71,43 42,86 57,14 14,28
31-40/total 33,33 58,33 58,33 83,33 16,67
21-30/male 25,00 50,00 75,00 100,00 0,00
21-30/female 37,50 62,50 50,00 75,00 25,00
41-50/total 54,55 36,36 45,45 81,82 27,27
41-50/male 25,00 50,00 25,00 100,00 0,00
41-50/female 71,43 42,86 57,14 71,43 42,86
51-60/total 25,00 58,33 66,67 83,33 16,67
51-60/male 20,00 60,00 60,00 100,00 0,00
51-60/female 28,57 47,14 71,43 100,00 28,57
18
61-70/total 41,67 58,33 66,67 100,00 25,00
61-70/male 50,00 50,00 0,00 100,00 50,00
61-70/female 40,00 60,00 70,00 100,00 20,00
All age groups 35,09 54,38 56,14 80,70 19,30
/Total
All age 22,22 44,44 50,00 88,89 5,55
groups/male
All age 41,02 58,97 58,97 82,05 25,64
groups/female
The analysis of Table 4 gives a rather clear vision of what is the most repulsive about
scenes of violence for teachers. First of all, it’s the conviction that screen violence does
effect the growth of crimes in society (80%). Further on there are such factors as the
aversion to images of blood, gore, graphic images of violence; unwillingness to experience
disturbing emotions, and fear.
Maximum gender differences emerge in the question of fear of violence (25% of
women and 5% of men), and resentment of any kind of violence (41% of women and 22%
of men).
Teachers from 41 to 70 most strongly oppose media violence. There are more people
within the same age group who are convinced that screen violence contributes to the
growth of violence in real life.
The comparison of the teachers’ and students’ opinions shows that the latter are more
tolerable towards screen violence. Only 20% of students (compared to 80% of teachers)
think that it affects the violence in society. Gore disgusts 25% of the students (54% of
teachers). Unwillingness to experience unpleasant emotions is the reason for not-watching
violent scenes for 18% of the students (56 % teachers), and resentment of any violence -
21% (35% of the teachers). The teachers’ and students’ percentage in the question of fear
is about the same.
Table 5. Whom do the teachers usually watch violent content programs with?
Teachers’ with
age/gender Alone Friends Girlfrien Parents Student Children/ Others
d/Boyfrie s Grandchi
nd/Spous ldren
e
Number of teachers (in %)
21-30 /total 40,00 60,00 50,00 10,00 0,00 0,00 0,00
21-30/male 66,67 66,67 33,33 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00
21-30/female 28,57 57,14 57,14 14,28 0,00 0,00 0,00
31-40/total 25,00 75,00 66,67 25,00 25,00 16,67 0,00
21-30/male 50,00 100,00 50,00 25,00 50,00 25,00 0,00
21-30/female 12,50 62,50 75,00 25,00 12,50 12,50 0,00
41-50/total 36,36 72,73 45,45 18,18 36,36 36,36 18,18
41-50/male 50,00 50,00 50,00 25,00 25,00 50,00 50,00
41-50/female 28,57 85,71 42,86 14,28 42,86 28,57 0,00
51-60/total 41,67 58,33 75,00 0,00 16,67 33,33 16,67
51-60/male 60,00 80,00 100,00 0,00 20,00 40,00 0,00
51-60/female 28,57 42,86 47,14 0,00 28,57 42,86 0,00
19
61-70/total 33,33 83,33 83,33 0,00 16,67 50,00 0,00
61-70/male 50,00 100,00 100,00 0,00 0,00 50,00 0,00
61-70/female 30,00 80,00 80,00 0,00 20,00 50,00 0,00
All age 35,09 70,17 64,91 10,53 21,05 29,82 3,51
groups /Total
All age 55,55 77,78 66,67 11,11 22,22 33,33 11,11
groups/male
All age 25,64 66,67 64,10 10,26 20,51 28,20 0,00
groups/female
The data of Table 5 tell us that generally teachers watch programs/movies with
violent content in the company of their partners/spouses (65-70%). Then in descending
order follow: watching alone (35%), with children/grandchildren (30%), with students
(21%), with parents (10%) and with other people (e.g. in a movie theater) (3%).
Noticeably, men tend to watch violent programs by themselves twice more often as
women. Not a single woman teacher reported unfamiliar people (e.g. in a cinema) as
companions to watch movies with violent content.
Younger teachers in the age range of 21 to 30 do not watch scenes of violence with
their children (logically considering their age) or students (0%). Elder teachers (61-70), on
the contrary, are more oriented on watching them together with their children (the latter
being adults of 30-40 years old).
Comparing students’ answers with teachers’ answers, we can notice the common
grounds between these two groups: the most frequent company for watching violent
programs are friends, both for the students and for the teachers. Moreover, only 10-12% of
students watch them with parents, and 3-5% -with strangers.
Further answers differ a lot. In contradistinction to teachers, students do not like
watching media containing violence being alone (5% of students vs. 35% of teachers, 7
times less). But the most significant point is that only 4% of the students (compared to
21% of teachers) are ready to watch it together with their teachers. Even in the age group
of 7-8 year-olds, only 12% are eager to share this experience with their teacher.
Table 6. Typical mood before watching violent programs/films
Teachers’
age/gender high spirits low spirits irritated
normal other
mood reasons
Number of teachers in % who gave this reason:
21-30 /total 0,00 10,00 0,00 50,00 10,00
21-30/male 0,00 0,00 0,00 66,67 33,33
21-30/female 0,00 14,28 0,00 57,14 0,00
31-40/total 8,33 25,00 0,00 66,67 0,00
21-30/male 25,00 25,00 0,00 50,00 0,00
21-30/female 0,00 25,00 0,00 75,00 00,00
41-50/total 18,18 45,45 0,00 36,36 0,00
41-50/male 25,00 25,00 0,00 50,00 0,00
41-50/female 14,28 57,14 0,00 28,57 0,00
51-60/total 8,33 50,00 0,00 41,67 0,00
51-60/male 20,00 40,00 0,00 40,00 0,00
51-60/female 0,00 47,14 0,00 42,86 0,00
20
61-70/total 8,33 41,67 0,00 50,00 0,00
61-70/male 0,00 0,00 0,00 100,00 0,00
61-70/female 10,00 30,00 0,00 60,00 0,00
All age groups 8,77 31,58 0,00 54,38 1,75
/Total
All age 16,67 22,22 0,00 55,55 5,55
groups/male
All age 5,13 35,90 0,00 53,85 0,00
groups/female
The analysis of data of Table 6 shows that teachers usually watch scenes of violence
in a normal psychological state (54%). Low spirits follow with 31%, and good mood with
9%. It is worth mentioning that the gender difference is first of all revealed in the fact that
men teachers more often watch media violence being in the good mood, while women
teachers - in the bad mood.
The same tendency is seen in the students’ answers: normal mood (50%), low spirit
(27%). However, there are three times as many pupils (compared to teachers) who prefer
to watch violent scenes in good mood (20%), that probably is not surprisingly on account
of young people tending to be in high spirits overall more frequently than adults.
Table 7. How do they feel after watching violent scenes?
Teachers’ Number of teachers (in %) who described their psychological state as:
age/gender Aggr Joy Isolat Depr Excite Disor Agita Indiff Dese Psychologi
essio ion essio ment der tion erenc nsitiz cal state
n n e ation doesn’t
change
21-30 /total 10,00 0,00 10,00 10,00 10,00 20,00 10,00 20,00 0,00 20,00
21-30/male 0,00 0,00 33,33 0,00 0,00 0,00 33,33 33,33 0,00 33,33
21- 14,28 0,00 0,00 14,28 14,28 28,57 0,00 14,28 0,00 14,28
30/female
31-40/total 8,33 0,00 8,33 25,00 8,33 25,00 0,00 0,00 8,33 25,00
21-30/male 0,00 0,00 25,00 25,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 50,00
21- 0,00 0,00 12,50 25,00 12,50 25,00 0,00 0,00 12,50 12,50
30/female
41-50/total 0,00 0,00 18,18 18,18 18,18 18,18 0,00 0,00 0,00 27,27
41-50/male 0,00 0,00 25,00 25,00 25,00 25,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00
41- 0,00 0,00 14,28 14,28 14,28 14,28 0,00 0,00 0,00 42,86
50/female
51-60/total 8,33 0,00 33,33 25,00 25,00 8,33 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00
51-60/male 20,00 0,00 40,00 20,00 20,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00
51- 0,00 0,00 28,57 28,57 28,57 14,28 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00
60/female
61-70/total 0,00 0,00 16,67 8,33 16,67 33,33 0,00 0,00 0,00 25,00
61-70/male 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 50,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 50,00
61- 0,00 0,00 20,00 10,00 20,00 30,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 20,00
70/female
All age 3,51 0,00 19,30 17,54 15,79 19,30 1,75 3,51 1,75 19,30
groups/
Total
21
All age 5,55 0,00 27,78 16,67 11,11 11,11 5,55 5,55 0,00 22,22
groups/male
All age 2,56 0,00 15,38 17,95 17,95 23,08 0,00 2,56 2,56 17,95
groups/
female
Watching violence on the screen does not evoke joyful feelings in anyone (compared
to 4% of students). Most frequent answers were “isolation” (19% of teachers and 9% of
students), Then follow “depression” (17% of teachers and 13% of pupils), “excitement”
(15% of teachers and 13% of students), “aggression” (3% of teachers and 8% of students),
“desensitization” (about 2% of teachers and 8% of students). 19% of teachers reported that
their psychological state was not affected.
In other words, almost three times more of the questioned students than the teachers
confessed the rise of aggressiveness, and four times more - the desensitization reaction.
Although the reaction of isolation and unaffected psychological state is twice less frequent
among the students. Thus, the students are more apt to changes in emotional state in
response to screen violence.
It is worth noticing that men teachers admitted that they were likely to feel
aggressive or indifferent more often that women, while women teachers were most
inclined to feel sad or agitated.
Table 8. The teachers’ reflection on screen violence

Teachers’ On-screen Violent images seen On-screen violence
age/gender violence is are remembered for lingers in memory for
forgotten a short time period a long time
immediately only
Number of teachers (in %) for whom this tendency is
true
21-30 /total 20,00 40,00 40,00
21-30/male 33,33 66,67 0,00
21-30/female 14,28 28,57 57,14
31-40/total 16,67 41,67 41,67
21-30/male 25,00 50,00 25,00
21-30/female 12,50 37,50 50,00
41-50/total 27,27 36,36 36,36
41-50/male 25,00 25,00 50,00
41-50/female 28,57 42,86 28,57
51-60/total 8,33 33,33 58,33
51-60/male 20,00 40,00 40,00
51-60/female 0,00 28,57 71,43
61-70/total 8,33 41,67 50,00
61-70/male 0,00 50,00 50,00
61-70/female 10,00 40,00 50,00
All age groups 15,79 38,60 45,61
/Total
All age 22,22 44,44 33,33
groups/male
All age 12,82 35,90 51,28
groups/female
22
As we can see from Table 8, almost half of the teachers remember the violent scenes
for a long time, and only 16% (men twice as many as women) forget them right after the
program is over.
There is a striking similarity in the answers of teachers and students here. 54% of
students remember screen violence for a long term period, and only 16% are able to forget
them soon. The difference between boys/girls and men/women answers are analogous, too.
These results led us to the following conclusion: 1) the time duration of the violent
images lingering in one’s mind is determined by gender, not by the age; 2) almost half of
the surveyed teachers and students remember the scenes of violence they saw on the screen
for a long time and only 16% of both of the groups do not recall them afterwards.
Table 9. The attitude of teachers towards discussing scenes of violence on the screen
Teachers’ age/gender screen violence is screen violence is screen violence

never discussed discussed is discussed
occasionally regularly
Number of teachers in %:
21-30 /total 20,00 80,00 0,00
21-30/male 0,00 100,00 0,00
21-30/female 28,57 71,43 0,00
31-40/total 8,33 50,00 41,67
21-30/male 0,00 50,00 50,00
21-30/female 12,50 50,00 37,50
41-50/total 27,27 54,54 18,18
41-50/male 25,00 50,00 25,00
41-50/female 28,57 57,14 14,28
51-60/total 0,00 58,33 41,67
51-60/male 0,00 80,00 20,00
51-60/female 0,00 42,86 57,14
61-70/total 16,67 66,67 16,67
61-70/male 0,00 100,00 0,00
61-70/female 20,00 60,00 20,00
All age groups /Total 14,03 61,40 24,56
All age groups/male 5,55 72,22 22,22
All age groups/female 17,95 56,41 25,64
Only 14% of the teachers never talk about the violent scenes they have seen (women
outnumber men by three times). And the quarter of the surveyed teachers discuss these
episodes regularly. The age ranges of teachers who are most likely to discuss the screen
violence (42%) are 31-40 and 51-60. Less likely - 21-30 years old.
Thus in general teachers talk about the screen violence less frequently than their
students (25% of teachers vs. 46% of students). Moreover, in comparison with the
students, the number of teachers who totally ignore the issue is twice more.
23
Table 10. Typical interlocutors of the teachers for discussion of the on-screen violence
Teachers’ Number of teachers in % who discuss screen violence with:

age/gender Friends/Sp Parents Students Children/Gra Others
ouses ndchildren
21-30 /total 70,00 20,00 20,00 0,00 0,00
21-30/male 100,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00
21-30/female 57,14 28,57 28,57 0,00 0,00
31-40/total 91,67 33,33 50,00 33,33 8,33
21-30/male 100,00 25,00 50,00 25,00 0,00
21-30/female 87,50 37,50 50,00 37,50 12,50
41-50/total 72,73 27,27 54,54 45,45 27,27
41-50/male 75,00 50,00 50,00 50,00 25,00
41-50/female 71,43 14,28 57,14 42,86 28,57
51-60/total 41,67 0,00 25,00 66,67 16,67
51-60/male 60,00 0,00 40,00 80,00 40,00
51-60/female 28,57 0,00 14,28 57,14 0,00
61-70/total 58,33 0,00 33,33 66,67 16,67
61-70/male 100,00 0,00 50,00 100,00 0,00
61-70/female 50,00 0,00 30,00 60,00 20,00
All age groups 66,67 15,79 36,84 43,86 14,03
/Total
All age 83,33 16,67 38,89 50,00 16,67
groups/male
All age 58,97 15,38 35,90 41,02 12,82
groups/female
Comparative analysis of Table 5 and Table 6 asserts that on the whole teachers tend
to watch and discuss scenes of violence in the company of their spouses or friends (65 to
70%). In descending order follow: children/grandchildren as the possible interlocutors
(30% - to watch together, and 44% to talk about it afterwards), students (21% for
watching, 37 % for discussion), parents (10% for watching and 16 for discussion) and
strangers (3% for watching and 14 for discussion). There are 30% more men than women
who are eager to discuss the screen violence with their spouses or friends.
Teachers between the age of 31 and 50 are more likely to discuss this issue with their
students and those between the age of 51 and 70- with their children/grandchildren.
Comparing the answers of pupils and teachers, we can note the evident similarity in
the leading type of the company for the discussion of scenes of violence on the screen –
friends (57% of pupils). While only 12% of the pupils are eager to discuss them with their
teachers.
24
Table 11. Teachers’ opinions about the reasons of violence and aggression in society
Teachers’ Teachers’ opinions about the reasons for violence and aggressions
age/gender in society:
Number of teachers in % who agree with the option:
Psychologic Screen Inherent to Social and Other
al violence the human financial reasons
deviations nature inequality
21-30 /total 70,00 20,00 10,00 0,00 0,00
21-30/male 66,67 0,00 33,33 0,00 0,00
21-30/female 71,43 28,57 0,00 0,00 0,00
31-40/total 41,67 33,33 25,00 16,67 00,00
21-30/male 25,00 25,00 25,00 25,00 0,00
21-30/female 50,00 37,50 25,00 12,50 0,00
41-50/total 27,27 36,36 18,18 18,18 0,00
41-50/male 25,00 50,00 25,00 0,00 0,00
41-50/female 28,57 28,57 14,28 28,57 0,00
51-60/total 25,00 41,67 8,33 41,67 0,00
51-60/male 20,00 40,00 20,00 60,00 0,00
51-60/female 28,57 42,86 0,00 28,57 0,00
61-70/total 25,00 41,67 0,00 33,33 0,00
61-70/male 0,00 50,00 0,00 50,00 0,00
61-70/female 30,00 40,00 0,00 30,00 0,00
All age groups 35,09 35,09 12,28 22,81 0,00
/Total
All age 27,78 33,33 22,22 27,78 0,00
groups/male
All age 38,46 35,90 7,69 20,51 0,00
groups/female
In the teachers’ opinion, main reasons for the aggression and violence in society are
the psychopathologies (35% - 27% of women and 38% of men) and “screen violence”
(35%). 23% (men outnumber women by 7% here) prone to think that the main reason is
the financial inequality of people. And only 12% (3 times more men than women) say that
violence is in human nature.
I would like to point out that according to the students’ survey, psychopathologies
are the main reason for violence, too (37%). There were 28% (less than the teachers by
8%) of those who blamed violence in media. However students who thought that it’s in
human nature outnumber the teachers by 7%.
Agreeing on the main reason for violence in society being the psychopathologies
(which is to my mind rather exaggerated), teachers and pupils disagree on the other issues.
Teachers pay more attention to the economic factor. Their concern about the spread of
violence on the screen is also greater.
25
Table 12. Teachers’ opinion about the influence of scenes of violence on the screen
and the increase of crime in society
Teachers’ Number of teachers in % who think that:

age/gender On-screen On-screen On-screen On-screen On-screen
violence violence violence violence violence does
undoubtedl leads to a does not leads to not lead to the
y leads to small affect the increase increase of
the increase crime rate of crimes crimes
increase of of crime because commited because it
crime rate crimes by people disgusts/
existed with diverts people
before the psychical
invention deviations
of cinema
and
television
21-30 /total 50,00 20,00 0,00 40,00 0,00
21-30/male 33,33 33,33 0,00 33,33 0,00
21-30/female 57,14 14,28 0,00 28,57 0,00
31-40/total 58,33 16,67 16,67 8,33 0,00
21-30/male 50,00 25,00 25,00 0,00 0,00
21-30/female 62,50 12,50 12,50 12,50 0,00
41-50/total 81,82 9,10 0,00 9,10 0,00
41-50/male 100,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00
41-50/female 71,43 14,28 0,00 14,28 0,00
51-60/total 75,00 8,33 0,00 16.67 0,00
51-60/male 60,00 20,00 0,00 20,00 0,00
51-60/female 85,71 0,00 00,00 14,28 0,00
61-70/total 83,33 0,00 0,00 16,67 0,00
61-70/male 100,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00
61-70/female 80,00 0,00 0,00 20,00 0,00
All age groups 70,17 10,53 3,51 15,79 0,00
/Total
All age 66,67 16,67 5,55 11,11 0,00
groups/male
All age 71,79 7,69 2,56 17,95 0,00
groups/female
70% of the teachers that took part in the survey believe that violence on the screen
does lead to the increase of crimes in society. Only 10% (men teachers under 40 mostly)
think that screen violence influences the crime rate to a small degree, and 16% (more
women than men, and more teachers under 30) think that it impacts just the increase of
crimes committed by psychos. 3% deny any affect of screen violence (twice as many men
than women). Not a single teacher said that violence on the screen makes audience be
disgusted at violence.
The majority of students also believed that the violence on the screen leads to the
increase of violence in society (though comparing to teachers, there were twice less
26
students). 22% of pupils are sure that screen violence affects crime rate to an insignificant
degree. But the question about the reverse effect of the screen violence provoked the most
serious difference in opinions. 11% of students think that it does make people disgust any
violence, though there were no teachers who agree on that.
The conclusion is that, with the dominating opinion among both students and
teachers that screen violence increases real violence in society, there are twice as many
teachers than students who believe that.
Table 13. Teachers’ attitude towards the problem of regulating violence on the screen
Teachers’ Number of teachers in % who agree that:

age/ Screen The Only the There There The current Other
gender violence current most may be may be amount of opinion
should amount violent violent violent screen
be of screen and scenes on scenes on violence is
prohibit violence graphic the screen, the screen not critical,
ed is scenes but they but there can be
because acceptab should should be broadcast even more
it makes le be inaccessibl ed only
people banned e for small after
aggressi children midnight
ve
21-30 20,00 0,00 50,00 0,00 30,00 0,00 0,00
/total
21-30/male 0,00 0,00 33,33 0,00 66,67 0,00 0,00
21- 28,57 0,00 57,14 0,00 14,28 0,00 0,00
30/female
31-40/total 8,33 8,33 41,67 25,00 16,67 0,00 0,00
21-30/male 0,00 25,00 50,00 25,00 0,00 0,00 0,00
21- 12,50 0,00 37,50 25,00 25,00 0,00 0,00
30/female
41-50/total 18,18 0,00 45,45 27,27 9,10 0,00 0,00
41-50/male 0,00 0,00 50,00 25,00 25,00 0,00 0,00
41- 28,57 0,00 42,86 28,57 0,00 0,00 0,00
50/female
51-60/total 25,00 0,00 41,67 33,33 0,00 0,00 0,00
51-60/male 20,00 0,00 40,00 40,00 0,00 0,00 0,00
51- 28,57 0,00 42,86 28,57 0,00 0,00 0,00
60/female
61-70/total 50,00 0,00 16,67 33,33 0,00 0,00 0,00
61-70/male 100,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00
61- 40,00 0,00 20,00 40,00 0,00 0,00 0,00
70/female
All age 24,56 1,75 38,60 24,56 10,53 0,00 0,00
groups
/Total
All age 16,67 5,55 38,89 22,22 22,22 0,00 0,00
groups/
male
All age 28,20 0,00 38,46 25,64 7,69 0,00 0,00
groups/fem
ale
27
The analysis of Table 13 shows that the majority of teachers (38% without
significant gender differences) think that only the most violent programs should be banned.
24% of the teachers (twice more women than men) oppose any violence on the screen. The
same number of people does not oppose violence on the screen but on condition that
children could not see it. 10% (men under 50 mostly) suggest that violent movies/programs
should appear after midnight only and for adults only. Just 2% of the teachers (men from
31 to 40) say that things should not be changed. And nobody agreed to the argument that it
would not harm if the amount of violence on the screen increased.
As for the students, majority of them also thought that only the most violent
programs, films, computer games should be prohibited/ censored. Their opinion almost
coincides with the teachers’ in percentage (32% of pupils and 38% of teachers). The
number of the advocates of the total prohibition of screen violence (24%), and those who
think it may be shown late at night only, is also about the same as within the teachers’
group. However there is 8% less of students who think it would be better to isolate children
from the screen violence. But the greatest difference is that there are 5 times more students
who believe things can remain as they are, and what is even more striking- almost every
tenth pupil thinks that it will not hurt to have more violence on the Russian screen.
Table 14. Age that teachers find it acceptable for their children/ grandchildren to watch
programs with violent content
Teachers’
age/gender Any age From the From the From the It is
age of 10 age of 15 age of 18 inappropriate to
watch violent
programs/films
no matter how
old he/she is
21-30 /total 0,00 30,00 10,00 20,00 40,00
21-30/male 0,00 0,00 0,00 33,33 66,67
21- 0,00 42,86 14,28 14,28 28,57
30/female
31-40/total 0,00 25,00 41,67 25,00 8,33
21-30/male 0,00 25,00 25,00 50,00 0,00
21- 0,00 25,00 50,00 12,50 12,50
30/female
41-50/total 0,00 27,27 45,45 27,27 0,00
41-50/male 0,00 50,00 25,00 25,00 0,00
41- 0,00 14,28 57,14 28,57 0,00
50/female
51-60/total 0,00 0,00 25,00 41,67 33,33
51-60/male 0,00 0,00 20,00 40,00 40,00
51- 0,00 0,00 28,57 42,86 28,57
60/female
61-70/total 0,00 0,00 0,00 50,00 50,00
61-70/male 0,00 0,00 0,00 50,00 50,00
61- 0,00 0,00 0,00 50,00 50,00
70/female
All age 0,00 15,79 24,56 33,33 29,82
28
groups
/Total
All age 0,00 16,67 16,67 38,89 27,78
groups/male
All age 0,00 15,38 28,20 30,77 30,77
groups/fema
le
It is obvious that no parent wishes his or her children/grandchildren to watch

violence from an early age. Moreover, 30% would like to forbid their children to watch
this kind of production at all. At the same time many teachers agree to let their children
watch violent scenes from the age of 18 (33%), 15 (24%), and 10 (16%). The older the
teachers are, the firmer they become about age restrictions. Students were more liberal in
this question (concerning their future children). Thus, there were 12% of those who would
prohibit for their future children to see violence, and 10% of those who would let them
watch any programs from an early age.
Hence, in conclusion, let’s summarize the findings:
- on the whole students are more tolerant than the teachers to screen violence (men
outnumber women);
- entertainment is the leading factor attracting audiences to violent scenes in both
groups;
- watching violent programs in high spirits is for students three times oftener than for
teachers;
- both students and teachers are most likely to watch and discuss violent scenes
together with friends;
- students do not like watching violent programs alone;
- 1 out of 5 teachers is eager to watch violent content media with their students, 1 out
of 3 teachers is ready to discuss it with the students;
- on the average, 1 in 10 students would like to share this activity with the teacher;
- students talk about violence on the screen twice as much as teachers;
- 3 times more students than teachers reported that their aggressiveness increases
after the violence seen on the screen;
- images of the screen violence linger in girls’/women’ mind longer than in boys’/
men’;
- about half of the respondents reported that they remember scenes of violence for a
long time;
- both the majority of students and teachers tend to believe that screen violence
affects the increase of crime in society;
- one third of teachers and students agree that most violent media texts should be
banned;
- quarter of teachers and students think it is necessary to prohibit all violence on the
screen;
- 5 times more students (vs. teachers) think things should remain like they are now,
and 1 in 10 pupils consider that even more violence can be shown.
29
Literature
Silverblatt, A. (2001). Media Literacy. Westport, Connecticut – London: Praeger,

449 p.
Fedorov, A. (2015). Russian teachers’ attitude towards the problem of screen

violence. Science and education century. №№ 1-4 (69-72), pp. 16-30.
30
Cold War and Cinema: 3 articles
Article · November 2016
CITATIONS READS
0 8
1 author:
Alexander Fedorov
SEE PROFILE
All in-text references underlined in blue are linked to publications on ResearchGate, Available from: Alexander Fedorov
letting you access and read them immediately. Retrieved on: 19 November 2016

ISSN 2500-1078, E-ISSN 2500-3712
Vol. 2, Is. 2, pp. 109-139, 2014
DOI: 10.13187/pwlc.2014.2.109
www.ejournal47.com
UDC 37
The Western World in the Soviet cinema during the Cold War
Abstract
development of the Western world topic Soviet cinema.
An analysis of this kind of media texts is particularly important for media literacy education
of future historians, culture and film art historians, sociologists, linguists, psychologists and
educators.
Keywords: hermeneutical analysis, Soviet, USSR, West, USA, cold war, film, film studies.
1. Introduction
109

development of the Western world topic Soviet and Russian cinema.
It is known that the interpretation of media texts changeable and often subject to fluctuations
of the political regimes courses. After the peak of the ideological confrontation (1946-1953), when
the screen enemy image prevailed mutual evil grotesque, "thaw" of the late 1950s – e arly 1960s
affected the situation of ideological confrontation in the media sphere in towards a more plausible
picture potential enemy. The political reasons for ideological media confrontation mentioned by
both Western and Russian researchers (Jones, 1972; Keen, 1986; LaFeber, 1990; Levering, 1982;
Shlapentokh, 1993; Small, 1980; Strada, 1989; Strada and Troper, 1997; Whitfield, 1991; Ivanyan,
2007; Klimontovich, 1990; Kovalov, 2003; Kolesnikova, 2015: Turovskaya, 2003; Shaw,
Youngblood, 2010).
Hence it is clear that the Soviet scientific and journalistic literature on the topic of
"ideological struggle on the screen" (Ashin, Midler, 1986: 83; Baskakov, 1981: 16-17; Kokarev, 1987:
5-6; Kukarkin, 1985: 377) was anti-West orientation (Fateev, 1999).
Now I'm interested in the image of the Western world, seen by the Soviet and later the
Russian cinema, because, despite all the changes, even positive image of aliens in a number of
Russian / Western films of the last twenty-five years, "enemy image" continues today actively used
in the practice of international relations, used both as a tool of social and political mobilization of
the state’s population, leading an aggressive foreign policy, and for the formation of a negative
international image of competitor countries" (Kolesnikova, 2010).
I examined the dynamics of the production of Soviet and Russian films, associated with
western world topic, from 1946 to 2016. Around 800 feature films, associated with western
countries and western people topic, were delivered to the Soviet Union and Russia during this
period.
Table 1. Western countries’ feature films related to Soviet / Russian topic and Soviet feature films
related to Western countries/people topic (1946–1991)
The Soviet period (1946–1991)

Year of Total Countries
release of feature
the film on films on
countries:
countries
Germany
the screen these topics

Western
Canada
France
Other
USSR
tonal
Italy
USA
UK
1946 4 2 2 1 1
1947 5 3 2 2
1948 8 2 6 5 1
1949 12 4 8 7 1
1950 10 3 7 5 1 1
1951 8 1 7 6 1
1952 18 1 17 16 1
1953 12 4 8 6 1 1
1954 12 4 8 4 1 2 1
1955 24 11 13 6 3 2 1 1
1956 14 6 8 3 2 1 2
110
1957 16 5 11 9 2
1958 22 9 13 5 3 2 2 1
1959 13 4 9 4 2 2 1
1960 21 10 11 5 3 2 1
1961 24 14 10 3 5 1 1
1962 24 10 14 5 3 3 2 1
1963 27 8 19 3 7 1 1 4 1 2
1964 25 6 19 6 5 4 1 2 1
1965 40 19 21 4 4 2 3 5 1 2
1966 28 4 24 8 7 2 2 4 1
1967 29 6 23 1 6 11 2 1 2
1968 27 11 16 4 7 1 1 1 2
1969 27 12 15 4 4 2 2 2 1
1970 24 11 13 2 4 3 2 2
1971 21 10 11 3 3 2 1 1 1
1972 31 20 11 3 1 3 4
1973 23 10 13 4 2 2 2 3
1974 25 9 16 6 2 2 2 2 2
1975 17 9 8 2 1 2 1 2
1976 22 15 7 1 1 2 1 2
1977 18 9 9 3 2 1 2 1
1978 27 21 6 4 1 1
1979 35 24 11 2 7 1 1
1980 29 18 11 7 2 2
1981 30 19 11 2 5 1 2 1
1982 30 21 9 4 1 2 2
1983 32 23 9 4 3 1 1
1984 39 25 14 5 3 3 1 1 1
1985 55 26 29 19 7 2 1
1986 44 31 13 5 4 1 2 1
1987 40 19 21 14 2 2 1 1 1
1988 31 11 20 14 1 1 1 3
1989 29 18 11 8 1 1 1
1990 34 14 20 8 4 1 3 3 1
1991 34 24 10 3 1 1 2 3
Total 1120 546 574 242 121 59 54 45 9 44
The ratio between the Western feature films related to Soviet / Russian topic, and Soviet
films on the western countries/people theme in 1946-1991 (Table 1) is as follows: 574 Western
countries’ feature films related to Soviet / Russian topic (242 from USA) on 546 Soviet feature
films related to Western countries/people topic, i.e. approximately identical.
The data in Table 1 shows that the peaks of the Soviet interest in the Western
countries/people topic on the screen occurred in 1955 (11 films), 1960-1962 (from 10 to 14 films
annually) 1965 (19 films), 1972 (20 films), 1976-1991 (an average of 20 films per year) years.
In other words, the level of common West-Soviet cinema interest reached its peak during the
time of the Cuban missile crisis, the change of power in the USSR and the 'perestroika' times.
Although, of course, feature films production differs substantially from the process of creation of
media texts in the press, on radio and television: the creation of movies is a long process.

The main materials for this article was the area: the books, articles and Soviet films about
methods of empirical research: collecting information related to the research subjects. The
111
effectiveness of such methods has been proven as the Western (R. Taylor, D. Youngblood,
A. Lawton et al.), And Russian (N. Zorkaya, E. Ivanyan, A. Kolesnikova, M. Turovskaya)
(Eco, 1976; Silverblatt, 2001). This method connected with the key concepts of media literacy
education (media agencies, media categories, media language, media technologies, media
representations, media audiences etc.).
3. Discussion
The era of the "cold war" and ideological confrontation between the West and the Soviet
Union has created many cinematic myths.
The first myth: the famous Soviet film art masters tried to be higher than the "ideological struggle",
so the ideological confrontation has become the lot of artisans class "B".
Even a cursory look at the filmography 1946-1991 easy to refute this thesis. Both on the west
side and the Soviet side, such famous directors as Costa-Gavras, J. Losey, S. Lumet, S. Pekinpah,
B. Wilder, P. Ustinov, A. Hitchcock, J. Huston, J. Schlesinger, G. Alexandrov, A. Dovzhenko,
M. Kalatozov, M. Romm and, of course, dozens of famous actors of different nationalities, were
involved in the process of "ideological struggle".
Moreover, among the Soviet actors, of course, have been let and not so famous, but the
talented Russian performers with "western" appearance, immediately specializing in the roles of
foreigners (mostly – hostile to the USSR and Russia). Here I can recall A. Fait (1903-1976) –
83 roles, 46 of them – the role of foreigners; G. Plaksin (1925-2008) – 56 roles (episodic), 43 of
them – the role of foreigners.
Myth Two: Soviet anti-Western films have always been less truthful than the anti-Soviet
Western movies.
Here, again, it is not so simple. Yes, some of the anti-Western films (for example, Silver Dust
by A. Room or Conspiracy of the Doomed by M. Kalatozov) created a false image of the Western
world and people. And Nicholas and Alexandra by F. Sheffner and Assassination of Trotsky by
J. Losey were much more truthful and convincing. However, the anti-Soviet Red Dawn or Amerika
look, to put it mildly, implausible even in comparison with the Soviet militarist movie Solo Voyage,
which became a kind of counter-reaction on winning the pathos of the American Rambo...
Myth Three: "confrontational" films are so weak that they do not deserve any attention, any
critical analysis.
In this regard, I can say the following. On the one hand, we can find among media products
from cold war times the significant works of art (I am Cuba by M. Kalatozov, Dead Season by
S. Kulish, Assassination of Trotsky by J. Losey, Reds by W. Beatty, 1984 by M. Redford and
others). And on the other — there is no method can not be considered exhaustive to media text
analysis, "because even the most primitive film is a multilayer structure comprising different
levels of latent information revealed only in the interaction with the socio-political and
psychological context. ... As if tendentious – or, on the contrary, unemotional – nor was the
author of the film, it captures a lot more aspects of time, what thinks and knows itself, starting
from the prior art, which he uses, and ending with the ideological myths that it reflects"
(Turovskaya, 1996: 99).
The term cold war is closely related to such concepts as information-psychological war,
ideological struggle, political propaganda, ideological propaganda and the enemy image. According
to the just determination of A. Fateev, enemy image is the ideological expression of social
antagonism, dynamic character hostile to the state and the citizen forces, a policy tool of the ruling
groups in society. The image of the enemy is an essential element of "psychological warfare",
which is the deliberate and systematic use of political opponents propaganda, among other
means of pressure for the direct or indirect influence on the opinions, sentiments, feelings and
behavior of the enemy, allies and their populations in order to force them to act in pleasing to the
government directions" (Fateev, 1999).
A. Kolesnikova, in particular, reasonable to notes that the most common in Soviet films were
the following characters are foreigners who helped audience in their perceptions of "alien to the
West": “West German, British and American spies and saboteurs, former exiles (switched to the
service in the Western European and US intelligence centers), the US military, industrial
magnates, Western scientists (specializing in prohibited military developments), as well as
112
former Nazis, the SS and the ranks of the Third Reich. The spectrum of cinematic images of the
enemy in the Soviet Union included and internal characters — the so-called enemy accomplices —
former nobles, the Whites; inclined to luxury and the Western way of life of Soviet citizens:
fashions, representatives of the "golden youth" people "liberal professions" (professionals in the
field of art, journalists, scientists), having contacts with foreigners. Criminal movie characters
were also often associated with the West (such as smugglers)” (Kolesnikova, 2010).
The positive western characters in the Soviet cinema, of course, were presented of the
"socialist orientated democratic society", "the working class", "oppressed by imperialist nations",
and similar figures.
The era of the "cold war" has become a source of creating a plurality of anti-Soviet / anti-
communist and anti-western / anti-bourgeois films released in theaters within the time period
1946-1991.
In April-May 1949 the Soviet Union developed a special Action Plan to strengthen the anti-
American propaganda in the near future, which included "systematic printing of materials,
articles and pamphlets exposing the aggressive plans of US imperialism, anti-popular character
of the social and political system of the United States, debunks the fable of the American
propaganda about the "prosperity" of America, showing the deep contradictions of the US
modern America" (Plan ... 1949).
In addition, the external threat was "a convenient excuse for Soviet problems and
contradictions in the socio-economic and political system, which could otherwise be perceived
residents of the Soviet Union as evidence of his imperfections" (Fateev, 1999), for the Stalinist
socialism with its "methods and orders with them to set up social order, life and social psyche
became possible in Russia only because he mutatius mutandis, with the corresponding time
variation degrees and qualities revived the traditional type of hostel, which is characterized by a
dominance of ruthless and overpowering state" (Konchalovsky, 1969: 17).
4. Results
General socio-cultural, political and ideological context of the second half of 1940s – the
first half of 1950s:
- The restoration of the war-torn Russian economy by the exertion of all human resources;
- The rapid development of military industry, nuclear development, equipping many factories
trophy (German) equipment;
all countries of Eastern Europe;
- A return to the practice of mass repression (the struggle against cosmopolitanism, anti-
Semitic campaign, etc.);
- A slow turn toward easing repression and ideological offensive of some companies after the
death of Stalin.
D. Konchalovsky, based on an analysis of Soviet society, has come to the right conclusion that
Russia in the 1930s - 1940s, has turned "in a hierarchically constructed society absolutist police-
type class division, hierarchical bureaucracy, strict discipline, lack of freedom and personal
rights. As if stricken 19th century. Return to 18 and even to the 17th century. This is the essence.
But apparently, for the sake of the era and the recent habits, it creates and strongly supported
decoration democracy and freedoms. It is necessary for both internal and external use to create
this duality and contradiction needs to stupefy, confuse people. Hence the propaganda reinforced
at every turn (not to give people time to recover and come to their senses), hence the suppression
of contact with people who saw the West, they neutralized as much as possible, hence the "iron
curtain" (Konchalovsky, 1969: 24-25).
No doubt, the positive characters of the country's "potential enemy" were even in the era of
peak of the "cold war" – as in the United States and the Soviet Union. The positively outlined
foreign characters in the USSR mostly appear in the films adaptations of literary classics, which is
set in the past (at least – until 1917). These were, for example, the American mining engineer,
rescuing a dog from death (White Fang, 1946); thrust British worker, and the conqueror of nature
(Robinson Crusoe, 1947); pretty Negro, Russian sailors rescued (Maximka, 1952); fiery Italian
113
revolutionary who renounces religion (The Gadfly, 1955); another revolutionary, this time – the
boxer of Mexican origin (The Mexican, 1955); naive Spanish knight – an idealist and a hopeless
romantic (Don Quixote, 1957), a charming singing circus – either Austrian, or Hungarian origin
(Mr. X, 1957), and other "good personages", separated in some time interval from the realities of
the Soviet Union.
As for the western world’s characters from the modern period, they could appear in Soviet
films primarily if they are anti-imperialist, anti-bourgeois attitudes and actions, and even better –
direct support of communist ideas. In the Russian Question (1947) by M. Romm American
correspondent, at first, though reluctantly, but agreed to write something critical about the Soviet
Union, however, having been in the Soviet Union abruptly changes his mind about it in a positive
way. In the Meeting on the Elba (1949) by G. Alexandrov shows that some American soldiers
serving in Germany in 1945, the good guys, as sympathetic to the USSR. Especially a lot of positive
pro-Soviet foreign characters (apparently Czech) in the Conspiracy of the Doomed (1950) by
M. Kalatozov.
Of course, the majority of Soviet cold war films on the topic of modern Western life was
filmed with the aim of exposing and accusations of imperialism and the bourgeois world.
Some classics of the Soviet screen – A. Dovzhenko (unfinished film Goodbye, America!,
1951), M. Kalatozov (Conspiracy of the Doomed, 1950), M. Romm (Russian Question, 1947; Secret
Mission, 1950), A. Room (Court of honor, 1947, Silver Dust, 1953) created anti-Western (primarily
– anti-American) films. Almost all the American characters were depicted as spies, saboteurs, anti-
Soviet provocateurs in these propaganda movies (Ivanyan, 2007: 274).
The motive of unsuccessful attempts of Western secret services to seduce of the Soviet
scientists has a particular importance in the plot of cold war movies also. For example, in the film
Academician Ivan Pavlov (1949) “American agent offering Pavlov go to America. The agent
disguises his dirty business cosmopolitans and lackeys of imperialism favorite argument – "is not
important for humanity, where you will be working." In an angry response, the great Russian
scientist Pavlov say: "Science is the fatherland, and the scientist is obliged to have it. I, sir, –
Russian. And my country here" (Asratyan, 1949).
Another acute problem of "aliens" has been put in the Court of Honor (1948) by A. Room,
where American spies try to ferret out the secret biochemical development from the Soviet
"cosmopolitan scientists." And Spyware detective Ghosts Leave the Top (1955) is still worse in the
course of the story it turns out that the owner of Western chemical concern killed Russian scientist,
that no one knows about the detected in the USSR valuable metals deposit...
M. Turovskaya correctly notes that a media "transformation of former allies in the" enemy
image "carried out the plot by a secret bond of Americans (of course, class-alien: the generals,
senators, businessmen, diplomats) with the Nazis, whether "secret mission" of negotiations for a
separate peace, kidnapping patents or manufacture of chemical weapons. The identification of
Americans with the Nazis is the only "secret" the whole package of "cold war" films and
"Conspiracy of the Doomed" have already assimilated Eastern European social democrats as
absolute evil, to the Americans" (Turovskaya, 1996: 100). Among this kind of films can be noted
Meeting on the Elba (1949), They Have a Homeland (1949), Secret Mission (1950), Goodbye,
America! (1951), Silver Dust (1953).
For example, in the Meeting on the Elba (1949) "it was a question about how the Soviet
Army after the victory helped the German people to build a democratic Germany, while the
United States in every possible way interfered with, to what is already robbing the German
population. ... But then all went "Secret Mission" A. Romm (1950). This picture talking about
direct US complicity with Hitler, in which Germany would give the Americans Austria, Hungary,
Czechoslovakia and Poland" (Klimontovich, 1990: 117).
Opinions of M. Turovskaya and N. Klimontovich (1951-2015) shared by A. Kolesnikova.
In her study she clearly showed how the features of a German enemy (cruelty, ruthlessness,
bloodlust) transferred the Soviet media propaganda on the new enemies – in the Western countries
led by the United States (Kolesnikova, 2010). In the Soviet films of this kind, "the spy could be
mistaken for a humble servant of the Soviet, for accountant, for example, because he was dressed
in a blouse, in jodhpurs, was carrying a yellow-bellied portfolio (Outpost in the Mountains,
1953); spy could impersonate the heroic soldier… (Over the Tisza, 1958), he could even get on the
114
guise of a friendly grandmother of the bride of the hero (The Case of Corporal Kochetkov, 1955)"
(Klimontovich, 1990: 118).
Paradoxically, the author of the anti-American film Conspiracy of the Doomed (1950)
M. Kalatozov just seven years after created this famous humanist masterpiece The Cranes Are
Flying (1957), received the Palme d'Or at the Cannes festival. But in 1950, at the peak of ideological
confrontation, M. Kalatozov created a kind of political comics, frame by frame showing the
newspaper editorial of Soviet newspapers Pravda and Red Star.
...In some Eastern European country (all the signs – Czechoslovakia) established a
conspiracy Alliance (nationalists, Catholics, former Nazis, joined by the Social Democrats),
ideologically and financially supported by the US and its "Yugoslav minions" (The film was released
at the height of tensions between Stalin and Tito). The communists are the only force that protects
"the true interests of the working people" in this country. These communists firmly and irrevocably
focused on the Soviet Union ("We swear to Stalin and the Soviet people – to protect the freedom
and independence of our country!"). Dispersed on the Bolshevik pattern of 1917-1918 the local
parliament, the Communists easily defeat the "doomed" parliament (elected, inter alia, through
democratic elections)...
One of the most prominent film critics of described period – R. Yurenev, assessing the
picture of M. Kalatozov as a whole, made standard for Stalinist propaganda conclusion: it is "a
work of art telling the truth about the struggle of freedom-loving peoples under the leadership of
the Communist Party from the dark forces of international reaction, for the construction of
socialism. The film "Conspiracy of the Doomed" – truthful and vivid work of Soviet cinema – a
new contribution to the struggle for peace, for freedom and independence of peoples, for
communism" (Yurenev, 1951).
In this context, film critic M. Shaternikova remembers their school experience (who came at
the turn of the 1940s-1950s) from a collective viewing of this film: "We have not thought of.
Everything was clear: imperialism showed its true brutal face. About what happened in Eastern
Europe, we reported the movie "Conspiracy of the Doomed" – there the reaction using the
Americans wanted to enslave the workers, but they foiled the plot and unanimously voted for the
Communists. How were we to know that in life, not in the movie, a slightly different version
deployed?" (Shaternikova, 1999).
So his political mission in the cold war Conspiracy of the Doomed worked one hundred
percent...
Often thematic parallels mutual ideological confrontation were evident. For example, in the
film They Have a Homeland (USSR, 1949), Soviet agents, overcoming the resistance of the British
secret service, return home patriotic Russian children who have fallen after the Second World War
occupation zone of Western countries. But in the Red Danube (USA, 1950) Soviet citizens who find
themselves in the western zone of occupation of Vienna, did not want to return home for fear of
becoming victims of Stalinist repression...
In this respect, a very curious roll of real events on both sides of the "Iron Curtain." Yes, I can
agree with M. Turovskaya that "the atmosphere of mutual suspicion, rudeness, cynicism, fear,
complicity and disunity, color last years of Stalinism and completely displaced from the Soviet
topics, could only be realized in the construction of "enemy image" (Turovskaya, 1996: 106). But,
alas, the same atmosphere, in spite of all the American democratic tradition, originated in the
process of a "witch hunt", launched at about the same years, Senator McCarthy in relation to many
of the Hollywood director and screenwriter, accused of sympathizing with communism and the
USSR...
At the same times these two mutually hostile media trends found similar version where the
true facts in varying degrees, combined with ideological falsification.
For example, it was due equally distant from the reality of the visual image in the Soviet and
Western films of 1940s – 1950s household details on life in the "enemy countries". Perhaps the
situation in the direction of greater likelihood changed only quasi-documentary visual aesthetics of
a number of inherent 1960s "Cinema Verite" (one of the most striking illustrations of the new style
– deliberately black-and-white spy movie Dead Season (USSR, 1968)...
I can confidently assert that the Western media image of the enemy was formed in the USSR
(as, indeed, and the Soviet enemy in the Western cinema aimed against the USSR) back in the
1920s – 1930s, and subsequently operated effectively for many decades: the vast majority of it was
115
the image of the invader / aggressor alien / spy / criminal, barbarian / degenerate, and if
intellectual, then again, hostile, vicious and cruel.
Epoch "thaw" (1956-1968) and the authoritarian ideological control (1969-1985): the
general context
General socio-cultural, political and ideological context of the second half of 1950s:
- Rejection of the thesis of the class struggle within the country, the announcement of the
creation of a united Soviet people, without political, national, ethnic, class, race problems;
- Official rejection from the idea of world revolution and the universal dictatorship of the
capitalist systems" while maintaining the so-called "ideological struggle";
- Elimination of mass terror of the state against its own citizens, while maintaining the local
fight against dissidents (for example, B. Pasternak, A. Sakharov, A. Solzhenitsyn, etc.) and religion
(atheistic approach);
- The continuation of industrialization (mainly heavy and military industry), though at a
slower pace and without prior voltage of human resources, since the beginning of 1980 due to the
fall in oil prices appeared the crisis tendencies in the inefficient planned state economy;
- The dominant of communist ideology (in the renewed, focused on the works of V. Lenin and
the post-Stalin ideologists of treatment);
- The preservation of the course in the militarization of the country, unleashing local military
conflicts (in Africa and Asia), the intervention in Hungary (1956), Czechoslovakia (1968) and
Afghanistan (1979), the support, including military, pro-communist regimes in the developing
countries of Africa, Asia and Latin America.
"Thaw" tendencies
Death of I. Stalin (March 1953), the negotiations the leaders of the leading countries in Geneva
(1954-1955), anti-Stalin speech of N. Khrushchev at the congress of the Communist Party of
February 25, 1956 resulted in "bipolar world" to the situation of the so-called ideological "thaw",
when the communist regime slightly opened the "iron curtain" between the USSR and the West.
Egyptian and Hungarian events again have exacerbated mutual confrontation between the
USSR and the Western world in October-December 1956. But since 1957, political contacts between
the bastions of "communism" and "imperialism" were again gradually improving: in spite of the
sharp contradictions, two of the world's largest nuclear powers did not want direct military
confrontation, threatens to destroy the entire planet...
The Moscow World Festival of Youth and Students was in the summer of 1957. Western
interest in the Soviet Union fueled flight into space the first satellite in the world (4 October 1957)
and orbiting the earth first in the history of the spacecraft with a man on board (12 April 1961). To a
large extent it is this success in space exploration obliged the advent of a new wave of science-
fiction films of the distant planets in the end of 1950s – the first half of 1960s.
In 1958, the leadership of the USSR and the United States signed an agreement on cultural
exchange, and then in 1959 in Moscow with an excessive successfully passed the American
exhibition that promotes the achievement of the main powers of the Western world in the field of
industry, agriculture, science, education and culture. In 1959, for the first time in many years,
millions of "travel banned" Soviet audiences were able to see the new western films at the Moscow
International Film Festival...
Naturally, the "thaw" trends affect on the subjects of Soviet cinema, associated with the
western world/people topic. Maitre of Soviet comedy G. Alexandrov responded quickly to changes
in the ideological climate in the musical revue Man to Man (1958) and the comedy Russian
Souvenir (1960).
The first of these films showed sympathy performances of foreign artists in Moscow during
the International Festival of Youth and Students in 1957.
The second film told the story of how Western aircraft passengers, made an emergency
landing in Siberia, got acquainted with the achievements of the Soviet Union. They could see with
their own eyes in the huge success of the USSR on the construction of the high-power plants and
local amateur talent (Bakis, 2012).
116
In general, not only in the Russian Souvenir, but also in other Soviet comedies, some western
characters could look quite nice (Green Light, Business People, Foreigner and others.).
Another "thaw" comedy – Leon Garros Is Looking for His Friend (1960) – shows as a progressive
French journalist sought in the USSR old comrade. Along the way, having visited both in Moscow
and in the provinces, he never tired of admiring the achievements and enthusiasm of the Soviet
people...
Melodrama Roman and Francesca (1960) was how an Italian girl in love with a Soviet sailor.
The drama Last Inch (1958) sympathetically showed British pilot Ben. Visual solution of this
film strongly emphasizes human vulnerability in the vast ocean world. The filmmakers skillfully
created a tense atmosphere. And it was not easy to do because practically only two hero in the film
– Ben and his son. In addition, the authors build action is not on the spectacular tricks, and on the
psychological relationship of the characters. Although Ben flew to the remote island is not for
pleasure, but for the sake of money, for the social drama Last Inch, in my opinion, there were no
serious reasons. The main thing here – the struggle of man against the elements, overcome the
fear, pain and despair.
A screen adaptation of A. Belyaev’s novel Amphibian Man (1961) became one of the first
Soviet signs of the genre "ecological fiction" with a topic of responsibility of the scientist for his
discoveries. As a result, Ichthyander – young man with transplanted fish gills – was the victim of
bourgeois society, greedy for sensation. Another story line was a wonderful love duet of young
positive characters.
The mutual confrontation of the USSR and the West once again aggravated due to downed
American spy plane (May 1960), the defeat of the anti-Castro landing in Cuba (1961), the creation
of the Berlin Wall (1961), the outbreak of the Caribbean missile crisis (1962), protracted Vietnam
war (1964-1975) and the "Prague spring" (1968)...
Thus, there are many reasons for political confrontation (Jones, 1972; Keen, 1986; Lafeber,
1990; Levering, 1982; Shlapentokh, 1993; Small, 1980; Strada, 1989; Strada and Troper, 1997;
Whitfield, 1991; Ivanyan, 2007; Klimontovich, 1990; Kovalov, 2003; Turovskaya, 2003; Shaw,
Youngblood, 2010). And in general, "thaw" of the late 1950s – early 1960s is not so radically
affected the situation of the "cold war" in the media sphere. USSR and the West continued hostile
image, but the image of the "potential enemy" has become (sometimes) more plausible.
This is understandable, since the creation of the media image of the enemy "is able to solve
several strategic tasks in the field of preserving and increasing the power, mobilization of human
resources of the state, internal opposition suppression" (Morozov, 2001).
For example, the theme of the Soviet-American confrontation and the nuclear threat
dominated the Black Gull (1962), Night Without Mercy (1961) Submarine (1961), etc. The moral of
the bourgeois world critiqued in films such as Murder on Dante Street (1956), You Can Not Go
Bridge (1960), Crazy Court (1961), 713, First Requests Landing (1962), Business People (1962),
Coin (1962) General and Daisies (1963), March! March! Tra-ta-ta! (1964), Trap (1965), Coast of
Hope (1967) (some of them were adaptations of western prose of critical focus, the others placed on
the original scripts).
Of course, each of the opposing sides chose a more favorable facts, bypassing the "dark
spots". So, for example, the Hungarian and Czechoslovak events, even though they were dosed are
shown in the documentary subjects Soviet cinema / TV-news (where voice narration blamed
"bourgeois West" in the "counter-revolution" and "rabid anti-Soviet"), but not reflected in the
Soviet feature cinema.
But the Soviet feature film willingly turned to winning for ideological propaganda subjects
related to Cuba, Taiwan, Africa, Indochina, the Middle East, the military coup in Greece, etc.
(Emergency, Stronger than Hurricane, Cuban Short Story, Only the Statues are Silent, Black
Gull, Planes Are Not Landed, I am Cuba, The Punisher and others.). Such films were shot on the
material in those regions and countries where it was possible more densely to accuse the bourgeois
world in the imperialist aggression, colonialism, racism, suppression of national democratic
movements, etc.
On the other hand – quite the contrary – many Western films did the image of a hostile,
aggressive, armed to the teeth, but otherwise economically backward totalitarian Russia: with cold
snowy expanse, the poor population, which brutally oppressed evil and treacherous Communists,
117
steeped in corruption and debauchery. The main objective was the same – to convince western
audiences thought about the horrors and evils inevitably decaying Soviet Union.
Between the "thaw" and "perestroika" (1969-1985)
Since coming of L. Brezhnev to power in the USSR, "thaw" began to gradually fade away. The
final turning point in the direction of tightening the "ideological nuts" came in 1968. The first call,
has guarded the Kremlin, became events of May 1968 in Paris, rightly called attempt to "student
revolution".
The reaction of the Soviet authorities (who in the 1960s developed good relations with France
and de Gaulle) to these events has been rather negative. At the same time the Soviet media
especially emphasized the negative character of the Maoist and anarchist riots in May 1968...
The events in Czechoslovakia even more acute for the Soviet Union, because 1968 was the peak of
Prague’s attempts to build a "socialism with a human face" in "a particular state."
Of course, unlike France, in the case of Czechoslovakia, the Kremlin could afford much more
than just criticism and condemnation of certain events and political forces. At first, the attack on
the "Prague Spring" was conducted "in a peaceful way": in March 23, 1968 in Dresden, and on May
4, 1968 in Moscow Soviet leaders expressed open dissatisfaction with the democratic changes in
Czechoslovakia. Political pressure increased in July-August 1968. After confirming that "socialism
with a human face" in Czechoslovakia reforms support the broad masses (and, again, as in France,
– students and young people), and to "pacify" rebellious words fails, the Kremlin decided on
military intervention: troops were deployed on the territory of Czechoslovakia in the night of 20 to
21 August 1968. Naturally, this led to mass protests (including - armed) Czechs and Slovaks against
the occupation. But the forces were too unequal: in April 1969 Prague Spring’s leader A. Dubcek
was removed from his post, and twenty years' of hard socialism began in Czechoslovakia...
So that the reaction of the Soviet cinematic chiefs to events of 1968 was predictable...
However, the film is not newspaper, but an expensive inertial mechanism, deprived of the
possibility of an instant reaction to the political situation. That is why it is not surprising
appearance in 1969, laid back in the thaw years of large-scale international projects with the
participation of world stars: Waterloo by S. Bondarchuk and The Red Tent by M. Kalatozov, where
many of Western world characters have been positive shown. And this even though in The Red
Tent Soviet icebreaker in 1928 saved the polar expedition of General Nobile (1885-1978), approved
by the fascist regime of Mussolini (1883-1945).
Similar trends are generally respectful attitude to the western characters can be found in less
"star" of Soviet films 1969-1971 were as follows: On the way to Lenin, Falling frost, Soviet
Ambassador, Salut, Maria!, All the President's Men, Farewell to St. Petersburg, Man On the Other
Side, Committee of Nineteen. First of all, it is, of course, revolutionaries, representatives of
"working people" and "progressive Western public", but among them there are also persons of the
upper classes of Western society (for example, Soviet Ambassador).
However, despite some fluctuations associated with the US-Soviet "detente" the early 1970s,
post-thaw screen often portrayed the Western world and its representatives in a negative way:
Decoupling (1969), Reshuffle in the Long Side (1969), Black Like Me (1969). Mission in Kabul
(1970), Black Sun (1970), Residence (1972), Fifty-fifty (1972), Night Chronicle (1972), Starling and
Lyre (1974 ), etc.
Another drop mutual political confrontation has been associated with the conclusion in June
1973 of a formal agreement between the USSR and the USA on the contacts, exchanges and
cooperation, which was followed by the much-touted US-Soviet space project "Soyuz-Apollo"
(1974). Ideological "detente" lasted almost until the end of 1979, when the Soviet Union began a
protracted war in Afghanistan, is extremely negatively perceived in the West...
By the way, the victims of this "relaxation" become archaic films Always On the Lookout
(1972) by E. Dzigan Starling and Lyre (1974) by G. Alexandrov. The first was banned by Soviet
censors for almost cartoon show "iron stream" of Western spies and saboteurs seeking to make his
way through the Soviet "border on the lock." The second – due to the unseasonably applied plot
how-Nazi enemies after 1945 replaced the equally vile enemies of the Americans (though the ban
Starling and Lyre there are other, less politicized version). Cool anti-Western stereotypes,
118
enthusiastically greeted the Stalinist regime in the film of the same G. Aleksandrov Meeting on the
Elba (1946), in 1974 seemed outdated and "politically incorrect"...
Perhaps the most significant Soviet film, directly overlooking the theme of "detente" was the
adaptation of the novel M. Wilson Meeting at the Distant Meridian (1977). Outstanding actor V.
Dvorzhetsky (1939-1978) played a role the American physicist, who for is in the intellectual
dialogue with his Soviet counterpart. I personally do not remember so vividly played by Western
actors positive Russian characters (which, of course, were also in the foreign screen; remember, at
least, film Doctor Zhivago).
However, despite the short political "detente" of the 1970s, the Soviet Union and the West
almost up to the "perestroika" remained strong intensity of the ideological struggle, which reached
its apotheosis in the first half of 1980. Even at the peak of the "ideological detente" warring parties
did not forget about the mutual attacks, for example, in line with the themes of espionage and
terrorism.
On the other hand, in my opinion, it is "discharging" allowed the Soviet cinema 1974-1979's
release on the screens of a series of easy entertaining movies on the western material (almost) not
burdened ideological stuffing. They were mostly operetta, musical comedy, musicals (Chanita’s
Kiss, 1974; Straw Hat, 1974; Under the Roofs of Montmartre, 1975; Heavenly Swallows, 1976;
June 31, 1978, D'Artagnan and three Musketeers, 1978; The Bat, 1978; Hanna Ringleaders, 1979,
etc.), and comedy with a dash of melodrama (Journey of Mrs. Shelton, 1975; Dervish Explodes
Paris, 1976; Truffaldino from Bergamo, 1976; Nameless Star, 1978; Duenna, 1978 and others).
The effect of these films tend to unfold in a "safe" past, avoids showing the temptations of modern
Western world life. And even if in Journey of Mrs. Shelton (1975) modern western characters
appeared, they were at sea on a comfortable Soviet cruise ship…
As a rule, the most famous at that time the Soviet actors played in these films, and their
pretty western characters often became quite popular among the general movie / TV viewers who
had the opportunity to at least a few hours to plunge into the colorful world of amorous adventures,
melodic hits and comedic turns.
At the same time, using a western appearance Baltic actors, Soviet cinema, year after year
continues to create on-screen image of the enemy of America and the Western world as a whole,
where urban "yellow devil" celebrates the spirit of greed, hatred, racism, militarism, corruption,
depravity, humiliation of dignity of ordinary working people, etc. Sometimes, as a literary basis for
this kind of films selected novels of critical realism American classics (American Tragedy, Rich
Man, Poor Man). But most revelatory stories were written exactly for the movies. The main task
was to impress the Soviet viewers thought of the horrors and evils inevitably decaying West.
In connection with the invasion of Soviet troops in Afghanistan (1979) and the “star wars”
concept of R. Reagan, ideological confrontation between the Soviet Union and the West increased
sharply (Strada & Troper, 1997: 154; Golovskoy, 1987: 269). As a result – in the first half of 1980s
almost one to one was the post-war peak of cold war’s stereotypes.
In addition to traditional mutual accusations of espionage and aggression (American: Gorky
Park, Soldier, Invasion U.S.A., Third World War, Red Dawn, Secret Weapon, Rambo-II, Amerika
and other. Soviet: The Right to a Shot, Ordered to Take him Alive, Bartender of the Golden
Anchor, We Accuse, In Pomegranate Islands, The Mystery of the Villa Greta, Alarm Departure,
Solo voyage , Interception, No Statute of Limitations, End of Operation "Resident", Hunting the
Dragon, The Man Who I Interviewed and others) are having more sophisticated ideological picks.
For example, Soviet Flight 222 (1985) tried to beat the true story of an escape to the West of the
Soviet ballet star A. Godunov (1949-1995): the plot of the film about the Americans who try to
convince ballet star’s wife to stay in the US, however, contrary to their expectations, she wants to
fly home. The novelty of this confrontational drama were new for Soviet cinema theme (no doubt
inspired Western "political cinema") helplessness of the common man in the face of political games
and intrigues of government intelligence agencies opposing "superpowers".
Curiously, the heavy and pretentious "confrontational" dramas of 1946-1986 years now, as a
rule, look archaic, while less ambitious, open adventure (The Mystery of Two Oceans, From Russia
with Love), or comedy, musical tape (Silk Stockings, Moscow on the Hudson, Nameless Star,
Straw Hat, The Bat) demonstrate the amazing "persistence" in "rating" TV grids.
119
The era of "perestroika" (1986-1991)
Total Russian socio-cultural, political and ideological context of the second half of the 1980s
- early 1990s:
- The proclamation of the policy of "perestroika and glasnost", pluralism, democratization
- Rehabilitation of millions of innocent prisoners who were shot and repressed, dissidents;
- Rejection of the ideological struggle, and the withdrawal of troops from Afghanistan, the
proclamation of the disarmament policy;
- Course for the abolition of censorship and bans, the attempt for free exchange of people and
ideas between USSR and West;
- Economic and ideological crisis, which led eventually to the conservative coup attempt in
the summer of 1991;
- The collapse of the Soviet Union at the end of 1991.
At this stage, when the authors was free from censorship, films had the opportunity to
address the most acute, especially taboo topics. On the other hand, display the "cold war" in the old
ideological schemes, by inertia continued almost until the end of the 1980s (Paddock, 1987; The
Big Game, 1988, All Ahead, 1990 and others.). Overall, however, the beginning of the 1990s, when
the West and the Soviet Union has become increasingly manifest mutual friendly trend, Soviet
cinema became warmer to western characters and western world topic as a whole (The Contender,
1987; The Man from Boulevard des Capucines, 1987; Ruth, 1989; Hitchhiking, 1990; Lost in
Siberia, 1990; Passport, 1990; American Spy, 1991 and others).
In the networks of espionage

Spy theme in cinema is inextricably linked with the genres of thriller and detective. So what is the
difference between a detective and a thriller? Of course, there are many different nuances. But the
main thing is that at the basis of a detective story lies the plot of investigating of a crime whereas a
thriller is based on pursuit (of a criminal or a victim). Furthermore “no thriller can be represented
in the form of reminiscence: there’s no point when the narrator covers all the past events, we even
don’t know if he reaches the end of the story alive” (Todorov, 1977: 47).
However this does not prevent the appearance of synthetic genres which to the lesser or
greater extent combine the elements of the detective story and thriller. Having analyzed dozens of
Arthur Conan Doyle’s short stories about Sherlock Holmes (1859-1930), V. Shklovsky described the
structural scheme of the classical detective story as follows:
I. Waiting, talking about the previous cases, the analysis.
II. The appearance of the client. The business part of the story.
III. The evidence given in the story. The secondary information is the most important, but it
is given so that the reader doesn’t notice them. The material for false explanation is provided
immediately.
IV Watson misinterprets the evidence.
V. Checking the crime scene, often the crime is not committed yet, thus the effectiveness of
the narration is achieved, as well as the introduction of a novel with the criminals into the novel
with the detective. The evidence at the crime scene.
VI. An official detective gives a false clue. If the detective is not present then the false clue is
provided by the newspaper, the victim or by Sherlock Holmes himself.
VII. The interval is filled with Watson’s thoughts, he is clueless. Sherlock Holmes smokes or
practices music. Sometimes he joins the facts into groups without giving the final conclusion.
VIII. The denouement is mostly unexpected. Very often an attempted crime is used for the
denouement.
IX. Sherlock Holmes makes an analysis of the facts. (Shklovsky, 1929: 142).
Despite the variety of plot lines, this plot scheme still persists in many detective stories – in
literature, on the stage, on the screen.
Another master of the classical detective, Agatha Christie (1890–1976) has advanced much
further than her predecessor in the sense of plot diversity. Here D. Bykov distinguishes not one (as
V. Shklovsky did with respect to A. Conan Doyle) but ten key plot schemes (Bykov, 2010):
120
1) The traditional scheme of a “fireplace detective”: the killer is someone form a closed circle
of suspects;
2) “The gardener is the killer”, when there was somebody unaccounted in the circle of
suspects;
3) “Everybody killed”. An overturn in the genre – usually you have to choose one in a dozen,
but here everybody is guilty;
4) It is unknown whether the murder took place or not. Everybody is searching for the culprit
but the victim is alive;
5) The victim is the killer, i.e. he was alive at the moment but played dead so that nobody
would think that was him;
6) Committed suicide and shifted the blame on others;
7) Was killed due to circumstances or some natural phenomenon but everybody is searching
for the guilty one;
8) The killer is the one who accuses, gossips and demands the investigation louder than the
others;
9) The investigator is the killer;
10) The author is the killer.
We can easily notice the difference in the structural approaches of V. Shklovsky and
D. Bykov. The first one reveals the construction of the detective plot with respect to the detective,
and the second one – with respect to the criminal. Naturally if we judge A. Conan Doyle’s detective
stories from the point of view of the typology of crimes, it won’t come to just one plot scheme.
On the other hand if we try to approach Agatha Christie’s detective novels about Hercule
Poirot we shall get something like this:
1) By invitation or accidentally detective Hercule Poirot appears at the crime scene, the crime
is often not committed yet. In most cases it is a place isolated from random characters (a mansion,
an island, a train, etc.) The clues are at the scene. The most important minor information is given
so that the reader doesn’t notice them. Immediately the material for false explanation is given to
the reader.
2) The false explanation is given by one of those present, or the reader is supposed to give it
himself;
3) The interval of action up to its finale is filled with Hercule Poirot’s thoughts (unknown to
the reader for the time being), his questioning of witnesses; often new crimes are committed on the
way;
4) The denouement, mainly unexpected, often combined with Poirot’s public analytical
conclusions.
At the same time “the situations investigated by Hercule Poirot often contain a certain
artificiality to force up the tension to the limit. By the character of Agatha Christie’s narration for
example it is necessary that the mysterious murder took place not just in the train which goes
across Europe from Istanbul to Calais, but necessarily in the very moment when the train stops
because of the snow drifts, cut off from the world, thereby any external interference in the events
are excluded. The manor where the murder described in “The Endhouse Mystery” must be
necessarily located at the outskirts, forming a sort of a self-contained little world. Other Christie’s
detective are like this, including “Ten Little Niggers”, where the events are taking place in a
luxurious mansion on an island separated from the mainland by a wide strait, and on top of that
a storm breaks out so that the characters were totally isolated.” (Zverev, 1991).
I must also note that the elements of thriller with its usual psychological suspense and sense
of pursuit are often present in A. Conan Doyle’s and A. Christie’s detectives. Another recognized
master of detective and thriller, not in literature but in cinematography, was Alfred Hitchcock
(1899-1980), who for the most part didn’t need a professional detective like Holmes or Poirot. One
of Hitchcock’s favorite plot schemes is as follows: an ordinary person (sometimes an American in a
foreign country) who is far from the criminal world, by force of circumstance is dragged in a
dangerous affair concerning crimes and/or espionage. Moreover, he himself has to fight the
criminals and/or prove his innocence at his own risk: The Thirty-Nine Steps, 1935, Saboteur, 1942,
North by Northwest, 1959.
Perhaps I can agree with the fact that "all existing texts in the history of human culture –
artistic and non-artistic – are divided into two groups: one as it answers the question: “What is
121
it” (or “How does this work?”), And the second – “How did this happen?” (Lotman, 1973). The
texts of the first group of Y. Lotman (1922-1993) conditionally called plotless, second – story,
exactly specifying that "plotless texts assert some order, regularity classification. (...). These texts
are by nature static. If they describe the movement, the movement is repeated regularly and
correctly, always equal to themselves" (Lotman, 1973).
This Y. Lotman’s view almost coincides with reflections of V. Demin (1937-1993) that the
famous detective characters – Sherlok Holmes, Hercule Poirot and Maigret – "shape rather
conditional, prudently designed to perform its functions. The illusion of life there as our sense of
their successful response constructedness. (...). Aristotle’s famous phrase about the drama, which
is impossible without intrigue and without characters, nowhere is as relevant, both in relation to
the detective. Detective story is possible without a detailed description, with no landscape
beauties and memorable performance, without deep social background and gray nuances in
dialogues. But detective story is not possible without ingeniously designed intrigue" (Demin,
1977: 238).
Of course, the detective plots in movies are often associated with espionage. And, as already
noted, a spy theme occupied an important place in the general stream of mutual accusations of
Western-Soviet / revelations. In the USSR, prominent examples of this kind were Secret Mission,
Dangerous Path, Footprints in the Snow, Shadow of the Pier, Over the Tisza, Operation "Cobra",
Case № 306, The Case of Corporal Kochetkov, The Mystery of Two Oceans, A Person Changes the
Skin, Border Silence, The Game Is Not a Draw, Black Business, A Man Without a Passport,
Isolation, Scuba at the Bottom, Fifty- Fifty, Dead Season, Blunder and many other films, often
inheriting the tradition of spy films of the 1930s.
Similar spy movies appeared on the screens in the Western world...
One of the common Soviet plot stereotypes espionage topic was the story of the talented
scientists and inventors who have made an important scientific discovery, which seek to find out /
steal / buy Western intelligence agencies (Shot in the Fog, Next to the Ocean, Hyperboloid of
Engineer Garin, Failure of Engineer Garin, Labeled Atoms, Castling in the Long Side, Death on
the Rise, etc.).
For example, in a Dangerous Path (1954), spies and saboteurs trying to (of course, without
success) to destroy the results of the most valuable development of Soviet microbiologists. In Shot
in the Fog (1963) KGB persistently accompanies (at work, on a business trip, hunting, at home,
etc.), top-secret Soviet physicist, for the military developments which hunts Western intelligence.
In Next to the Ocean (1964) Soviet scientists invent a gas mixture, allowing divers descend to a
great depth, but here the enemy spy right there – in cold blood builds their evil plans...
But, however, often spy stories do without scientists. For example, in the Game Without
Rules (1965) "Americans are eager to stretch our secrets ... do not stop cooperation with the Nazis
and questioned our brave Young Communists completely Gestapo methods and, most
importantly, they are forced to hold in their zone of occupation of the Soviet people..." (Stishova,
Sirivlya, 2003: 13). In the Case of the Corporal Kochetkov (1955) the whole spy nest is near to the
Soviet military base... In Over the Tisza (1958) foreign spy and assassin prepares bridge explosion
in the Carpathians... In a word, before "it was the enemy, friendly and clear – the Nazis. Now
place the Nazis rose Americans. The totalitarian state can not exist, even in the most "vegetarian"
thaw times, without an enemy image" (Stishova, Sirivlya, 2003: 13).
The films for children also strongly inculcated in Soviet spy movie plots. Screen pioneers not
just study well and rested, but also simultaneously exposed or helped catch hardened enemy agents
(Sea Gull, Young from the Schooner "Columbus", Scuba at the Bottom, The Passenger With the
"Equator", The Gate "Red Rocks", etc.).
Of course, not all Soviet films, involving to topic of "ideological confrontation", were frankly
sketchy. Recall, though it is politically correct Dead Season (1968) by S. Kulish, who showed the
Soviet and Western spies as worthy opponents (the scene of the spy exchange on the border).
Although Dead Season in some way was also the heir of the old ideological approach, as the enemy
in this film had pronounced Nazi features, appealing to the mass consciousness of the Soviet
audience, formed of military propaganda (Kolesnikova, 2007).
The image of Western spy was portrayed in Residents’ Error (1968) with the unexpected
sympathy, but the truth, just because in the next series, this resident had worked for Soviet
intelligence...
122
Overall, however, the Soviet spy films made in 1950s – 1960s (Footprints in the Snow,
Shadow of the Pier, The Mystery of Two Oceans, Blue Arrow, Intruders, A Person Changes the
Skin, Do Not Remember the Track, Ten Steps to the East, Operation "Cobra", Border Silence,
Where Edelweiss Bloom, Man Without a Passport", Game Without a Draw, Duel in the
Mountains, Decoupling, Castling in the Long Side, etc.), and in 1970s – 1980s (Labeled Atoms,
I am the Border, State Border, Throw, Ring from Amsterdam, Death on the Rise, Executive
Decision: Taken Alive, We accuse, Bartender of the "Golden anchor", Human Dossier in the
Mercedes, Interception and others.) were built quite stereotyped: Western agents penetrated into
the territory of the USSR for ferret out military secrets, commit sabotage, recruiting, and staff of
the Soviet secret polices (often with the help of ordinary citizens) try to arrest, or kill these agents.
Or it was the history of Soviet agents, successfully operating in Western countries (Dead Season,
Fifty-Fifty, Starling and Lyre, Stargazer and others.).
In the Soviet films about spies this period we can find a clear hierarchy image of the enemy,
"the enemy number 1 (the external enemy: as a rule, the head of one of the Western intelligence,
foreign intelligence, diplomatic staff or foreign journalist); accomplice of the external enemy of
the first plan (citizen of the USSR with a dark past, former speculator or a war criminal) and an
accomplice of the external enemy of the second plan (citizen of the USSR, as a rule, a
representative of the "golden youth," messing currency fraud, gambling, speculation, antiques
and others.) ... Negative shades are gathering around the image of any foreigner, regardless of
his profession. A foreigner already suspicious because he is a foreigner, a representative of the
enemy camp, other than a stranger. The viewer is inspired image of the USSR as a besieged
fortress: around capitalist countries, Western intelligence constantly preparing sabotage, spies
are sending. Foreign citizens in the Soviet films of the period under review, as a rule, fully
confirm their status hostile elements" (Kolesnikova, 2007: 166).
Of course, the spy and detective topic so popular – both in the Soviet and in the Western
world cinema – in the previous decade, was not forgotten after the collapse of the Soviet Union in
the 1990s and 2000s. All these years, Russian directors filmed quite traditional variations on the
spy theme (The Road to Paradise, Transit for the Devil, Parisian Antique Dealer, Big Game, Trap,
Invincible, Spy Game, Remission: Spy Melodrama, Lecturer and others.). However, it has
acquired and comic-parodic tone (Good Weather on Deribasovskaya Street, or Raining Again on
Brighton Beach, 1992; The Pistol with a Silencer, 1993; Dashing Couple, 1993; Three Hundred
Years Later, 1994; Do Not Play the Fool, 1997, and others.). In general, the professional level of
these films, in my opinion, leave much to be desired.
For example, the director and screenwriter of Pistols with Silencers (1993) V. Khovenko
wanted to show how two American spy, performing the task in Russia, found themselves on the
territory of a mental hospital, and, subsequently, its inhabitants, and thence took orders for post-
communist restructuring...
But ... this kind of parody and eccentric plot claimed by the authors of a filigree design of
each gag, each replica of characters, each gesture, magnificent knowledge of spy film classics, etc.
Alas, in the Pistols… it was nothing like that…
Comparing Russia with a huge madhouse already has beaten, worked out dozens of writers
and satirists, humorists artists. As, however, and the idea that foreigners will never understand
Russian orders and customs. As a result, despite the participation of a talented actors, Pistols with
Silencers, in my opinion, it has turned out not funny, rather boring...
As for other trends, the classic tradition of the detective and thriller in the cinema at the
beginning of the XXI century were subjected to further transformations: Russian and foreign
filmmakers are increasingly began to create designed for multi-layer perception, carefully designed
postmodern film, under the guise of entertainment genres hide "reefs" citations, parallels lines
parody, playing with rethought motifs adventure classics (Taken by P. Morel, Unknown by Collet-
Serra, The Spy by A. Andrianov).
These products of the postmodern, in my opinion, absolutely not applicable highly
controversial scheme of the classical detective story as a whole, developed by well-known culture
and semiotics T. Todorov:
1. There must be one detective, one criminal and at least one victim (dead body) in a
detective.
123
2. The accused must not be a professional criminal or detective, he must kill for personal
reasons.
3. There no place for love in the detective.
4. The accused must have a certain status: he must not be a lackey or a maid in life, he must
be among the main characters in the book.
5. Everything must be explained rationally, without any fiction.
6. There no place for descriptions and psychological analyses.
7. A certain homology of storytelling should be kept: “author: reader = criminal: detective”.
8. Banal situations and solutions should be avoided (Todorov, 1977: 49).
Across the seas, the waves ...

In the 1950s – 1980s, the anti-Western tendencies in the Soviet media texts clearly also
purchased "naval painting... The military confrontation at sea – perhaps the only area where we
have a certain parity with America, where we played on equal terms. They have ships – we have
ships, they have radars – we have radar, they have missiles – we have missiles... We have every
reason to start a small war games on the screen, where ours, of course, win. There's the fun and
patriotic education, and mobilization impulse: they say, you quietly live, work, breathe the air,
and peace between the hanging in the balance, the enemy is ruthless and cunning and just
dreaming to start a third world war... For the mass audience it was preferable to take a picture,
where the image of the enemy was drawn without unnecessary details enemy of bourgeois life.
After all, competition in the field, so to speak, "light industry", we had already lost, and all sorts
of Western clothes, drinks, cars and so caused the population unhealthy excitement. Soviet
filmmakers would need to be extremely careful with the demonstration of foreign consumption’s
objects in the screen. And naval conflict in this sense to portray was somehow calmer..."
(Stishova, Sirivlya, 2003: 13-15).
That is not the full range of maritime confrontations with the Soviet side: In the Days of
Peace (1950), The Mystery of Two Oceans (1956), Blue Arrow (1958), Submarine (1961), Neutral
Water (1969), Courtesy Visit (1972), Right on the Shot (1981), Case in the Square 36-80 (1982)
and Solo Voyage (1985), Pirates of XX Century (1979), Mystery of Madame Wong (1986),
Gangsters in the Ocean (1991), Alpha Project (1990)...
Naturally, the confrontation on the water both Soviet and Western filmmakers supplemented
subjects of military confrontation in the air (The Rocket Attack on the United States, Your Peaceful
Sky, Fire Fox, We Blame and others.) and the earth (Prisoner of War", Amerika, World war III,
Rambo 3).
Under the scorching of Hispanic sun...

A pro-Soviet revolutionary Cuba caused a keen interest in Soviet cinema to the Latino topic
(The Cuban Short Story, Black Gull, I am Cuba and others.). A military coup in 1973, established
the Chilean military dictatorship, gave a series of "Latin American" politicized films of various
artistic level, denouncing "the machinations of imperialism, militarism and fascism" (Night Over
Chile, 1977; Santa Esperanza, 1980; The Fall of the Condor, 1982; Winning Lone Merchant, 1984,
Jaguar, 1986; Centaur, 1978; Life is Beautiful, 1978; The Pomegranate Islands, 1981; Selected,
1982; Traces of the Werewolf, 1986).
Perhaps the best Soviet films "Latin American series" was the Selected (1982) by S. Solovyov.
Frankly, I have a special relationship to the works of "early" Solovyov. I like their spirituality, shaky
elegiac, fine music and visual sophistication. I like the author's attention to detail, to the nuances of
the psychology of the characters, smooth frame slowness, where you can "enter", plunged into the
atmosphere of nostalgia...
The Selected, of course, immediately recognize his directing style. Fast wave enters the wind
out of the window a small barber shop. It sounds sad-clear music, and a slender girl in a white robe
sad, wide-eyed looks like curtains inflate the sails as sliding on the parquet pieces of carved glass.
She slowly leans over them, and the only visitor, B.K., understand that he is in love with this
mysterious girl. And she, meek gaze touched his face, understands this too... The wind dies down,
everything seems the same, but the characters in a relationship, everything changed in a few
seconds...
124
If you watch this episode separately from the picture, it would seem that the Selected is a
lyrical film about love. But the author's concern in the Selected other problems. This is the political
drama, convicting conformism.
...1944. Germany. Aristocrat B.K. the price of a "small" concessions (he signed a paper on
cooperation with the Nazis) gets the opportunity to emigrate to Colombia. B.K. thinks that this is
the last compromise, and now he will live in full harmony with their "humanistic ideals of
democracy"... But "ideals", "principles", "belief" good for B.K. only when he himself is not in
danger…
B.K. is intelligent, charming, quite sincerely hated Nazism. The trouble is that all his
liberalism is just words…
In the fantasy world

In addition to espionage-adventure genre, a negative image of the West actively cultivated by
the Soviet cinema and sci-fi films, where scientific discoveries become the property of violent
maniacs who want to become masters of the world (Hyperboloid of Engineer Garin, Air Seller,
Professor Dowell's Testament).
In this respect, interesting to follow the transformation of the typical Soviet science fiction
movie as a Planet of Storms (1961) in the American film Voyage to the Prehistoric Planet (1965)
and Voyage to the Planet of Prehistoric Women (1968).
A special branch of this topic is (often pacifist) films about the consequences of nuclear war
(American: Five, On the Beach, Selected Survivors; Soviet: Dead Man's Letters, Visitor to a
Museum, etc.). These a nightmare of madness nuclear and space wars, the collapse of human
civilization have become quite accustomed to screens" bipolar world". This is a special kind of
fiction, it is today, when on the planet many so-called "local conflicts", scares its relevance.
Very impressive topic of the ecological disaster has been disclosed in a fantastic movie
K. Lopushansky Dead Man's Letters (1986) on nuclear apocalypse Earth's downfall of human
civilization.
... A certain (Western) country... Hazel tone underground bunkers, alarm sirens, ruined city,
lonely figure of few survivors... In these frames have no approximately fiction conventions.
The director builds the film in the strict way. It aims to show the action, as if filmed with a hidden
camera, unafraid of naturalistic details. And these items often produce effects of shock, such as, for
example, in a scene Children's Hospital. The film's protagonist - an old professor - mentally
addressing his, probably long dead son, trying to figure out how to outstanding scientists have been
able to turn brilliant scientific discoveries in the instruments of death…
Later K. Lopushansky continued his reflections on environmental issues in the philosophical
parable Visitor to a Museum (1989) about ecological catastrophe. Among other "environmental"
films in the foreign material I can recall Aquanauts (1979) and Day of Wrath (1985).
Quite a popular material for Soviet film adaptations, beginning with 1960, there were stories
and novels and science fiction storyteller Alexander Green (1880-1932), which is set in the
conditional western southern countries. Suffice it to recall such films as Scarlet Sails (1961),
Running on Waves (1967), Assol (1982), The Man from the Country's Green (1983), Shining
World (1984), The Golden Chain (1986)... The authority of A. Green allowed Soviet filmmakers,
leaning on his subjects, legally go into romantic "foreign" world, (almost) without fear of
demagogic accusations of "bowing to the West."
Not escaped the raid mannered exoticism and the film The Testament of Professor Dowel':
why it was necessary to transfer the action of the famous novel by A. Belyaev (1884-1942) Professor
Dowell's Head in 1980? I don’t know… But ironically, the very lively figure of the film was... the
head of Professor Dowell. Actor O. Kroders devoid of movement, body sculpture, and in a good part
of the picture - even voice, still managed to create a memorable character of the outstanding
scientist, whose brilliant invention, in the wrong hands, could lead to disastrous consequences for
humanity…
Sc-fi Hotel "Dead Mountaineer" (1979) was made in a different way.
...The police inspector has an almost insoluble problem. The cut off from all over the world at
rock avalanche (traditional for detectives situation "enclosed space") committed a crime. How is
the murder? Maybe the representatives of extraterrestrial civilizations? Some of the guests are
125
ordinary people, the other ... Who is who? Is it possible to judge the alien from outer space on earth
laws? Where is the line of duty and basic humanity?
Create a visual solution of the sci-fi movie is not an easy task. This film has hyperrealism
style... Using light and colors and mirror images of neon glare, the operator Y. Sillart (1943-2011)
made sure that everything is happening as if in a very real situation, but the reality of the…
fantastic world: a mountain peaks surrounding the hotel, seem distant fragments planets with
sounds unusual music, through which almost punched words in some incomprehensible language.
Figures dancing, writhing in mirror chilly purple hues, create the impression of detachment from
the earth, a fabulous flight... Visual solution is fully subordinated to drama: an imaginary fun hotel
guests felt the hidden drama... The tension in the film is gradually but steadily increases as
development actions.
But, perhaps, the only A. Tarkovsky managed to bring the genre of science fiction to the level
of profound philosophical generalizations.
...There are strange and mysterious events on the space station, in orbit distant planet
Solaris… Using the canvas of the famous science fiction novel by S. Lem (1921-2006), A. Tarkovsky
(1932-1986) in Solaris (1972), it seems to me, created one of his philosophical masterpieces. His
film not only thinking about the consequences of possible contacts with extraterrestrial
civilizations. Grand Master created attractive images of the planet Earth, which is poured warm
rain, and thoughtfully roam over the transparent river sad horse... "Man needs a man." This phrase
is the key to understanding the author's conception of the film, which raises the perennial
problems of conscience, guilt, compassion, understanding, Ecosphere and, of course, love...
Seven years later, Andrei Tarkovsky created a fantastic parable "Stalker" (1979): the
philosophical reflections about the problems of conscience, belief, human responsibility for their
actions, about the environmental and moral catastrophe... Led by a stalker - a conductor in a
dangerous and mysterious zone - the characters of the film want to get into some kind of a magical
room with a well, where the alleged fulfilled all the dreams come true... and this way it becomes
important in their lives the spiritual and moral test...
It should be noted that in the late 1980s, there was the fashion for the genre in the Soviet film
called fantastic parable with elements of a horror movie (for example, The Departed (1987), Veld
(1987), Third Planet (1991).
One might think, after the gloomy films of K. Lopushansky (Russian Symphony, Dead Man's
Letters) and other supporters of the genre usually called futuristic fantasy with element of horror,
that the fashion would have faded. Russian cinema and video viewers prefer the technically perfect
American scare movies to our boring and indistinct mix. In contrast with the old Romantic stories
about men-fish and astronauts, however, the heroes of many Russian films of 1990s continue their
agonizing, hard traveling across The Zone, and if they leave the surface of the Earth, they do so only
to hide in another planet's gloomy caves or dungeons.
Often the action of these pictures takes place under some dictatorship. On the land and in the
air the services of liquidation move, armed with lethal weapons. For photography dirty and
turbid water slowly drops from the ceiling. Hysterical characters with matted hair and eternal bags
under eyes rush about the ruined labyrinths and sandy ridges. They may keep silent for a long time,
staring into cracked mirrors or, contrariwise, burst out in endless superintellectual monologues.
Here dark old oaken doors creak vilely and swampy puddles stick underfoot (a variant: the
unsteady sand is creaking). The beautiful and mysterious women from time to time throw off their
covers, and their naked bodies shine in the semi-darkness...
where, in imitation of A. Tarkovsky's works (Solaris, Stalker), a lot of extraordinary things happen
to the heroes. There is uncertainty at every step: malicious mutants, werewolves, dog-cannibals,
maniacs, and so on.
The motives “inspiring” authors of this Russian fantastic movie-land are understandable.
They want to create something epochal on the theme of humankind's responsibility for its actions
on the planet; to condemn the principle of “the end justifies the means”; to think about the
problems of ecology and nature, psychology and intellect. As a rule, however, philosophical
concepts are hardly visible through the steam of cinema clichés, rented for the occasion.
126
The authors of such films often claim famous literary origins. But their modest “based on”
postscript only affords an opportunity to make a middling movie out of any original story or novel
once it is provided with meaningful pauses. These, deprived of a psychological basis, serve only to
lengthen the picture.
It's hard for even talented actors to play in these films, because their heroes are submitted to
the firm laws of the marionette. It's easier for less-gifted actors but that, obviously, doesn't add
artistic pluses. Perhaps only cinematographers and designers feel themselves free there, hoping to
surprise spectators with defined compositions, whimsical plays of light and color. Unfortunately,
poor budget are quite clearly evident. The technical backwardness of Russian cinema is obvious in
the productions' primitive shooting; their horrors don't frighten. Fantasy today can't be made with
ancient means: the gap in effects, tricks and technology is too great between Russian fantastic
movie-land and any of the works of Robert Zemeckis, James Cameron or John Carpenter.
One way out for Russian fiction is as old as cinema world - studying the films of Spielberg
and Lucas - but the disorder of our economics does not evoke optimism...
Visiting a fairy tale

The Russian cinematic fairy tale also has old traditions, founded by A. Row (The Frosty Fire,
Water and Cooper Trumpets, Morozko, etc.) and A. Ptushko (The Stone Flower, Sadko). Until
recently, however, fantasy films had to submit to two unwritten rules: all except a few were made
for a children's audience, and the action had to take place in ancient times, in a faraway kingdom.
The first rule dictated an understandable style for the fairy tale, with vivid, clear pictures and
vocabulary, and villains looking not very fearful but on the contrary, usually, funny and harmless.
The second rule was very seldom infringed, because magicians, witches, demons and other fairy
characters - according to "highly placed" thought - could be perceived as an embodiment of the
authors' mysticism intruding on a modern background. In these cases, when magic and witchery
were admitted into our days (as in The Snowy Fairy Tale by E. Shengelaya and A.Saharov),
unintended associations and parallels appeared.
by Stanley Kubrick for the Russian screen couldn't be even imagined until 80-s. In 1990s the
However, if we analyze the filmography of Soviet films 1946-1991 years, you may find that
most of fairy tales’ action unfolded in a certain Western world. Basically it was the film adaptation
of the famous fairy tale of foreign authors (Cinderella, 1947; Star Boy, 1957; Cipollino, 1961; The
Snow Queen, 1966; The Old, Old Story, 1968, King-Deer, 1969; The Shadow, 1971; The Prince and
the Pauper, 1972; Cipollino, 1972; The Princess and the Pea, 1976; The Little Mermaid, 1976,
Magic Voice of Gelsomino, 1977, Little Red Riding Hood, 1977; Wandering lights, 1979; The
Nightingale, 1979; Sold laughter, 1981; The Tale Told by Night, 1981; Donkey Skin, 1982; Mary
Poppins, goodbye, 1983; The Tale of the Star Boy, 1983; Autumn Gift Fairies, 1984; Peppi
Longstocking, 1984; The Old Wizard's Tales, 1984; The Mystery of the Snow Queen, 1986; Wild
Swans, 1987; Peter Pan, 1987; Mad Lori, 1991; The Shadow, or Maybe Everything Would Good,
1991, etc.).
In addition to adaptations of foreign fairy tales Soviet screen had and fairy tales of Soviet
authors, exposing the monarchist, "bourgeois-imperialist" and other persons, undesirable for
USSR (Cain the XVIII, 1963; The Kingdom of Crooked Mirrors, 1963; The City of Masters, 1965;
Three Fat Men, 1966; In the Kingdom of Far Far Away..., 1970; The Adventures in the City, Which
is Not, 1974; As Long as the Clock Strikes, 1976, etc.).
Sometimes this was done with talent (City of Masters, Three Fat Men and others.),
sometimes was not. The philosophical tale (Ordinary Miracle, 1965; 1978; Kill the Dragon, 1988
and others) rarely appeared where. In fact, there was no propaganda, but it was ironic reflections
on the essence of eternal problems of life... I remember The Tale of Wanderings (1982) by A. Mitta,
in the style of Western European folklore. History of poor orphans and Martha and May was in the
spirit of fairy tales of the Brothers Grimm.
It is clear that this type of entertainment media texts have sustained structural codes, in other
words, have a strong fairy, mythological foundation. Here, the best guides in their analysis may
127
serve as works of V. Propp, which clearly highlights the main plot of the situation and the typology
of the characters fairy tale genre (Propp, 1998: 60-61).
In our previous publications cited examples of the analysis of specific audiovisual media texts
(Fedorov, 2008: 60-80; Fedorov, 2009: 4-13), based on the methodology of V. Propp. On a similar
principle is based analysis of media texts and other mass genres, such as detective and thriller
(Bykov, 2010; Demin, 1977: 238; Shklovsky, 1929: 142; Eco, 1960: 52; Todorov, 1977: 49).
However, for more complex and ambivalent on the genre spectrum analysis of media texts
such technology is not enough. "If Propp's methodology is focused on the fact that from various
texts, presenting them as a bunch of variants of the same text, calculate the underlying single text
code, the method of Bakhtin (...) the opposite: in a single text singled out not only different, but
that is especially important, mutually untranslatable subtexts. The text reveals his inner conflict.
In the description of the text tends to Propp’s equilibrium: precisely because it considers narrative
texts, most notably that the movement, in fact, no - there is only a fluctuation around a
homeostatic regulations (balance - imbalance - rebalancing). In the analysis of Bakhtin's
inevitable movement, change, the destruction is hidden, even in the static text. Therefore, it is the
plot, even in those cases when it would seem, is far from the plot problems. The natural area for
the text, according to Propp, the tale turns out, according to Bakhtin, - the novel and drama. (...)
In any detail how any civilization known to us, we are confronted with texts of very high
complexity. Under these conditions, a special role is played by setting pragmatic audience that
can activate in the same text "Propp’s" or "Bakhtin’s" aspect" (Lotman, 1992: 152, 155).
However, it is a controversial point of Y. Lotman that the dialogue "author" and "recipient"
different "not only common code two juxtaposed sentences, but also the presence of a particular
shared memory at the sender and the recipient. The absence of this condition makes the text non-
decoded. In this regard, we can say that any text is characterized not only code and message, but
also focus on a specific type of memory (memory structure and the nature of its filling)" (Lotman,
1992: 161).
In my opinion, audience can decode of media text audience in any case, regardless of the
"shared memory". Another thing, what will be the level of the decoding. Moreover, the presence of
shared memory at the sender and the addressee does not guarantee that the author is satisfied with
the level or direction of their interpretation of the text recipient. Whatever the depth decoding of
media text, it is possible a variety of contradictory interpretations of his audience.
Moreover, the message is some empty form, and can be attributed to a variety of values (Eco, 1998:
73). The message becomes an aesthetic function when it is built in such a way that is ambiguous
and directed on itself, i.e. it aims to draw the attention of the recipient to the way it is built.
Function can coexist in the same message, and usually in everyday language they interweave,
though some one is dominant. Message from the aesthetic function is controversial, especially in
relation to the expectations of the system, which is code for (Eco, 1998: 79).
Conclusion
Soviet cinema stereotypes of the era of "ideological confrontation" (1946-1991)
The era of the "cold war" movies quite amenable to the generalized analysis and can be
organized according to the dominant stereotypes (on issues, ethics, ideological message, plot
patterns, types of characters, images and techniques, etc.). In addition, a comparative analysis of
the films’ plot schemes, character and ideology of the Western and Soviet era of "ideological
confrontation" (1946-1991) leads to the conclusion that the essential similarity of their media
stereotypes (Fedorov, 2010).
A content analysis of media texts of the era of "cold war" allows to represent their basic
narrative scheme as follows:
- Spies penetrated into the territory of the USSR / US / Western country, to commit acts of
sabotage and / or ferret out military secrets (Secret Mission, Blue Arrow, Case № 306, The
Mystery of Two Oceans, Over the Tisza, The shadow of the pier, The Case of Corporal Kochetkov,
Shot in the Fog, Labeled Atoms, We Blame, Prize, From Russia with Love, Topaz, Prize, Fire fox,
The Fourth Protocol, No Way Out, etc.);
- The enemy is preparing a secret attack on the USSR / US / Western world, creating this
secret bases with nuclear weapons (The Mystery of Two Oceans, World War III, Secret Weapon,
128
and others). Option: landing of the occupying forces (Black Gull, Red Dawn, Amerika, etc.).
Nuclear strikes, destroying the United States, and even the entire planet (Five, On the Beach, etc.);
- An inhuman pseudo-democratic or totalitarian regime oppresses his own people (USSR /
US / other countries), often spending over it risky medical experiments or throwing into
concentration camps (Conspiracy of the Doomed, Silver Dust, The Man Who Interviewed, The
First Circle, One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich, Gulag, Goodbye, Moscow, etc.).;
- Dissidents leave / are trying to leave the country, which, in their opinion, stifle democracy
and the freedom of the individual (Flight 222, Iron Curtain, The Red Danube, Escape to the Sun,
Moscow on the Hudson, White Nights, etc.);
- Ordinary Soviet / westerners explain misled by propaganda of the Soviet / western military
/ civilian visitors that the USSR / US / Western country - a stronghold of friendship, prosperity and
peace (Russian Souvenir, Leon Garros Is Looking for His Friend, Ninotchka, Silk Stockings,
Russian, etc.);
- In the way of love / couple appear obstacles associated with the ideological confrontation
between the USSR and the Western world (Roman and Francesca, Falling Ideas, Flight 222,
American Spy, Silk Stockings, One, two, three, Cowboy and the Ballerina, etc.).
In general, this kind of Soviet stories "based on a series of simple "dichotomies": 1. peaceful
society builders of communism and hostile to the bourgeois world; 2. positive, moral, faithful
communist ideas characters and villains, spies / saboteurs; 3. The sacrifice / heroism and
cowardice / betrayal; 4. love for the country / faithfulness and work for money, etc. Thus, the
visual design based on oppositions: a basic artistic technique used antithesis; using it achieved a
positive total composition of positive images, while the image of the enemy elements are acquired
even more negative connotation"(Kolesnikova, 2010).
We are focusing on identifying stereotypes under the topic of ideological confrontation in the
Soviet feature films of various genres.
The structure of the Soviet drama’s "confrontational" stereotypes

Historical period, the place of action: any period from 1917 to 1991, the Soviet Union, the
Furnishings, household items: a Soviet modest dwelling and characters everyday objects,
Methods of reality representation: quasi-realistic or quasi-grotesque depiction of life in the
"hostile states".
An example of the Soviet version of events: New York is the city of the "yellow devil", the
sparkling lights of the advertisements. City of cruel and heartless rich white people, despising
Negroes. A city where there is no place humanity and sincere feelings. Moscow is modern and cozy,
bright and vibrant city with friendly people, ready to come to the aid of the first comer.
gestures. Positive characters have a democratic ideas; negative characters have inhuman,
militaristic ideas. Characters shared not only social, but also material status. Western characters
are often rude and violent men with scowling faces, active gestures and nasty vocal timbres.
their anti-human ideas.
in jeopardy.
Conspiracy of the Doomed. USSR, 1950. Directed by M. Kalatozov.

Historical period, the place of action: A certain Eastern European country, like
Czechoslovakia. The second half of the 1940s.
Furnishings, household items: a modest life of ordinary people, luxurious interiors of
apartments of the bourgeoisie and the top of the Catholic clergy.
Methods of reality representation: quasi-realistic preserving the visibility of documentary
objectivity.
129
gestures: the supporters of socialism and the Soviet Union; their enemies - the bourgeoisie and
religious figures, show false and cynical, with florid vocabulary and unpleasant voice and
appearance. Proponents of the "socialist road", on the contrary, depicts a purely positive - a
purposeful, strong, honest fighters for peace and democracy, with business vocabulary, restrained
gestures and facial expressions.
A significant change in the lives of the characters: the supporters of communist ideas,
focused on the Soviet Union (the authors do not even reflect on the extent to mock / revelatory
sounds of their slogan: "We swear to Stalin and the Soviet people to protect the freedom and
independence of our country!"), seeking to take away power from the local bourgeoisie and the
Catholic church, which, with the support of Western countries and "betrayed the cause of
socialism" of Yugoslavia, seeking to consolidate the country's capitalist regime.
A problem: the life and freedom of positive characters - the supporters of socialism - under
threat.
The search for solutions: spokesmen for the interests of working people and socialism come
into struggle against the bourgeoisie and its allies.
Solution: the Communists easily defeat the "doomed" parliament...
The Life and Death of Ferdinand Luce. USSR, 1976. Directed by A. Bobrowski.
Historical period, the place of action: Germany, the end of the 1960s.
Furnishings, household items: modern offices of the German weapons concern, luxurious
furnishings a life of its leader.
objectivity.
gestures. Soviet professor and the heads of the German company. They shared a contrasting
ideological status. Soviet professor charming, intelligent, honest, modestly dressed in his proper
literary language, facial expressions and gestures correspond to the canons of the intellectual.
Leaders of the German company are false, cynical possessed nuclear weapons and the suppression
of democratic ideas... Their vocabulary is primitive, vulgar gestures and facial expressions.
A significant change in the characters' lives: learning about the insidious plans of his father
to acquire nuclear weapons, the son of the head of the concern sends secret documents to the
journalist…
A problem: the life of goodies, but the lives of millions of people (in the case of the nuclear
group plans) under threat.
The search for solution to the problem: the Soviet professor, finding allies, expose the plans
about nuclear weapons.
Solution: Nuclear plans collapsed.
Contract of the Century. USSR, 1985. Directed by A. Muratov.

Historical period, the place of action: 1970s – 1980s. West Germany.
Furnishings, household items: office of the Soviet trade mission, restaurants, city streets.
objectivity.
gestures. Soviet trade officials and their West German counterparts. They shared a contrasting
ideological status. The head of the Soviet delegation, charming, intelligent, honest, dressed in a
neat suit, his right speech, facial expressions and gestures correspond to the canons of Soviet
diplomacy. His German colleagues also dressed in neat suits, it is businesslike professionals.
A significant change in the lives of the characters: the Soviet delegation arrives in Germany
for talks with the responsible German banks to grant credit for the Soviet gas pipeline "Siberia -
Western Europe".
A problem: the CIA seeks to prevent this transaction, and the Germans want to give credit to
the Soviet partners under very high percentage.
The search for solution to the problem: the head of the Soviet delegation trying to negotiate
with the Germans more favorable credit terms, but it does not give a reason to abandon the deal.
130
Solution: the victory of the Soviet commercial diplomacy: "deal of the century" concluded in
the most favorable conditions for the USSR.
The structure of the Soviet stereotypes of thriller or detective "confrontational" movie
Furnishings, household items: a Soviet modest dwelling of characters’ everyday objects,
luxury homes and Western characters’ everyday objects (however, in the territory of a hostile
country, spies adapted to the housing and living conditions of the enemy).
Methods of reality representation: conditionally grotesque and realistic portrayal of life in
the "hostile states".
gestures: positive (border guards, counter-intelligence officers, intelligence agents / spies,
saboteurs) and negative (the same persons). Divided by ideology and worldview (bourgeois and
communist) characters usually have a strong constitution: Western Spies can for some time (up to
expose, for example) to look pretty, but then be sure to find its ugly essence... Western characters
(spies, the CIA and others.) are shown gross and brutal, with a primitive vocabulary, inconspicuous
persons, active body language and tone of voice annoying rumor... Soviet characters (border
guards, KGB, etc..) depicts honest, intelligent, charming people in dialogue, ruthless enemies. Their
vocabulary, perhaps, does not shine delights, but the available have smiling faces, confident
gestures and pleasant tone of voice...
(illegal crossing of the border, sabotage, espionage, blackmail, theft of state secrets, murder).
The search for solution to the problem: crime investigation, prosecution negative characters.
Solution: the positive characters / catch / kill negative.
The Case of Corporal Kochetkov. USSR, 1955. Directed by A. Razumny.

Historical period, the place of action: the Soviet Union of the 1950s. Military unit. The
provincial Soviet city.
Furnishings, household items: a modest overhead environment military camp, soldiers'
barracks, the house where the main character lives.
Methods of reality representation: quasi-realistic in relation to the positive Soviet
characters; grotesque light in relation to the spies (though at first they show rather positive),
gestures. Negative characters are Western spies; positive characters –are Corporal Kochetkov and
his co-workers, bosses. All the characters are dressed modestly - in accordance with their status
(Kochetkov dressed military uniforms, have spies – in discreet civilian clothes). Kochetkov initially
looks a bit naive and gullible, but in the end he is morally resistant Soviet soldiers. His vocabulary
is simple, his smiling face and a pleasant tone of voice. Corporal Kochetkov has communist ideas,
there is no doubt.
A significant change in the lives of the characters: Western Spies eager to find out from
Corporal Kochetkov military secrets.
A problem: pretending to be a simple Soviet saleswoman, beautiful spy girl luring Kochetkov
to her home...
The search for solutions: Kochetkov shares his suspicions with the Soviet officer.
Solution: Western spies exposed and arrested.
Resident’s Error. USSR, 1968. Directed by V. Dorman.

Historical period, the place of action: the USSR the second half of the 1960s.
Furnishings, household items: streets and apartments of the Soviet city.
Methods of reality representation: neutral correct on the part of the image of Western spy
(singularity of this technique is explained in the next series about "resident" in that he moves to the
side of the Soviet intelligence; here felt the new trends of epochs: Western spies had not had before
131
any positive traits); positive with respect to the employees of the Soviet counterintelligence;
gestures. Really negative characters are only Western security officials. Positive characters: a Soviet
agent "Snipe" and employees of the Soviet secret police. All the characters - a slender, smart,
dressed about the same - in a good clothes.
A significant change in the lives of the characters: Western intelligence agencies entrusted
his experienced resident in the USSR perform an important task.
A problem: the USSR State secrets have new target.
The search for solution to the problem: the Soviet counterintelligence service sends one of
his best agents to neutralize Western resident.
Solution: the Soviet secret service arrested a western resident.
Death on the Rise. USSR, 1982. Directed by H. Bakaev.

Historical period, the place of action: the USSR, Moscow beginning of the 1980s.
Furnishings, household items: laboratory, the streets of Moscow, the interiors of apartments
and a country house.
quite realistically, without grotesque.
gestures. Negative character is Western spy woman (slender, pretty, well-dressed, purposeful,
smart, secure, cleverly masquerading as a Soviet intellectual); positive character is ambitious young
physicist.
A significant change in the lives of the characters: spy woman meets with Soviet physicist
and soon luring him to the cottage of "friends": the resident place of Western spies.
A problem: Western spies try to recruit Soviet physicist.
The search for solutions: Soviet physicist abandons "tempting offers" and tries to leave.
Solution: physicist killed in a car accident, the representatives of the Soviet secret police
exposes and arrests of spies.
The structure of the Soviet stereotypes of "confrontational" action genre
luxury homes and Western characters everyday objects; the unified billing military facilities: bases,
cabins of planes and tanks, decks warships, submarines compartments.
Methods of reality representation: as a rule, quasi-realistic portrayal of life in the "hostile
states".
gestures. Positive characters (any military, civilians) have a democratic ideas; aggressors (military,
saboteurs, terrorists) have inhumane ideas. Divided by ideology and worldview (bourgeois and
communist), characters usually have a strong constitution: in Soviet films western characters
(soldiers, officers) shows the crude and brutal, with a primitive vocabulary and unpleasant tone of
voice.
A problem: violation of the law - a life of positive characters, and often, and the lives of all
peaceful democratic characters of the country in jeopardy.
aggression.
Solution: destruction / capture of the aggressors, the return to civilian life.
Alarm Departure. USSR, 1983. Directed by V. Chebotarev.

Historical period, the place of action: the territorial waters of the USSR, the beginning of the
1980s.
132
Furnishings, household items: an enemy ship, the cabin of the Soviet helicopter.
Methods of reality representation: texture, interiors, uniforms, etc. look quite realistic.
gestures. Positive characters are the brave and skilled border guards; negative characters are their
Western counterparts. The vocabulary of all the characters uncomplicated. Facial expressions and
gestures are often exaggeration.
A significant change in the lives of the characters: the enemy spy boat violates the Soviet
border.
A problem: violation of the law on the state border of the USSR.
The search for solution to the problem: the Soviet border guards trying to neutralize the
enemy crew boats.
Solution: spy boat neutralized.
Single Voyage. USSR, 1985. Directed by M. Tumanishvili.

Historical period, the place of action: the Pacific Ocean. The mid-1980s.
Furnishings, household items: Soviet and American ships. Military life of seafarers.
Methods of reality representation: texture, interiors, costumes, etc. are shown in a realistic
manner.
gestures. Positive characters are simple cute Soviet sailors; negative characters are American
sailors. Those and others dressed in military uniform, they have a strong physical training, enjoy a
simple and clear vocabulary of short phrases. Soviet sailors, of course, look nicer.
A significant change in the lives of the characters: during the military maneuvers, CIA picks
a dangerous provocation.
A problem: the threat of a catastrophe.
The search for solution to the problem: the Soviets attempt to prevent a catastrophe.
Solution: disaster threat is successfully eliminated.
Charged Death. USSR, 1991 (with the participation of US filmmakers). Directed by

V. Plotnikov.
Historical period, the place of action: the Far East, maritime coastal area. Beginning of the
1990s.
Furnishings, household items: ships, military supplies (form, weapons, etc.).
Methods of reality representation: texture, interiors, costumes, etc. look quasi-realistic,
without expensive special effects.
gestures. Escaped from prison dangerous criminals, smugglers, border guards, American pilots...
Thanks to perestroika times, positive courageous characters here not only the Soviet border guards,
but also American boys from the Coast guard, fighting with the bandits. Vocabulary is simple and
the characters associated with military characteristics. Facial expressions and gestures of the
characters often exaggeration. Clothing and most of the characters are a military uniform. Their
physical development is clearly above average.
A significant change in the lives of the characters: dangerous criminals run from the strict
regime camp.
A problem: the normal life of the positive character is threatened.
The search for solution to the problem: the Soviet border guards together with the Americans
to defeat the bandits.
Solution: a victory over the bandits.
The structure of the Soviet stereotypes of "confrontational" melodramatic

genre
Historical period, the place of action: any time from 1917 to 1991, the Soviet Union, the
rich homes and objects of everyday life of western characters.
133
Methods of reality representation: it is quite realistic (within the genre), although sometimes
with elements of the grotesque.
gestures. Male and female characters with contrasting ideological and social status. Characters
tend to have a slender physique and look quite nice. Their clothes, facial expressions and
A significant change in the lives of the characters: a meeting of male and female characters.
A problem: the ideological and social misalliance.
The search for solution to the problem: the characters overcome the ideological and social
obstacles in the way of their love.
Roman and Francesca. USSR, 1960. Directed by V. Denisenko.

Historical period, the place of action: Italy, 1940s – 1950s.
Furnishings, household items: streets and interiors of the Italian seaside town, a Soviet ship.
Methods of reality representation: accentuated the positive characters of lovers; grotesque in
relation to the negative characters. Italian city depicted in the conventional manner.
gestures. Soviet sailor and simple Italian girl. Roman and Francesca shared contrasting ideological
status of their countries. Both differ slender physique and good looks. Vocabulary of characters is
easy. Facial expressions and gestures are emotional.
A significant change in the lives of the characters: on the eve of June 22, 1941 the Soviet ship
moored in the Italian port. Sailor Roman meets Italian Francesca. They fall in love...
A problem: the next day the war broke out between Germany and the USSR, the Nazis
drowned Soviet ship...
The search for solutions: Soviet sailors managed to escape, swim to the shore, and even join
the resistance movement. But Roman is still dreaming of a meeting with Francesca... And she
dreams for the Roman...
Solution: Returning after the war in the USSR, Roman again became a sailor and visits an
Italian port. Roman looks for Francesca. But he can see her on the shore only when the ship sailed
into the sea…
Honeymoon in America. USSR, 1981. Directed by A. Grikyavichus.

Historical period, the place of action: the United States, the USSR, 1980s.
Furnishings, household objects: the interiors of apartments, the city streets.
Methods of reality representation: the positive characters and realistic image of life in the
United States.
gestures: a man and woman. They dressed in a good clothes, cute.
A significant change in the lives of the characters. Mans and Woman married.
A problem: soon after the wedding, man and woman are separated by as much as 13 years,
during which time man became a US citizen.
The search for solutions: Woman finds man in the United States.
Solution: Woman hopes that the "honeymoon" will return to her old love, but, alas, it's too
late ...
American spy. USSR, 1991. Directed by L. Popov.

Historical period, the place of action: the United States, 1945.
Furnishings, household items: a Soviet ship, an American port city.
Methods of reality representation: it is quite realistic (within the genre), the main characters
are shown with sympathy.
gestures. Charming and cute Soviet naval officer Nicholas and the American woman, Mary; they
are separated by a contrasting ideological, social status. Both differ slender physique. He is dressed
in a military uniform. Vocabulary of characters is easy.
134
A significant change in the lives of the characters: Soviet officer rescues drowning American,
flashes mutual love.
A problem: the way of the lovers there is a series of obstacles that the seaman on unjust
charges goes to prison...
The search for solution to the problem: the Soviet sailor and American girl trying to
overcome the obstacles in the way of their love.
Solution: In the struggle for the happiness sailor escapes from prison...
The structure of the Soviet stereotypes of "confrontational" comedy

Methods of reality representation: as a rule, quasi-grotesque in relation to the lives of people
from the "enemy states", and exaggerated positive about life in the USSR.
gestures: Soviet and Western characters with contrasting ideological and social status. They appear
according to the settings sources of media texts: Western characters are often displayed a
caricature, they have a "bourgeois" vocabulary, fake smiles and unpleasant tone of voice; Soviet
characters charming, cheerful, patriotic, charged with socialist slogans.
A significant change in the lives of the characters: the characters encountered in the funny /
eccentric circumstances in this case, either the Western or the Soviet characters are on foreign soil.
A problem: the "culture shock", mutual misunderstanding.
the ideological obstacles in the way of understanding.
Solution: Western characters are convinced of the sincerity of Soviet citizens and admire the
achievements of the Soviet Union.
Russian Souvenir. USSR, 1960. The director and screenwriter G. Alexandrov.

Historical period, the place of action: Moscow and Siberia, 1960s.
Furnishings, household items: airliner salon, the best buildings in Moscow, scale
construction and Siberian forests. Simple, but Solid life of the Soviet people.
Methods of reality representation: conditional, hyperbole. Soviet characters are shown with
sympathy, western characters are depicted in a spirit of frank cartoons. Foreign and Soviet
character separates contrasting ideological, social and material status.
gestures. Foreigners dressed "for overseas," the Soviet characters dressed in good-quality clothes,
no frills. Foreigners flaunt 'bourgeois' vocabulary, fake smiles, they often unpleasant tone of voice;
Soviet characters charming, cheerful, patriotic, charged with socialist slogans.
A significant change in the lives of the characters: the plane with foreigners on board makes
emergency landing in Siberia.
A problem. The collision with the realities of Soviet life foreigners experiencing "culture
shock"...
The search for solution to the problem: adjusting to the Soviet way of life, the aliens are
trying to overcome the difficulties.
Solution: in spite of its initial bias, foreigners are convinced that the Soviet people want peace
and, indeed, achieve great success in the construction of hydroelectric power stations and space
missions.
Foreigners (short story from the movie Top seriously). USSR, 1961. Directed by
E. Zmoyro.
Historical period, the place of action: Moscow beginning of the 1960s.
Furnishings, household objects: the streets of Moscow, the hotel interiors, interiors of the
Soviet apartments.
135
Methods of reality representation: conventional (within the genre), the main character is a
journalist posing as a foreigner, is shown with sympathy; young Muscovites (and the mother of one
of them), submitted a caricature.
gestures. Soviet journalist is positive pseudo-American character. He dressed in good-quality
clothes. Clothing of young Soviet characters is vulgar, they unanimously admired by all foreign, i.e.,
in full accordance with the title of the film, they have the stereotypical negative function.
A significant change in the lives of the characters: a Soviet journalist saw in the hotel lobby,
young western-orientated friends, and he decides to be “American” for them, and after that - to
write a satirical report about fans of the Western lifestyle.
A problem: fans of the Western lifestyle, naively believing in the sincerity of his new
"American" friend, invited him to his home, where they tried to establish with him a primitive
business (exchange of gifts' a la russe in the overseas thing). But the main task of a journalist is to
prepare a report.
The search for solution to the problem: the journalist cleverly fooled "fans", every moment
gaining more and more material for his future article.
Solution: performing his task, the journalist opens for "hipsters" a true face...
Travel of Mrs. Shelton. USSR, 1975. Directed by R. Wasilewski.

Historical period, the place of action: London, the Soviet cruise ship.
Furnishings, household items: decks and interiors of the Soviet ship.
Methods of reality representation: conventional (within the genre), Soviet situation and
characters are shown with sympathy. Western characters (Mrs. Shelton and emotional young
Englishman) showing slightly caricatured, but it is not evil, but rather good-natured caricature.
gestures: a nice young man and a dressmaker Shelton, impersonating Rich Girl; the captain and
the doctor of the Soviet ship. Soviet sailors and British passengers contrasting ideological divides,
social status. Soviet patriotic personages, charming, polite, helpful, ready to help foreigners,
dressed well, they are easy on their vocabulary and gestures depend on the situation. Mrs. Shelton
dressed in rich costumes, often actively gesticulating emotionally unbalanced.
A significant change in the lives of the characters: Mrs. Shelton decides to make a sea cruise
on a Soviet ship...
A problem: the western rival firm is preparing a provocation in order to achieve the
cancellation of the contract with the Soviet cruise ship.
The search for solutions: in a series of funny / eccentric situations…
Solution: After going through a chain of comic adventures, Mrs. Shelton finds his new love.
Provocation of western rival firm fails...
The structure of the Soviet stereotypes of sci-fi "confrontational" films

Historical period, the place of action: distant / near future. The USSR, the United States,
other countries, space.
Furnishings, household items: a soviet modest dwelling and characters’ everyday objects,
interiors of spaceships, luxury homes and objects of everyday life western characters;
countries, spaceships" conditionally grotesque depiction of life in "hostile countries and
spaceships."
gestures. Positive characters (astronauts, soldiers, civilians) are Soviet people with a democratic
ideas; aggressors (the cosmonauts / astronauts, soldiers, saboteurs, terrorists) are inhumane,
bourgeois ideas. Clothing: Form cosmonauts / astronauts, military uniform, plain civilian clothes.
Build: sports, strong. Vocabulary is business, facial expressions and gestures are subject to the
current function.
(option: "the role of "negative character" takes a storms, disasters, etc.).
A problem: the violation of the usual state of affairs. The life of positive characters, as often, and
the lives of all civilians characters are in danger.
136
The search for solutions: the struggle of positive characters from enemy aggression or
natural disaster.
The solution: the destruction / capture of the aggressors, the victory over the elements, the
return to normal life (option - open anxious finale).
Planet of Storms. USSR, 1961. Directed by A. Klushantsev.

Historical period, the place of action: the relatively near future.
Furnishings, household items: Soviet spacecraft, the planet Venus.
gestures. Spaceship crew: Soviet cosmonauts and an American astronaut, plus an American robot.
They are dressed in specific costumes, their spacesuits. Their vocabulary is stingy, businesslike.
American astronaut has pragmatic gloomy. Soviet cosmonauts are friendly, always willing to help a
colleague.
A significant change in the lives of the characters: the astronauts landed on Venus.
A problem: due to the eruption of the volcano, lives of astronauts are in danger.
The search for solution to the problem: the astronauts are trying to survive, to get to the ship.
Solution: despite all the difficulties, the characters find the strength to get to the space ship
and fly to Earth...
Day of Wrath. USSR, 1985. Directed by S. Mamilov.

Historical period, the place of action: the enigmatic zone.
Furnishings, household items: a grim, depressing environment, meager household items.
gestures: a positive character is television director, a strong, brave man; and negative characters
are nonhumans and evil maniac professors, they heartless, cruel, and their incredible ability to
direct towards the bad goal - to turn all humans into werewolves - obedient robots...
A significant change in the lives of the characters: television director goes on a dangerous
journey into the forbidden zone, where mysterious events occur.
A problem: the life of a positive character is threatened: at every step in danger…
The search for solutions: the positive character tries to solve the mystery of the restricted area.
Solution: Maniac exposed...
Dead Man's Letters. USSR, 1986. Directed by K. Lopushansky.

Historical period, the place of action: the near future. One of the Western countries.
Furnishings, household items: a nuclear catastrophe ruined city, underground bunkers.
Methods of reality representation: realistic. The authors show the action, as if filmed with a
hidden camera, unafraid of naturalistic details. And these details sometimes produce shock effects.
gestures: a positive character is the old professor; negative characters are heartless, cruel, cynical
people, having an unpleasant appearance. A certain official who refuses to accept salvation in the
bunker of children, condemning them to inevitable death... The vocabulary of the characters is simple.
A significant change in the lives of the characters: there was a nuclear disaster in the world...
A problem: the life of people, for that matter, and the existence of all life on Earth is
threatened.
The search for solution to the problem: the old professor trying to figure out how to
outstanding scientists have been able to turn brilliant scientific discoveries in the instruments of
death. Through misted glass of old-fashioned glasses professor sadly looks at a few former
colleagues, who then uttered loud revelatory speech, the doomed attempt to adapt to the new
"conditions of existence."
Solution: The motif of hopelessness is gaining momentum in the scenes when the flooded
basements leisurely swim swollen manuscript ancient books... The camera peering into the faces of
children and professors, and they stood as if unspoken question to the audience: "Did you make
that happen?"...
137
References
Action plan - Action plan to strengthen the anti-American propaganda in the near future.
Moscow, 1949. RTsKhIDNI. F. 17. Op. 132. D. 224. L. 48-52.
Asratyan, 1949 - Asratyan, E. Glory Russian science // Literary newspaper. 1949.
12 February.
Bakis, 2011 - Bakis, C. "Russian souvenir". 2011. http://bakino.at.ua/publ/ grigorij_
aleksandrov /quot_russkij_suvenir_quot/43-1-0-64
Bykov, 2010 - Bykov, D.L. Christie’s country // Izvestia. Sep 14, 2010. http://www.izvestia.ru
/bykov/article3146076/
Demin, 1977 - Demin, V.P. First person: the artist and screen arts. Moscow: Art, 1977. 287 p.
Demin, 1966 - Demin, V.P. The film without intrigue. Moscow: Art, 1966. 220 p.
Eco, 1998 - Eco, U. From Gutenberg to Internet: text and hypertext. 1998. 20.05.1998.
Eco, 1984 - Eco, U. Future sample 1984. 16.11.2007.
Eco, 1998а - Eco, U. Lack of Structure. Introduction to semiology. St. Petersburg: Petropolis,
1998. 432 p.
Eco, 2005 - Eco, U. The role of the reader. Research on the semiotics of the text. St.
Petersburg: Symposium, 2005. 502 p.
Fateev, 1999 - Fateev, A.V. The image of the enemy in Soviet propaganda, 1945-1954.
Moscow: Publishing House of the Russian Academy of Sciences, 1999. http://psyfactor.
org/lib/fateev0.htm
Fedorov, 2012 - Fedorov, A.V. Analysis of audiovisual media texts. Moscow, 2012. 182 p.
Fedorov, 2008 - Fedorov, A.V. Analysis of the cultural mythology of media texts in the
classroom at the student audience // Innovations in Education. 2008. № 4. 60-80.
Fedorov, 2010 - Fedorov, A.V. Transform the image of Russia in the western screen: from the era
of ideological confrontation (1946-1991) to the modern phase (1992-2010). Moscow, 2010. 202 p.
Ivanyan, 2007 - Ivanyan, E.A. When people talk muses. The history of Russian-American
cultural relations. Moscow: International Relations, 2007. 432 p.
Klimontovich, 1990 - Klimontovich, N.Y. They're like spies // Art of Cinema. 1990. № 11, 113-
122.
Kolesnikova, 2010 - Kolesnikova, A.G. Formation and evolution of the image of the "cold
war" the enemy in Soviet cinema (mid-1950s - mid-1980s.). Ph.D. Dis. Moscow, 2010.
Kolesnikova, 2008 - Kolesnikova, A.G. Knights era of the "cold war" (the image of the enemy
in Soviet adventure films 1960s-1970s. // Clio. 2008. № 3, 144-149.
Kolesnikova, 2007 - Kolesnikova, A.G. The image of the enemy during the Cold War the
Soviet feature film 1960s - 1970s // Russian history. 2007. № 5, 162-168.
Konchalovsky, 1969 - Konchalovsky, D.P. Russian Way. Paris: YMCA-PRESS, 1969. 261 p.
Lotman, 1992 - Lotman, Y.M. Articles on semiotics and cultural topology. Tallinn: Alexandra,
1992. 247 p.
Lotman, 1973 - Lotman, Y.M. The semiotics of cinema and film aesthetic problems. Tallinn:
Morozov, 2001 - Morozov, I. Formation in the national consciousness "image of the enemy"
as a means of political mobilization in Russia // "Our" and "alien" in the Russian historical
consciousness. St. Petersburg, 2001, 54.
Mystery of Two, 1957 - Mystery of Two Oceans // Teacher's Newspaper. 1957. № 42. April 6.
Propp, 1976 - Propp, V.Y. Folklore and Reality. Moscow: Art, 1976, 51-63.
Propp, 1998 - Propp, V.Y. The morphology of the fairy tale. The historical roots of the fairy
Shaternikova, 1999 - Shaternikova, M.S. Where did McCarthyism // Herald. 1999. № 9.
http://www.vestnik.com/issues/1999/0427/win/shater.htm
Shaw and Youngblood, 2010 - Shaw, T. and Youngblood, D.J. (2010). Cinematic Cold War: The
Praeger, 449 p.
Shklovsky, 1929 - Shklovsky, V.B. (1929). On Theory of Prose. Moscow: Federation.
138
Stishova & Sirivlya, 2003 - Stishova, E. & Sirivlya, N. Nightingales on 17th Street [discussion
materials about anti-Americanism in the Soviet cinema, Pittsburg University, May 2003] // Art of
Cinema. 2003. № 10, 5-21.
Strada, 1989 - Strada, M. (1989). A Half Century of American Cinematic Imagery:
Hollywood’s Portrayal of Russian Characters, 1933-1988. Coexistence, N 26, pp.333-350.
Strada and Troper, 1997 - Strada, M.J. and Troper, H.R. (1997). Friend or Foe?: Russian in
Todorov, 1977 - Todorov T. (1977). The poetics of prose. Paris: Ithaca.
Turovskaya, 1993 - Turovskaya, M. (1993). Soviet Films of the Cold War. In: Taylor, R. and
Spring, D. (Eds.). Stalinism and Soviet Cinema. London and New York: Routledge, pp.131-141.
Turovskaya, 2003 - Turovskaya, M.I. Blow up, or Heroes of no heroes time - 2. Moscow:
MIK, 2003. 288 c.
Turovskaya, 1996 - Turovskaya, M.I. The films of "Cold War" // Art of Cinema. 1996. № 9,
98-106.
Yurenev, 1950 - Yurenev, R.N. So we will win! // Soviet art. 1950. 27 June.
Zorkaya, 1994 - Zorkaya, N.M. Folklore. Splint. Screen. Moscow, 1994.
Zorkaya, 1981 - Zorkaya, N.M. Unique and replicate. Mass media and reproduced art.
Zverev, 1991 - Zverev A. Agatha Christie. 1991. http://www.syshiki.com/agata-kristi.html
УДК 37
Западный мир в советском кинематографе в период холодной войны
Аннотация. Кино (благодаря ТВ, видео, DVD и интернет-технологиям) - эффективное

средство воздействия (в том числе политического, идеологического) на аудиторию. Таким
образом, изучение трансформации образа западного мира на советском экране сегодня по-
прежнему актуально. Среди задач данного исследования – определение места и роли темы
трансформации образа Запада в художественном советском кино с 1946 года (начало
послевоенного идеологического противостояния) до 1991 (распад СССР) год; изучение
политического, идеологического, социального и культурного контекста, основных этапов
развития, целей, задач, концепций этой темы в советских фильмах; классификация и
сравнительный анализ идеологии, модели содержания, модификации жанров, стереотипов
советского кино, связанных с изображением западного мира. Методология исследования
основана на ключевых философских позициях теории диалога культур (М. Бахтин – В. Библер).
Исследование основано на следующем исследовательском подходе: определение содержания
изучаемого процесса, принимая во внимание совокупность всех элементов, взаимодействие
между ними, их природу, анализ и синтез теоретических взглядов и т.д.), рассмотрение
конкретного исторического развития темы западного мира в советском кино. Анализ такого
рода медиатекстов особенно важно для медиаобразования будущих историков, культурологов,
киноведов, искусствоведов, социологов, лингвистов, психологов и педагогов.
Ключевые слова: исследование, герменевтический анализ, Советский, СССР, Запад,
США, холодная война, фильм
139

ISSN 2500-1078, E-ISSN 2500-3712
Vol. 3, Is. 1, pp. 32-52, 2015
DOI: 10.13187/pwlc.2015.3.32
www.ejournal47.com
UDC 378
Western World in the Russian Screen (1992–2015)
Abstract
Analysis of the transformation of the image of the West in the Russian screen (1992–2015),
including the ideological, social analysis, stereotypes analysis of a character analysis of
identification, iconographic, plot / narrative, representative analysis, classification of content
models and modifications of the genre allows us to draw the following conclusions. Content
analysis of Russian films created in the post-Soviet period 1992–2015's, allows to represent their
basic narrative scheme as follows: pull the West as a symbol of a better life for the Russians
(emigration to the West, marriage / love relationship, criminal activity, and others in the 1990s,
this story is colored diagram showing the low level of life, deprivation of Russians); the joint
struggle of the Russian and Western intelligence services, military, terrorism and crime (this theme
is characteristic of Russian films of the 1990s); fight the Russian special services or individual
Russians with Western spies and criminals, supported by the West (the scheme became clearly
manifest in the Russian cinema of the XXI century). In contrast to the period of 1946–1991 years,
Russian films on the western topic in 1992–2015 fueled not only confrontational subjects (military
confrontation, spying, mafia, etc.), But also (especially in 1990) history of cooperation, Russia and
the West mutual assistance. But on the whole post-Soviet Russian cinema inherited traditions of
Russian relations with the West: in most feature films image of the West is interpreted as a way of
"Alien", "Other", often hostile, alien to Russian civilization. In view of the above it would be overly
optimistic to expect that evolved over the centuries stereotyped concept of Western World image
on the Russian screens may change in the near future.
Keywords: hermeneutical analysis, Russia, West, USA, film, film studies.
1. Introduction
Post-communist era created a lot of cinematic myths:
The first myth: after the collapse of the Soviet Russian cinema has dramatically increased its
interest in the Western theme.
In fact, the number of Russian films about the West and Western characters decreased: 12 Soviet
film per year from 1946 to 1991 in the USSR, and about 10 per year from 1992 to 2015...
The second myth: Russian cinema completely switched to the creation of a positive image of the
West after the collapse of the Soviet Union.
32
Even a cursory look at the filmography 1992-2015 easily refutes this thesis. After overcoming
the initial euphoria of admiration for the Western way of life in the first half of the 1990s, Russian
cinema of the XXI century in many ways returned to the confrontational model of the Soviet times.
The third myth: West has always been associated with a hostile world in the Russian films in the
post-Soviet period.
Yes, this kind of image of the West continues to be cultivated in a number of Russian films,
but there are many examples of a different kind...

The main materials for this article was the area: the books, articles and Russian films about
methods of empirical research: collecting information related to the research subjects.
The effectiveness of such methods has been proven as the Western (R. Taylor, D. Youngblood,
A. Lawton et al.), And Russian (N. Zorkaya, A. Kolesnikova, M. Turovskaya) researchers. I used
also the method of hermeneutic analysis of the cultural context of media texts (Eco, 1976;
Silverblatt, 2001).
3. Discussion
Serial mass culture has great influence upon the audience. Here the backbone properties of
serials come into action: 1) long-term narration, 2) discontinuity of the narration, 3) special plot
organization of the series which require certain identity of their structure and repetition of separate
parts, 4) the presence of fabulous characters, permanent heroes (or the group of heroes) (Zorkaya,
1981: 59). Besides the creators of media texts of mass culture take into consideration the
“emotional tone” of perception. Sameness, monotony of plot situations often leads the audience to
stop the contact with the media text.
That’s why in the works of such professionals as Steven Spielberg the change of episodes
which cause “shocking” and “soothing” reactions takes place, however with constant happy ending
which causes positive “relaxation”. In other words, among popular media texts there are many of
those which can be easily divided into parts (often interchangeable). Chiefly it is necessary that
these parts were connected by well thought-out mechanism of “emotional drops” – the alternation
of positive and negative emotions felt by the audience.
Many bestsellers and blockbusters are built up according to the similar “formula of success”
including folklore, mythological basis, compensation of these or those feelings lacking in the lives
of the audience, happy ending, the use of spectacular scenes. Their action is usually built up on the
quite fast change of short (in order not to bore the audience) episodes (for recent Russian film
examples I can recall, for example, Take Tarantino, Golden Section, Fort Ross, cinema / TV
version of Spy Novel by B. Akunin, which appeared on the screens called The Spy). Let’s add the
sensational informativeness as well: the events take place in various exotic places, in the center of
the plot is the world of Evil, and the main hero, almost fabulous character, stands against it. He is
handsome, strong and charming. He comes out of all the supernatural situations safe and sound
(a great occasion for identification and compensation). Besides many episodes touch upon human
emotions and instincts (for example, the sense of fear). The serial character of the film is present, it
presupposes sequels.
With more or less technical splendor of a media text of mass success like action movie we can
single out the additional components of success: fights, skirmish, chases, beautiful women,
disturbing music, the feelings of the characters which are bursting forth, minimized dialogues,
maximized physical actions and other “dynamic” attributer which are rightly described by
R. Corliss (Corliss, 1990: 8). Indeed, a contemporary media text (film/television/clip, internet,
computer game) sets up higher claims for eyesight because we must watch every inch of the frame
waiting for flash-like stunts and special effects. Together with their high-speed technical
inventiveness, surface polish and sound cynicism, “dyna-films” are the ideal kind of art for the
generation brought up by MTV, blinded by the light flashes of videoclips, accustomed to films with
bloody scenes (Corliss, 1990: 8).
At that it’s worth mentioning that in many cases the creators of “mass” media texts wittingly
simplify, trivialize the life material which they touch upon, evidently trying to attract that part of
33
the young audience which enthusiastically plays computer games based on these or those actions of
virtual violence. There’s no doubt that there’s logic in this, and N. Berdyaev justly wrote that
culture in the noble sense of this word is difficult for the masses which are not accustomed to the
cultural goods and values, for them technical equipment is relatively easier (Berdyaev, 1990: 229).
At the same time all this is only a part of success of a mass culture media text, because its
popularity depends on the hypnotic influence on perception. Instead of the primitive adapting to
the tastes of “the broad masses”, the “secret subconscious interest of the crowd” on the level of
“irrational feat and intuitive irradiation” is divined (Bogomolov, 1989: 11).
Similar plots having fallen into a common “craftsman’s” hands or, for instance, into Steven
Spielberg’s, gather different scales of audience. Masters of popular media culture have perfectly
mastered the art of creation of multi-level works, calculated on people of different ages,
intelligences and tastes. Thus appear certain half-stylizations and half-parodies alternately with
“half-seriousness”, with countless allusions to the films of the past years, direct quotations,
references to folklore and mythology, and so on, and so forth.
For example for some viewers the media text of Spielberg’s series about Indiana Jones will be
equivalent to viewing the classic The Thief of Bagdad. For others which are more experienced in
media culture it will be a fascinating and ironical journey into the realm of folklore and fairy-tale
archetypes, cinematic associations, delicate parodies. Moreover one of the special features of the
contemporary social situation besides standardization and unification is that popular media culture
adapts the peculiar methods which are characteristic of “author’s” works. This is another example
of pluralism of popular media culture calculated on satisfaction of different demands of the
audience.
In my opinion, this is not due to adequate perception by youth audience of post-modern
standards, allusions and associations. Just a short duration of the clip, a quick change of plans
installation, resilient, dynamic audiovisual rhythm is not allowed audience to miss even the most
inexperienced in the media language. And this is also evident pluralism of popular media culture,
designed to meet the differentiated audience requests.
The therapeutic effect, the phenomenon of compensation is also necessary for the mass
success of a media text. It is natural that a person compensates the feelings and emotional
experience missing in his real life. S. Freud wrote that culture must mobilize all its forces to restrict
the original aggressive desires of man and inhibit their manifestations by means of creation of the
necessary psychological reactions (Freud, 1990: 29).
In his action movie Indiana Jones and the Kingdom of the Crystal Skull (2008) S. Spielberg
collected a bouquet of virtually all usual Western stereotypes with respect to Russia and the
Russians. Indeed, the beast-like Soviet soldiers in full combat gear and with corresponding combat
equipment who somehow managed to get to the USA look mockingly grotesque on the screen.
Wikipedia rightly points out the burlesque “errors”: the commander of the Soviet landing troops
Irina Spalko is acting by order of Stalin, though by the time the actions in the film take place (1957)
he has already been dead for four years; the Soviet soldiers dressed in American military uniform,
are armed with Chinese submachine guns; the Soviet soldiers are openly walking the American
deserts and jungles in Soviet uniform, they drink vodka and dance “kalinka-malinka” to the
accompaniment of balalaika.
Anyhow S. Spielberg turned Indiana Jones and the Kingdom of the Crystal Skull into a
digest of stereotyped perception of the image of Russia and the Russians by the Western world of
cinema…
Thus, among the distinctive features of the present socio-cultural situation in addition to the
standardization and harmonization can be identified adaptation of a popular media culture specific
language techniques inherent only in art house before. In this sense it is very important of clips’
perception characteristic of mass audience. It would seem that there was a paradoxical situation: in
video clips (music video) very often used the opening of the media avant-garde: the quaint,
kaleidoscopic, ragged assembly, complex associative, solarization, the transformation of volumes,
shapes, colors and light, "flashbacks", "rapid" and other special effects. But these clips have the
mass audience for them.
Thus the success of media texts of popular culture is influenced by many factors: the basis on
folklore and mythological sources, constancy of metaphors, orientation toward the consecutive
realization of the steadiest plot schemes, the synthesis of natural and supernatural, the address to
34
emotions through identification (the imaginary transformation into the characters, fusion with the
atmosphere of the work), “magical power” of the characters, standardization (replication,
unification, adaptation) of the ideas, situations, characters, etc., serial and mosaic character of the
work, compensation (the illusion of realization of cherished might-have-been dreams), happy
ending, the use of such rhythmical organization of audiovisual media texts when not only the
contents but also the order of frames influences the emotions of the audience; intuitive guessing of
subconscious interests of the audience, etc.
4. Results
Total Russian socio-cultural, political and ideological context of the period of "reform era"
1992-2015 years:
- Economic reform, revival of private property, the "shock therapy"; a sharp division of
society into the rich few and the masses of the population at risk of poverty;
- The decline of Russian industry;
- An attempted coup in the autumn of 1993;
- The war in Chechnya (1990s);
- Attempt to solve the economic problems with the help of loans from the West (1990s);
- The gradual revival of the economic potential of the country, primarily due to the
revitalization of the oil and gas sector (the beginning of the XXI century);
- The military conflict in South Ossetia in August 2008;
- The economic crisis (since 2008);
- The crisis of Russian reforms abroad 2010s;
- The events in the Crimea and the war in the Ukraine in 2014.
- Western anti-Russian sanctions and Russian anti-Western sanctions (2014-2015).
- Russia's participation in the anti-terrorist war in Syria (2015-2015).
The collapse of the USSR, the beginning of radical economic reforms in Russia in 1992, a
huge drop in the living standards of the population, a rise of a crimes and mass emigration...
Russian screen responded to this surge of the dark movies and films about good rich West.
A comedy of On Deribasovskaya Good Weather, or on Brighton Beach Raining Again
(1992) was among the first Russian movies try to get away from the traditional anti-Americanism
and anti-Western tendencies.
It is interesting to see how the American dream is reflected not only in the subjects, but also
of the names of Russian films of the 1990s: Alaska, Sir (1992), On Deribasovskaya Good Weather,
or on Brighton Beach Raining Again (1992), Our American Borya (1992), American Grandfather
(1993), Bride from Miami (1993), Colorado (1993), A Train to Brooklyn (1994), American
Daughter (1995).
However, despite all the charm of America, Russian filmmakers are still attracted both ever-
burning light Parisian lights and the Italian beauty: Bride from Paris (1992), Italian Contract
(1993), Window into Paris (1993), Cloak of Casanova (1993), Roman "alla russo" (1993), French
and Russian Love (1994), French Waltz (1994), Envy of the Gods (2000)...
For example, in the melodrama Envy of the Gods (2000) Russian married woman falls in love with
a French translator. But their passionate "last tango in Moscow" was in the time the cold war
1983…
In the comedy Bride from Paris, the young woman comes to Saint-Petersburg in order to
find the material for her research paper, but falls in love with the young cute lawyer. The movie is
simple, easy, not claiming for the deep thought irony. Petersburg's streets of the 1990's are shown
as the place for endless meetings, actions of protest. The lawyer's neighbor looks like the cartoon
strip hero, who has robbed and cheated his whole life, and now dreams to get away to France.
The poor lawyer in his thirties, with tired eyes he watches the optimistic enthusiasm of his Paris
guest, for whom all the Russian problems seem like some fun roller coaster: everything is new to
her, everything is interesting - dumb faces of militia men, taking her to the police station, because
she was so careless to walk without her identification card, the absence of cold and hot water, etc.
It's a pity, that the authors didn't (or couldn’t because of finance) invite the French actress for
the main part. Alexandra Zakharova performs the French sometimes funny, however, only the a
little number of audience would believe she came from Paris. Known by the Little Vera (1988)
35
actor Andrei Sokolov plays the Russian lawyer-melancholic without special effort, maybe, having
logically decided that he needn't work out on 100% for the comedy of such level. The standard
patriotic final of the movie (having the chance live in France, the heroes, got married, decided to
stay in Russia) doesn't make the rating of Bride from Paris higher.
Another film with French motives is psychological drama To See Paris and Die.
… The 1960's Moscow. Single mother (performed by T. Vassilieva) gives all her love and
energy to her son – piano player. She tries hard that it was he who will go to the prestigious musical
competition in Paris. Being afraid of the anti-Semitism, a l l these years she concealed from her son
that his father is Jewish. But a new neighbor appears in their building, which learns her secret.
With all this, the plot sounds like the Mexican soap opera however, the director managed to
fill it with many psychological details; lifestyle trifles, not making the special accent on retro style.
However the main success of the movie is the highest of T. Vassilieva. The complicated bunch of
feelings can be seen in her character. From the proudness for her outstanding son, to the fear, from
love to hatred, from boldness to collapsing, from mocking irony to the defendless tenderness.
A "small man" trying to go against his fate. Love, ruined by the regime, suppressing the
freedom of an individual. These themes not new to the Russian art but their version in the movie of
Alexander Proshkin doesn't leave one indifferent. For a long time it was common for Russian critics
to accuse cinema of absence of the professional, three-four star movies: like there's masterpieces of
Tarkovsky or not professionalism. Movies like To See Paris and Die prove that the spectrum of the
“gold middle" in Russia has widened a lot.
As I told, French motifs are very popular in Russia. ―To see Paris and die‖ – the title of a
A. Proshkin film – become the theme of a lot of Russian films. And the characters from Y. Mamin’s
comedy fantasy The Window into Paris can be instantaneously transported between St-Petersburg
communal houses and the center of modern Paris. Y. Mamin plays up the essential difference
between Slav and Western mentalities rather successfully.
One unlucky Frenchwoman, who finds herself almost naked in a dirty Petersburg yard, is
absolutely unable to get used to situations that surround all Russians from childhood, while
Russian citizens – having discovered a magical route to France – in several days begin to trade in
the French stock market and steal whatever isn’t fastened down. Against such a background, the
figure of a failed musician, an aged romantic who just wants to get pleasure from the sudden gift of
fate, seems funny and odd.
Maybe the best joke of the film, in which Mamin sounds the highest note of pitiless sarcasm,
is the sequence about a restaurant musician who moved to France about ten years ago. Lazily
offering cognac to a former friend, he abuses Frenchmen and their customs, sentimentally recalls
Russia and almost cries while saying that he would give everything for an opportunity to return to
St-Petersburg just for one minute. As a gag, his friend fulfils this wish (via the magical “open
window”). But instead of the expected ecstasy, the emigrant – seeing an armored car in front of the
St-Petersburg railway station – falls into despair.
before the cozy foreign fireplaces of restaurants with a view of the Sein, the Thames or the Hudson.
for young businessmen, hanging portraits of political leaders have been replaced by gigantic dollar
symbols), but they are side by side with useless dialogue and events.
The finale of the film – driven by the slogan “We don’t need French shores” – isn’t, frankly
speaking, new. There are, however, more successes in The Window into Paris than stereotypes.
The Prophecy is perhaps the most sorrowful film of E. Riazanov. It even has a gloomy outset:
a famous writer learns from a Gypsy fortune-teller that only a day is left for him to live and he is to
meet with an unexpected man.
In that mystical tone a young man with the same name and same temple scar appears in the
writer’s flat. Who is this mysterious double – phantom or guardian angel? The answer remains
open throughout the film.
So the time of summing-up comes for the tired writer, shaken by life. He is well-to-do in
Russian terms: he has an apartment in the center of Moscow, a car and video camera, and his
books are published in Paris. But, characteristically for a man living in a country of endless
admonitions, distress his look reveals the effect of freedom’s absence. And it’s not because of the
36
peculiarities of his biography (his father perished during the repressions, his mother is Jewish –
which he couldn’t mention for a long time – and his wife died in a car accident). The brand of
unfreedom is stamped on practically everybody in Russia, except those under 20.
In that regard, the choice of actress for the leading female role was perfect: French star Irene
Jacob. Though her character is just a modest cashier in a bank, she can be at once distinguished
from the surrounding Russian fuss by her uncommon expression. She becomes a fairy princess
and, probably, the writer’s last love… for this princess is colored by the shade of nostalgia for
unrealized dreams.
In contrast with Riazanov’s previous works, there is little topical populism – although the
conclusion is connected with one of the most widespread script devices in Russia today (escaping
from Mafia pursuit, the hero tries to leave for Israel). Sensitive to his audiences’ mood, Riazanov
couldn’t but feel that a mass interest in cinematic political investigations and revelations has
almost disappeared, while the need for melodramatic love stories is great.
Actually, The Prophecy can’t be called melodrama. There are comedy episodes (a visiting
fanatic suggests that the writer burn himself in Red Square as protest against something – it’s not
important against something – it’s not important against what, the main thing is to perform the
action), and there are elements of a parable. I don’t find such a genre alloy organic and convincing.
This seems to be the director’s attempt to get a second wind.
One way or another, but in the majority of Russian films end of XX - beginning of
XXI century there were various situations related to emigration and / or marriage / love (happy
and not so) Russian to foreigners or the former Soviet / Russian citizens who have received foreign
citizenship . Sometimes it's a comedy (Our American Borya, 1992; Bride from Paris, 1992; Bride
from Miami, 1993; Mistress from Moscow, 2001; Secret Meeting, 2001; Light Kiss, 2002; Marry
in 24 hours, 2004; Inhibited Reflexes, 2004; Kings Can Do Everything, 2008; Train Moscow-
Russia, 2014, and others), sometimes - melodramas (The Road to Paradise, 1993; Colorado, 1993;
Roman "alla russo" (1993), Russian Bride, 1993; You Are Only One, 1993; Cloak of Casanova,
1993; French and Russian Love, 1994; French Waltz, 1994; American Daughter, 1995; All will be
Well, 1995; The Barber of Siberia, 1998; Envy of the Gods, 2000; The Frenchman, 2003; Paris
love of Kostya Gumankov, 2004; Walking in Paris, 2010; The Spaniard, 2011, etc.) or drama
(The golden Head on the Block, 2004; Yesenin, 2005; Peter. Summer. Love, 2014; Hero, 2015,
etc.).
For example, the writer and director A. Eyramdzhan has 12 film stories (mostly - comedies) is
dedicated topics amorous adventures of Russians and ex-Russians who received an American
passport.
In the 1990s, the image of the West in the Russian cinema was largely accentuated the
positive, which is largely explained by the illusory conviction of many filmmakers and viewers that
the Western world is almost close to the ideal, that there reigns a total democracy, and unlimited
the possibility of success in life opened for any people. In contrast, life in Russia was dark and poor.
So the film of S. Bodrov's White King, Red Queen (1992) began as a biting comedy of
temperaments. A small Russian trade-union delegation comes to a Swiss town for a conference and
stays in a little hotel. This gives the director cause to show the charms of poor Russians who once in
a blue moon can fall greedily upon the West. There are dinners with tinned fish in the room, the
sale of vodka “for a song”, wild joy upon the receipt of 20 or 30 dollars, an occasion for free
refreshment, and so on. The heroine is a mature woman with sings of former beauty who dully
begins a flirtation with an ex-TV commentator while their colleagues drink spirits from morning till
evening. The situation of Russians who find themselves shameful beggars in prosperous
Switzerland may be a little exaggerated; taking into account the almost comedic plot, however, it
doesn’t seem a falsity.
Further on, the comedy turns smoothly into melodrama: an elegantly dressed man appears in
the hotel; 20 years ago he was a famous Russian chess player who moved to the West, and he has
learned that his old love, by the whim of fate, is in Europe for several days… but, alas, one can’t step
in the same river twice, the previous love can’t be renewed, and the Red Queen doesn’t find enough
strength to stay with the White King.
Bergman or Antonioni, is made with European mastery. Bodrov skillfully observes the laws of the
melodramatic genre with its heightening of emotions and expectant pauses, while accenting the
37
differences in mentality, habits and image of his characters so as to make the film understandable
and accessible to a European audience.
Several years later, A. Surikova in the comedy I Want to the Jail (1998), brought the situation
of unbridled desire to join the Russian character Western values to the point of absurdity. Plunge
into the criminal adventure unemployed Semyon decided to be in the comfortable Dutch prison...
The film was based on opposition to the usual stereotypes: foreigners' minds can not
understand Russia, and, in general, they are inferior to any in the whole Russian Ivan the Fool;
they do everything somehow half-heartedly: eat, drink, and work... But Semyon could easily fix any
Japanese unit, invent supercar and fall in love with a rich Dutch women... You say, if he was so
smart, why are so poor? And why are the Dutch-klutz live in the comfort of the human condition,
but clever Russians forced to hook or by crook to seek opportunities to sit in a Dutch prison - like in
the holiday? The authors of the film have one answer: Russian drink a lot, and hence all their
mess…
In the melodrama You Are Only One (1993) director D. Astrakhan succeeds in expressing the
sensations of average Russian who for one wonderful day experience a “holiday of life” in which
there is no place for nostalgic sentiments and hot arguments on spirituality, in which businessmen
accompanied by suave friends drive about in Fords and Mercedes, lazily count wads of dollar notes,
buy foreign delicacies and telephone New York right from their cars.
The life of 40-year-old Eugeny (A. Zbruev) resembles thousands of others. He has a modest
occupation as engineer in some institution, a flat in a standard tall block, a wife (M. Neyolova)
dreaming of escape from the closed circle of humiliating poverty, and a 16-year-old daughter for
whom her ill-provisioned parents are a vivid demonstration of how one mustn’t live – the
embodiment of her dread of destiny.
characters’ lives. Even scenarist O. Danilov’s move into fantasy doesn’t make their performances
But pride prevents Eugeny from becoming dependent on his old friend, although pride is not
the main problem in his affair with Anna: “I don’t love you, you see! Don’t love!” he cries to his
benefactress in a riveting sequence. A lot of things are mixed in Zbruev’s expression. It would be
good if he spoke so because he was deeply in love with his wife, but not at all… love has smoothly
changed into habit. And if it’s possible to live without rapturous love with one woman, then why is
it impossible with another? There is quite another thing, too – fatigue: hopeless awareness of the
fact that his life is over, that he has no strength to restart everything from zero.
The bitterness of this feeling doesn’t disappear after either Eugeny’s return to his wife or a
Felliniesque postscript with a birthday celebration in the snowy garden of his house. Having
escaped the turn of fate, the heroes of You’re Only One will, several days after the touching
departure of Anna for America, again poison each other’s lives with mutual criticism… and dream
about a separate room for their daughter.
But in the film with the program called All Will be Well (1995) D. Astarhan gave the same
actor A. Zbruev play the coveted audience fabulous twist of fate. Former simple boy from a
provincial town, 20 years later he returned as a millionaire, and even with his son - a Nobel
laureate... In this picture D. Astrakhan with pleasure gave his characters happiness… In short, a
kaleidoscope of the most common situations of soap operas. And all this was served in a frankly
kitsch, parody manner…
Probably the most prominent Russian film of the 1990s, directly affects the relations between
Russia and the West, has become a historical melodrama The Barber of Siberia (1998) by
N. Mikhalkov, the core of which was a love story American and Russian cadet in the late nineteenth
38
century. It seems impossible to approach this film of N. Mikhalkov as a psychological drama on a

real historical material, because this is a synthesis of romantic melodrama and comedy.
In much smaller scale than in the Soviet era, it was continued in the Russian cinema of the
1990s - 2000s, naval and air force subjects (Adventure Troop D (1993), Black Ocean (1998),
Mirror wars. Reflection One (2005), 07th changing course (2007). However, the main focus
shifted from pure-specifically anti-West in the direction of anti-terrorism...
Not good relations between Russia and US/ EU at the XXI century led the Russian cinema about
the Western world / people topic to tendencies of confrontation already familiar from the period of
"cold war" (Brother-2, 2000; Parisian Antique Dealer, 2001; Personal Number, 2004; The Big
Game, 2007; Aliens, 2008; Spy Game, 2008; Olympus inferno, 2009; War Correspondent, 2014,
and others.).
So, with the advent of the economic crisis of 1998, with the departure from the political scene
President B. Yeltsin (1999) and the beginning of the era of President V. Putin (since 2000), with
the change of the relative stabilization of the Russian economic life (2000-2007), followed by the
economic crisis (since 2008) and West-Russia / Russia-West sanctions (since 2014), the phase of
Russian "Western euphoria" gradually losing its actuality.
Brother-2 (2000) was the first sign of return to anti-Western (or rather - anti-American) direction
in the Russian cinema.
"A good killer" Danila learns that the death of his friend guilty of a businessman from
Chicago. Without hesitation, Danila and his brother went to America - to restore order... Genre of
Brother-2 deliberately moved towards black humor and irony. America was taken in the spirit of
the stories of one of the leading political commentators of the Soviet Television of the 1960s-1970s
- professor V. Zorin (1925): the dirty neighborhoods, garbage, prostitutes, unemployed and
gangsters...
The spirit of confrontation "cold war" was and in the spy detective Parisian Antique Dealer (2001).
The thriller Personal Number (2004) accused the West of inciting terrorism. The aggressive West
presented and in the action movie Mirror Wars. Reflection One (2005) where former CIA decide to
push in a military conflict the US and Russia. Muslim terrorists and "corrupt representatives of the
American Business" developed a plan of abduction of the Russian aircraft in 07th changing course
(2007).
The thrillers Olympus Inferno (2009) and War Correspondent (2014) dedicated to the
military conflict in South Ossetia (2008) and Ukraine (2014) with the same plot scheme: Honest
American caught in a war zone. He wants to bring the truth (close to the point of view of the
Moscow media) to Western audience, but his videos and reports are rejected by the leadership of
anti-Russian American TV.
Film critic and director M. Brashinsky made thrash horror film Shopping Tour (2013), where anti-
Western trends were bright comedy-parody coloring: Russian tourists, going by bus in Finland,
becoming victims of... Finnish cannibal: they only up to a certain time hided their sinister nature
behind a mask of European political correctness and integrity...
Anti-Western motives clearly manifested in this period and in the films based on historical
material. In the melodrama Admiral (2008) crafty and cunning Western allies betray the noble
Supreme ruler of Russia A. Kolchak (1874-1920). A very negative portrait of the American secret
services appears on the screen in the docudrama Interrupted Flight of Gary Powers (2009), which
tells about the fate of the pilot spy plane shot down over the Soviet Union May 1, 1960.
From the Russian films of modern times I remember the ugly English type in the comedy
Heat (2006), or foreign bad gay in the drama Duhless (2011)...
But a leader of anti-Western sentiments of the 2000s, in my opinion, was a film Aliens
(2008), in which American doctors, who arrived on a charity mission in one of the Islamic
countries, are shown in the densely indictment manner worthy of similar age peak "cold war".
Of course, in a few Russian films the XXI century the plots were about a successful
cooperation of Russian and foreign intelligence services (Apocalypse Code, 2007; White Sand,
2009), but in general the anti-Western tendencies became actualized again.
However, it should be noted that Western cinema of the last two decades as a whole did not
differ pro-Russian sentiments, as I have already had the opportunity to write in detail previously
(Fedorov, 2010).
39
In general, the Russian films on the western topic in the 1990s and the XXI century used the
genres of comedy, melodrama, thriller and detective. As for the genre of fantasy and fairy tales,
they went into deep shadow for economic reasons: their production, usually several times more
expensive filming comedies and melodramas, but commercial success in no way guaranteed.
Unfortunately, expensive fantastic action Inhabited Island (2008) did not live up to
expectations of financial investors and the public. The ambitious television project The Amphibian
Man. Sea Devil (2004), new adaptation of the A. Belyaev’s novel, came out unsuccessful too… Fairy
tale The Nutcracker (2011) by A. Konchalovsky was, unfortunately, too difficult for the child's
perception and too "childish" for adult audiences.
Perhaps the most successful Russian sci-fi movie of the XXI century was the film adaptation
of the story of Strugatsky brothers The Ugly Swans (2005) by K. Lopushansky. Based on previous
experience (Dead Man's Letters and others.) and motives of fantastic films of A. Tarkovsky,
K. Lopushansky created a kind of fantastic parable about the mysteries and the limitless
possibilities of Reason...
The real serials boom was in the Russian film industry of 1990s - 2000s, because the Russian
audience (especially adult) continued to sit at the TV screens and still not in a hurry to the cinema,
even if equipped with surround sound and image system.
And today the greatest influence on the audience (although the students, young people in
large part has already moved on to the Internet and mobile phones) has a TV mass culture, focused
on the creation of large multi-month (or even perennial!) series (including on Western world topic
Spy Game, Lecturer, The Spy, etc.).
A content analysis of Russian films on the western topic, created in the period from 1992 to
2015 allows to represent their basic narrative scheme as follows:
- Attraction of the West as a symbol of a better life for the Russians (emigration to the West,
marriage / love relationship, criminal activity, etc. in the 1990s, this story is showing also the low
level of life, deprivation of Russians);
- The joint struggle of the Russian and Western intelligence services, military against
terrorism and crime (this theme is characteristic of Russian films of the 1990s);
- Fighting the Russian special services or individual Russians with Western spies and
criminals, supported by the West (the scheme became clearly manifest in the Russian cinema of the
XXI century).
The structure of the stereotypes of Russian drams on the Western world topic
and / or Soviet character, luxury homes and objects of everyday life Western characters, and the
"new Russian".
Methods of reality representation: realistic or quasi-grotesque images of people's lives.
gestures. Positive characters have the democratic ideas; negative characters have inhuman,
terrorist, militaristic ideas. Characters often shared not only social, but also material status.
Positive characters (both Russian and foreign) look pleasant in all respects. Negative characters are
often rude and violent types, from primitive vocabulary, evil or sickly hypocritical persons active
gestures and nasty vocal timbres.
their anti-human ideas (for example, a terrorist act or other crime).
in jeopardy.
40
War. Russia, 2002. Director and screenwriter A. Balabanov.

Historical period, the place of action: Begin of XXI century, Moscow, Chechnya.
Furnishings, household items: differentiated, depending on the specific situation in the
episode (Moscow offices, Chechen villages, the old tower, which kept the defense of the main
characters, etc.).
Methods of reality representation: realistic, seeking documentary objectivity.
gestures: Englishman John, his fiancée, the Russian soldier Ivan, his commander - Captain
Medvedev, Chechen rebel Aslan. Characters shared social and material status.
A significant change in the lives of the characters: the Englishman, his fiancée and Russian
soldiers are held captive by Chechen militants.
A problem: the leader of the militants let John and Ivan from captivity, but leaves the
imprisoned John’s bride, appointing for her release large ransom - two million pounds. Life of
John’s bride is under threat.
The search for solution to the problem: John and Ivan have a plan for deliverance of John’
bride and Captain Medvedev from captivity.
Solution: John and Ivan manage to free John’s bride and Captain Medvedev.
Aliens. Russia-US-Egypt, 2008. Directed by Y. Grymov.

Historical period, the place of action: the beginning of the XXI century, the area of inter-
ethnic conflict in one of the Muslim countries, the United States.
Furnishings, household items: a deserted place, the villages, the American luxury villa.
Methods of reality representation: realistic, without grotesque.
gestures: American doctors, their bourgeois values, which, according to the authors, can be
reduced to the thesis of "the immorality of the prudent." Build, facial expressions, gestures and
vocabulary of characters are within the normal standards. Clothing characters are functional.
Facial expressions and gestures of the characters often boosted.
A significant change in the lives of the characters: a group of American doctors arriving on a
charity mission in one of the Muslim countries in the zone of military conflict.
A problem: a conflict is between the couple of American Physicians (wife is cheating on her
husband). The husband accidentally becomes a murderer.
The search for solutions: American doctor calls his wife a whore, but after returning to the
US he say: "America must act"...
Solution: the American doctor and his wife live happily again in a chic mansion ...
Olympus Inferno. Russia, 2009. Directed by I. Voloshin.

Historical period, the place of action: South Ossetia, August 2008.
Furnishings, household objects: the city streets, interiors of offices and apartments,
mountain countryside, military equipment.
gestures: Georgian and Russian soldiers and officers. They shared the ideological status.
The Russians are professional, intelligent and honest soldiers, their speech, facial expressions and
gestures correspond to the army charter. Their opponents are very bad, shooting of civilians... And
those and others dressed in military uniform, with sturdy. Their vocabulary is simple and is subject
to combat conditions. But they are not the main characters. The main characters are the American
scientist and a Russian journalist. These are young people wearing comfortable hiking / travel
clothing, they look nice...
A significant change in the lives of the characters: American Michael arrives in South
Ossetia to study rare night butterflies. Together with the journalist Eugenia he see the flying
insects, but...
A problem: invasion of Georgian troops in South Ossetia, the life of the main characters, as,
indeed, and all the people of South Ossetia is under threat.
The search for solutions: Michael and girl trying to take out of the war zone video
documenting the invasion of the Georgian units.
41
Solution: the invaders are doomed to failure...
The structure of the Russian thriller or detective genre stereotypes on the

western world topic
Historical period, the place of action: any length of time, Russia, the Soviet Union, the
characters, luxury homes and household items of Western characters and the "new Russian" (in the
territory of a hostile country, spies adapted to the housing and living conditions of the enemy).
Methods of reality representation: in general realistic, though sometimes some grotesque
gestures: positive (counter-intelligence officers, intelligence agents / spies, saboteurs) and negative
(the same persons, plus - the terrorists, criminals, gangsters, maniacs). Divided by ideology and
worldview or without accentuation of it, the characters tend to have a strong constitution and
appear according to the settings of a media text source: spies and criminals can for some time (up
to expose, for example) to look pretty, but then be sure to find its ugly essence... Western negative
characters seem rude and cruel, unpleasant tone of voice...
A significant change in the lives of the characters: negative characters commit a crime (an
act of terrorism, espionage, blackmail, theft of state secrets, murder and so on.).
The search for solution: crime investigation, prosecution negative characters.
Solution: The positive characters catch / kill of negative caracters.
Big Game. Russia, 2007. Directed by V. Derbenyov.

Historical period, the place of action: the USSR, the Western countries, 1980s.
Furnishings, household objects: streets, modest homes, institutions and objects of everyday
life of the Soviet characters; domestic well-being of the western countries.
Methods of reality representation: a whole is quite realistic...
positive (counter-intelligence officers, Russian intelligence / spy) and negative (the same persons,
plus CIA agents). And a double agent Oleg located between them. Divided by ideology and
worldview, characters have a strong constitution and appear according to the settings of a media
text source: Positive characters are attractive, negative, on the contrary... but Oleg is ambivalent.
Clothing of characters (spies) depends on their current mission and the environment...
A significant change in the lives of the characters: the Soviet counter-intelligence suspects
that the "mole", transmits secret information to the West...
A problem: the secrets of the Soviet counterintelligence are under threat...
Finding a solution to the problem: KGB’s services search for "mole".
Solution: a KGB operation was a success, "mole" unmasked and sentenced to a lengthy term
of imprisonment...
Trap. Russia, 2008. Directed by A. Schurihin.

Historical period, the place of action: Russia and the United States, 2000s.
Furnishings, household objects: offices, streets and apartments.
Methods of reality representation: furnishings, interiors (offices, apartments) look quite
realistic.
positive character is a pretty American company employee Yanovska, dressed and brushed
according to business mode differs slender physique. Negative characters are representatives mafia
business, dressed in expensive suits, looks extremely unpleasant, with fake smiles and a stone in
his bosom.
A significant change in the lives of the characters: the Russian security services becoming
aware that Americans connected with the hydrogen engine and alternative fuel.
A problem: these developments may significantly affect the economic status of Russia.
42
Finding a solution to the problem: the Russian special services call to Yanovskaya ...
Solution: overcoming numerous difficulties and deadly danger Yanovska displays expose the
mafia and their leader.
Spy. Russia, 2012. Directed by Andrianov.

Historical period, the place of action: the USSR, Germany, June 1941.
Furnishings, household items: office rooms, a communal apartment, house, Moscow street,
park, basement, modest homes and household items of ordinary Soviet character, luxury Stalinist
empire in the Palace of the Soviets...
quasi-realistic, although with a significant degree of conventionality and grotesque, because we can
see a fantasy world of Moscow in June 1941, established on the patterns unfulfilled in reality
Stalinist radical reconstruction plan of the capital.
positive (Soviet counterintelligence officers, civilians) and negative (German spies). Divided by
ideology and worldview, male characters have a strong constitution. Female characters are divided
into positive (the bride of the protagonist) and negative (spy). Spies can for some time (to expose)
look pretty, but then be sure to find its hostile entity...
A significant change in the lives of the characters: the main character is a young employee of
the Soviet counterintelligence and his boss (an experienced Major) are given the task to find a
German agent named "Wasser".
A problem: the main character in search of a German agent goodie gets into a life-
threatening situation...
Finding a solution to the problem: death / arrest of several German agents does not give the
desired result: the main resident of the Nazi "Wasser" remains elusive...
Solution: the main positive hero manages to survive, but "Wasser" deceived Stalin and
returned to Berlin…
The structure of the stereotypes of Russian action films on the topic of the Western World
Soviet character, Western luxury homes and everyday objects, as well as the "new Russian" mafia
and corrupt officials; unified billing military facilities (bases, cabins of planes and tanks, decks
warships, submarines compartments).
Methods of reality representation: in general realistic, though sometimes grotesque
gestures. Positive characters (any military arms, civilians) have a democratic ideas; aggressors
(military, saboteurs, terrorists) have inhumane ideas. Divided by ideology and worldview, whether
or not these should focus on, the characters tend to have a strong constitution and appear
according to the settings of a media text source: the western characters are often rude and brutal
types with primitive vocabulary and unpleasant tone of voice.
(armed aggression, acts of terrorism, sabotage, murder).
A problem: violation of the law: a life of positive characters, as often, and the lives of all
peaceful democratic character of the country in jeopardy.
aggression.
Solution: destruction / capture of aggressors, terrorists, bandits; returning to civilian life.
Black Shark. Russia, 1993. Directed by V. Lukin.

Historical period, the place of action: Afghanistan, 1990s.
Furnishings, household items: mountains, deserts, drug manufacturing plant, barracks,
luxurious house of a local oligarch Karahan, helicopters and other military equipment, weapons.
43
Methods of reality representation: quasi-realitic.

Positive characters are commando and his co-workers have the human ideas; negative character is
drug lord Karahan and his minions have inhumane ideas. Characters are often dressed in military
or semi-military uniform. Facial expressions and gestures of the characters often boosted.
A significant change in the lives of the characters: Karahan’s mafia built a factory,
manufacturing drugs.
A problem: the powerful drug trafficking, organized Karakhan, threatens the lives of
thousands of people...
Finding a solution to the problem: the US intelligence services are trying to capture
Karahan’s factory, but militants from its protection successfully resist...
Solution: US commandos rescued Assistant - Russian military squad: they destroys caravans
with drugs... Helicopter, which Karahan tried to escape, is destroyed too...
Black Ocean. Russia, 1998. Directed by I. Solovov.

Historical period, the place of action: 1990s. Oceans...
Furnishings, household items: Russian military submarine, ships, underwater, overhead
cabinets Chief of Intelligence of Russia.
Methods of reality representation: texture, interiors, costumes are shown in a realistic
manner.
Russian sailors, submariners have a human values, foreign terrorists have an inhuman values.
Most of the characters are dressed in military naval uniform. Facial expressions and gestures of the
characters often boosted.
A significant change in the lives of the characters: foreign terrorists are developing the
project "Jihad", providing a new kind of biological weapons, changing the human genetic code.
A problem: the existence of humanity is threatened.
Finding a solution to the problem: the main Russian intelligence management can not
decrypt the diskette with information about the new biological weapons.
Solution: the Russian submariners with their lives destroyed containers with biological
weapons...
Russian Special Forces. Russia, 2002. Directed by S. Mareev.

Historical period, the place of action: Russia, early XXI century, St. Petersburg.
Furnishings, household items: Street and vicinity of St. Petersburg, military supplies (form,
weapons, etc.).
Methods of reality representation: texture, interiors, costumes appear conditionally, that is
especially noticeable in this peculiar genre scenes fights and shootings.
Positive Russian special forces (depicted in a grotesque, comedy style). Vocabulary of the
characters is easy, associated with the military specifics. Facial expressions and gestures of the
characters often exaggeration. Their physical development is clearly above average.
A significant change in the lives of the characters: St. Petersburg is preparing to celebrate its
300th anniversary and president’s visit, but a group of international terrorists preparing an attack.
A problem: the life of the president, and the simple citizens of the city is at stake.
Finding a solution to the problem: Russian special forces decide to fight the insolent
terrorists.
Solution: a victory over terrorists.
The structure of the stereotypes of Russian melodramatic films on the Western world topic
Soviet characters (if they do not oligarchs and mafia, "new Russian"), luxury homes and household
items Western characters and the Russian rich.
44
Methods of reality representation: as a rule, realistic or quasi-realistic.

gestures. Male and female characters with contrasting ideological and social status, or without it.
Characters tend to have a slender physique and look quite nice. Their clothes, facial expressions
and vocabulary are "average" framework.
A significant change in the lives of the characters: a meeting of male and female characters
A problem: the national, ideological and / or social misalliance, "culture shock", mutual
misunderstanding.
The search for solution to the problem: the characters overcome national, ideological and
social obstacles in the way of their love.
French and Russian Love. Russia, 1994. Director and screenwriter A. Alexandrov.
Historical period, the place of action: Russia 1990, Moscow.
Furnishings, household items: apartments and the streets of Moscow, a modest household
situation of the protagonist.
Methods of reality representation: in general realistic.
French man and Russian woman (her husband in prison, poverty, etc.) with contrasting social
status. The main characters look quite cute. Their clothes, facial expressions and vocabulary are
"average" framework.
A significant change in the lives of the characters: the Frenchman met with Russian woman
and falls in love with her...
A problem: national and social misalliance, "culture shock", sometimes mutual
misunderstanding.
Finding a solution to the problem: the characters overcome national, and social obstacles to
their love.
Solution: a Frenchman and a Russian woman with tickets to Paris, go to the airport, leaving
the Russians little daughter with her grandmother. The daughter was crying, and the Frenchman
knows that it is also necessary to take...
Envy of the Gods. Russia, 2000. Directed by V. Menshov.

Historical period, the place of action: Moscow, 1983.
Furnishings, household items: a modest dwelling and Soviet characters everyday objects,
studio.
French translator and married woman with contrasting ideological and social status. They are not
too young, but have a slender physique and looks very nice. Their clothes, facial expressions and
A significant change in the lives of the characters: passionate affair between the main
characters.
A problem: the national and political contrast.
Finding a solution to the problem: the main characters trying to overcome the ideological
and social obstacles in the way of their love.
Solution: in spite of the mutual love, no way for the marriage, because of the state ideology of
the Soviet Union...
Frenchman. Russia, 2003. Directed by V. Storozheva.

Historical period, the place of action: Beginning of the XXI century. Russia, a provincial
town. France, Paris.
Furnishings, household items: a luxury Baron de Rousseau castle near Paris, and dull
provincial Russian town, modest homes and household items of ordinary Russian characters.
45
Baron de Russo is a hereditary aristocrat who dreams to find a Russian girl Irina, whom he met
through correspondence. Anna is provincial pretty teacher of French language in a provincial
Russian town. For his visit to Russia, Baron dressed quite modestly. Anna dressed too without any
frills. Vocabulary of characters is simple, facial expressions and gestures at times boosted.
A significant change in the lives of the characters: French baron travels to Russia to meet
with Russian girlfriend Irina, whom he met on the correspondence...
A problem: Some criminals robbed Baron, and he found out that he actually does not
corresponded with Irina, but her friend Anna, which is a good French wrote him a letter on behalf
of Irina ...
Finding a solution to the problem: the Frenchman tries to deal with the situation and in the
process falls in love with Anna ...
Solution: Anna meets Baron reciprocate...
The structure of the stereotypes of Russian comedy films on the topic of Western world
Soviet character, luxury homes and everyday objects of Western characters and "new Russian".
Methods of reality representation: the life of people in the "other countries" are often
represented quasi-grotesque.
gestures. Characters with contrasting ideological and social status, or without it. Clothing of
western characters looks better Russian / Soviet (then again, if these do not belong to the "new
Russian"). Build, vocabulary, facial expressions and gestures are differentiated, but in general, if
the main characters on the plot will fall in love, they have a pleasant appearance.
A significant change in the lives of the characters: the main characters fall in love with any
funny / eccentric circumstances with Western, Russian / Soviet characters.
A problem: the national, social, ideological (the last - in the movies of the Soviet era)
misalliance, "culture shock", mutual misunderstanding.
the social and national barriers.
The solution: a joint problem solving, friendship, or marriage / love harmony, humor
painted.
Bride from Paris. Russia, 1992. Directed by O. Dugladze.

Historical period, the place of action: Russia, St. Petersburg, the beginning of the 1990s.
Furnishings, household items: St. Petersburg street early 1990s show as a venue for endless
meetings, demonstrations, protests, Russian characters are no different home comfort.
Methods of reality representation: conventional (within the genre), sometimes grotesque
prevails.
French graduate student and a Russian lawyer. French clothing looks much better than the
Russian. Build, vocabulary, facial expressions and gestures of the characters are differentiated, but
the main characters are good-looking. Vocabulary of characters is simple, facial expressions and
gestures at times boosted.
A significant change in the lives of the characters: the young French will come to
St. Petersburg to find material for the thesis, and falls in love with handsome lawyer...
A problem: the national, social misalliance, "culture shock", mutual misunderstanding.
Finding a solution to the problem: poor man's lawyer jacked-tired eyes watching the
optimistic enthusiasm of his French guests, for which all Russian troubles seem new attraction in
the amusement park. She was all in wonder, everything is interesting.
Solution: having the opportunity to live in Paris, heroes, getting married, decided to stay in
Russia...
46
Window into Paris Russia, France, 1993. Directed by Y. Mamin.

Historical period, the place of action: 1993. Russia, St. Petersburg. France, Paris.
Furnishings, household items: Paris and St. Petersburg streets, school interiors, a restaurant,
a miserable life of Russians.
Methods of reality representation: the grotesque (as part of the genre), St. Petersburg, Paris
atmosphere, Russian and French characters are shown with ironic sympathy.
Pretty Frenchwoman is a representative of the "middle class." Russian characters: a schoolteacher,
his tenacious neighbors, Russian émigré musician. The main characters wear suits their social
status. Some of them are vulgar. Vocabulary of characters is simple, facial expressions and gestures
at times boosted.
A significant change in the lives of the characters: using a magic window Russian characters
come from St. Petersburg to Paris, and the French, on the contrary, come from Paris to
St. Petersburg...
A problem: the social and cultural shock, an absolute inability to understand the realities of
Russia at the French, deft ability to adapt to new conditions in Russian characters.
overcome obstacles.
Solution: a return to stability: Russian people are again in St. Petersburg, and French woman
is in Paris...
Everything Will be Fine. Russia, 1995. Directed by D. Astrachan.

Historical period, the place of action: a Russian provincial town, 1995.
Furnishings, household items: squalid interiors of the hostel, the streets and roads of the
Russian provincial town, theater, lecture room.
Methods of reality representation: conventional (within the genre), Russian and foreign
characters are shown with sympathy.
Russian characters are rich (the millionaire and his son) and the poor (people cooped up in the
dormitory), foreign characters - Japanese millionaire and his servants. Rich characters dressed
expensive, poor - much worse. Vocabulary of characters is simple, facial expressions and gestures
are often exaggerated...
A significant change in the lives of the characters: Russian millionaire (now, apparently, also
a US citizen) arrives in a provincial town, where he once lived and met his first love... At the
millionaire arrives and his son - a Nobel laureate. There turns out to be a business partner - a
Japanese millionaire...
A problem: the social misalliance...
are trying to overcome social obstacles.
Solution: Russian millionaire understands that the old love has not come back, but his son
successfully finds the love... And Japanese millionaire does not seem to remain in the loser...
The structure of the stereotypes of Russian sci-fi films on the topic of western world
Historical period, the place of action: Far / near future. Russia, the United States, other
countries, space.
Furnishings, household items: a fantastic home, space ships and objects of everyday life
characters - from complete devastation to supertechnologies.
countries, spaceships" conditionally grotesque depiction of life in the "hostile states, the
spacecraft."
gestures. Positive characters (Cosmo/astronauts, soldiers, civilians) have a democratic ideas;
aggressors (Cosmo/astronauts, soldiers, saboteurs, terrorists) have inhumane ideas. Clothing:
Cosmo/astronauts, military uniform, civilian clothes. Build: sports, strong. Vocabulary: business.
Facial expressions and gestures are subject to the current function.
47
A problem: violation of the law - a life of positive characters, as often, and the lives of all
peaceful democratic character of the country in jeopardy. Variation: only a few survivors left after a
nuclear disaster.
aggression or attempt to survivors of the atomic bomb somehow adapt to the new conditions of
existence.
Solution: the destruction / capture of the aggressors; the return to civilian life, or adaptation
of the survivors of the nuclear attack to the new harsh conditions.
Inhabited Island. Russia 2009. Director: F. Bondarchuk.

Historical period, the place of action: the XXII century. A certain future. A totalitarian
regime...
Furnishings, household items: a fantastic home, appliances and objects of everyday life
characters.
Methods of reality representation: conditionally futuristic portrayal of events.
Positive characters (the handsome athlete, astronaut Maxim, in love with his girl) have a humane
ideas; negative characters (rulers, soldiers, and other shady characters) have inhumane ideas.
Clothing: expensive clothes of the ruling elite, uniforms, rags. Build usually - sports, strong.
Vocabulary - business, facial expressions and gestures are subject to the current function.
A significant change in the lives of the characters: positive character gets on the planet,
which is ruled by a totalitarian regime based on the suppression of identity and violence.
A problem: the life of a positive character, how, and the lives of many other characters, in
jeopardy.
Finding a solution to the problem: the struggle of a positive character with the totalitarian
regime.
Solution: the destruction of the totalitarian regime...
The Key Salamander / The Fifth Execution. Netherlands, Russia, USA, 2011.
Directed by A. Yakymchuk.
Historical period, the place of action: The near future. Megapolis. Jungle.
Furnishings, household items: a metropolis with its plush offices, elevators, skyscrapers,
ocean, jungle.
gestures. Positive characters have a democratic ideas; negative characters have inhumane ideas.
Clothing: office uniform, civilian clothes. Build usually - sports, strong. Vocabulary is business,
facial expressions and gestures are subject to the current function.
A significant change in the lives of the characters: the corporation "Farm-Line" received the
elixir of life, supposedly the crucial problem of immortality; there is an epidemic of suicides; on one
of the islands lost Asian international scientific expedition; Rescuers found on this island a secret
laboratory where dangerous experiments were carried out on the animals and humans...
A problem: violation of the law - the lives of all people in the world is under threat of a global
catastrophe.
The search for solutions: the struggle of positive and negative characters.
Solution: positive hero rushes to the central office of "Farm-Line" and he kills the head of
criminals...
Ugly Swans. Russia, 2005. Directed by K. Lopushansky.

Historical period, the place of action: some future, (perhaps Western) country.
Furnishings, household objects: offices, a boarding school, the streets of the ghost town.
Methods of reality representation: quasi-realistic.
The main characters are members of the commission to investigate anomalous phenomena in a
48
ghost town, the representatives of the special services, teachers (mutant space aliens?) and their
students - children with unique intellectual abilities... Characters’ clothes deliberately is "timeless"
character. Children and their teachers look mysterious. Vocabulary of commission members and
intelligence agents is business, facial expressions and gestures are subject to the current function.
A significant change in the lives of the characters: a special commission arrives in a
mysterious city...
A problem: the commission faced with abnormal and unexplained phenomena.
Finding a solution to the problem: one of the characters of the film trying to independently
investigate the situation, because his daughter is among mysterious children.
Solution does not exist in the framework of the philosophical concept of the authors…
Stereotypes politically engaged media texts (for example, the film Olympus Inferno, 2009)
Famous British media theorist L. Masterman has repeatedly stressed the need to educate the
audience an understanding of: 1) who is responsible for the creation of media texts, who owns the
media? 2) how the effect is achieved? 3) What are the value orientations created the world in such a
way? 4) how it treats the audience? (Masterman, 1985). Of course, this kind of approach is more
related to the texts, are outside the scope of the art, and are not suitable for outstanding works of
media culture. However, to the opus, designed for a mass audience, the more clearly politicized,
L. Masterman technology, I think, is quite applicable. Especially, if you see her explicit roll with the
theoretical concepts of Umberto Eco (Eco, 2005) and A. Silverblatt (Silverblatt, 2001: 80-81).
In fact, the words of Umberto Eco that the analysis of a media text should be divided into
three "systems" that are relevant to the work: the author's ideology; market conditions which
determined the plan, process of creation and success; narrative techniques (Eco, 2005: 209),
largely coincide with the concept of media education of L. Masterman.
It would seem that the cold war are gone, and the image of the evil of the "Russian Bear"
much-loved "hawks" of the Western screen is no longer relevant. However, our analysis (Fedorov,
2010) showed that media stereotypes of the Cold War is largely alive today. We prove this by the
example of politically engaged Russian film Olympus Inferno (2009).
Based on the approaches L. Masterman, A. Silverblatt and U. Eco, I can try to analyze this
film.
Market conditions which determined the plan, process create a media text. The short war in
August 2008 between Georgia and Russia. The film marked clearly defined ideological position,
fully meets the political situation prevailing in political science and media official Russian
approaches.
Author's ideology, values of media text. The ideological message of the film is simple and
clear: the superiority of democratic values over the anti-Russian aggressive policy of Georgia.
Historical period, the place of action. South Ossetia and Georgia in August 2008.
When analyzing media texts biased logical use:
• "sifting" of information (a reasoned selection of true and false in media materials, cleaning
information from "rouge" and "shortcuts" by comparison with the actual facts, etc.);
• removing a data halo "typical", "vulgar", "credibility";
• critical analysis of the goals of the agency and interests of a source of information.
It tries to do this by highlighting the following methods manipulative influence:
• "orchestration": psychological pressure on the audience in the form of constant repetition of
certain facts, regardless of the truth. In the case of the Olympus Inferno - a frequent emphasis on
the positive qualities of the main characters, and the negative qualities of the characters of the
enemy camp;
• "Selection" of certain trends, for example, only positive or negative, distortion, exaggeration
/ understatement of these trends. In Olympus Inferno is the only "black" and "white": all the
positive developments related to the actions of the positive characters, and all negative - to the
actions of the characters from the enemy camp;
• embellishment of the facts. In Olympus Inferno Russian military shows exclusively noble
warrior without fear and without reproach;
• "sticking labels" (eg, guilty, offensive etc). In Olympus Inferno all the most negative labels
are glued to the invaders;
49
• "game of plebeian": for example, the most simplified form of information. The plot of
Olympus Inferno is served in a very simplified form, without semitones, without a minimum of
deepening in the psychology of the characters and motives of their actions.
The structure of "confrontational" stereotypes in the Olympus Inferno is very close to the US-
Georgian thriller 5 Days of War (2011) by R. Harlin (albeit with a change from plus to minus).
R. Harlin used similar stereotypes, including "orchestration", "selection", "sticking labels".
The laws of politically engaged media texts, alas, the same...
Curiously, another film was released in 2012 on Russian screens, this time an expensive
blockbuster August Eighth. In this war drama on the theme of the five-day Russian-Georgian war,
the end of the summer of 2008, the emphasis has been placed differently. All political motives were
relegated to the background, and in the center of the story was the fate of a young woman who is in
the midst of hostilities in South Ossetia is trying to find his little baby...
This universal human concept (plus well laid fantastic episodes with robots that arise in the
imagination of boys) have contributed to the fact that August Eight (2012) took place at the box
office is much better than 5 Days of War (2011).
5. Conclusions
Analysis of the transformation of the image of the West in the Soviet and Russian screen -
from the era of ideological confrontation (1946-1991) to the modern stage (1992-2015), including
the ideological, social analysis, stereotypes analysis of a character analysis of identification,
iconographic, plot / narrative, representative analysis, classification of content models and
modifications of the genre allows us to draw the following conclusions:
- Anti-Western, anti-bourgeois orientation of Soviet cinema played an important role in the
Cold War, however, we should not forget that at all times has been the West's policy of largely anti-
Russian, and any increase in Russia (economic, military, geopolitical) was perceived as a threat to
the Western world. Therefore, the response trend of confrontation towards the West can be traced
in many Russian media films, and after the collapse of the Soviet Union (although the Russian
cinema the 1990s and was a short burst of pro-Western);
- Content analysis of media texts of Soviet screen of cold war times (1946-1991) allows to
represent their basic narrative scheme as follows: Western spies penetrated into the territory of the
Soviet Union to commit acts of sabotage and / or ferret out military secrets; US prepares a secret
attack on the USSR, creating this secret bases with nuclear weapons; inhuman Western regime
oppresses its own people or the population of a country, strangling democracy and freedom of the
individual; ordinary Soviet citizens explain misled by propaganda of Western citizens, that the
Soviet Union - a bulwark of friendship, prosperity and peace; in the way of a loving couple having
obstacles associated with the ideological confrontation between the USSR and the Western world;
- Content analysis of Russian media texts created in the post-Soviet period 1992-2015's,
allows to represent their basic narrative scheme as follows: pull the West as a symbol of a better life
for the Russians (emigration to the West, marriage / love relationship, criminal activity, and others
in the 1990s, this story is colored diagram showing the low level of life, deprivation of Russians);
the joint struggle of the Russian and Western intelligence services, military, terrorism and crime
(this theme is characteristic of Russian films of the 1990s); fight the Russian special services or
individual Russians with Western spies and criminals, supported by the West (the scheme became
clearly manifest in the Russian cinema of the XXI century).
- In contrast to the period of 1946-1991 years, Russian films on the western topic in 1992-
2015 fueled not only confrontational subjects (military confrontation, spying, mafia, etc.), But also
(especially in 1990) history of cooperation, Russia and the West mutual assistance;
- But on the whole post-Soviet Russian cinema inherited traditions of Russian relations with
the West: in most feature films image of the West is interpreted as a way of "Alien", "Other", often
hostile, alien to Russian civilization.
In view of the above, in my opinion, it would be overly optimistic to expect that evolved over
the centuries stereotyped concept of Western World image on the Russian screens may change in
the near future.
50
References
Berdyaev, 1990 – Berdyaev, N.A. The destiny of man in the modern world // New World.
1990. № 1, 207-232.
Bogomolov, 1989 – Bogomolov, Y.A. Movies on every day ... // Literary newspaper. 1989.
№ 24.
Corliss, 1990 – Corliss, R. Dean films attacking // Video-Ace Express. 1990, N 1, 8.
Eco, 1984 – Eco, U. Future sample 1984. 16.11.2007.
Eco, 1998 – Eco, U. From Gutenberg to Internet: text and hypertext. 1998. 20.05.1998.
Eco, 1998а – Eco, U. Lack of Structure. Introduction to semiology. St. Petersburg: Petropolis,
1998. 432 p.
Eco, 2005 – Eco, U. The role of the reader. Research on the semiotics of the text.
St. Petersburg: Symposium, 2005. 502 p.
Fedorov, 2008 – Fedorov, A.V. Analysis of the cultural mythology of media texts in the
classroom at the student audience // Innovations in Education. 2008. № 4, 60-80.
Fedorov, 2010 – Fedorov, A.V. Transform the image of Russia in the western screen: from
the era of ideological confrontation (1946-1991) to the modern phase (1992-2010). Moscow, 2010.
202 p.
Fedorov, 2012 – Fedorov, A.V. Analysis of audiovisual media texts. Moscow, 2012. 182 p.
Lotman, 1973 – Lotman, Y.M. The semiotics of cinema and film aesthetic problems. Tallinn:
Lotman, 1992 – Lotman, Y.M. Articles on semiotics and cultural topology. Tallinn:
Alexandra, 1992. 247 p.
Propp, 1976 – Propp, V.Y. Folklore and Reality. Moscow: Art, 1976, 51-63.
Propp, 1998 – Propp, V.Y. The morphology of the fairy tale. The historical roots of the fairy
Shaw, Youngblood, 2010 – Shaw, T. and Youngblood, D.J. (2010). Cinematic Cold War: The
Praeger, 449 p.
Strada, Troper, 1997 – Strada, M.J. and Troper, H.R. (1997). Friend or Foe?: Russian in
Zorkaya, 1981 – Zorkaya, N.M. Unique and replicate. Mass media and reproduced art.
Zorkaya, 1994 – Zorkaya, N.M. Folklore. Splint. Screen. Moscow, 1994.
УДК 378
Западный мир на российском экране (1992–2015 гг.)

Аннотация. Анализ трансформации образа Запада в российском экране (1992–2015),

в том числе идеологический, социальный анализ, анализ стереотипов, иконографический
анализ, репрезентативный анализ, классификация моделей контента и модификаций жанра
позволяет сделать следующие выводы. Контент-анализ российских фильмов, созданных в
постсоветский период 1992–2015 годов, позволяет представлять их основную схему
51
повествования следующим образом: Запад как символ лучшей жизни для россиян
(эмиграция, брак/любовь c иностранцами, преступная деятельность и т.д. в 1990-е годы,
плюс низкий уровень жизни русских); совместная борьба Российских и Западных спецслужб
с терроризмом и преступностью (эта тема характерна для российских фильмов 1990-х
годов); борьба российских спецслужб или отдельные русских с западными шпионами и
преступниками (схема стала явно проявляться в российском кино в XXI веке). В отличие от
периода 1946–1991 гг. российские фильмы на западную тему в 1992–2015 гг. подпитывались
не только конфронтацией (военное противостояние, шпионаж, мафия и т.д.), но и (особенно
в 1990-х) историями о сотрудничестве России и Запада. Но постсоветское российское кино
унаследовало традиции отношений с Западом: в большинстве художественных фильмов
образ Запада интерпретируется как «чужой», «другой», часто враждебный, чуждый русской
цивилизации. С учетом вышесказанного было бы слишком оптимистично ожидать, что
развивавшаяся на протяжении многих веков стереотипная концепция западного мира на
российских экранах может измениться в ближайшем будущем.
Ключевые слова: герменевтический анализ, Россия, Запад, США, фильм.
52

ISSN: 2410-9118
E-ISSN 2413-7545
Vol. 3, Is. 1, pp. 4-9, 2016
DOI: 10.13187/rjs.2016.3.4
www.ejournal32.com
UDC 316
Soviet Cartoons Media Texts in Cold War Times: Hermeneutic Analysis
Alexander Fedorov
Abstract
The author uses the hermeneutic analysis – a study of the process of interpretation of media
texts, cultural and historical factors influencing the views of the agency / author on the media text.
This analysis suggests media text comprehension through comparison with historical, cultural
tradition and reality; penetration of its logic; through comparison of media images in historical and
cultural context by combining analysis of the structural, plot, ethical, ideological, iconographic /
visual, media stereotypes and analysis of media texts’ characters. As a result, the author concluded
that the era of the Cold War, which spawned mutual ideological confrontation of the communist
and capitalist countries, covering all categories of media texts, including animation / cartoon.
Cartoons were used as levers of power required reports confrontational ideas in attractive folklore,
fairy package in order to influence not only adults but also on children's audience.
Keywords: media literacy, film studies, cartoons, media education, animation, cartoon, cold
war, ideology, media text, cold war.
Introduction
In my previous works (Fedorov, 2008; 2011), I have repeatedly appealed to the technology
hermeneutic analysis of media texts (Eco, 1998; 2005; Eco, 1976; Silverblatt, 2001, p. 80-81).
This time I use as an example of the Soviet cartoons media texts on the topic of Cold War. This
data analysis of media texts, in my opinion, will be useful for the training of future culture & art

Technology hermeneutic analysis of Soviet cartoons media texts on the topic of "cold war".
The historical, cultural, political, ideological context
Historical Context
- the place of media texts’ actions: the United States, an unnamed country;
- the times of creation of media texts: these cartoons were created in the second half of the
1940s.
- the era of the cold war was the source of the creation of the set as the anti-Soviet / anti-
communist and anti-western / anti-bourgeois media texts within the time period 1946-1991 years
(since March 5, 1946, when Winston Churchill made his famous Fulton speech, sharply criticized
the policy the Soviet Union, and since August-September 1946, when Stalin’s regime adopted "anti-
4
cosmopolitan" resolution "On the magazines "Zvezda" and "Leningrad", "On the repertoire of
theaters and measures for improvement" and "On the use and discharge Foreign Literature").
General socio-cultural, political and ideological context of the second half of the 1940s:
- the restoration of the war-torn Russian economy through the exertion of all human
resources;
- the rapid development of military industry, nuclear development;
- the establishment of totalitarian regimes (completely dependent on the Kremlin) in almost
all the countries of Eastern Europe;
- a return to the practice of mass repression (the struggle against cosmopolitanism, anti-
Semitic campaign, etc.).
Discussion
I agree with Russian philosopher and political scientist D.P. Konchalovsky, who come to the
conclusion that Russia in the 1930s - 1940s, has turned "in hierarchically structured society
absolutist police-type class division, hierarchical bureaucracy, strict discipline, lack of freedom and
personal rights. As if stricken 19th century. Return to the 18th and even the 17th century. This is
the essence. But apparently, this regime, for the sake of the era and the recent habits, created and
supported in every possible way scenery of democracy and freedoms. It is necessary for both
internal and external use. To create this duality and contradiction have to befuddle, to confuse
people. Hence the propaganda reinforced at every turn (to prevent people to recover and to think
again), here the suppression of contact with people who saw the West, they neutralized as much as
possible, hence the "iron curtain" (Konchalovsky, 1969, p.24-25).
Undoubtedly, even in the era of peak "cold war" - as in the United States and the Soviet
Union - were the media texts with positive characters from the country of "potential enemy".
A positive foreign characters mostly appear in the Soviet film adaptations of literary classics, which
is set in the past (at least - until 1917). As for western characters of the second part of 1940s, they
met in the Soviet media texts if they are anti-imperialist, anti-bourgeois attitudes and actions, and
even better - direct support of communist ideas.
But, of course, most of the Soviet media texts on the theme of modern Western life in the
times of "cold war" was created with the aim of exposing and accusations of imperialism and the
bourgeois world.
In this respect, it is very interesting of real events on both sides of the "Iron Curtain." Yes, we
can agree with that the atmosphere of mutual suspicion, rudeness, cynicism, fear, complicity and
disunity in last years of Stalinism completely displaced from the domestic themes, could be realized
only in the construction of the "enemy image (Turovskaya, 1996, p.106). But, alas, a very similar
atmosphere, in spite of all the American democratic tradition, there was in the process of "witch
hunt", launched at about the same years of Senator George McCarthy in relation to many of the
Hollywood director and screenwriter, accused of sympathizing with communism and the Soviet
Union.
At the same time these two mutually hostile media trends are similar version where the true
facts (in varying degrees) combined with ideological and aesthetic falsification.
I confidently assert that the Western enemy media image was formed in the Soviet Union (as,
indeed, the image of the Soviet enemy in the Western media texts aimed against the USSR) back in
1920s-1930s and later operated effectively for many decades: the vast majority of it was the image
of the aggressor / aggressor alien / spy / criminal barbarian / degenerate, and if intellectual, then
again, hostile, spiteful and cruel.
In addition, the external threat was "a convenient excuse for domestic problems and
contradictions in the socio-economic and political system, which could otherwise be seen as
evidence of the inhabitants of the Soviet Union its imperfections" (Fateev, 1999). It was typical for
the Stalinist socialism with the because “the dominance of a ruthless and all-consuming state”
(Konchalovsky, 1969, p.17).
In this context, the so-called Marshall Plan, developed in 1947 by US Secretary of State James
Marshall, was treated by Soviet propaganda as a threat to the socialist camp. The Marshall Plan
worked in Western Europe (Britain, France, West Germany, Italy, the Netherlands) from 1948 to
1951 and became known to be one of the most effective economic projects to revive the war-torn
5
states. Of course, billions of dollars of investment in the development of Europe were associated
with the political conditions of the anti-communist orientation.
Hence it is clear that the Marshall Plan in the Soviet Union was perceived hostility and Soviet
media of late 1940s were awash with articles against this action.
Ideological propaganda of the Cold War could not circumvent and artistic sphere of life in the
USSR. So in addition to the decision of the Politburo of the Communist party "On the magazines
"Zvezda" and "Leningrad" (Decision ... 1946),"On the repertoire of theaters and measures to
improve them" (Decision ... 1946) the Resolution "On the opera "The Great Friendship" of
V. Muradeli" was published in February 1948. This Resolution accused the Soviet composers'
works in which “the most clearly presented formalist perversions, anti-democratic trends in music,
alien to the Soviet people and their artistic tastes. Characteristic features of this music is the denial
of the basic principles of classical music, preaching, atonality, dissonance and disharmony, which
are supposedly an expression of "progress" and "innovation" in the development of musical form,
the rejection of the essential foundations of a musical work, which is a melody, passion chaotic,
neuropathic combinations that turn music into cacophony, a chaotic jumble of sounds. This music
gives much the spirit of contemporary modernist bourgeois music of Europe and America
displaying insanity of bourgeois culture, a complete negation of the musical art, its dead end”
(Decision ... 1948).
Moreover, in April-May 1949, the Soviet Union developed a special "Action Plan to
strengthen the anti-American propaganda in the near future," provides for "the systematic printing
materials, articles, pamphlets exposing the aggressive plans of US imperialism, anti-national
character of the social and political system of the United States, debunks the fable of American
propaganda about the "prosperity" of America, showing the profound contradictions of the US
modern America" (The plan ... 1949).
Results
And it should be noted that all three of anti-Western cartoon, shot in 1949 - Ambulance,
Mr. Wolf and Alien Voice - fully meet the objectives of this plan.
The first of these was exposed perfidy of the Marshall Plan, the second - the greed and deceit
of the American bourgeoisie, and the third - noxiousness formalism and jazz music.
The term Cold War is closely related to such concepts as psychological war, ideological
struggle, political propaganda, ideological propaganda, propaganda (under the propaganda
I understand purposeful regular a media introduction into the mass consciousness of this or that
ideology to achieve a particular social effect planned) and the enemy image. According to the just
determination A.V. Fateev, "enemy image is an ideological expression of social antagonism,
dynamic character hostile to the state and the citizen forces, a policy tool of the ruling groups of the
society. ... The enemy image is a crucial element of psychological warfare, which is a deliberate
and planned use of propaganda by political opponents, among other means of pressure for the
direct or indirect influence on the opinions, moods, feelings and behavior of the enemy, allies and
their populations in order to force them to act in pleasing to the government directions"(Fateev,
1999).
In this sense, animated film Ambulance, Mr. Wolf and Alien Voice noticeable clear message
of propaganda aimed at convincing the audience that:
- The Marshall Plan is built on the evil designs of the US imperialists in the guise of
economic aid to rob and plunge into poverty population of the European countries (Ambulance);
- Even pretending for a while pacifist Western bourgeois sooner or later finds its aggressive,
greedy nature (Mr. Wolf );
- Imposed by the West and disharmonious cheeky "music of thick" (jazz, etc.) must be
uncompromisingly rejected the true connoisseurs of classical music, folk tunes and genuinely
(Alien Voice).
In general, the ideological and political context of world, depicted in the anti-Western Soviet
cartoons in 1949, can probably be described as follows.
Ideology and political context of world depicted in the anti-Western Soviet cartoons of the
Cold War times.
6
Ideology of the world represented in the media text: the imperialist bourgeois ideology, the
ideology of survival in the world of the wolf (Ambulance, Mr. Wolf), the ideology of the struggle for
traditional music against harmful foreign influences (Alien Voice).
The hierarchy of values of the world in the media text: wealth - power - fun, entertainment
(Ambulance, Mr. Wolf), enjoy of jazz melody (Alien voice).
The recipe of a success for the characters of the media text: to be aggressive imperialist,
greedy and deceitful bourgeois (Ambulance, Mr. Wolf), to be alover of discord and disharmony in
the music (Alien voice), to be able to survive in the world of the wolfs (Ambulance, Mr. Wolf).
Characters seek to achieve this success by any means available to them - false propaganda,
armed aggression, persistent implementation of the masses modernist music.
In general, these cartoons have stereotyped characters, but some characters may also have
individual characteristics (eg, Mr. Wolf first puts on the mask of a pacifist).
Cultural Context
As a product of mass / popular culture, Soviet 1949’s cartoons on the theme of confrontation
with the Western way of life relied on folklore and fairy sources, including traditional fabulous
presentation about wolves as a negative and evil beings, a hares like eternal victims of predatory
animals and so on. Thus, in the Ambulance and Alien voice folk-fabulous images of animals and
birds were transferred to Western and Soviet values representation, helping to strengthen the
image of the West as hostile and alien to the Soviet Union.
In particular, the Alien voice quite clearly resonates with the base of the era of the "cold war"
Soviet book with the eloquent title Music of spiritual poverty, which clearly states that "the task of
modern jazz is directly opposed to the tasks of the people's dance songs and music. It does not
excite strong, cheerful feelings, but rather dampens and suppresses them. It does not carry the
impetuous passion, but mesmerizing deathly cold of their mechanistic rhythms disastrous
monotony and scarcity of musical material. And even when its purpose - to act as a pathogen, it is
used only to stun the hysterical cries of" (Gorodinsky, 1950, p.81).
Genre modification: basically - satire.
The main dramatic stereotypes of media texts:
- The representatives of Western values invade in the peaceful world of positive characters
(Ambulance, Alien voice) in an attempt to deceive, entrap, rob, spoil the artistic taste; but - sooner
or later - positive characters realize deceit of these shares and begin to deal with them.
- Western bourgeois characters may at some time to pretend to be pacifists (Mr. Wolf) or
benefactors (Ambulance), however, their negative, bestial essence is found...
The modest appearance of positive characters; luxurious furnishings life of the Western
bourgeoisie. Western capitalists (Mr. Wolf) is shown with a significant share of grotesque.
Character Age: 50-60 years (Mr. Walk and his wife), the age of the characters, animals are
more difficult, but at least they are not old...
The appearance, clothes, physique: characters dressed according to social status, although
the poor bunny gets first of the new bourgeoisie expensive suit).
Appearance of a positive characters are usually attractive, the appearance of bourgeoisie and
their henchmen, by contrast, - repellen...
Social status, profession characters: social position for bourgeois characters and poor
characters (regardless - people or animals) is significantly different.
Marital status characters also depends on the specific plot of the media text.
Negative characters’ traits: greed, cruelty, meanness, dedication, hostility, cunning,
strength.
Positive characters’ traits: gullibility, naivety, the ability to resist bourgeois influence.
Bourgeois characters shown angry, rude and violent, with a primitive vocabulary, active
gestures and unpleasant tone of voice.
The positive characters, in contrast, has a pleasant voice (especially of the Nightingale from
Alien voice.
The whole character of all characters mentioned above is depicted by a dashed media texts,
without going into psychology.
7
Value orientations (ideological, religious, etc.) of characters: in all three "confrontational"

cartoons negative characters clearly manifested bourgeois, imperialist, modernist values, coupled
with a focus on violence as a means of solving problems. Values of positive characters are similar to
the "traditional folk".
The actions of the character, his methods of conflict resolution: the actions dictated by the
development of the characters mentioned above storylines stereotypical media texts.
encountered, solutions to the problem.
Negative characters interrupted of ordinary life of positive characters. A problem: the life
(Ambulance), or artistic values (Alien voice) of positive characters are threatened. And there's only
one way to solve it – the struggle with negative characters, their foreign influence.
Conclusion
So, I tried to specific examples make hermeneutic analysis - a study of the process of
author on the media text. Hermeneutical analysis suggests media text comprehension through
texts’ characters. As a result, I concluded that the era of the Cold War, which spawned mutual
ideological confrontation of the communist and capitalist countries, covering all categories of
media texts, including animation / cartoon. Cartoons were used as levers of power required reports
confrontational ideas in attractive folklore, fairy package in order to influence not only adults but
also on children's audience.
Filmography:
1. Mr. Wolf. USSR, 1949. Directed by V. Gromov. Writers: V. Dlugach, S. Romanov (author
of the play "Island of Peace" – E. Petrov). Operator M. Drujan. Composer Y. Levitin.
2. Ambulance. USSR, 1949. Directed by L. Bredis. Screenwriter A. Medvedkin. Operator
E. Petrova. Composer N. Peyko.
3. Alien voice. USSR, 1949. Directed by I. Ivanov-Vano. Writers: D. Tarasov, M. Kalinin.
Operator N. Voinov. Composer Y. Nikolsky.
References:
432 p.
3. Eco, U. (2005). The role of the reader. Research on the semiotics of the text.
St. Petersburg: Symposium, 502 p.
4. Fateev, A. (1999). The image of the enemy in Soviet propaganda, 1945-1954. Moscow:
Publishing House of the Russian Academy of Sciences.
6. Gorodinsky, V. (1950). Music of spiritual poverty. Moscow: Muzgiz, 139 p.
7. Konchalovsky, D.P. (1969). Ways of Russia. Paris: YMCA-PRESS, 1969. 261 p.
8. Resolution of the Central Committee of the Communist Party "On the magazines
"Zvezda" and "Leningrad". Moscow, 1946, August, 14.
9. Resolution of the Central Committee of the Communist Party "On the repertoire of
theaters and measures to improve it." Moscow, 1946, August 26.
10. Resolution of the Politburo of the Communist Party "On the opera "The Great
Friendship" of V. Muradeli." Moscow, 1948, February, 10.
11. The Action Plan to strengthen the anti-American propaganda in the near future.
Moscow, 1949. RCHIDNI. File 17-132-224, pp. 48-52.
12. Turovskaya, M.I. (1996). Movies of Cold War // Art of Cinema. 1996. № 9, pp. 98-106.
8
УДК 316
Советские анимационные медиатексты во времена холодной войны:

герменевтический анализ

Аннотация. Автор этой статьи использует герменевтический анализ – исследование

вид на агентство / автора медиатекста. Этот анализ предусматривает анализ через сравнение
с исторической, культурной традицией и реальностью; проникновение в логику
медиатекста; анализ аудиовизуального ряда медиатекста в историческом и культурном
контексте, сочетая структурной, этический, идеологический, иконографический,
семиотический анализ. В результате, автор приходит к выводу, что эпоха холодной войны,
которая породила взаимную идеологическое противостояние коммунистических и
капиталистических стран, охватывало все категории медиатекстов, в том числе
анимационных / мультипликационных. Мультфильмы были использованы в качестве
рычагов власти для пропаганды конфронтационных идей в привлекательной фольклорной,
сказочной упаковке, для того, чтобы влиять не только взрослую, но и на детскую аудиторию.
Ключевые слова: медиаграмотность, мультфильмы, медиаобразование, анимация,
холодная война, идеология, медиатексты, холодная война.
9
Journal of Advocacy, Research and Education, 2014, Vol.(1), Is. 1
Copyright © 2014 by KAD International

Published in the Ghana
http://kadint.net/our-journal.html
Positive Image of the USSR and Soviet Characters

in American Films in 1943–1945
Alexander Fedorov
Rostov State University of Economics, Russian Federation

Abstract
In the article the author performs a hermeneutic analysis of cultural context, i.e. investigation
of media texts interpretation, cultural and historical factors influencing the views of the agency /
author of a media text and the audience, on specific examples of positive image of the USSR and
soviet characters in American films in 1943-1945. The author bears in mind that the hermeneutic
analysis of a media text comprehension involves a comparison with a historical, cultural tradition
and reality; insight into its logic; comparison of media images in historical and cultural contexts
combined with the historical, hermeneutical analyses of the structural, plot, ethical, ideological and
iconographic / visual analyses of media stereotypes and media text characters. The analysis of
these media texts, in the author's opinion, is especially important for media education of future
historians, culture experts, art critics, social scientists, philologists, psychologists and teachers.
Keywords: Russian Image; Film Studies; Media Text; Hermeneutic Analysis; Russia; USA;
Media Education; Media Literacy; Media Competence; Movie.
Introduction
In one of my previous books [Fedorov, 2010] I analysed a rather adverse image of the USSR
on the western screen in the epoch of ideological confrontation (1946-1991). However there was a
short period in the history of Soviet-American relations, when the image of the Soviet country and
its citizens on the American screen was positively charged: 1943-1945, the time when Americans
and Russian were allies in the WWII.

During that period of time 7 feature films (and several documentaries as well) were produced
in the USA, which main characters were "good" Soviets: Mission to Moscow (1943), The boy from
Stalingrad (1943), North Star (1943), Three Russian Girls (1943), Song of Russia (1944), Days of
Glory (1944), Counter-Attack (1945). Meanwhile majority of these films were directed by
prominent directors, an Oscar winner, the author of a legendary Casablanca (1942) Michael Curtiz
(1988-1962) and the author of the drama All Quiet on the Western Front (1930) Lewis Milestone
(1895-1980) among them. Moreover, such Hollywood actors as R. Taylor and G. Peck starred in
some of them. Soviet cinema only answered this unprecedented "film-goodwill" gesture with
documentary films, positively evaluating American and British participation in the fight against
Nazi Germany. Feature cinema industry of the USSR didn't take part in that, due to the inevitable
need of presenting the lifestyle in allied countries.
The first step in the series of oversees allied friendship was Mission to Moscow, premiered in
the USA at the end of April, and in the USSR - on the 26th of July of 1943. The only European
country that ventured to screen this pro-Soviet film in the war years, was neutral Sweden, where in
November and December of 1944 (when the outcome of the war was already clear) were screened
two American films about the USSR - Mission to Moscow and Days of Glory.
33
Mission to Moscow was somewhat an order of the state, a screen adaptation of the book by
an ex-ambassador to the USSR (1936-1938) Joseph E. Davies. However while the book was rather
positive about presenting events in the USSR and Stalin's policy on the whole, its screen version
was only concentrated on the rosy view of the Soviet lifestyle. Not only were the Soviet
achievements in industry and agriculture, but also ―demonstrative‖ lawsuits against enemies of the
state shown in Mission to Moscow in a really advantageous way for Kremlin. The screen features a
bright, prosperous Moscow. The film also justifies the USSR's attack against Finland in 1939, as
well as the August 1939 Pact between Germany and the USSR.
This is why of all pro-Soviet Hollywood films it was Mission to Moscow that was honoured to
be shown on Soviet screens. It is worth noting that later on it was for such a clear positive support
of the Soviet regime that the authors of the film were accused of during the 1947 House Un-
American Activities Committee, investigating anti-American activity.
Meanwhile the authors of Mission to Moscow flattered the Soviet authority. The minister of
foreign affairs M. Litvinov proves his point to the American ambassador Joseph E. Davies that
"there is no security for any of us as long as there is no security for all". M. Kalinin jokingly
mentions that "his favourite sin is American cigarettes". V. Molotov, Marshal Timoshenko and
prosecutor Vyshinsky are portrayed favourable as well. J. Davies in one of the final episodes of the
film calls Stalin as "the great builder for the benefit of mankind"...
A considerable part of the screen time is dedicated to the travel of J. Davies across the USSR:
Kharkiv, Odessa, Donbas, Dneproges, Baku..."Tractors, coal, electricity, steel, amazing,
astonishing, wonderful!" Mr. Davies is speechless. "I can't find another example in the history of
mankind, when so much was done in such a short period of time", - Davies says to Molotov. "What
great people! Patriots! And women! They work in the mines - because they have equal rights with
men, they drive trains, assemble tractors. The work is humming, tractors are being assembled, but
in case of the war, in case of the military actions, the same plant will produce tanks. Amazing,
astonishing, wonderful! " [Lemkhin, 2012].
Inherently, Mission to Moscow was a kind of a diplomatic tool for the USA, the tool that was
supposed to bribe a military ally.
Certainly, the screening of Mission to Moscow (which by the way was a box-office failure in
the USA) raised not only favourable reviews but also critical ones in American press. Bennet
[Bennet, 2001] cites numerous opinions of that kind.
On the other hand, judging by the reviews in Soviet papers such as Komsomolskaya Pravda,
Vechernyaya Moskva, Izvestia, this film was an act of friendly gratitude of the USA to the Soviet
Union and Red Army.
However for American policy the fact that by demonstrating a high standard of living in the
USA, "Hollywood started to compete with the communist party for hearts and minds of the Soviet
audience... Mission to Moscow became a weapon of "soft power", its public release opened the way
to previously banned in the Soviet Union legions of Hollywood films" [Bennet, 2001].
Another pro-Soviet Hollywood film of 1943 was The North Star (it was shown in Sweden in
March 1945). June 1941. A quiet Soviet village is attached by Nazi aviation. Soon it is occupied by
its army. A Nazi doctor (played by legendary Erich Oswald Stroheim) decided to use local children
for blood transfusion for German soldiers. But Soviet men able to hold weapon in hands, become
partisans and do everything to hinder him.
Indeed, a rural life is depicted on the screen in a grotesque way, but on the whole the story is
told with a great deal of compassion and sympathy for the USSR and Soviet people. Therefore, no
wonder that after the end of the war, both Mission to Moscow and The North Star were declared as
pro-Soviet propaganda by the House Un-American Activities Committee.
A sympathetic pathos was characteristic of the film The Boy from Stalingrad (1943) where
country teenagers start the fight against occupants, along the way saving Tommy, the son of the
British consul, who lost his parents during the evacuation attempt from Stalingrad, attacked by the
Nazis.
The main stake of the pro-Soviet Hollywood in 1944 was a melodrama Song of Russia. The
leading male role of an American band-master was played by a famous American actor Robert
Taylor (1911-1969) who had to explain himself and find excuses for this work in front of the same
Committee after the war.
34
This film turned out to be a fatal one for him. According to the plot, Taylor's character comes
to Moscow on tour in 1941 and falls in love with a pretty Russian girl Nadya, a talented country
pianist. As it sometimes happens on film sets, Taylor (who was married to an American star
Barbara Stanwyck at the time) really had an affair with a charming actress who played Nadya -
Susan Peters (1921-1952). However unlike the film characters, actors didn't reach the happy
ending: not being able to divorce, Taylor went to serve in the army. S. Peters married another man,
in 1945 was wounded accidentally during the hunting, paralyzed and died in 1952.
Like Mission to Moscow and The North Star, Song of Russia was also full of grotesque
idealization of life in the USSR. Having graduated from the country music school, Nadya comes to
Moscow to see the concert of an American conductor, and impresses him with her piano
performance. Everyone in her village is keen on classical music! Mikhail Chekhov who played
Nadya's father, a tractor driver and a musician, did not manage to make this melodramatic popular
print more realistic...
In a very favorable to the USSR melodrama Days of Glory (1944) the leading male role was
played by a Hollywood star Gregory Peck (1916-2003). His brave character is the leader of
partisans. He hides in the woods and commits acts of sabotage against Nazis. Naturally all women
partisans, one played by a Russian ballet dancer Tamara Tumanova, were in love with such a
handsome and courageous man.
Almost on the eve of the Nazi's Germany defeat – in the end of April, 1945- American screens
featured another pro-Soviet film – a drama Counter-Attack, where Soviet and Nazi soldiers find
themselves in one vault.
Conclusion
Accessibility of the majority of the above mentioned films due to their DVD and Internet
releases, makes it possible to analyse media stereotypes of the positive image of the USSR and
Soviet characters in American films of 1943-1945 at the media literacy classes with students
according to the following scheme.
Structure of the stereotypes of the positive image of the USSR and Soviet characters in
American films of 1943-1945
Structure of the stereotypes of drama genre films (as exemplified in Mission to Moscow, the
USA, 1943)
Historical period, location: relatively short period of time between the 1930s-1940s; the
USSR, the USA, Germany, some other countries.
Environment, everyday objects: impressive Soviet plants and electrical stations, war parades
and diplomatic receptions, rather decent houses and possessions of Soviet characters, comfortable
housing and possessions of western characters.
Means of representation: quasi-realistic, only advantageous portrayal of Soviet lifestyle.
Characters, their values, ideas; clothes, appearance, lexis, body language:
- good characters - Americans who believe in democracy, and find themselves in the USSR
(the Ambassador and his family in the first place), Soviet state leaders (Stalin, Kalinin, Molotov)
and common Russian people, aimed at creating the new society, patriotism and struggle for peace.
They look nice, speak with pathos, Soviet women look pretty, they are well-dressed and even go
shopping for perfume;
- villains - have anti-humane, military ideas (Nazis), traitors and terrorists (arrested Trotsky's
supporters and other enemies of Stalin regime).
The characters are divided by both social and material status. Villains are on the whole
portrayed as unpleasant people with appalling voice timbre. However some of the Soviet negative
characters (for example, Tukhachevsky) at first look rather presentably.
A crucial change in characters' life: villains are going to implement their anti-humane ideas
(Nazis are preparing to attack the USSR, and oppositionists - Trotsky's supporters are plotting a
scheme).
A problem occurred: life of good characters as well as life of whole nations and countries are
in danger.
Searching for the problem solution: struggle of good characters with bad ones (American
ambassador and good Soviet state leaders are doing their best to prevent the war by diplomatic
means; open for foreign visitors Soviet court convicts Trotsky's followers and other plotters).
35
Solving the problem: condemning villains; armed struggle of the USSR troops against Nazi
army; anti-Nazi alliance between the USSR and the USA.
Structure of stereotypes of melodrama genre films
(as exemplified in Song of Russia, the USA, 1944)
Historical period, location: short period of time between the 1941 and 1944; the USSR, the
USA.
Environment, everyday objects: modest but decent dwelling and possessions of Soviet
characters, even rural ones (although the set where the main female character lives looks rather
unusual for the Russian eye as it contains elements of American architecture); spacious concert
halls.
Means of representation: quasi-realistic, only favourable view of Soviet lifestyle.
Characters, their values, ideas; clothes, appearance, lexis, body language: male and female
characters have contrasting ideological and social status. He is a famous American conductor. She
is a beautiful country girl, brilliantly playing the piano. All characters in the film are only shown in
positive light. Main characters look slim, attractive, they're dressed in good taste. They are
emotional, their gestures are sometimes expressive, lexicon is rich.
A crucial change in characters' life: the meeting of the man and the woman, love between
them.
A problem occurred: ideological and social misalliance, start of the war, temporary
separation of characters.
Searching for the problem solution: characters overcome ideological and social barriers
between them.
Solving the problem: the wedding/love harmony (noticeably, the two main characters are
getting married in Russian orthodox church), the final reunion after the separation, caused by the
war, mutual decision to move to the USA in order to give concerts together, performing Russian
classical music.
Structure of the stereotypes of comedy genre films (as exemplified in Three Russian Girls,
the USA, 1943)
Historical period, location: short period of time from 1941 to 1943; the USSR.
Environment, everyday objects: modest housing and possessions of Soviet characters, war
hospital, located in an old mansion.
Means of representation: quasi-realistic, only positive portrayal of Soviet lifestyle.
Characters, their values, ideas; clothes, appearance, lexis, body language: American pilot
who voluntary decided to go to the USSR during the war and Soviet citizens with contrasting
ideology and social status. All characters are portrayed in a favourable light. Main characters look
attractive, especially girls. Their clothes are tasteful. They're optimistic, patriotic, emotional,
sometimes expressive gestures, facial expressions and lexis.
A crucial change in characters' life: American pilot John, wounded in battle with Nazis, finds
himself in a Soviet hospital, and naturally, falls in love with the beautiful Natasha.
A problem occurred: culture shock, mutual misunderstanding, German troops' attack threat.
Searching for the problem solution: after a series of funny/eccentric situations characters
overcome communication and understanding barriers.
Solving the problem: love harmony.
Certainly, the cold war of the second half of the 1940s-1950s crucially changed the
orientation of the western screen towards the USSR. However even in 1948 thriller Berlin express
the Soviet officer was shown rather with compassion than with suspicion.
A true mass western film attack against the USSR was yet to come...
References:
1. Bennett, T. (2001). Culture, Power, and Mission to Moscow: Film and Soviet-American
Relations during World War II. The Journal of American History, Vol. 88, No. 2, p.495-505.
2. Fedorov, A. (2010). Transformation of the Russian image on the western screen: from
ideological confrontation (1946-1991) to modern stage (1992-2010). Moscow: Information for All,
2010. 202 p.
3. Lemkhin, M. (2012). Mission to Moscow. www.kinopressa.ru
36

ISSN 1339-6773
E-ISSN 1339-875X
Cultivation Analysis of the Functioning of Media in Society and Media Texts

on Media Education Classes in the Student Audience
Alexander Fedorov

Abstract
Cultivation Analysis is the analysis of media content with support for research and study
socio-cultural context of the media. Hence the cultivation analysis can be represented as
a) technology techniques to create conditions in order to make it easier to identify the audience
(consciously or unconsciously) their views, expectations and values; b) a study of "deep interview"
on demographic and psychological motives for choosing a particular respondent; c) the study of
periodic surveys of media audiences. Cultivation analysis of media texts associated with the socio-
cultural theory of media (Social and Cultural Approach), the theoretical framework which is based
on two components - culture and sociology.
This article presented the main directions for Cultivation Analysis on media literacy
associated with this type of the analysis in the context of media literacy education problems, ie
based on six key concepts of media literacy education: agency, category, language, technology,
audience, representation. The author supposes that the Cultivation Analysis of media texts on
media literacy education classes can significantly develop media competence of students, including
critical thinking.
Keywords: cultivation analysis, media, media texts, media education, media literacy, media
Introduction
Cultivation Analysis is the analysis of media content with support for research and study
socio-cultural context of the media. Hence the cultivation analysis can be represented as
a) technology techniques to create conditions in order to make it easier to identify the audience
(consciously or unconsciously) their views, expectations and values; b) a study of "deep interview"
on demographic and psychological motives for choosing a particular respondent; c) the study of
periodic surveys of media audiences.
Cultivation analysis of media texts associated with the socio-cultural theory of media (Social
and Cultural Approach), the theoretical framework which is based on two components - culture
(the need for education as a result of the development of media culture) and sociological (as a
result of awareness of the importance of pedagogy in the social role of the media).
The main provisions of the sociocultural theory of media (for A.V. Sharikov) can be
represented as follows: 1) the development of the media naturally leads to the need for the
emergence special vocational training in each new field related to the appearance of new media;
2) the professionals, teachers of special media lessons need to educate the wider community
language media; 3) This tendency is reinforced by the fact that the public is aware of increasingly
strong influence of media on their lives, giving rise to understanding the role of social media and,
as a consequence, urges media educators in further development of media education process.
It should be noted that a genuine interest in the concept of audience in media education
appeared only in the middle of the XX century. Before many supporters of protectionist injection
133
(inoculatory approach) of media literacy education, in general, thought that the media has a direct
impact on the behavior and attitudes supposedly homogeneous audience, and other media
educators rashly believed that the problems audience are the problems of sociology and
psychology, but not a topic for training sessions on media material.
Audience, even the same age, differentiated interest and level of preparedness for any
activity. Here play the role of factors such as heredity, macro / micro environment, previous
experience of education and training. Therefore, the perception and the critical analysis of the
same media text for students of the same study group as homogeneous. In addition, practical
experience shows that in many cases, the audience tends to conform perception and evaluation of
media texts. Hence the process of perception of the same media text alone, in the company of their
peers, with their parents in the educational institution with a teacher may cause different reactions
in the same students. That is why the technique works with the key concept of "audience" under
cultivation analysis assumes it to start the lessons with a discussion of such situations.
Recommended as collective discussion about students‘ media works - amateur photos, videos,
posters, newspapers, etc.
Progress in mastering the material associated with the concept of "audience", will appear
when the students will gain the ability to discuss the range and diversity of audience reactions, as
well as related issues of taste, compliance, laws and codes of practice, censorship and legal issues.
All this can be investigated by means of practical and critical work. At a more advanced level,
students can study the theory on the effects of media on the audience, as well as how the audience
accepts or rejects discusses everything that spread media agency. The study of audience helps
students to carefully consider the assumptions about the impact of the media, which is usually
characteristic of the public debate. Studying the experience of their own perceptions and create
other texts, they must acquire the ability to be more confident to explore and develop their own
values and attitudes [BFI, 1995, c.41].
For cultivation analysis of media texts is also important to examine crucial concept of
representation. Cutural Studies Approach in media literacy education suggests that different media
texts correspond to reality, but they are not a mirror image of it, and create their own version of
virtual reality. A study of the concept of representation is in close connection with such concepts as
agency, audience, media language, category and technology, as at every level production
solutions agency must be selected to include or exclude material in connection with the category
and technology. Each of these aspects affect the representation of a media text.
Stand out from the process of this scheme relations media text, reality and its representation
in the media studies, students analyze the following questions: What is decided by the Agency in
connection with the ratio of the real world and the media text?, Which opinion comes the
audience about the relationship of the real world and media texts ?
Thus, the problem of the representation of reality are considered by the agency and its
interpretation by the audience.

Of particular interest is a group of methods aimed at the development of creative and critical
thinking of the audience in the process of cultivation analysis of media texts. For example,
workshops on creating media texts (drawing on the concept of agency, category, language,
technology, audience, representation), problem analysis of media content (relying on the concept
of category, language, technology), the study of problematic situations related to production
(agency et al.), distribution and perception (audience, representation), modeling a situation or
process (agency, technology, audience et al.) using, for example, a role-playing game and so forth
[BFI, 1990; Zaznobina, 1999; Fedorov, 2004, pp.43-51; Siberblatt, 2001; 2014; Potter, 2014].
Literary-cycle simulation creative tasks that contribute to the cultivation analysis in the
Media agencies:
- to compose a text "depth interviews" (assuming that these interviews are necessary media
agencies to make their products more competitive in the market) on demographic and
psychological reasons for selecting a particular respondent media.
134
- to compose a list and description of the possible methods of creating the conditions to make
it easier to identify the audience (consciously or unconsciously) their views, expectations and
values with respect to different types of media and genres.
Media technologies:
- to compose a list and description of the possible methods of creating the conditions to make
it easier to identify the audience (consciously or unconsciously) their views, expectations and
values on the various media technologies.
Media languages:
- to compose the interview aimed at figuring out how the audience perceives a certain age,
especially the use of language in the media texts of different types and genres.
- to compose a plan of sociological study aimed at finding out how the audience perceives a
certain age, analyzes various media representation.
Media audiences:
- to compose a monologues ("letters" in the editorial offices of newspapers and magazines, on
television, in the Ministry of Culture, etc.) with various representatives of the audience age, social,
professional, educational, and other data at different levels of media insight (primary
identification, secondary identification, complex identification, according to the orientation on
entertainment, recreational, compensatory, and other functions of media culture, etc.).
Cycle theatrical role games that contribute to the cultivation analysis of media texts:
Media agencies:
- role game on the search of sponsors for media project;
- role game on the advertising campaign of media texts.
- role game on an oral interview with the different types of audiences about media texts of
different types and genres.
Media technologies:
- role game on oral interviews with different visual technologies.
Media languages:
- role game on oral interview about the features of the media language with representatives of
the different types of audiences.
- role game on sociological research aimed at finding out how the audience perceives a
certain age, analyzes various media representation;
- role game on "international meeting of media critics" is that condemn various aspects
related to the cultivation of media texts, etc.
Media audiences:
- role game on monologues and dialogues with representatives of the audience different age,
social, professional, educational, and other data at different levels of media insight (primary
entertainment, recreational, compensatory, and other functions of media culture, etc.);
- role game on the subject of objective and subjective conditions of media insight, etc.
- role game on the various options for installing the perception.
Carrying out these activities based on the role games, theatrical sketches related to the same
concepts and issues, and that at the stage of literary and simulation exercises. Both phases are
mutually complementary, develop different sides of the audiences‘ media competence.
Playing theatrical sketches on the theme of different installation options, students can
simulate their perception with noisy behavior, stressful situations, received before contact with the
media texts (a big win in the lottery, expulsion from school, etc.), dialogues, debates several
representatives of different types of perception.
In general, the whole complex of this kind of training prepares the audience for the next stage
- the cultivation analysis of media texts.
Cycle of literary and analytical creative tasks that contribute cultivation analysis in the
135
Media agencies:
- to study of a situation related to the closure or prohibition of a source media (newspaper,
magazine, transfer, film), a political media campaign for / against this or that politician.
- to analyze a results of the oral interviews of media texts of different types and genres with
the different types of audiences.
Media technologies:
- to analyze a results of oral interviews of different technologies to create media texts with
various types of audiences.
Media languages:
- to analyze a results of the oral interviews about the features of the media language with
representatives of the different types of audiences.
- to analyze a particular episode of a media text, including the rationale for actions and words
of characters, pictorial series, etc.
Media audiences:
- to analyze a periodic surveys of media audiences, conducted by various sociologists;
- to compose a profile for a sociological survey on the topic of media, media texts for
audiences of a certain age. Justify the choice and sequence of questions of the questionnaire.
Conduct surveys, processing the results and draw conclusions;
- describe of a main features of the best (worst) perception of a particular media text;
- describe of a best (worst) objective (environment while watching, etc.) and subjective
(mood, individual physiological data, etc.) conditions for media reception;
- on a specific example of a media text to try to discover the essence of the mechanism of
"emotional pendulum" (alternation of episodes that cause positive (happy) and negative (shock,
sad) emotions of the audience, that is, relying on psycho-physiological side of perception);
- by list of the most popular media texts to try to explain the reasons for their success
(reliance on myth, folklore, entertainment genre, the system of "emotional swings," the presence of
entertainment, recreational, compensatory, and other functions, a happy ending, the author's
intuition, and so on);
- by advertising abstract (rollers) to predict success with audiences of new media texts;
- comparison of several points of view (eg, professional journalists, art historians) about the
events reflected in the messages and of the media texts;
- to rank of a media texts for its social significance.
Naturally, all the above work collectively discussed are compared.
As a worst case of the installation for media reception audience can note the complete
absence of preliminary information, or, conversely too detailed introductory teacher‘s speech, etc.
Among the best facilities on the perception may be called tactful, short time (up to ten
minutes) information about the creative way the authors of media texts, its genre, on the creation
of a particular product, without prior analysis of its advantages and disadvantages.
Speaking about the conditions of media insight, students can apply to their own spectator
experience, noting how much disturbed perception of unethical behavior when part of the audience
in the cinema, Internet cafe (loud noises, noise, rowdy antics, etc.), with a gloomy, depressed
spectator, etc.
A creative tasks aimed at changing the various components of the media text have an
important role in shaping the skills of perception and subsequent analysis of media texts. Students
discuss about the various options for the names of media texts, making sure at the same time as
significantly changed the perception of the same stories, solved in a particular genre. Changing in
media texts time and place of the action, a genre, composition, students can show their creativity,
imagination.
The purpose of the creative task, designed for students disclosure essence of the mechanism
of so-called "emotional pendulum" (alternating episodes, causing positive and negative emotions of
the audience): to convince the audience that the emotional impact is natural for a media text, as
well as for works of art, using psycho-physiological level of influence on audience, based on an
appeal to the feelings of the person. Any art affects for the reader, viewer or listener is not only
intellectually, but also emotionally. It is important that students understand that the so-called
136
"strong impression", sometimes they receive, for example, from the works of mass (popular)
culture, depends not on the high artistic quality, but also on sensual area.
As a result, students develop cognitive interests, fantasy, imagination, associative, creative,
critical, individual thinking, media competence.
The cycle of creative activities designed to develop skills in the audience cultivation analysis
of media texts in the process of collective discussions, debates held in the form of heuristic: the
audience is invited to several false and true judgments concerning the role of media in society and
specific media texts, which greatly facilitates the students to analytical problems.
So the audience offered:
- true and false interpretations of the meaning of a particular episode of a media text;
- true and incorrect versions of the author's conception, reveals in a particular media text, etc.
Performing creative tasks relating to the cultivation analysis, student Oksana L. (in her plan
of sociological research media preferences of students 10-12 years) suggested use of surveillance
techniques, testing, interviews. Questions that can be asked students during sociological research,
according to Oksana L., are as follows: How often do you watch TV? What TV shows, movies do
you like more? What movie / cartoon character do you like? Arises whether you have the desire to
imitate them in your life? If so, how it acts?
In terms of sociological research student Julia S. was scheduled to figuring out how much
time students spent on contacts with the media (in the month, week, day), identifying the
motivation of such contacts, levels of perception, analysis of media texts. Julia S. also considered it
important to find out whether students imitate media characters (and how exactly?).
Performing a creative task, the student Alex C. developed questions for the interview (for the
audience 30-50 years) on the subject of the analysis of a popular television talk show (How do you
feel about the transfer, leading to her (demeanor, appearance)? What are the themes you might
to propose for discussion in the framework of the TV? What kind of people you would like to see
the members of this TV show? Why these people? What would you like to change in this
program?).
Questions aimed at developing skills in the audience cultivation analysis of media texts
[Silverblatt, 2001, pp.42-43; 2014; Buckingham, 2003, pp.54-60; Fedorov, 2004, pp.43-51;
Fedorov, 2006, pp.175-228; Potter, 2014]:
Media agencies:
Who is responsible for creating media texts?
Who is the owner of the companies that produce, buy and sell media / media texts? As a
media agency makes a profit?
What are the socio-cultural characteristics of various agencies?
How these characteristics affect the content and prospects of production of media texts?
What is the path of the media text - from the author's intention to the audience?
The agency determines the audience for a media text? Which can be considered as the target
audience? Whether the agency "create" your audience?
Who and why advertising has created this media text?
As agencies sell similar media products in a competitive environment?
What is the purpose of creation and distribution of media texts?
Which of the functions of media culture is dominant in a particular media text?
Does media agency you to think or behave in a specific way as a result of information?
Who regulates the production and distribution of media texts? Are there laws governing this,
and how effective are they?
What are the distinctive characteristics of the media?
To what extent does the media affect the choice of: a) a communication strategy?
b) communication style? c) the maintenance of communication?
What is the difference between the game (fictional) and documentary media texts?
Is there any other ways of classifying media texts, except genre? If so, what?
Media technologies:
Can technologies used in media texts, affect its successful promotion of the consumer
market?
137
Media languages:
As media use different forms of language to convey ideas or values? How is the use of
language becomes clear and generally accepted?
What are the effects of choosing certain forms of language media?
What nations are represented in media texts? Which are excluded or poorly represented?
How the media represent certain social groups? Whether these views are accurate?
Do media texts in a specific world view? Do moral or political values?
Who sympathizes with the author of a media text? He gives the audience understand it? Why
did you make such a conclusion?
As a media text characters express their views on life, ideas?
Say whether the actions of the character of a media text (in some circumstances) about his
character? Describes whether the situation of people, usually living in it? If so, how and why?
As the authors of media texts can show that their character has changed?
What are the key episodes of the media text? Why do you think their key?
Could this story be completed before? What would change if our media reception? What is
the importance of real-finals media text?
Do the media texts hidden subtexts false information?
What is the meaning of the name of a media text?
Media audiences:
If you are asked to select multiple media texts to illustrate the thesis of their impact on the
audience, media texts which would you choose? Why these media texts?
How the audience receives information about a media text? The audience will know that
there is in the media market?
What values, experiences and perspectives are taken audience? Whether these public values,
experiences, and perspectives on its understanding and interpretation of media texts?
As experiences and perspectives of individual member of the audience affect his / her
interpretation of the media text?
Do you understand the information embedded in the advertising of the media text? That
allows us to understand this information? What do you expect to find "inside" full media text? Why
do you want this? Did you get your expectations after reading the full media texts?
What are the causes of success with the audience the most famous recent media texts (genre,
theme, emotional swings system, reliance on mythology, a happy ending, the calculation of the
maximum coverage of the media preferences of the audience, etc.)?
What are the reasons for the lack of success of a particular mass media texts in the audience?
What abilities, skills a person needs to qualify to analyze media texts?
What is the typology of the media audience? Typical values for some media preferences can
be differentiated audience? What is the typology of perception and evaluation of media texts
audience?
audience?
What satisfaction (compensation) can to receive one or the other of the audience of a media
text?
Affect whether the media representation of the point of view of the audience about specific
social groups or issues?
Conclusions
This article presented the main directions for Cultivation Analysis on media literacy
audience, representation. The author supposes that the Cultivation Analysis of media texts on
138
critical thinking.
References:
1. BFI (1990). (British Film Institute). Film Education. Мoscow, 124 p.
3. Fedorov, A. (2003). Media Education and Media Literacy: Experts‘ Opinions. In:
№ 4, pp.43-51.
Innovation in Education. 2006. N 4, pp.175-228.
7. Sharikov, A.V. (1990). Media education: international and domestic experience.
Moscow: Publishing House of the Academy of Pedagogical Sciences, 66 p.
449 p.
10. Zaznobina, L.S. (1998). Standard media education, integrated with a variety of school
subjects // Standards and monitoring in education. 1998. N 3, pp. 26-34.
139

European Researcher
ISSN 2219-8229
E-ISSN 2224-0136
Vol. 94, Is. 5, pp. 381-388, 2015
DOI: 10.13187/er.2015.94.381
www.erjournal.ru
UDC 37
Cultural Mythology Analysis of Media texts

in the Classroom at the Student Audience
Alexander Fedorov

Abstract
The author of this article presents the cultural mythology analysis of media texts:
identification and analysis of mythologizing (including in the framework of the so-called folk
sources - fairy tales, urban legends, etc.) plot, those types of characters, etc. in media texts. In
particular, the audience (for example, students) offered by critical analysis to answer the question
why so many entertainment media texts so popular with a mass audience? The author thinks that
the media texts relating to the mass / popular culture, have success with the audience is not due to
the fact that they supposedly only target people with low aesthetic taste, subject to psychological
pressure, easy to believing the lie, etc., but because their authors respect and learning needs of the
audience, including - information, compensatory, hedonistic, recreational, moral, aesthetic, etc.
Keywords: cultural mythology analysis, media, media texts, media education, media
literacy, media competence, students.
Introduction
Cultural mythology analysis of media texts: identification and analysis of mythologizing
(including in the framework of the so-called folk sources - fairy tales, "urban legends", etc.) plot,
those types of characters, etc. in media texts. In particular, the audience (for example, students)
offered by critical analysis to answer the question why so many entertainment media texts so
popular with a mass audience?
Of course, the media texts relating to the mass / popular culture, have success with the
audience is not due to the fact that they supposedly only target people with low aesthetic taste,
subject to psychological pressure, easy to believing the lie, etc., but because their authors respect
and learning needs of the audience, including - information, compensatory, hedonistic,
recreational, moral, aesthetic, etc.
The development of modern society absolute inevitably leads to the formation of a special
type of mass culture – commercial, and this culture based on modern technologies of fundamental
381
human need for harmonization of the psychic life of the people [Razlogov, 1991, p.10], and mass
culture “stands today as a means of implementation is not so much hedonistic and recreational as
identification and adaptation strategies, consolidating the existing social hierarchy in society
through the symbolic significance of cultural consumption and contributing to the stabilization of
the social system through the construction of a special virtual reality"[Kostina, 2006, p.18].
At the same time, mass culture, is inconceivable without the media - a natural part of
contemporary culture as a whole, to which belongs the majority of all new in the world of media
texts. It can be regarded as an effective way to involve the masses of readers, listeners and viewers
in a variety of cultural processes; as a phenomenon that is born of the latest technology (primarily -
communication), a global integration and globalization (destruction of local communities, and the
erosion of regional and national borders, etc.).
Such a definition of the mass (popular) culture, in my opinion, logically fits into the context
of the functioning of the media - the systematic dissemination of information (via the media, print,
television, radio, film, sound / video, Internet) among the "numerically large, dispersed audiences
estimates, opinions and behavior of the people" [Philosopher Dictionary, 1983, p. 348].
However, the known and the approach that separates the mass and popular culture [Kostina,
2006, p.51]. In my opinion, this kind of word game. In my understanding of mass culture and pop
culture - synonyms, for which, indeed, may be "modern mythology with its undivided real and
ideal, with its appeal not to the knowledge, the faith, not to consciousness and the unconscious,
with its dissolution of the individual in the sphere of the collective unconscious, syncretic unity of
the individual and society that provides the necessary recreational potential. Hence - the thrust of
popular culture stereotypes, image, code of conduct, cliché characters associated with the
mythological structure of consciousness and gravitating to the archaic cultural layers"[Kostina,
2006, p.94].

V.Y. Propp [Propp, 1976; 1998], N.M. Zorkaya [Zorkaya, 1981; 1994] M.I. Turovskaya
[Turovskaya, 1979], O.F. Nechay [Nechay, 1993] M.V. Yampolsky [Yampolsky, 1987], and others
researchers have shown convincingly that for the total success of the works of mass culture needs
calculation of their creators on the type of folk aesthetic perception, and the "archetypes of fairy
tales and legends, and their respective archetypes folk perception, meeting, give the effect of the
integral mass success favorites" [Zorkaya, 1981, p.116].
The researchers have repeatedly noted the continuity of folklore, fairy tales, legends and
myths. For example, V. Propp was convinced that from a historical point of view, a fairy tale in
their morphological fundamentals represents a myth [Propp, 1998, p.68]. Moreover, the "fairy tale
and myth sometimes so completely may coincide with each other, in ethnography and folklore such
myths are often called fairy tales [Propp, 1998, p.124].
Indeed, the success of the audience is very closely associated with the mythological layer of
the product. "Strong" genres - thriller, fantasy, western - always based on "strong" myths
"[Yampolsky, 1987, p.41]. Unusual relationship, but "real" events - one of the basic archetypes
(based on underlying psychological structures that affect the conscious and subconscious) fairy
tales, legends, - is of great importance for the mass popularity of media texts.
In this context, A.Kostina suggests that "the subject of popular culture serves a special
professional group, create artifacts in accordance with the laws of social psychology and market
relations, the bearer of its values is the same person weight - undifferentiated entity with
unexpressed personal principle, which features an uncritical perception and assessments,
manageability, spiritual infantilism"[Kostina, 2006, p.19]. In my opinion, these arguments are
logical in the first part, relating to the creators of popular culture texts. The studies of media
sociologists and educators [Zorkaya, 1981; 1994; Turovskaya, 1979; Nechay, 1993; Fedorov, 2001,
and others] argue that the audience of mass culture differentiated, heterogeneous, divided into
different types, and in many cases it is impossible to speak about audience as a totally infantile,
manageable and uncritical.
Part of active consumers of mass / popular culture is very critical and meticulously monitors
implausible, in their view, fragments of (media) texts. Another part of the audience attaches special
importance to the moral evaluation of the position of the characters and authors. Third, the
382
audiences did not become "infantile" and "controlled" looking action-packed entertainment after a
hard day's work, easily separated from the world of entertainment media real life...
O.F. Nechay is very true for the essential feature of the mass (popular) culture - the
adaptation of folklore in the forms of society. That is, if the author's "text" ideal emerges through
reality (in the center of the plot - the hero-personality), in socio-critical "text" actions of the
characters, taken from the life around (common man), the mass culture are ideal norms in real
environment (in the center of the story - the super hero) [Nechay, 1993, p.11-13].
As an example, I have the focus on textual analysis by V. Propp, where he successfully
combined fairy tale’s plot and narrative (including the analysis of the characters, stereotypes,
cultural mythology), structural, semiotic, identification and content analysis.
Examining hundreds of fairy stories, V. Propp identified 31 types of major events and the
characters with a limited set of roles (seven key characters and seven key roles), between which are
distributed in a certain way the characters with their specific functions. Each of the seven actors /
roles (the hero, the false hero, the sender, the assistant, the antagonist / villain, the donor, the
princess or her father), has a range of actions, ie. one or more functions [Propp, 1998, p.24 -49].
Here are the result of textual analysis of events / functions in the fairy tale and mythological
stories:
I. A member of the family is away from home (definition: absence).
II. The hero has the ban (definition: ban).
III. The prohibition is violated (definition: a violation).
IV. Antagonist tries to spy (definition - scouting).
V. Antagonist gives a information about his victim (definition - information).
VI. Antagonist is trying to deceive their victims to take possession of it or its property
(definition - the catch).
VII. Victim amenable deception and unwittingly helping the enemy (definition - aiding).
VIII. Antagonist causes a family member harm or damage (definition - sabotage).
VIII-a. A family member something is missing, he wanted to have something (definition -
loss).
IX. Trouble or loss is reported to the hero is requested or orders, send or release him
(definition - mediation, the connection point).
X. Seeker agrees to, or decides to resistance (definition - starting resistance).
XI. The hero leaves home (definition - shipping).
XII. The hero is tested, to inquire, is attacked and so forth. Is being prepared than getting
them a magical agent or helper (definition - the first function of the donor).
XIII. Hero reacts to actions of future donor (definition - the reaction of the hero): 1) the hero
stands (not resistant) test; 2) the hero answers (not responding) to the greeting; 3) he has (has not)
service deceased; 4) it releases the captive; 5) He spares asking; 6) he commits section and
reconciles disputants; 7) Hero has some other service. Sometimes these services are requested,
sometimes they are caused by simple kindness hero; 8) character is saved from the attempt on his
life, using the tools of hostile creatures to himself; 9) Hero wins hostile creature; 10) The hero
agrees to exchange, but immediately applies the magic power.
XIV. In the order of the hero enters a magical agent (definition - supply, receipt of a magical
agent).
XV. Hero is transferred, delivered or given to another location (definition - spatial
displacement between the two kingdoms).
XVI. The hero and antagonist come into direct struggle (definition - wrestling).
XVII. Hero has the tag (definition - branding, mark).
XVIII. Antagonist is overcome (definition - a victory).
XIX. The initial trouble or shortage is eliminated (definition - the elimination of trouble or
shortage).
XX. Hero Returns (definition - return).
XXI. Hero persecuted (definition - the pursuit).
XXII. The hero is saved from prosecution (definition - salvation designation).
XXIII. Unrecognized hero arrives home or in another country (definition - unrecognized
arrival).
XXIV. False hero presents unfounded claims (definition - unfounded claims).
383
XXV. Hero offered a difficult task (definition - a difficult task).

XXVI. The problem is solved (definition - the decision).
XXVII. Heroes learn (definition - recognition).
XXVIII. False hero or antagonist is exposed (definition - conviction).
XXIX. The hero is given a new look (definition - transfiguration).
XXX. The enemy is punished (definition – punishment).
XXXI. Hero marries and reigns (definition - wedding).
V. Propp also proved pairing (binary) most of the events / functions subjects (shortage - the
elimination of shortages, ban - a violation of the ban, the fight - win, and so on.).
The "many functions logically combined by certain circles. These circles in general and
consistent performers. This community action" [Propp, 1998, p.60]:
1) circle of action of the antagonist / villain (sabotage, or other forms of battle combat hero,
prosecution);
2) circle of actions donor (preparation of transmission of a magical agent, supply the hero
magical means);
3) circle of actions Assistant (spatial movement of the hero, the elimination of trouble or
shortage, salvation from persecution, the resolution of the challenges transfiguration hero);
4) circle of action of the desired character (asking a difficult task, branding, exposure,
recognition, the second sentence of the pest);
5) circle of behavior of the sender (the reference character);
6) circle action of the Hero (sending in the search, the response to the requirements of the
donor's wedding);
7) circles actions of the false hero (sending in the search, the response to the requirements of
the donor - is always negative - and, as a specific function - fraudulent claims) [Propp, 1998,
p. 60-61].
Further research scientists [Eco, 1960; Zorkaya, 1981, 1994, and others] proved that Propp’s
approaches quite applicable to the analysis of many media texts, including nearly all of the mass
media culture (literature, film, television and so on.). And it is true in many popular media texts in
one way or another felt the echoes of biblical motifs of ancient Greek myths, fairy tales of
Cinderella, Little Red Riding Hood, Serpent Dragon, Bluebeard, Ali Baba and the Forty Thieves,
etc. Of course, the audience (eg, students) unconsciously reach for the fabulous, fantastic action,
mythological heroes...
Taking advantage of the scheme of V. Propp, Umberto Eco [Eco, 1960, p.52] subjected to
cultural and mythological and structural analysis of a series of spy novels about James Bond (the
last half century almost all of them have been filmed, sometimes even several times, which resulted
in a whole train of parodies).
The U. Eco’s research results follow to stereotypical plot scheme:
A. Bond gets the job.
B. Bond meets with a villain(s).
C. Bond creates obstacles for first villains, or vice versa.
D. Bond meets a woman / beauty.
E. Bond uses Female (seduction mastery).
F. Villain takes captive Bond (with the woman or not).
G. Bond villain attempts (with a woman or not).
H. Bond wins.
I. Bond enjoys woman.
Continuing this analytical work I found in “Bond stories” 7 circles of actions (with V. Propp’s
classification):
1) circle of Villain’s actions (persecution, insidious intrigues, the fight with Bond);
2) circle of Donor’s actions (in each novel / series a head of the secret Engineering Laboratory
presents Bond "magic bullet" in the form of modern espionage and other equipment,
simultaneously demonstrating the features of its functioning);
3) circle of Assistant’s actions (usually Woman / Beauty becomes Bond’s assistant, and this
Woman / Beauty helps Bond to escape from persecution, solve tricky task to find the desired
object, etc.);
384
4) circle of action of the desired object (this is often a military / strategic object that Bond
want to destroy or steal);
5) circle of Sender’s action (Head of the Secret Service sends Bond to another mission, but
the sender's pretty secretary also includes in circle of this of action);
6) circle of Hero’s action (Bond’s dangerous assignment, the conquered women's hearts and
bodies, the fight with the villain and his numerous servants, destruction of Villain);
7) false hero’s circle (the false hero - as a rule - is a woman - Fatal Beauty. She always acts
deception, sometimes pretending to be almost an ally and mistress of Bond. Fatal Beauty is closely
linked with the wicked, and she almost always 100% confident in her power and victory over Bond.
As a rule, her insidious actions lead to the fact that Bond life hangs in the balance, and it often
saves only the Miracle).
This kind of cultural mythology can be easily detected in a variety of popular media texts. For
example, extremely popular among the mass public television reality show Survivor is one of a
modified versions: the "sender" (relatives and friends of the players), "heroes-seekers" (the
players), "donor" (leading show), "assistants", etc.
You can select many of the above action characters circles (circles actions of sender, donor,
hero, etc.) in many reality shows:
- Survivor and Heart of Africa: broken into teams participating in the show are the exotic
countries - far from civilization, with no money, they are compelled to produce their own food and
to perform a variety of tasks leading / donor in the hope of a final prize (the actions of the donor,
the sender, the hero and so on.);
- Empire: the participants are divided into teams of rich and poor, one of them becomes the
ruler of the Empire and, together with three of his retinue to enjoy the comfort and luxury of the
castle; the rest of the show in peasant clothes live hut, performing heavy work and additional tasks
"rich"; etc.
Literary-cycle simulation creative tasks relating to the cultural mythology of media texts on
media education classes in the student audience:
Media agencies:
- the producer plan’s drafting for the use of the mythological, fabulous foundations for new
TV shows.
- writing of synopsis (summary of future media text) using mythological, fairytale stereotypes
(plot schemes, typical situations, characters, etc.).
Media technologies:
- writing of synopsis of the future of media texts with an emphasis on the use of modern
technologies for creating media texts with mythological, fairy basis.
Media languages:
- writing of synopsis of the future media text with mythological, folk foundation with an
emphasis on symbolic codes (frame, angle, etc.).
- drafting of the media text story with the (main or secondary) character having a
mythological, fairy, folk source: preserving the features of his character, vocabulary, etc. The task is
performed (as, indeed, most other media educational tasks character) on a competitive basis.
At first, the audience meets a specific media texts, and then - writes stories with principal or
secondary characters, and then brainstorm results, determined the most successful, close to the
original stories.
Media audiences:
- drafting of the monologue from any members of the audience (different age, sex, social
status, ethnicity, religion and so forth.) of media text with mythological, fairy, folklore source.
Cycle theatrical role-creative tasks for the analysis of media texts on cultural mythology of
Media agencies:
- role games on a film or TV show with a mythological, fairy, folk source (the various stages of
preparation and film-making process);
385
- role game “press conference” with “media text authors” ("producer", "writer", "director",
"actors", "operator", "composer", "artist", "designer" and others), based on mythological, fairytale,
folklore source: "journalists" ask "authors", they try to answer, etc .;
- role games on solutions of the same short story in the genres of fairy tales, myths and
legends.
Media technologies:
- role games: the dispute of “creators of media texts” about what specific technologies can be
used in the creation of mythological, fairytale, folklore story.
Media languages:
- role games: the dispute of “creators of media text with a mythological, fairy, folk source”,
what specific codes (signs, symbols, etc.), visual and / or audio solution can be used when it is
created;
- Students are playing the role of mythological, fairytale characters of media texts. Work is
proceeding in groups of 2-3 people. Each group prepares and puts into practice your game project
episode of a media text. The teacher acts as a consultant. The results are discussed and compared;
- role games: “interview” (interview with mythological / fairy tale characters of media texts
and interviews with their “authors”). Work is proceeding in groups of 2-3 people. Each group
prepares and puts into practice your game project interview. The teacher acts as a consultant. The
results are discussed and compared.
Media audiences:
- role games: a sketch on the theme of the various reactions of specific members of the
audience (different age, education level, social status, etc.) to certain media texts with a
mythological, fairy, folk source.
Graphic-cycle simulation creative assignments for the analysis of media texts on cultural
mythology of media education classes in the student audience:
Media agencies:
- preparing drawings / collages on the theme of the Agency’s steps associated with the
creation of media texts with mythological, fairytale, folklore source.
- preparing drawings / collages, which could clearly imagine the kind of genre and media text
with mythological, fairytale, folklore source.
Media technologies:
- preparing posters to media texts with a mythological, fairy, folk source, made in different
techniques (drawing, collage, application, etc.).
Media languages:
- preparation of a series of frames / cards that could be used as a basis for the image (with the
support of the various types of crop - the general plan, close-up, detail, etc.) proactive media text
with mythological characters, fabulous, folklore source;
- creation of posters / collages / comics, visually reflecting the mythological basis of media
texts.
- creation of posters / collages / comics, which were presented to the situation and the
characters of media texts, based on mythological, fairytale, folklore source.
Media Audiences:
- preparation of pictures, which may be the representatives of the different types of audiences
after contact with the media texts of different genres with mythological, fairy, folk source.
Cycle of literary and analytical creative tasks on cultural mythology of media texts on
Media agencies:
- analysis of socio-cultural factors that influenced the views of the agency / author of a
particular media text, used the mythological, fairy basis.
- separation of media texts (from the proposed teacher list) on the principle of relying on
different plot of myths and fairy tales;
386
- modeling (in tabular / structural form), based on researches of V. Propp, N. Zorkaya,

M. Turovskaya, U. Eco, the mythological, fabulous stereotypes of media texts (narrative scheme,
typical situations, characters, their values, ideas and gestures, clothes, objects, scene, etc.),
considering the fact that many media texts are based on the same myths, fairy tales, legends.
Media technologies:
- analysis of a possible influence of modern technologies for creating media texts with
mythological, fabulous foundation for their maintenance.
Media languages:
- analysis: how verbal and visual symbols in a media with mythological, folk form the basis of
a certain value (for example, the role of signs in advertising);
- reading and analysis of symbolic codes (frame, angle, etc.) in a media text with
mythological, folk basis; how the information relates to the codes and conventions of media text;
- analysis: how the symbolic codes may interact with each other to create a certain sense of
media texts;
- put the character of media text (having mythological, fairytale, folklore source) into change
situation (with a change of name, genre, time, place, action media text, its composition: climax,
denouement, epilogue, etc.; age, gender, nationality character, etc.);
- analysis of media texts’ advertising banners (visual and written information, the most
important part of this information, the composition of the poster, the indication of the
mythological, fabulous roots media text).
Media audiences:
- analysis of advertising posters and a prediction of success in the audience of a media text
with mythological, fairytale, folklore sources.
Questions assignments for the analysis of media texts cultural mythology [Buckingham,
2003, pp.54-60, Silverblatt, 2001, pp.107-108; 2014; Fedorov, 2004, p.43-51; Potter, 2014;
Fedorov, 2006, p.175-228]:
Media agencies:
Are media agencies use mythology when creating media texts? If so, how?
What are the conventions of fairy-tale / mythological genre?
Is there a predictable genre formula for media text, based on folklore sources?
As understanding of this formula helps your perception of a particular media text?
What is the function of genre formula of media texts with mythological, fabulous foundation?
Media technologies:
Can a different technology for creating media texts relating to the myth, fairy tale, legend?
Explain your answer.
Media languages:
What is the specificity and / or visual solution in media texts based on myths, fairy tales,
legends?
Can you name the audio-visual codes, the most characteristic of media texts, with fabulous,
mythological base?
Can you name specific media texts based on famous myths and fairy tales?
What is the impact of myths and fairy tales on the media text strings?
Can you formulate patterns of ties to media texts fairy / mythological genre?
What stereotypical stories, storylines conventions specific to media texts based on folklore,
fairy, mythological sources?
What is the relationship between significant events and characters in a media text based on
the myth, fairy tale, legend?
Media audiences:
What factors depends on the interpretation of the mass audience of media texts, based on
folklore sources?
Can we say that the interpretation of media texts depends on psycho-physiological data
personality?
387
What are the causes of success with the audience the most famous media texts with a
fabulous, mythological roots (genre, theme, emotional swings system, reliance on mythology, a
happy ending, the calculation of the maximum coverage of the media preferences of the audience,
etc.)?
As a cultural mythology of media texts affects the attitudes, values, and worldview of people?
Conclusions
In this article I presented the main directions for Cultural Mythology Analysis of media texts
in the classroom at the student audience, including the examples of creative problems and issues
associated with this type of this analysis in the context of media education problems, ie based on
six key concepts of media literacy education: agency, category, language, technology, audience,
representation. I suppose that the Cultural Mythology Analysis of media texts on media education
perception.
References:
2. Eco, U. (1960). Narrative Structure in Fleming. In: Buono, E., Eco, U. (Eds.). The Bond
Affair. London: Macdonald, p.52.
4. Fedorov, A.V. (2001). Media Education: History, Theory and Methods. Rostov: CVVR,
2001. 708 p.
5. Fedorov, A.V. (2004). Specificity of media education of pedagogical students //
Pedagogy. 2004. № 4, p.43-51.
Innovation in Education. 2006. N 4, p.175-228.
7. Kostina, A.V. (2006). Mass culture as a phenomenon of the post-industrial society.
Moscow: KomKniga, 352 p.
8. Nechay, O.F. (1993). Film education in the context of fiction // Specialist. 1993. № 5,
p.11-13.
9. Philosophical Encyclopedic Dictionary (1983). Moscow, p.348.
11. Propp, V.Y (1998). The morphology of the fairy tale. The historical roots of the fairy
12. Propp, V.Y. (1976). Folklore and reality. Moscow: Art, p. 51-63.
13. Razlogov, K.E. (1991). Paradoxes of commercialization // Screen and Stage. 1991. № 9,
p.10.
16. Turovskaya, M.I. (1979). Why the viewer goes to the movies // Genres of Movie.
Moscow: Art.
17. Yampolsky, M.V. (1987). Polemical notes about the aesthetics of the mass of the film //
Transcript of the meeting of the "round table" of Film Critics, October 12-13, 1987. Moscow: Union
of Cinematographers, p.31-44.
18. Zorkaya, N.M. (1981). Unique and replicated. Mass media and reproduced art.
19. Zorkaya, N.M. (1994). Folklore. Splint. Screen. Moscow, 1994.
388

European Researcher
ISSN 2219-8229
E-ISSN 2224-0136
Vol. 98, Is. 9, pp. 684-690, 2015
DOI: 10.13187/er.2015.99.684
www.erjournal.ru
UDC 37
Ethical Analysis of the Functioning of Media in Society and Media Texts

in the Classroom
Alexander Fedorov

Abstract
Ethical analysis of the functioning of media in society and media texts based on the ethical
theory of media. It is assumed that the media are able to form certain audience’s moral principles.
From this follows the main goal of media literacy ethics education: to involve the audience in a
particular ethical behaviors (corresponding, for example, a particular religion, level of civilization,
democracy, etc.). Teaching strategy is based on the study of ethical aspects of media and ethical
analysis of media texts.
This article presented the main directions for Ethical Analysis on media literacy education
classes for student audience, including the examples of creative problems and issues associated
with this type of the analysis in the context of media literacy education problems, ie based on six
representation. The author supposes that the Ethical Analysis of media texts on media literacy
education classes can significantly develop media competence of students, including critical
thinking and perception.
Keywords: ethical analysis, media, media texts, media education, media literacy, media
Introduction
Ethical analysis of the functioning of media in society and media texts based on the ethical
theory of media. It is assumed that the media are able to form certain audience’s moral principles.
From this follows the main goal of media literacy ethics education: to involve the audience in a
particular ethical behaviors (corresponding, for example, a particular religion, level of civilization,
democracy, etc.). Teaching strategy is based on the study of ethical aspects of media and ethical
analysis of media texts [Penzin, 1987, p.47; Malobitskaya, 1979, p.16]. It is clear that the moral
684
values in this case essentially depend on the socio-cultural and political context. For example,
during the totalitarian regime in Russia, it was believed that students “with proper preparation for
watching movies and as a result will blame lies, evil deeds and, conversely, students will have a
positive attitude towards everything that meets the requirements of high communist morality”
[Uritzky, 1954, p.42]. Their claims to the ethical theory of media education, no doubt, are
presented, for example, Muslim or Buddhist countries, which proves the close relationship of
ethical and religious theories of media education.

The main material for this article was the area of the books and articles about the ethical
analysis of the functioning of media in society and media texts. Ethical analysis of media and media
texts implies a number of students of creative tasks [BFI, 1990, 2003; Buckingham, 2003; Semali,
2000, pp.229-231; Potter, 2001, p.34; 2014; Berger, 2005; Nechay, 1989, pp. 267-268; Fedorov,
2004, pp.43-51; Silberblatt, 2001; 2014]: literary simulation, role game, fine-simulation. Each of
these tasks include analysis of the key concepts of media literacy education (media agencies, media
categories, media language, media technologies, media representations, media audiences, etc.).
Discussion
For the advent of the postmodern era - with its characteristic as an ironic attitude to life in
general and to any works of culture / art - a phrase that “modern teacher - the defender of moral
and aesthetic values” [Odintsova, 1993, p.113], began to be perceived as annoying archaic.
It seemed that the theory of media education as "media consumption" needs of the audience
spontaneously formed looks the most "advanced" and up to date. Meanwhile, at the beginning of
the XXI century for many educators and researchers became apparent that “at the juvenile
environment continues to grow pragmatism, alienation from cultural ideals of morality, beauty and
creativity. Dehumanization of consciousness, the devaluation of moral and aesthetic values, lack of
spirituality became characteristic features of youth” [Khilko 2001, p.5].
Media cynics and "nihilists" can (with a sarcastic grin) show any filth of life, justifying it
needed unlimited freedom of expression. It is well known also that in case of technically “media
literacy” villains use of media as an aid to terrorist acts, taking of hostages and harried face victims
of violence, real torture, murder, etc.
That is why the ethical theory of media education, based on democratic values, humanism,
ethnic, national, racial and religious tolerance seems very relevant today. For example, M. Beron
and L. Rother point out that the current political, social and ideological climate in some countries
leads to a return to this kind of ethical and protectionist pedagogy, as students should be protected
from evil, immoral, unethical influence of the media, "vaccinated" against the "virus" artificially
created commercially interested media structure image of the consumer [Baron, Rother, 2003].
Results
Literary creative tasks that promote ethical reflection about the functioning of the media in
society and media texts:
Media agencies:
- creation of the stories on behalf of different ethical positions of media agency regarding the
various ethical problems.
- writing of monologues for typical characters of comedy, tragedy, melodrama, detective,
western, etc., that address ethical issues.
Media languages:
- writing of dialogue between the two artists (directors, cameramen, lighting technicians,
sound engineers, and others.), arguing that as a means of composition, color, light, sound,
installation can increase tensions moral conflict characters skills.
- writing the story on behalf of the protagonist or secondary character of a media text:
preserving the features of its "moral code" ("identification", "compassion", "co-creation");
685
- rearranged of media text’s character in changed ethical situation (with a change of genre,
gender, nationality, etc.).
Media audiences:
- writing the monologues on the topic of ethics in the field of media and media texts ("letters"
in the editorial offices of newspapers and magazines, on television, in the Ministry of Culture, etc.)
with various representatives of the audience age, ethical, social and other data; Here again, we can
find support in the V.S. Bibler’s "School of dialogue between cultures" [Bibler, 1993, p.27].
Cycle of role game creative tasks that contribute to the ethical analysis of the functioning of
media in society and media texts:
Media agencies:
- role game on the topic of ethical relationship of different positions’ media agency staff
regarding the various ethical problems arising in the course of work on the new numbers of
newspapers and magazines, TV / radio programs, films, etc.
- role game on the theme of dialogue of typical characters of comedy, tragedy, melodrama,
detective, western, etc., that address ethical issues.
Media languages:
- role game: a dialogue between two artists (directors, cameramen, and others.), arguing that
as a means of composition, color, light, sound, installation can increase tensions moral conflict
characters skills;
- role game on "press conference with media texts’ authors' ("writer", "director", "actors",
"producer" and others.); "Journalists" ask the questions concerning the ethical aspects of a media
text;
- role game on "international meeting of media critics" is that discuss the ethical aspects of
the media in society, analyze the ethical problems of individual media texts, etc.;
- "legal" role game, including the process of "investigation" ethic of media characters.
Media audiences:
- role game on the topic of monologues and dialogues on issues of morality in media texts
from audiences with different age, ethical, social and other data;
Graphic-cycle simulation creative tasks that contribute to the ethical analysis skills:
Media agencies:
- creation of draw comics on the topic of ethical relationship of different positions of media
agency staff regarding the various ethical problems arising in the course of work on the new
numbers of newspapers and magazines, TV / radio programs, films, etc .
- create a series of drawings on the theme of ethical relationships for typical characters of
comedy, tragedy, melodrama, detective, western, etc.
Media technologies:
- creation of the images / posters on media topics, which use different technologies
(computer, collage, etc.) to ethical conflicts portrayed characters.
Media languages:
- creation of the posters on the theme of the same ethical conflict of media personalities,
where the means of composition, color, light, perspective can be strengthened / weakened its
strength.
- creation of posters / pictures / cartoons reflecting the ethical issues of media texts;
Media audiences:
- creation of a series of drawings that reflect the reaction of the audience of different age,
social, national and religious groups about moral issues in the media sphere.
Cycle of literary and analytical creative tasks, contributing ethical reflection about the
functioning of the media in society and media texts:
Media agencies:
- to identify the ethical intentions of the authors and producers of media text.
686
- analyze of the ethics of stereotypical characters (in media genres: comedy, romance,
detective, western, etc.).
Media technologies:
- analyze of the way in which you can increase tensions ethical conflict focused media text
characters using a variety of media technologies.
Media languages:
- analyze of stereotypical image model with the characters or other ethical deviations in
terms of plastic, facial expressions, gestures, light-color, sound, solutions.
- analyze of the basic moral qualities of character skills;
- to read/see a number of media texts, which clearly shows the anti-social behavior (crime,
violence, false); Note how the characters perform these actions, and to try to classify these
characters on the level of moral development.
Media audiences:
- analyze of the main features of the best (worst) installation on the perception of a particular
media text from an ethical point of view;
- analyze the best (worst) objective (environment while watching, etc.) and subjective (mood,
individual physiological data, etc.) media reception conditions with an emphasis on the ethical
aspects;
Arguing about the conditions of media insight, students can apply to their own spectator
experience, noting how much disturbed perception of unethical behavior of the audience in the
cinema, Internet cafe (loud noises, noise, rowdy antics, etc.), etc.
Game session on writing "on behalf of the character of the story" is on a competitive basis. At
first, the audience meets a specific media texts, and then - writes stories on behalf of his principal
or secondary characters (taking into account their moral qualities), and then brainstorm results,
determined the most successful, close to the original stories.
An important role in shaping the skills of perception and subsequent analysis of media texts
play a creative tasks aimed at changing the various components of the works. Students discuss the
various options ethical concepts of media texts, making sure at the same time as significantly
transformed the perception of the same story if the characters change their moral principles.
Performance indicators creative tasks "on behalf of the character", "character in an altered
situation" is the ability of students to identify with a character, its ethics, understand and verbally
recreate his psychology, language, to justify his motives and actions (including imaginary missing
real product).
Practical mastering typology media insight promote creative tasks, offering the audience to
simulate various types of letters in court, written on behalf of the representatives of the audiences
of various ages, moral attitudes, etc. An indicator of mastering the material can serve as the ability
to identify with an imaginary "recipient" having one or another ethical level.
The next series of classes is problematic group discussions and in reviewing media texts.
Of course, here again the educator can use creative, game, heuristic and problem tasks,
significantly increasing the activity and interest of the audience. For example, a heuristic form of
the class, in which the audience is invited to a few wrong and right judgment, much easier for the
audience analytical tasks.
include:
- true and false interpretation of the logic of ethical position on the material authors of a
particular episode of a media text;
- true and incorrect options of ethical concept, unfolding in a particular media text;
- comparative analysis of articles and books of professional media criticism & journalists,
based on the ethical component;
- preparing essays devoted to ethical issues of media culture;
- students’ reviews about the specific media texts of different types and genres with an
emphasis on ethical issues.
The logic sequence of creative tasks comes from the fact that the critical analysis of media
687
theoretical articles, monographs devoted to ethical issues of media culture and media texts
specific), which the audience can judge the different approaches and forms of this type of work.
reviewers’ opinion about ethical advantages and disadvantages of the media text?", "How deep
reviewers get into an ethical intent of the author?", "Do you agree or not with this or that ethical
evaluation of the reviewers? Why? ", etc.
Then – the work on the essay on ethical issues in the media. And only then - brainstorm
about ethical subjects media text:
- identification and review content of the scenes of media texts, with maximum brightness
embody ethical issues work as a whole;
- analysis of the authors’ logic of thinking about media texts: in the development of conflicts,
characters, ideas, and ethical concepts, etc .
However, as experience shows, it is necessary, first, to go from simple to more complex media
texts. We can to discuss, analyze about the plot, the author's thoughts, the style of media texts. And
secondly – discussion about the media text’s aim (in the frame of the genre, thematic preferences
of the audience).
Classes for the formation of skills of analysis and synthesis of media texts aim to stimulate
students’ critical thinking, the ability to apply this knowledge in new situations, the psychological,
moral work, thinking about moral values, etc.
Questions promote ethical reflection about the functioning of the media in society and
media texts [Berger, 2005, p.42, 47; Fedorov, 2004, pp.43-51; Fedorov, 2005; Fedorov, 2006, pp.
175-228]:
Media agencies:
Can the media texts contribute to the promotion of militarism and / or violence?
Can you identify the moral values that are held by the authors of specific media texts?
Can you name the genre, which are the most common characters with aggressive behavior,
immoral acts?
Media technologies:
Whether the author is associated ethics media text with technology of its creation?
Media languages:
Can you think of the stereotypical image model with the characters or other ethical
deviations?
What ethical issues are displayed in the media text? Are there visible signs of deviant
behavior, sexism, conformity, conflict of generations, etc.?
Media audiences:
What is the meaning of ethics in media culture? Does the media texts have the moral
evaluation? If so, how to define the criteria of morality?
Do I need to take into account the moral intentions of the authors of media texts in the
evaluation of the result of their work?
Is it possible that any media texts can lead to immoral looks at some of the audience?
Are there media texts aimed at the moral manipulation of the audience? If yes, in what media
texts is specifically manifested?
Can the media texts (eg, advertising of cigarettes, alcohol) harm the audience to perceive
them?
Can the media texts promote racial, class, ethnic, national or religious enmity and hatred?
Can you name the media texts that you do not want to show children aged 7-10 years? Why
Are?
What moral values do you personally think it is important to make the basis for the concept
of a media text?
Which moral level of audience appeal, the present media text? If you created this media text,
and would like to focus on the audience with a higher ethical level, that you would change in the
story?
688
Conclusions
This article presented the main directions for Ethical Analysis on media literacy education
with this type of the analysis in the context of media literacy education problems, ie based on six
representation. The author supposes that the Ethical Analysis of media texts on media literacy
education classes can significantly develop media competence of students, including critical
thinking.
References:
1. Baron, M., and Rother, L. (2003). Media Education – an Agent of Change.
3. BFI (1990). (British Film Institute). Film Education. Moscow, 124 p.
4. BFI (2003). Department for Education. Look Again! The Teaching Guide to Using Film
& Television with Three-to Eleven-year Olds. London: British Film Institute, 60 p.
5. Bibler, V.S. (1993). Dialogue of Cultures and School XXI Century // School of Dialogue
of Cultures: Ideas, experiences, challenges. Kemerovo: ALEPH, pp.9-106.
8. Fedorov, A.V. Specificity of media pedagogical students // Pedagogy. 2004. № 4,
pp.43-51.
9. Khilko, N.F. (2001). The role of the audiovisual culture in creative self-realization of the
individual. Omsk, 446 p.
10. Malobitskaya, Z.S. (1979). Cinema as a means of moral and aesthetic education of high
school students. Ph.D. Dis. Alma-Ata.
11. Nechay, O.F. (1989). Fundamentals of cinema. Moscow: Education, pp.167-168.
12. Penzin, S.N. (1987). Movies and aesthetic education: methodological problems.
Voronezh: Publishing house of Voronezh. State. University Press, 176 p.
Press, 243 p.
УДК 37
Этический анализ функционирования медиа в обществе и медиатекстов на

медиаобразовательных занятиях

Аннотация. Этический анализ функционирования медиа в обществе и медиатекстов

осуществляется на основе этической теории средств массовой коммуникации.
Предполагается, что медиа способны влиять на определенные моральные принципы
аудитории. Из этого следует, главная цель медиаобразования, согласно этической теории:
689
прививать аудитории моральные качества (соответствующие, например, конкретной

религии, уровню цивилизации, демократии и т.д.). Стратегия обучения строится на основе
изучения этических аспектов медиа и этического анализа медиатекстов. Эта статья
анализирует основные направления этического анализа медиа и медиатекстов в процессе
медиаобразования студенческой аудитории, в том числе на примерах творческих заданий,
связанных с этим типом анализа в контексте проблем медиаобразования, т.е. на основе
шести ключевых понятий медиаграмотности: агентство, категория, язык, технология,
аудитория, репрезентация. Автор предполагает, что этический анализ медиатекстов на
медиаобразовательных занятиях может значительно развить медиакомпетентность
студентов.
Ключевые слова: этический анализ, медиа, медиатексты, медиаобразование,
690

European Researcher
ISSN 2219-8229
E-ISSN 2224-0136
Vol. 96, Is. 7, pp. 502-510, 2015
DOI: 10.13187/er.2015.96.502
www.erjournal.ru
UDC 37
Iconographic Analysis of Media Texts on Media Literacy Education Classes
Alexander Fedorov

Abstract
Iconographic analysis is associative analysis of the media texts’ images (eg, water, fire - as
symbols of purity and destruction) associated with the semiotic analysis. Art historians, scientists,
semiotics, media theorists and practitioners of media education have written thousands of
volumes, which convincingly proved that the decoding / decoding of audio-visual images
sometimes difficult, requiring considerable knowledge and skills of the process of intellectual and
creative work. Iconographic analysis of media texts based on the key concept of media language,
and suggests that media education aims to develop knowledge of the ways in which media texts
express his idea, and develop the knowledge, improving skills of textual analysis that can be
attached to fixed or moving images recorded on the medium of sound or any combination of the
above.
The initial stage of the iconographic analysis of media texts offer students concentrate on
careful perception of audiovisual images on the description of their characteristic features.
The audience learns conventional codes of media texts, followed by a smooth transition to the
interpretation and evaluation of media texts. As a result, the audience media competence is
developing in relation to visual images.
Keywords: iconographic analysis, media, media texts, media education, media literacy,
media competence, students.
Introduction
Iconographic analysis is associative analysis of the media texts’ images (eg, water, fire - as
symbols of purity and destruction) associated with the semiotic analysis. Art historians, scientists,
semiotics, media theorists and practitioners of media education have written thousands of volumes
(among the most striking works I can recall the works of Y. Lotman, U. Eco, M. Yampolsky and
many others), which convincingly proved that the decoding / decoding of audio-visual images
502
sometimes difficult, requiring considerable knowledge and skills of the process of intellectual and
creative work.
Iconographic analysis of media texts based on the key concept of media language, and
suggests that media education aims to develop knowledge of the ways in which media texts express
his idea, and develop the knowledge, improving skills of textual analysis that can be attached to
fixed or moving images recorded on the medium of sound or any combination of the above. In the
critical work is usually done by analyzing the individual images or short fragments of a media text,
offering a detailed account of what actually seen and heard - before moving on to the interpretive
comments and express their reaction [Bazalgette, 1995, p. 31].
Here, cultural and aesthetic approaches in media literacy education (as well as an approach
that focuses on the formation of "critical thinking") in common with the "semiotic" theory and
methods of media education, involving reading and analysis skills, as a synthesis of signs and
symbols, "codes".
The initial stage of the iconographic analysis of media texts offer students concentrate on
careful perception of audiovisual images on the description of their characteristic features.
The audience learns conventional codes of media texts, followed by a smooth transition to the
interpretation and evaluation of media texts. There is also practiced training games’ content: crop
images and photos (the study of plans), shooting a video camera at different angles (the study of
the concept of perspective), etc. As a result, developing audience media competence in relation to
visual images.

We use the materials of modern Russian and Western literature about un iconographic
analysis [BFI, 1990; Semali, 2000, pp.229-231; Berger, 2005; Nechay, 1989, p.267-268]. We use
also methods of creative tasks, contributing iconographic analysis of media texts, designed for
gaming, role-playing possibilities of the pedagogical process, developing imagination, fantasy,
associative thinking, the perception of nonverbal audience, media competence.
Discussion
In this case, of course, we take into account the curriculum developed by C. Bazalgette and
her colleagues [BFI, 2003, p.7]: “freeze frame”, “sound and vision”; “spot the shots”, “top and tail”,
“attracting audiences”, “generic translations”, “cross-media comparisons”, “simulation”.
Quest freeze frame is that the teacher using the "Stop" the image of the video text, and
students are trying to analyze the composition, lighting, color, angle in the frame, etc. Thus, an
educational goal: the audience realizes that every element of the visual image has its value.
Quest sound and vision is based on the fact that the teacher closes the monitor screen and
the students can hear only the sound track of a media text. After that, they will have to guess the
content, genre, style proposed fragment, they try to think about what else may be possible musical
accompaniment and the noise in the media text. Here the students to understand the importance of
practice and especially sound solutions movies or TV shows, especially the combination of a
number of sound and image.
Creative activity spot the shots is intended for the final students' understanding of the fact
that each frame has some information that there is a mounting frame rate, etc. That is, here again
studied language media.
Creative activity top and tail provides viewing audiences elementary media text frames, on
the series of which they must guess the genre of the work.
Studying the mechanisms of attracting audiences is intended that students collect a package
of various kinds of information on media culture (reviews, advertisements, photographs,
soundtracks, etc.), on the basis of which it is possible to prepare the group "presentation" of a
media text or make a collage its theme.
Quest generic translations develops students' ability to "transfer" of media texts from one
type to another (ie, from a literary text in the screen and, on the contrary, from the newspaper - in
verse, etc.).
Creative activity cross-media comparisons is that students are asked to compare the two
fragments of different works for different audiences. For example, it is necessary to compare the
503
key episodes of the literary text and its two adaptations. Or compare the interpretations of the same
themes in fiction and documentary form.
As we can see, in general, this technique is fully consistent with the theory of the six key
aspects of media literacy education, which is among the supporters - Cary Bazalgette, Andrew Hart,
and many other media educators.
Knowledge and creative skills, obtained an audience with the development of introductory,
practical steps, prepare them for classes, to develop the perception of media texts created by
professionals contributed to the beneficial implementation of the educational process within the
specialization "Media Education". Argue that with sufficient confidence, as in the experiment
tested two versions of media insight: 1) with discussions of media texts professional writers; 2) the
same, but with a preliminary cycle of practical creative tasks, introduces the audience to the
laboratory creation of media texts. The second option was more productive. After media literacy
education classes, creative nature of the audience is not only fluent in more specific terminology,
but also faster, described in detail in speech iconographic elements. Knowledge and skills related to
"kitchen" of the creative process of creating media texts to help students accurately express their
feelings about what they saw and heard, indirectly, to develop their abilities to perceive, to a certain
extent prepare them for subsequent critical analysis skills (because without the ability to describe
their experience we can not talk about the full analysis of media texts).
W rely also on the idea of outstanding Russian media educator Yury Usov (1936-2000), that
"the perception of sound and vision image is a visual experience of tempo, rhythm, form the
subtext of plastic film narration; the result of this experience is sensual and intellectual
associations that arise in the process of perception of the sound and vision series of plastic
composition and its components are synthesized in the figurative generalization which contains in
itself the author's concept, multi-dimensional artistic ideas"[Usov, 1989, p.235].
Results
Iconographic analysis of media texts implies a number of students of creative tasks [BFI,
1990; Semali, 2000, pp.229-231; Berger, 2005; Nechay, 1989, p.267-268; Fedorov, 2004, p.43 -51;
Fedorov, 2006, p.175-228, but I substantially supplemented and revised the cycle of works):
literary and analytical, drama, role-playing, fine-simulation. Each of these tasks involves analysis of
the key concepts of media literacy education (media agencies, media categories, media language,
media technologies, media representations, media audiences, etc.).
Cycle of literary analytical creative tasks that contribute iconographic analysis skills in the
Media agencies:
- analysis of the logos of famous media agencies / firms with visual (composition, color, etc.)
point of view.
- analysis of the volume of a media texts (newspapers, Internet), dedicated to the image
(photographs, drawings, etc.), or promotional materials, and volume for verbal texts (articles,
dialogs, etc.).
Media technologies:
- analysis of the technologies of visual media texts in a number of specific types and genres.
Media languages:
- comparison of the composition in painting, drawing, sculpture, photography, film / TV;
- View DVD / video media text’s episode without sound, in order to focus on the characters’
facial expressions, gestures, a color, lighting in the scene and shoot types (plans, camera angles,
camera movement); view the same episode with the sound, to get a clearer picture of how the effect
is achieved by a media text on the audience (including the impact of specific techniques).
- comparison of two frames (two photographs, drawings), where the same scene is depicted
in various ways. Thinking about how to change the angle affects your perception, understanding
the relationship of media text characters to each other;
- analysis of promotional posters of media texts (visual and written information, the most
important part of this information, indicate the genre of media texts, composition posters);
predicting the success of a media text advertised in the audience;
504
- selection of multiple advertisement texts from the expensive and cheap magazines;
determining the difference as an advertisement in the nature of the advertised goods and services
in the exterior image of a male and female characters;
- selection of multiple photos or posters of different years, depicting beautiful women and
men; determination of the total in these images, the changes over the past decade, the criteria of
human beauty and the way in which media texts reflect these changes.
Media audiences:
- analysis of a number of images from the media texts with various uses of space; conclusions
about the taste, social class, gender and age of the people, which the authors regard as the target
audience.
It is also possible iconographic analysis of media texts (drama, melodrama, comedy, detective
story, thriller, western, science-fiction, horror, TV news, TV interview, reality show, game show,
talk show, etc.) using tables with typical iconographic stereotypes, typical visual images of feelings’
conventional codes (hunger, thirst, satiety, fear, terror, joy, delight, sexual attraction, sexual
aversion, love, hatred, pity, compassion, indifference, envy, jealousy, timidity, shyness, aggression,
arrogance, etc.), visual images of typical places for media texts (reach/poor house, saloon / bar /
restaurant, business office, educational institution, army barracks, ship, submarine, police
department, prison, etc.).
Cycle theatrical role-creative tasks that contribute to the iconographic analysis of media
Media agencies:
- business game "Create a newspaper / magazine / internet site";
- pantomime’s presentation of media logo.
- preparing pantomime within any genre media relying on a certain visual plastic solution;
Media technologies:
- practically implementation (in small creative groups, armed, for example, digital video
camcorder) to certain media technology based on one or another way of viewing.
Media languages:
- shooting short movie (duration: 2-3 min.) "The game of chess", "My class", etc. using
different methods of visual recording;
- shooting TV news using various visual ways of shooting;
- "frozen" figure on the themes of the stories and characters of media texts;
- pantomime on topics of plots and characters of media texts;
- role game on the topic of "International meeting of media critics" with discussion about
various aspects related to the iconographic analysis skills.
Media audiences:
- preparing pantomime, visually reflecting different emotional audience’s reactions (audience
can be different ages and social status) to media texts.
The purpose of many of these creative tasks: the development of students’ media competence
in area of visual media texts. These tasks prepared students for the creation of mini-movies, radio /
TV programs, interactive newspapers and magazines, Web sites, computer animation, etc. (with a
pre-written plans and scenarios).
Implementation of theatrical role-creative tasks based on role game: students have the
function of "directors", "operator", "actors", "journalists" and so forth. After the rehearsal period
the students’ team to begin practical establishment media text (short video or television program,
Interactive website, newspaper, etc.). Their interpretations are compared, discussed the advantages
and disadvantages.
The role of the teacher in the process of performing such tasks: to demonstration for the
audience the media technology (video, video recording and video projection, computer), tactful
correction to the implementation of tasks and participation in the discussion of the results. In other
words, the audience receives the greatest possible scope for imagination, personality expression of
his thinking and creativity.
The specific tasks to help iconographic analysis of media texts:
505
- "journalist" (practical layout of Interactive newspaper or magazine, the selection of the most
spectacular illustrations, photographs);
- "directing" (guide the process of shooting, including: the definition of the main decorations,
sound and music, light-color solutions, taking into account the genre and stylistic features of the
product, etc. ;
- "camera man" (practical implementation of the plans, perspectives, staging, camera
movement, frame, light, etc.);
- "decorative-art" (the use of natural scenery, costumes, design Interactive sites, computer
animation, etc.).
Undoubtedly, this kind of classes are purely educational and are not intended to create media
texts that claim to professional level. But the process of students’ understanding of audiovisual
language, the development of students’ creative abilities is important.
As a result, theatrical-game tasks, as well as literary simulations, help to form the following
qualities corresponding to various indicators of individual media competence: knowledge of the
basic steps in the process of creating media texts; use of media works functions in different forms
and genres; emotional, artistic motives for the contacts with the media (motivational indicator);
creative, artistic ability in the works for own media texts (creative indicator).
Graphic-cycle simulation creative tasks that contribute to the iconographic analysis skills in
Media agencies:
- transformation of a logo of some well-known company, the justification for that visual
changes.
- preparing pictures, posters, collages, reflecting the visual stereotypes of a media texts’
genres.
Media technologies:
- selection of image media technologies (tools and forms images in photographs, drawings,
magazine illustrations, etc.) for the simple story;
- experiments with various forms and technologies in order to study how they are used for the
transmission of specific texts, "messages" of visual symbols;
- use of different techniques in the planning and creation of media texts, careful and critical
analysis of the results obtained;
Media languages:
- preparation of a series of frames that could be used as a basis for chase scenes in the
detective story (with support for various types of crop - the general plan, close-up, detail, etc.);
- creation and presentation of visual media project based on graphic symbols.
- analysis of the frame (photos, advertising posters) from the point of view of what is
happening there. Manufacturing clippings figures or objects depicted in photographs or poster.
Different arrangements of these clippings in the "frame". Meditating on the fact whether the
changed attitude of the characters and items after these transpositions;
- creation of a different visual angles based on the same image (with a change in its
components);
- read scenic line (for example: "He is standing on the bridge, takes a few puffs and throws
himself into the water"). Training (using sheets-frame) series of frames "the film adaptation of" this
scenic line;
- creation of a poster or collage based on texts and images clippings from old newspapers /
magazines;
- creation of a diorama scene of media texts;
- creation of a picture book;
- creation of a advertising billboards for own media texts (variant: posters for professional
media texts) with the help of photo collage with additional drawings or based on their own original
drawings;
- creation of a cartoon "comic" based on those or other media texts;
- creation of a game based on the popular media texts;
- development of a maps with the media text’s history;
506
- manufacturing of finger puppets depicting certain scenes of a media text, staging puppet
show in some episodes;
- creation of animation: your own animated version of the characters, the writing of
dialogues;
Media audiences:
- creation of visual media texts intended for a specific audience, foreseeing how the audience
might react to such media products;
- creation of pictures or draw comics, reflecting different emotional reactions audiences of all
ages and social status to certain media texts.
After performing the above tasks is a contest of creative posters, collages, drawings, comics,
visual projects students can discuss, compare their advantages and disadvantages, answer the
questions from the teacher and audience, etc.
The main indicator of these works: the ability of students in the non-verbal forms to express
their impressions about the media text. My experiments showed that the written work and oral
interviews can not always afford to fix accurately the true level of students’ media competence. And
students often simply not able (undeveloped speech, shyness, lack of practical skills of public
discussion about media text) transfer his impressions in words.
For example, in individual conversations with the help of leading questions I have been able
to establish that some students who was in the written work and group discussions in the level of
"primary identification" (ie, the perception of the chain of events of a media text, without realizing
the position of heroes and authors), actually see and understand much more about the characters
in the media text and media environment. And creative nonverbal tasks can to maximize their level
of media competence. For example, painting advertising posters, students (even with poor
vocabulary and complete writing inability) found sometimes "hidden" creative thinking, the ability,
based on intuition, to create a piece of paper (using paints, markers, pencils, clippings from
illustrated magazines and applications), reflected the concept of media text.
Series of media literacy education classes designed to develop skills in the audience to the
iconographic analysis skills using creative tasks to restore the memory of the dynamics of
audiovisual images episodes of media texts in the process of collective discussion.
In addition, the most important indicator for full perception of audiovisual media texts in the
course of lessons to keep in mind the audience mastering features of the composition frame, its
spatial, light-color, sound, field-aligned solutions, which in synthesized form carries meaning.
The audience should also possess a kind of mounting thinking: emotional state of the semantic
elements of the narrative, their rhythmic, plastic compound in the frame, episode, scene, so that
eventually the perception of media texts based on the relationship of several processes:
- perception of dynamically developing visual images; stored in the memory of previous
audio-visual, spatial and temporal elements of media image;
- prediction, foreboding probability of a phenomenon in the media text. In order to carry out
these tasks in relation to the audiovisual media, the audience is invited to make an attempt to
describe the dynamics of the deployment in the media image rhythmically organized plastic
narrative form. The basis of this process can be a discussion of the mounting (with the rhythm,
tempo, etc.) a combination of frames (taking into account their composition: the front, depth-
aligned, light-color, etc.) and episodes, as the dynamics of the formation of the audiovisual image it
manifests itself in the interaction of training and installation.
The purpose of these studies is that the students, talking to the media, to develop their
emotional, creative activity, non-verbal thinking, sound and vision memory, because of what
facilitated the analysis and synthesis of the sound and vision, space-time image of the media text.
Here are excerpts from the analytical work of students related to the iconographic analysis of
media texts:
"It is very interesting final of media text. A picture of the broken, looted, burned with fire
New York XIX century. And gradually, this image is replaced by today's New York. Against this
background, the music sounds. This technique the authors would like to say that life is changing,
and the people and the problems remain the same. New people new world do not remember or do
not know their history, and therefore make the same mistakes as their ancestors ..." (Maria B.).
507
"Sad mood shown by means such as wet weather is rainy, gray streets. Loneliness hero
stressed uncomfortable situation apartment, his monologues facing the dead wife. (...) The idea of
authors show that the deceived person deprived of life of the rod, condemned to death" (Ellen G.).
"In the final episode, we see an empty car with fading in the twilight of the sounds of a
mobile phone lights. Gradually the lights will go out of the machine, and the phone is switched off
... These two symbols indicate that they have recently used by people who are no longer alive.
The essence of the author's message: do not "chase the death" and too much to hope for good luck.
This frame is a pity the lost characters who flew dangerous to life at full speed ..." (Anna M.).
Questions to the iconographic analysis skills in the classroom at the student audience
[Buckingham, 2003, pp.54-60; Berger, 2005, p.49, 92, 99, 124, 145; Media ... 2005, p.365 Fedorov,
2004, p.43-51; Fedorov, 2006. pp.175-228]:
Media agencies:
Does media agencies use in their logo images reflecting their real activity? If not, why not?
What visual solutions, denoting a particular company, the most common?
Is there a difference in the approaches to the use of color and light in media texts of different
types and genres?
As visual codes and conventions occur in different types of media texts?
Media technologies:
As visual technologies influence the creation of media texts?
Media languages:
What fonts are used in media texts, and what information they carry?
What is the relationship between image and text elements in printed advertising media text?
What style of language and speech techniques used in the text posted on this promotional
poster?
As space is used on posters? Why do you think it's done this way?
What angle used in this poster / photo / frame? What type of lighting? How to use color?
As media use different forms of visual language to convey ideas or values?
How is the use of visual language becomes clear and generally accepted?
What are the effects of the choice of certain forms of visual language media?
What is the relationship between the various objects that we see in the picture?
How to depict people and objects in a particular episode?
Do you see the visual symbols, signs in this in a media text? If so, what?
If the advertising poster depicts people and / or animals, describe how they look? What does
the background on which they are depicted? How this relates to the background image acts?
Do you see the tradition of the great masters of painting in the visual range of contemporary
media texts?
Can you think of examples of landscapes, portraits, still lifes in media texts?
Whose eyes see (someone told) events in a particular episode of a media text?
As the authors of media texts can pictorially show that their character has changed?
Do you know the sound and vision signs for the creation a sense of danger or surprise in
media text?
What the photos from your family archive of different years can tell us about you and your
family?
Record the same "news of the day" with two TV-channels, compare the visual and verbal
organization of these two options (display order fragments, visualization, comment, work of
operators). What can you say about the differences that are found?
Media audiences:
What about the audience’s emotional reaction to the iconic series of media text?
What is the difference between pictures / movies made in relation to the same object for
tourists or research scientists?
What do you know about the influence of light and shade on the perception of the audience?
508
Conclusions
In this article I presented the main directions for Iconographic Analysis on media education
with this type of the analysis in the context of media education problems, ie based on six key
concepts of media literacy education: agency, category, language, technology, audience,
representation. I suppose that the Iconographic Analysis of media texts on media education classes
can significantly develop media competence of students, including critical thinking and media
perception.
References:
1. Bazalgette, C. (1995). Key aspects of media education // Report on the Russian-British
seminar on media education. Moscow.
3. BFI Department for Education (2003). Look Again! The Teaching Guide to Using Film
& Television with Three-to Eleven-year Olds. London: British Film Institute, 60 p.
№ 4, pp.43-51.
6. BFI (British Film Institute). (1990). Film Education. Мoscow, 124 с.
8. Media. Introduction (2005). Moscow: Unity-Dana, 550 p.
9. Nechay, O.F. (1989). Fundamentals of cinema. Moscow: Education, 1989, pp. 167-168.
Press, 243 p.
449 p.
УДК 37
Иконографический анализ медиатекстов на медиаобразовательных занятиях

Аннотация. Иконографический анализ – это ассоциативный анализ образов

медиатекстов (например, вода, огонь – как символы чистоты и уничтожения), связанных с
семиотическим анализом. Искусствоведами, учеными-семиотиками, медиатеоретиками и
практиками медиаобразования написаны тысячи томов, где убедительно доказано, что
декодирование аудиовизуальных образов иногда трудный процесс, требующий
значительных знания и навыков в процессе интеллектуального и творческого труда.
Иконографический анализ медиатекстов на основе ключевого аспекта «язык медиа»
предполагает, что медиаобразование стремится развивать знания о путях, где медиатексты
выражают свою идею, повышать умения анализа медиатекстов, который может относиться
509
как к фиксированным, так или движущимся изображениям, записанным на любых

носителях.
Начальная стадия иконографического анализа медиатекстов предлагает студентам
сосредоточиться на тщательном восприятии аудиовизуальных образов, на описании их
характерных особенностей. Аудитория изучает стереотипные коды медиатекстов, с
последующим плавным переходом к интерпретации и оценки медиатекстов. В результате,
развивается медиакомпетентность аудитории в отношении зрительных образов.
Ключевые слова: иконографический анализ, медиа, медиатексты,
510

Researcher
ISSN 2219-8229
E-ISSN 2224-0136
Vol. 12, Is. 2, pp. 158-162, 2015
DOI: 10.13187/ejced.2015.12.158
www.ejournal1.com

UDC 37
Media Stereotypes Analysis in the Classroom at the Student Audience
Alexander Fedorov

Abstract
Media Stereotypes Analysis is the identification and analysis of stereotypical images of
people, ideas, events, stories, themes and etc. in media texts. Media stereotype reflects the well-
established attitudes towards a particular object, it is schematic averaged, familiar, stable
representation of genres, social processes / events, ideas, people, dominate in the media texts,
designed for a mass audience. The plot and genre structure in media texts has specific stereotypes:
fable situations of a media text action (scene, historical period, etc.) characters, their values, ideas,
language, facial expressions, gestures, clothing, image pickup, etc.
Keywords: media stereotypes analysis, media, media texts, media education, media
Introduction
Media Stereotypes Analysis is the identification and analysis of stereotypical images of
people, ideas, events, stories, themes and etc. in media texts. Media stereotype reflects the well-
established attitudes towards a particular object, it is schematic averaged, familiar, stable
representation of genres, social processes / events, ideas, people, dominate in the media texts,
designed for a mass audience. In this case I use approaches of media scholars and media educators
and my own development [BFI, 1990; Silverblatt, 2001; 2014; Fedorov, 2004, p.43-51; Fedorov,
2006, p.175-228; Potter, 2014]. The plot and genre structure in media texts has specific
stereotypes: fable situations of a media text action (scene, historical period, etc.) characters, their
values, ideas, language, facial expressions, gestures, clothing, image pickup, etc.
158
Electronic copy available at: http://ssrn.com/abstract=2624224


Analysis of the structure of the general subject of media stereotypes in the students
classroom is based on the generalized maximum concentration of major events: in a media text
character's actions in certain conditions of life; once their everyday life is disrupted (accident,
serious illness, a big win in the lottery, etc.), and they are trying to restore the stability of their
world:
- the structure of the story stereotypes of media texts’ melodramatic genre: meeting of male
and female characters, mesalliance, jealousy, fight disease character (s) for their love wedding /
love harmony;
- the structure of the story stereotypes of media texts’ comedy (with a focus on adventure
theme): naive, financially needy character and clever (sometimes criminal) rich character; naive
hero (or rich character) finds himself in a funny and sometimes dangerous situations overcoming
difficulties, but character receives the final award (respect for others, money, etc.);
- the structure of the story stereotypes of media texts’ comedy (with a focus on the love
theme): poor girl, a rich man, poor girl meets rich man with funny / eccentric circumstances, a
mesalliance in a series of funny / eccentric situations, characters overcoming obstacles to love
wedding / love harmony, colored light humor;
- the structure of the story stereotypes of the detective genre: police officer traveling by car,
criminal offender commits robbery, murder or other crime of violation of the law investigation,
police officer catches / kills the offender;
- the structure of the story stereotypes of the thriller: civilians and maniac, the maniac
commits a series of murders violation of the law, the life of every peaceful character threatened
persecution, anti-maniac strong character arrests / kills of the maniac, and people return to civilian
life;
- the structure of the story stereotypes of western /cowboys’ media texts: civilians and
bandits (or Indians), bandits (or Indians) attack civilians, but noble cowboy protecting civilians, he
arrests / kills the bandits or Indians, and civilians return to ordinary life;
- the structure of the story stereotypes of fantastic genre: earthlings and aliens, the aliens’
invasion, the violation of ordinary life, the earthlings arrest / kill the aliens, or the aliens back to
their planet;
- the structure of the story stereotypes of horror: monster attacks on civilians, but the brave
hero arrests / kills this monster; the restoration of peaceful life;
- the structure of the story stereotypes of the musical: young character (male or female),
endowed with musical / choreographic talent, dreams of glory and victory in the music / dance
competitions; young character (male or female) meets an influential mentor / patron, but he /she
feels the discomfort of glory (star fever, envy of others, the failure of the vocal cords, and trauma
etc.), young character (male or female) struggles against this obstacles; the final musical triumph of
character;
- the structure of the story stereotypes of media reality show: participants of reality shows, at
all times during the show the characters being telemonitoring, and they have a variety of difficulties
(physiological, moral, intellectual, etc.) associated with the execution of tasks for winning the prize;
most of the characters out of the game and returned to her normal life. But one character / small
group of characters wins / receives coveted prize;
- the structure of the story stereotypes of media game shows: the players try to find the
answer for the questions / tasks; the players have the various difficulties (physiological, moral,
intellectual, etc.) on the way to the prize, most of the characters out of the game and return to their
normal lives. One player / small group of players wins / receives coveted prize;
- the structure of the story stereotypes of media texts talk show: participants of talk show and
TV host, he asks participants about the problems (social, moral, political, sexual, aesthetic and
other topics). There is controversy between the some people in the talk show. TV host tries to find
the constructive outcome of controversy and / or analysis of the final online survey of audience;
Analysis of media text’s stereotypes also involves working not only with the plot schemes, but
also the identification of typical fable situations, places, actions, objects, historical period, the
characters, their values, ideas, facial expressions, gestures, clothing, receptions action pictures, etc.
And students can analyze the manifestation of genre’s stereotypes on examples of specific media
texts of different genres.
159
Electronic copy available at: http://ssrn.com/abstract=2624224

Analysis of media text’ stereotypes implies a number of creative tasks for students [BFI,
1990; Semali, 2000, pp.229-231; Fedorov, 2004, p. 43-51; Fedorov, 2006, p. 175-228, but
I substantially supplemented and revised the cycle tasks]: literary and analytical, drama, role-
playing, simulation. Each of these tasks include the analysis of key concepts of media (media
audiences).
Cycle of literary and analytical creative tasks on the subject of media text’ stereotypes in the
Media agencies:
- identification of a media agency’s stereotypical traits focused on political functions in
modern society;
- selection of the stereotypical traits of media agency, focused on entertainment features in
modern society.
- selection of media texts (from the proposed list) into different genres and themes;
- selection of stereotypical media personalities (from the proposed list) on the basis of their
best-fit specific themes and genres.
Media technologies:
- identification of stereotypical technologies for creating certain types of media texts.
Media languages:
- identification of stereotypical audiovisual solutions for the creation of media texts of certain
types and genres.
- analysis of media text on a historical theme, based on documentary evidence. The study of
regional geographic, political and historical materials relating to the subject and the time period.
Comparison of the studied material depicting historical events in a particular media text;
identification of media stereotypes of images of the country, people, race, nationality, social
structure, political governance, the justice system, education, employment, etc.;
- modeling (in tabular / structural form) of plot stereotypes of media texts, based on the
structure of many media texts’ storylines: the hero / heroine, a world in which the characters live;
integrity of this world is broken or changed, and the hero / heroine must restore its integrity.
Analysis of genre stereotypes - plot schemes, typical situations, characters, their values, ideas,
facial expressions and gestures, clothes, objects, places, actions, etc.;
- selection of media text on the stereotypical story blocks; attempt to interchange these
blocks, and thus change the course of events;
- selection of stereotypical "rhythmic blocks" in the media texts of "novelistic character" -
given the fact of the rhythm of media texts (balance of the epic scenes and intimate chamber
scenes);
- selection of media critics’ thesis, faithfully reflects the ideas of the authors of a media text;
- viewing, reading of the first (or final) episode of a media text, followed by an attempt to
predict the future (past) events;
- drawing up the story on behalf of stereotyping (main or secondary) character of media text:
preserving the features of his character, vocabulary, etc.;
- writing the story for media text from a character's name;
- location of stereotypical character of a media text in changing situation (with a change of
name, genre, time, place, action of media text, its composition: strings, climax, denouement,
epilogue, etc .; age, gender, nationality of a character, etc.);
- the analysis of promotional posters of media texts (visual and written information, the most
important part of this information, indicate the genre stereotypes media text, composition posters);
Media audiences:
- to try to discover the essence of the mechanism of "emotional pendulum" [alternation of
episodes that cause positive (joyful, cheerful) and negative (shock, sad) emotions of the audience,
that is, relying on psycho-physiological side of perception];
- prediction of the success of the media text.
Cycle theatrical role-creative tasks for the analysis of media stereotypes in the classroom at
160
Media agencies:
- the role game: the stereotype stages of a film or television (the various stages of preparation
and film-making process, including financial calculations, casting and signing of contracts);
- the role game "press conference" with "authors' media text" (“screen writer”, “producer”,
“director “, “actors”, “cameraman”, “composer”, “artist”). “Journalists” ask in advance prepared
questions relevant to media stereotypes; “authors” answer these questions.
- the role game: to use the same stereotyped plot in various genres (comedy, drama,
detective, and so on.).
Media technologies:
- the role game: the creators’ dispute about which technologies can be used in media text.
Media languages:
- the role game: the creator’s discussions about what specific codes (signs, symbols, etc.)
should be used in the media text.
- the role game: playing with stereotypical characters and situations: students play the roles
of stereotypical characters in stereotypical plot situations of media texts ("teacher and student",
"TV / radio host and guest star in studio", etc.). Work is proceeding in groups of 2-3 students. Each
group prepares and puts into practice the game project (episode of a media text). The teacher acts
as a consultant. The results are discussed and compared;
- the role game: interview ( interview with stereotypical characters of media texts). Work is
proceeding in groups of 2-3 students. Each group prepares and puts into practice the game project
(interview). The teacher acts as a consultant. The results are discussed and compared.
Media audiences:
- the role game: the sketch on the theme of different audience’s contact reactions (the
audience has different age, education level, social status, etc.) with stereotypical media texts.
Graphic-cycle simulation tasks for the analysis of media stereotypes in the classroom at the
student audience:
Media agencies:
- preparing drawings / collages on the theme of the creation of the stereotypical media texts.
- preparing drawings / collages, which could clearly imagine the kind of stereotypical genre
and media texts.
Media technologies:
- preparing posters (made in different techniques: drawing, collage, application, etc.) to the
stereotypical media texts.
Media languages:
- Preparation of a series of frames / cards that could be used as a basis for the image of
stereotypical characters in media text (with the support of the various types of crop - the general
plan, close-up, detail, etc.).
- creation of a poster / collage / comics, which were presented to the stereotypical situations
and characters of media texts.
Media audiences:
- creation of drawings on the theme of the representatives of the various types of audiences’
rections after contact with the stereotypical media texts of different genres.
Questions for the analysis of media stereotypes in the classroom at the student audience
[Berger, 2005; Fedorov, 2004, p. 43-51; Fedorov, 2006, p. 175-228; Buckingham, 2003, p.54-60,
Silverblatt, 2001, p.107-108]
Media agencies:
Can you think of stereotypical features of media agency / media holding (newspaper,
television, cinema, Internet, etc.)?
How conventions and codes work in stereotypical media texts of various genres and
thematic?
161
Whether a particular media text belongs to any known genre? Is there a predictable genre
formula? As understanding of this formula helps your perception of a particular media text?
What is the function of genre formula media text?
How genres’ stereotypes of media texts affect the audience’ cultural attitudes and values,
cultural mythology?
Is it possible to trace the evolution of a particular media text genre’s stereotypes?
Is it possible to trace the evolution of a particular media text topics’ stereotypes?
How these stereotypical genres / themes say about the transformations in the culture of the
society?
What stereotypical stories, storylines conventions specific to genres / themes?
Can you articulate for the stereotyped patterns of ties genres / themes?
Media technologies:
Is it possible to see the stereotype technological solutions in media texts?
Media languages:
Is it possible to see the stereotypes in media text visual solutions? If so, what exactly?
Is it possible to see the stereotypes sound decisions in a media text? If so, what exactly?
As media texts represent certain social groups? Are these representations are accurate?
If you are asked to select ten of media texts that could tell about aliens (or foreigners), which
would you choose? Why these media texts? What political, social and cultural stereotypes displayed
in the media text? Are there visible signs of deviant behavior, sexism, conformity, anxiety,
stereotyped thinking, conflict of generations, etc.?
Media audiences:
Why the audience takes some stereotypical media representations as true and reject others as
false?
Can there be different interpretations of media texts and their stereotypical characters? Or
stereotype initially involves the same interpretation of media texts?
What groups of modern society media stereotypes affect the most? Why?
Is it possible to get rid of the impact of media stereotypes on society? Explain your point of
view.
Conclusions
In this article I presented the main path for the Media Stereotypes Analysis of media texts on
media education classes in the university, including the examples of creative problems and issues
associated with this type of this analysis in the context of media education problems, ie based on
representation. I suppose that the Media Stereotypes Analysis of media texts on media education
perception.
References:
3. Fedorov, A.V. (2004). Specificity of media pedagogical students // Pedagogy. № 4,
p. 43-51.
Innovation in Education. N 4, pp. 175-228.
Press, 243 p.
162

ISSN 2411-3239
Vol. 5, Is. 3, pp. 113-122, 2015
DOI: 10.13187/jincfar.2015.5.113
www.ejournal36.com
UDC 37
Semiotic and Identification Analysis of Media Texts

on Media Education Classes With Students
Alexander Fedorov
Anton Chekhov Taganrog Institute, branch of Rostov State University of Economics, Russian
Federation
Abstract
Semiotic analysis of media texts is an analysis of the language of signs and symbols in media
texts. This analysis is closely linked to the iconographic analysis. Semiotic analysis of media texts
for training purposes based on the semiotic theory of media (Semiotic Approach, Le decodage des
medias), grounded in the work of such theorists as R. Barthes, C. Metz, U. Eco and others.
Identification analysis is the recognition / identification of hidden messages in media texts,
because media agencies often offer simplistic solutions for complex problems. The media educators
can use in this area educational games with practical content, aimed at audience understanding
how certain ideas, problems can be encoded, camouflaged in the media text.
This article presented the main directions for Semiotic and Identification analysis on media
associated with this type of the analysis in the context of media education problems, i.e. based on
representation. The author supposes that this analysis of media texts on media education classes
can significantly develop media competence of students, including critical thinking and perception.
Keywords: semiotic, identification, analysis, media, media texts, media education, media
Introduction
The Semiotic analysis of media text (an analysis of the language of signs and symbols in
media texts) has the real actuality in the modern world. This analysis is closely linked to the
iconographic analysis. Semiotic analysis of media texts for training purposes based on the semiotic
theory of media (Semiotic Approach, Le decodage des medias), grounded in the work of such
theorists as R. Barthes [Barthes, 1964], C. Metz [Metz, 1964], U. Eco [Eco, 1976] and others.
Identification analysis is the recognition / identification of hidden messages in media texts,
because media agencies often offer simplistic solutions for complex problems. We can use in this
area educational games with practical content, aimed at audience understanding how certain ideas,
problems can be encoded, camouflaged in the media text.
113
Identification analysis of media texts implies a number of students to creative tasks [but I
substantially supplemented and revised this cycle of tasks]: literary analytical, role-playing, fine-
simulation. Each of these tasks includes analysis of the key aspect of media literacy education
[media agencies, media categories, media language, media technologies, media representations,
media audiences, etc.].

We use the materials of the classical literature about Semiotic and Identification analysis
[Bartes, 1964; Metz, 1964; Eco, 1976]. This analysis of media texts implies a number of students of
creative tasks [BFI, 1990; Semali, 2000, pp.229-231; Silverblatt, 2001; 2014; Berger, 2005, p.145;
Fedorov 2004, p.43-51; Potter, 2014, Nechay, 1989, pp.267-268, but we substantially
supplemented and revised the series of tasks]: literary analytical, literary imitation, drama, role-
playing, fine-simulation. Each of these tasks include analysis of the key aspects of media literacy
education, media agencies, media categories, media language, media technologies, media
representations, media audiences, etc.].
Discussion
Researcher and media educator A. Berger emphasizes that the sign from the perspective of
semiotics, can be anything that symbolizes or represents something else [Berger, 2005, p.55]. Signs
can be divided into image (displays some easily recognizable resemblance to real objects),
indicators (situational displays the connection that you can define logical: for example, fire and
smoke) and symbols (display conditional values that require special knowledge - for example, the
symbolism of flags of different States [Berger, 2005, p.247].
Likewise, the symbol can be any object and any phenomenon. The symbol - a sign, an image
embodying any idea; visible, audible rarer phenomenon, which people attach a special meaning
that is not associated with the essence of this phenomenon. The meaning of the symbol hints at
what is for his sensually perceived appearance. Characters with more abstract sense often represent
something that in itself can not be expressed otherwise than symbolic [Bazalgette, 1995].
Problem of a code it is a key in media literacy education. The codes in media literacy
education are a set of conventions laid down in a predictable stereotype model. Media animation it
is the good examples of encoded media texts. The task of the teacher - explain to students that the
codes as ways of understanding the signs, can be considered a system of conventions and customs,
the proposed cultural tradition. Culture (in general human sense) can be described as a set of
codes. And the phrase "culture shock" refers to a situation when a person is faced with unusual it
cultural or social codes" [Berger, 2005, p.60-61].
Media educators from a semiotic area argue that the media often seek to disguise the multi-
valued symbolic nature of his lyrics, and it threatens the freedom of information consumption.
Audience, primarily children, too passive in relation to the "reading" of media texts, so the goal of
media education is to help students "how to read" media text. So, from this point of view, the main
content of media literacy education are the codes and "grammar" of media texts, ie the language of
the media, and teaching strategies - learning the rules of decoding a media text, description of its
contents, associations, language features, etc. (denotation / connotation).
In this regard, one of the British media educators - A. Hart wrote that the semiotic analysis of
media texts should more actively implemented in media education, because new literacy requires
students to study the media meta-language [Hart, 2000, p.21].
Material for semiotic analysis in the classroom at the student audience can become not only a
product of art house, but any replicated objects - toys, packaging boxes, travel books, magazine
covers, etc. Even the style of the students, their non-verbal communication and the plastic is a
complex sign systems created by some individuals and “read” the other [Watts Pailliotet at all,
2000].
At the same time media do not reflect reality, but reinterpreted / represent this reality.
Analysis of the semiotic theory of media leads to the idea that it is the complete opposite ideological
theory of media, because the problem of language emphasizes the media, rather than political or
social significance of media text. But semiotic theory’s approaches to the analysis of media texts are
similar to the theory of media education as the development of critical thinking of the audience,
however, without pressure to investigations of the manipulative role of media in society.
114
Semiotic analysis of media texts is closely connected with the study of the key concepts of
media literacy education media language. In this sense, media education aims to develop
knowledge of the ways in which media texts express his idea, and develop the knowledge,
improving skills of textual analysis that can be attached to a fixed or moving images recorded on
the medium of sound or any combination of the above. In the critical work is usually done by
analyzing the individual images or short fragments of the audiovisual text, offering a detailed
account of what actually seen and heard - before moving on to the interpretive comments and
express their reaction [Bazalgette, 1995 , p.31]. Here, cultural and aesthetic approaches in media
education (as well as an approach that focuses on the formation of "critical thinking") in common
with the semiotic theory and methods of media literacy education, involving, as already mentioned,
reading and analysis skills, as a synthesis of signs and symbols, "codes".
I must admit that in relation to the concept of media languages reveals the unity of the
Western and Russian approaches (C. Bazalgette, A. Hart, Y. Usov, S. Penzin, O. Baranov and
others): they are offer for students a careful perception of audiovisual images and a description of
their characteristic features at the initial stage of the analysis of media texts. The audience learns
conventional codes of media texts (for example, become "transparent" following codes: objects and
phenomena in the media text can be seen through the eyes of the alleged character, and each radio
/ TV program has its usually constant cover image). And only after that students can make a
transition to the interpretation and evaluation of media texts.
Media educators recommend also the training games with the practical content: crop images
and photos (the study of plans), shooting a video camera at different angles (the study of the
concept of perspective), etc. As a result, students' understanding of the language of media includes
complex ideas about how certain sets of meanings can be encoded: how to identify the changes of
time and place of action in media texts, or can be displayed typical characters and situations
[Bazalgette, 1995, p .36]. For example, what is the image code of typical negative characters, and
what – of typical positive, or, as a more complicated version – how transform standard media text
codes in a parody.
But we can criticize the teaching methodology that focuses only on the development of
critical thinking in relation to media manipulation, without attention for another sides of analysis.
Results
These series of semiotic tasks for media education literacy classes for students: literary-
analytical, literary imitation, drama, role-playing, fine-simulation.
Cycle of creative literary-analytical and simulation tasks for semiotic analysis of media
texts:
Media agencies:
- analysis f famous media agencies’ logos with the semiotic point of view.
- analysis of mass media genres from the view of the most common symbols (the Christian
cross, the hammer and sickle, etc.).
Media technologies:
- preparing signs and symbols’ project technologies in media texts of specific types and
genres.
Media languages:
- writing mini-scenarios for advertising media texts relying on signs and symbols;
- reading a short story and thinking over what signs and symbols can be used in its film
adaptation;
- analysis of an advertising poster depicting people and advertising text, taking into account
all the symbols and signs seen you on this poster.
- comparison of two frames (photographs, drawings), where the same scene is depicted in
various ways. Thinking about how to change the angle effects on the perception of the frame, on the
understanding of the relationship media text’s characters to each other.
- representation of the versions of hypothetical transformations of certain well-known media
texts;
115
- description of media text representations’ codes for "supermen", "bad guys", "Cinderella",
and other stereotypical characters.
Media audiences:
- analysis of the process of reading /decoding of signs and symbols in a media text for
audience of different age and level of education.
All the above work collectively discussed are compared. Indicators of assignments: the ability
to decode media messages, read and generate signs and symbols (including performing creative
tasks for the replacement of individual components of a media text).
Cycle theatrical game-creative tasks for semiotic analysis of media texts:
Media agencies
- presentation of media logo in the form of pantomime.
- presentation of media genre in the form of pantomime.
Media technologies:
- practically implementation (in small creative groups, armed, for example, digital video
camcorder) to certain media technologies relying on a particular symbolism of the text;
Media languages:
- preparing pantomime based on the symbolism of specific images;
- role game: "press conference" with "domestic or foreign authors of media text ("writer",
"director", "actors", "operator", "composer", "artist", "sound engineer", "producer", "designer"),
questions are asked with a bias in the semiotic analysis of media texts;
- role game: "international meeting of media criticism" is that discuss various aspects related
to the semiotic analysis of media texts;
- role game: an advertising campaign in the media.
Media audiences:
- preparing pantomime symbolizing various audiences’ emotional reactions to media texts.
In fact, the role game creative activities complement and enrich the skills acquired by the
audience during the literary-analytical gaming workshops. They activate improvisational, plastic
ability, associative, critical thinking. The disadvantages of some of the role-playing works can
probably be attributed quite a long stage of preliminary preparation of the audience who want to
get into the role of "author", "journalists", etc.
Graphic-cycle simulation creative assignments for the semiotic analysis of media texts in
Media agencies:
- transformation of a logo of some well-known company, the rationale for the changes made
in the design, symbolism.
- preparing of pictures, posters, collages, reflecting the stereotypes of the genre or media
relying on certain symbolism.
Media technologies :
- creation (supported by modern computer technology, for example, Power Point) of media
project associated with the sign system of media texts.
Media languages:
- analysis of the frame (photos, posters) from the point of view contained therein signs and
symbols. Manufacturing clippings figures or objects depicted in photographs or posters, testing
different options for the location of these clippings in the "frame"; reflecting on the fact whether
the changed attitude of the characters and objects after a reshuffle, and how it has affected the
meaning of signs and symbols;
- create of a different subjects on the basis of the same image containing characters and
symbols (with a change in their shape and elements).
- creation of an advertising billboards / posters for own media texts (variant: posters / prints
for professional media texts) with the help of photo collage, with additional drawings or based on
their own original drawings with an emphasis on signs and symbols;
116
- creation of a drawings, comics and collages with some symbols on the subject of works of
Russian and foreign media culture (using text and image clippings from old newspapers /
magazines);
- creation a diorama scenes from c media text using any symbols.
Media audiences:
- creation of pictures or draw comics, symbolizing the different audiences’ emotional
reactions to certain media texts.
All results of students’ creative works are discussed, comparing their advantages and
disadvantages, the authors of creative works have the ability to answer questions from the teacher
and the audience regarding the signs and symbols, etc. The main indicator for these works: the
abilities of students to convey their impressions of the media text in sign, symbolic form.
The cycle of creative activities aimed at developing students’ skills for semiotic analysis of a
particular media text. Of course, the educator ca use creative, game, heuristic and problem tasks,
significantly increasing the activity and interest of the audience. Heuristic form of the class, in
which students are offered several false and true judgments, greatly facilitates the analysis of the
problem and is the first step to subsequent gaming and problematic forms of media texts
discussion.
Students try to find the conventional codes of: 1) typical characters of media texts (Cinderella,
Superman, Villain, King, Spy, etc.); 3) typical feelings’ expression (hunger, thirst, fear, joy, etc.); 3)
typical media text’ place (reach house, poor house, bar, restaurant, office, etc.).
The next series of works in the classes are a group discussions about media texts from the
perspective of semiotic analysis. There can be used the following problem of creative tasks:
- comparison and discussion about articles, books, containing a semiotic analysis of media
texts;
- preparing essays devoted to the semiotics of media texts of different types and genres;
- review about the media texts’ specific (for media text of different types and genres), drawing
on semiotic analysis.
- group discussions (with the help of problem questions of the teacher) about semiotics of
media texts.
The logic sequence of creative tasks comes from the fact that the critical analysis of media
texts’ semiotics begins with an introduction to the works of media critics (reviews, theoretical
articles, monographs, devoted to the semiotics of media culture) in which the audience can judge
the different approaches and forms of this type of work.
Classes, developing skills for semiotic analysis of media texts aimed at training sound &
vision memory, the stimulation of creative abilities of the individual, improvisation, capacities,
critical thinking, the ability to apply this knowledge in new pedagogical situations, etc.
The main stages of this cycle are as follows:
- identification and consideration of the specific content of a media text, with maximum
brightness for signs and codes;
- analysis of signs and codes of media text: how they are manifested in the development of
conflicts, characters, ideas, and audio-visual, spatial and time series, etc.
A discussion using problem-test questions. For example: "What are the known media texts
you can compare this work (the basic codes, symbols)? Why Are? What they have in common?",
etc.
Methodical implementation of these steps based on the cycle of activities dedicated to the
analysis of media texts’ specific. However, as experience shows, it is necessary, first, to go from
simple to more complex: first choose to discuss, analyze on the plot, signs and codes of media texts.
And secondly - aim to take into account the genre, thematic preferences of the audience.
Indicator of the ability of the audience to semiotic analysis of audio-visual, spatial and
temporal structure of media texts is the ability to multi-layer shaped semiotic understanding of the
world as separate components, and work as a whole.
Questions to the study of the basic approaches to semiotic analysis of media texts in the
classroom [Buckingham, 2003, pp.54-60, Berger, 2005; Fedorov, 2004 p.43-51; Fedorov, 2006,
p.175-228]:
Media agencies:
117
Is the agency "branded" symbols and codes in its logo? If so, why? What are the codes
denoting a particular company, the most common?
How conventions and codes appear in different types of media texts?
Media technologies:
How technology affects the signs and symbols in media texts?
Media languages:
What are the grammatical "rules" set by the media? What happens when they are violated?
How is the use of language becomes clear and generally accepted?
What visual images can be used to convey concepts such as love, horror, terror, spy? How can
portray feelings and other phenomena?
What are the codes for the representation of Cinderella, Superman or Villain in the popular
media texts?
Media audiences:
Can the same codes and symbols perceived differently by the audience? Why Are?
This if the cycle of identification analysis tasks:
Cycle of literary analytical creative tasks for identification analysis of media texts in the
student audience:
Media agencies:
- analysis of key headlines on the front pages of various newspapers; based on the
identification analysis try to draw conclusions about their political and genre orientation;
- analysis of the situations related to the closure or prohibition of a particular media source
(newspaper, magazine, film, internet site, etc.), a media company for / against this or that
politician;
- analysis of the media presentation levels of the social, political, national and religious
groups in different broadcasting company; analyze the reasons for this.
- analysis of media texts of different genres and conclusions about what genres’ specific most
commonly used for manipulative impact on the audience.
Media technologies:
- analysis of media texts and conclusions about what is manipulative techniques impact on
the audience the most commonly used.
Media languages:
- analysis of media possibilities to use different forms of language to convey ideas or values.
- View television news for the detection of the presence / absence of manipulative effects;
- comparison of several points of view (eg, professional journalists, political scientists) about
the events reflected in the messages and of the media texts;
- selection of thesis, in your opinion, truly reflecting the views of the authors of a media text;
- analysis of media texts, draw a conclusion (confirmed concrete examples) on how media can
artificially create pseudo-events.
Media audiences:
- analysis of media text from the perspective of the audience for which it was intended;
- analysis of the reasons why the audience usually chooses / buys media texts.
Cycle of creative role game for identification analysis of media texts:
Media agencies:
- role game: the meeting the producers of media agencies for the developing a system of
manipulative impact on the audience, which will be used by them during the upcoming
parliamentary elections.
- role game: the essay on the topic of how to create a pseudo-events in a television or radio
program in the next issue of the newspaper.
Media technologies:
- role game: technology of hidden messages in any media text.
118
Media languages:
- role game: choosing of the audiovisual language for the future media text, which must
include placement (implicit advertising of any products).
- role game "Actors": students play a roles similar to the plot of a media text ("parents and
children", "detective and witnesses of crime", "teacher and student", etc.). Work is proceeding in
groups of 2-3 people. Each group prepares and implements in practice its game project.
The teacher acts as a consultant. The results are discussed and compared. Students try to play their
roles so that put their gestures, facial expressions hidden subtexts and meanings.
- role game: interviews with "character" and "creator" of media texts.
- role game: "international meeting of media criticism" is that condemn various aspects
related with hidden meanings, codes and subtexts media were analyzed;
- "legal" role game: the process of "investigation" of media text characters’ crimes; the "court
hearing" about the hidden meanings and subtexts code media sphere and media texts.
- role game: study on advertising media text, which incorporated certain hidden meanings
and subtexts code.
Media audiences:
- role game: the experts debate on the topic of how the audience reacts to the manipulative
media exposure.
Graphic-cycle of a simulation creative tasks for identification analysis of media texts:
Media agencies:
- create a comic book, a series of drawings on the theme of how the media agency is
developing a system of manipulative impact on the audience, which will be used by them in
political elections.
- create a comic book, a series of drawings on the theme of how the media agency creates a
pseudo-events in a television or radio program in the next issue of the newspaper.
Media technologies:
- create a comic book, a series of drawings on the theme of how the author selects the most
efficient technology, in order to lay the hidden messages in the media text.
Media languages:
- create a comic book, a series of drawings on the theme of choice of the audio-visual
language for future media text, which must include placement (implicit advertising of any
products).
- create advertising billboards own media texts (variant: posters to professional media texts)
with the help of photo collage with additional drawings or based on their own original drawings; in
an attempt to lay the image data some hidden meanings;
- create a cartoonist with a "double bottom", that is veiled meanings and codes.
Media audiences:
- Create draw comics on the topic of the audience reaction to the manipulative media
exposure.
After executing the above creative tasks is a contest of comics, drawings, posters, collages
students discuss their advantages and disadvantages, etc.
The main indicator of the work: the ability of the student in the non-verbal form to create a
text with hidden codes.
Group discussions and media text reviewing. There can be used the following problem of
creative tasks:
• comparison and discussion reviews (articles, books) professional media criticism, and
journalists;
• preparation of essays on the subject of the identification analysis of media texts;
• group discussions (with the help of problem questions of the teacher) about media texts
with an emphasis on identification analysis;
• written students’ reviews to specific media texts of different types and genres with an
emphasis on identification analysis.
119
- media educator’ introduction (the goal - to give brief information about the creators of
media texts, remind their previous work that the audience can go beyond a particular product, refer
to other works of these authors, if there is a need to dwell on the historical context of the events or
do not touching the artistic, political, ideological, moral, and other assessments of the author's
position, and, of course, not retelling the plot of the work), that is, on the installation media insight;
- group "reading" of media text (communicative phase);
- discussion about a media text with a focus on identification analysis, conclusions.
Discussion about media texts begins with a relatively simple for perception mass (popular)
culture works with the following steps:
- selection of the episode, in which you can decipher the hidden meanings, connotations;
- analysis of data episodes (attempt to understand the logic of the author thinking - in a
complex, interconnected development of the conflict, characters, ideas, sound and vision, etc.);
- identification of the author's concept and its evaluation.
In the discussion about media texts takes into account the basic techniques of manipulative
influence of media on the audience:
• “orchestration” - psychological pressure in the form of constant repetition of certain facts,
regardless of the truth;
• “selection” - the selection of certain trends - for example, only positive or negative,
distortion, exaggeration (understatement) data trends;
• embellishment of the facts;
• “sticking labels” (eg, guilty, offensive, etc.);
• “transfer” - the transfer of any qualities (positive, negative) to another phenomenon (or
person);
• “evidence” - a reference (not necessarily correct) to the authorities in order to justify an
action, or that slogan;
• “folksy game” including, for example, the most simplified form of information presentation.
When identification analysis of media texts with students using a variety of instructional
methods:
• “sifting" of information (a reasoned selection of true and false in the materials of the press,
television, radio, etc., clarification of information by comparison with the actual facts, etc.);
• critical analysis of the purposes, the interests of "agency", that is a source of information.
The discussion can be concludes with the test questions, affecting the utilization of the
audience received skill analysis skills (for example: "What are the known media texts you can
compare this work? Why? What do they have in common?", etc.).
Questions for identification analysis of media texts in the classroom at the student audience
[Buckingham, 2003, pp.54-60; Silverblatt, 2001, pp.42-43; Silverblatt, 2014; Fedorov, 2004,
pp.43-51; Fedorov, 2006, p.175-228.]:
Media agencies:
Whether there is equal access by all to the possibility of open / establish a new media agency?
texts? If so, how, in your opinion, the particular owner can influence the media texts produced by
his agency?
Opinions of which social, ethnic, political, religious groups most widely represented in the
texts of media agencies N? Opinions which groups are the minimum? Opinions which groups are
excluded? Why Are?
What kind of event media agencies seek to reflect in its products primarily what typically seek
to exclude?
Is it the agency determines the target audience for a media text?
Can the agency "create" the audience?
Does media agency try to imbue for you the concrete ideas?
What are the challenges for the author, when he creates a media text about a political issue?
artistic, etc.)?
How conventions and codes are shown in different types / categories of media texts?
Media technologies:
120
As media technologies are manifested in different types / categories of media texts associated
with manipulative functions?
Media languages:
How to use various forms of media language to convey ideas value "hidden" codes? How is
the use of language becomes clear and generally accepted?
Do you know some typical hidden meanings in a media text?
Do you believe that all media representations are truth? How the authors of media texts are
trying to achieve their "authenticity", "documentary"?
Can be engaged, biased position of the authors of media texts? If yes, please give specific
examples.
Is it possible to absolute objectivity for creators’ views creators in media texts?
As media represent certain social groups? Are these perceptions are accurate?
Media audiences:
Do media representations affect our view of certain social groups or issues?
Are the media violate the individual rights of citizens? If yes, in what cases?
Do the strategy, style, and content of media texts to understand their audience?
The audience understands, interprets, evaluates media texts? What does this mean?
What is the typology of perception and evaluation of media texts audience?
What are the causes of mass success (or lack of success) of a particular media text?
audience?
What is the main purpose of this media text? To what extent has achieved this goal? What
kind of reaction the audience awaiting its creators?
Conclusions
The author did the review of the features of the Semiotic and Identification analysis of the
functioning of the media and media texts in society on media education classes in the university.
The author also provides examples of creative tasks and issues associated with this type of analysis
in the context of media education problems, ie based on six key concepts of media literacy
education: agency, category, language, technology, audience, representation. The author thinks
that the analysis of the functioning of the media and media texts in society on media education
perception.
References:
1. Barthes, R. (1964). Elements de semiologie. Communications, N 4, pp.91-135.
2. Bazalgette, C. (1995). Key aspects of media education. Moscow, 51 p.
3. Berger AA Seeing is believing. Introduction to visual communication. Moscow:
Williams, 2005. 288 p.
4. BFI (British Film Institute) (1990). Film Education. Moscow, 124 с.
№ 4, pp.S.43-51.
9. Hart, A. (2000). Probing the New Literature: A Meta-language for Media. Telemedium.
Journal of Media literacy. Vol. 46. N 1, p.21.
10. Metz, C. (1964). Le Cinema: Langue ou language? Communication, N 4, pp. 52-90.
121
16. Watts Pailliotet, A., Semali, L., Rodenberg, R.K., Giles, J.K., and Macaul, S.L. (2000).
Intermediality: Bridge to Critical Media Literacy. The Reading Teacher. Vol. 54, N 2, pp.208-219.
УДК 37
Семиотический и идентификационный анализ медиатекстов

на медиаобразовательных занятиях со студентами

Аннотация. Семиотический анализ медиатекстов – это анализ языка знаков и

символов в медиатекстов. Этот анализ тесно связан с иконографическим анализом.
Семиотический анализ медиатекстов для учебных целей, основан на семиотической теории
медиа, разработанной такими теоретиками, как Р. Барт, К. Метц, У. Эко и др.
Идентификационный анализ – это идентификация скрытых сообщений в медиатекстах (так
как медиаагентства часто предлагают упрощенные решения для сложных проблем).
Медиапедагоги могут использовать здесь образовательные игры с практическим
содержанием, направленные на понимание аудиторией того, как в медиатексте могут быть
закодированы, замаскированы некоторые идеи, проблемы. В этой статье анализируются
основные направления для семиотического и идентификационного анализа на
медиаобразовательных занятиях в студенческой аудитории, в том числе - на примерах
творческих заданий и вопросов, связанных с этим типом анализа в контексте проблем
медиаобразования, т.е. на основе шести ключевых понятий медиаграмотности (агентство,
категория, язык, технологии, аудитория, репрезентация). Автор предполагает, что
идентификационный анализ медиатекстов на медиаобразовательных занятиях может
значительно развить медиакомпетентность студентов, в том числе их критическое
мышление и восприятие.
Ключевые слова: семиотический анализ, идентификационный медиа, медиатексты,
122
See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: http://www.researchgate.net/publication/280232845
Structural Analysis of the Functioning of Media

in Society and Media Texts on Media Education
Classes
ARTICLE · JULY 2015

DOI: 10.13187/jincfar.2015.4.92
DOWNLOADS VIEWS
14 9
1 AUTHOR:
Alexander Fedorov
SEE PROFILE
Available from: Alexander Fedorov

Retrieved on: 19 August 2015

ISSN 2411-3239
Vol. 4, Is. 2, pp. 92-96, 2015
DOI: 10.13187/jincfar.2015.4.92
www.ejournal36.com
UDC 37
Structural Analysis of the Functioning of Media in Society

Alexander Fedorov

Russian Federation
Abstract
The author analyzes the features of the structural analysis of the functioning of the media and
media texts in society on media education classes in the university. The paper also provides
examples of creative problems and issues associated with this type of structural analysis in the
context of media education problems, ie based on six key concepts of media literacy education:
agency, category, language, technology, audience, representation. The author argues that the
structural analysis of the functioning of the media and media texts in society on media education
perception.
Keywords: structural analysis, media, media texts, media education, media literacy, media
Introduction
Structural analysis: analysis of systems, relationships, forms of media culture, the structure
of media texts. Many studies on the structural analysis of media texts are based on the work of V.
Propp [Propp, 1976; 1998], R. Barthes [Barthes, 1964, 1965], U. Eco [Eco, 1976], W.J. Potter
[Potter, 2014], A. Silverblatt [Silverblatt, 2001; 2014] and others.
Despite the Internet, a television has the biggest influence on the mass audience. And the
creators of media texts of popular culture use the emotional aspect of perception, because
monotony of plot situations often leads the audience to suspension from contact with the media
text. That is why there is a change of episodes from a "shock" to "calm" reaction and back, but
certainly with a happy end, giving a positive "discharge." In other words, among the popular media
texts we can easily and painlessly broke many of those into cubes, blocks (often interchangeable).
Most importantly, these blocks were linked clearly thought-out mechanism "emotional changes" -
the alternation of positive and negative emotions caused by the public.
Many bestsellers and blockbusters built their action according to this "success formula",
including folklore, fairy tale, mythological basis, a happy ending, the use of entertainment (ie, the
most popular genres and themes) with rapid change short (so as not to bore the audience)
episodes. In the center of the plot (throw in a sensational and informative mosaic of events
92
unfolding in various exotic locations) - the world of the evil that opposes the protagonist – almost
magical, fairy tale character. He is handsome, strong, charming (a good reason for the
identification and compensation). In addition, many episodes actively affect human emotions and
instincts (anxiety, for example). Mass media texts can be calculated also with additional
components for success: fight, shooting, chase, beauty, disturbing music, overflowing emotions
characters minimum dialogues maximum physical actions and other dynamic attributes [Corliss,
1990].
Indeed, the modern media text (film / TV / video / clip, interactive, computer-gaming) puts
greater demands on the vision, because we have eyes to watch every inch frame in anticipation of
lightning stunts and special effects. It is worth noting that in many cases, the creators of mass
media texts consciously simplify, trivialize affected by, life stuff, obviously hoping to attract that
part of the youth audience, which, for example, keen on computer games, built on those or other
actions of virtual violence. And this, no doubt, has its own logic, because even Nikolai Berdyaev
quite rightly wrote that "the masses, not the communion of the benefits and values of the culture,
culture is difficult in the noble sense of the word, and relatively easy technique" [Berdyaev, 1990,
p.229].
A. Silverblatt has developed an effective method of critical structural analysis of media texts,
based on the sequential cycle of questions [Silverblatt, 2001, pp.107-108]. Based on this method,
students can create a table of the structural analysis of specific media texts: type of media text,
genre of media text, block action strings, plot structure (chain of major events), block decoupling
action.
In addition, the audience can offer to make a table of the basic structure of plot stereotypes in
media texts (characters, a significant change in the lives of the characters, problems encountered,
solutions to the problem, the solution / return to stability) of different types and genres.

Structural analysis of the systems, relationships, forms of media culture, media texts includes
a number of creative tasks (part of these tasks are available at: BFI, 1990; Semali, 2000, pp.229-
231; Fedorov, 2004, p. 43-51; Fedorov, 2006, p. 175-228, but I substantially updated and revised
the tasks). Each of these tasks include analysis of the key concepts of media literacy education
(media agencies, media categories, media language, media technologies, media representations,
media audiences, etc.).
Cycle of creative tasks to identify systems, relationships, forms of media culture, structure of
media texts in the classroom at the student audience:
Media agencies:
Studying of the largest media companies sites and preparation of exemplary block diagrams
of their operation, analysis of the relationship between the media company personnel within the
system of a particular agency.
- distribution of media texts (from the proposed teacher list) on the structural principle.
Media technologies:
- studying of modern technologies for creating media texts in media companies and
preparation of exemplary block diagrams of the basic technological stages of creating a specific type
of media text and genre.
Media languages:
- analysis of the structural features of audiovisual solutions media texts of different types and
genres;
- separation the media texts on structural narrative blocks, trying to interchange these blocks,
and thus change the course of events;
- acquaintance with the first (or final) episode of a media text, followed by an attempt to
predict the future (past) events.
Media audiences:
- justification of the mechanism of "emotional pendulum" (under "emotional pendulum" I
mean changing episodes: from positive to negative emotions), that is, relying on psycho-
physiological side perception);
93
It is important that students understand that the so-called "strong impression", sometimes
they receive, for example, from the media text of mass / popular culture, depends not on the high
artistic quality, but also on the skillful impact on the scope of sensual aspects.
The media text unable to keep the audience in a long state of shock, or in the long state of the
emotional comfort. And in fact, in both cases there is the inevitable dulling the senses, emotions,
fatigue, loss of interest in what is happening. The intensity of stimulation can not be increased
indefinitely. Hence the desire of many authors of popular media texts to precise mathematical
calculations situations, sequential episodes, causing the "positive" and "negative" emotions, but
certainly with a happy ending, so that the audience did not consider the media product ―heavy‖
(which undoubtedly alienate a large part of the audience).
Undoubtedly, this psychological law familiar to the authors create complex, ambiguous in its
philosophical concept works, but it is mass media texts culture-based recreational, entertainment
genres, often use this technique in the most simplified block form, which allows the audience
without much effort to cope with the above assignment under section.
Activity is divided into the following stages:
- contact with the (mass) media texts;
- allocation of the episodes that caused the audience positive and negative emotions;
- separation this media text on the major structural units and identifying them with
appropriate signs: episode causes negative emotions of fear, horror, etc.); episode evokes positive
emotions and episode emotionally neutral; the task: to show a concrete example how to build a
system of ―emotional pendulum‖ in the media text; to ensure that the audience realized that its
effects are often not based on deep penetration into the characters, in the heart of the problem, etc.,
but on the structural system of alternating episodes of blocks with polar emotional content.
As a result, the main goal of the activity achieved: students conclude that the product of the
mass media culture is usually quite easy to break up into cubes structural blocks (which sometimes
can be swapped – without compromising the story and meaning of the media text) fastened
accurately develop mechanisms of emotional swings.
It is important to emphasize that such an emotional ―success formula‖ (including
compensation of certain gaps in the life of the senses, a happy ending, the use of entertainment
genres, etc.) built many media texts. Throw in not only entertaining and recreational functions, but
reliance on myth, folklore, the author's intuition, serial, word, focus on most levels of perception.
Graphic-cycle creative tasks for system analysis, relationships, forms of media culture,
structure of media texts in the classroom at the student audience:
Media agencies:
- create a visual presentation of the structure of the media agency using Power Point.
- preparing series of the cards with drawings, each of which reflects certain elements of the
structure of the media agency.
- preparing series of the cards with drawings, each of which reflects certain elements of the
structure of relations media agencies, institutions of public administration and the audience.
- preparing series of the cards with drawings that would reflect the specific elements of the
structure of one of the media genres.
Media technologies:
- preparing series of the cards with drawings that would reflect some technological elements
of the framework on specific skills.
Media languages:
- preparing series of the cards with drawings that would reflect the specific visual design
elements create a certain type of media text and genre.
- preparing series of the cards with drawings, which could be used as a basis for the image of
the building blocks of a particular plot of media texts.
Media audiences:
- preparing series of the cards with drawings, which could be used as a basis for the image of
the building blocks of typology of media perception peculiar to different groups of audiences.
As a result, the whole complex activities of a creative nature is in addition to the knowledge
and skills acquired in previous lessons audience: students develop cognitive interests, fantasy,
94
imagination, associative, creative, critical, individual thinking, media competence. The knowledge
and skills connected with the concepts of the courses of literature (theme, idea, plot, etc.), arts
(color, light, composition, view, etc.), music (temp, rhythm, etc.).
Questions for critical analysis systems, relationships, forms of media culture, the structure
of media texts in the classroom at the student audience [Buckingham, 2003, pp.54-60, Silverblatt,
2001, pp.80-81, pp.107-108; Fedorov, 2004, p.43-51; Fedorov, 2006, p.175-228]:
Media agencies:
How can I structure the media industry by type of property? How can I structure the
influence of the media texts on the government's decision? If so, what is it?
What is the internal structure of the media agency? How does this affect the internal
structure of media content?
Is there any other ways of classifying media texts, except genre? If so, what?
Can you identify the type of media text (genre, method and region distribution and so on.)?
Can you identify the building blocks in media texts?
What are the building blocks are characteristic of specific media genres?
Media languages:
Is it correct to use the term "structure image"? If so, why?
What is the volume of a media (newspapers, TV), highlighted in the image (photographs,
drawings, etc.), or promotional materials?
What is the volume of verbal texts (articles, dialogs, etc.) in a particular product?
Predicts whether tie events and themes of media text? What is the impact of this on the
media text strings?
Can you formulate stereotypes drawstrings for different genres?
What do you think, is it possible to insert a media text additional episodes? If yes, which
ones? In what part of their media text could be inserted?
Why does the author of a media text N. exactly built this or that episode?
Media audiences:
Can media agency changes the structure of a media influence for audience’s reception? If so,
give examples.
Conclusions
So, I did the review of the features of the structural analysis of the functioning of the media
and media texts in society on media education classes in the university. I also provides examples of
creative tasks and issues associated with this type of structural analysis in the context of media
education problems, ie based on six key concepts of media literacy education: agency, category,
language, technology, audience, representation. I think that the structural analysis of the
functioning of the media and media texts in society on media education classes can significantly
develop media competence of students, including critical thinking and perception.
References:
1. Barthes, R. (1964). Elements de semiologie. Communications, N 4, pp. 91-135.
2. Barthes, R. (1965). Mythologies. Paris: Editions de Seuil.
3. Berdyaev, N.A. (1990). The destiny of man in the modern world // New world. № 1,
p. 207-232.
4. Zorkaya, N.M. (1981). Unique and replicated. Mass media and reproduced art. Moscow:
Art, 1981. 167 p.
5. BFI (1990). Film Education. Moscow, 124 p.
7. Corliss, R. (1990). Dynamic movies attacking // Video Ace Express. № 1, p. 8.
9. Fedorov, A.V. (2004). Specificity of media pedagogical students // Pedagogy. № 4,
p. 43-51.
95
Innovation in Education. 2006. N 4, p.175-228.
12. Propp, V.Y. (1976). Folklore and reality. Moscow: Art, 1976, p.51-63.
13. Propp, VY. (1998). The morphology of the fairy tale. The historical roots of the fairy
Press, 243 p.
УДК 37
Структурный анализ функционирования медиа и медиатекстов в социуме

на медиаобразовательных занятиях в вузе
Александр Федоров,

Аннотация. Автор статьи анализирует особенности структурного анализа

функционирования медиа и медиатекстов в социуме на медиаобразовательных занятиях в
вузе. В статье также приводятся примеры творческих задач и вопросов, связанных с данного
типа структурным анализом в контексте медиаобразовательных задач, то есть с опорой на
шесть ключевых понятий медиаобразования: агентство, категория, язык, технология,
аудитория, репрезентация. Автор статьи утверждает, что структурный анализ
функционирования медиа и медиатекстов в социуме на медиаобразовательных занятиях
может существенно развивать медиакомпетентность студентов, включая критическое
мышление и восприятие.
Ключевые слова. структурный анализ, медиа, медиатексты, медиаобразование,
96

European Journal of Philosophical Research
ISSN: 2408-9435
E-ISSN: 2413-7286
Vol. 5, Is. 1, pp. 4-12, 2016
DOI: 10.13187/ejpr.2016.5.4
www.ejournal17.com
UDC 1
Ideological and Philosophical Analysis of the Functioning of Media in Society

Alexander Fedorov
Abstract
Ideological and Philosophical Analysis of the functioning of media in society and media
texts: analysis of the ideological, philosophical aspects of media sphere. The ideological theory
of media becomes as the theoretical basis. It is assumed that the media are able to deliberately
influence public opinion, including in the interests of a particular social class, race or nation.
Pedagogical strategy of media education is reduced to the study of political, philosophical,
social, and economic aspects of the national media, to analyze the numerous contradictions
that contain these issues from the perspective of a particular class, race, religio n or nation.
In this case, the audience should be able to define: the difference between media images and
well-known facts; the reliability of the source; the accuracy of the determination; valid and
invalid statements; the difference between the primary and secondary information, approval;
partiality of judgment; installed and uninstalled judgment; vague and ambiguous arguments; a
logical inconsistency in the chain of reasoning; the force of the argument.
Keywords: ideological and philosophical analysis, media, media texts, media education,
Introduction
Ideological analysis and Philosophical Analysis of the functioning of media in society and
media texts: analysis of the ideological, philosophical aspects of medi a sphere. Theoretical
basis there is an ideological theory of media. It is assumed that the media are able to
deliberately influence public opinion, including in the interests of a particular social class, race
or nation. Pedagogical strategy of media education is reduced to the study of political,
philosophical, social, and economic aspects of the national media, to analyze the numerous
contradictions that contain these issues from the perspective of a particular class, race, religion
or nation [Piette & Giroux, 1997, p. 102].
4

The modern Russian and Western literature about ideological and philosophical Analysis
of the functioning of media in society and media texts was the main material for this article.
Method of study of the key concepts of representation suggests that different media texts
correspond to reality, they are not a mirror image of it, and create their own version of virtual
reality. The study of this concept is closely related to such concepts as media agency, media
audience, media language, media category and media technology. In addition, each of these
aspects affect the representation of media text (including its ideological and philosophical
sense).
The task to develop creative and critical thinking of the audience is very important.
For example, practical exercises on creating media texts (drawing on the concept of agency,
category, language, technology, audience, representation), problem analysis of media content
(relying on the concept of category, language, technology), the study of problematic situations
related to production (agency et al.), distribution and perception (audience, representation),
modeling a situation or process (agency, technology, audience et al.) using a role-playing
game.
The authors of a considerable number of research criticized creators of popular culture,
who used improper methods of psychological pressure (constant repetition of facts, regardless
of the truth), distortion of facts and trends, selection of the negative features in the imag e of
political opponents, "sticking labels", "playing folksy", a reference to the authorities in order to
justify a lie, etc. But among the creators of popular culture always been an honest professionals
who are building their own stories based on humanistic values, and another creators: politically
and commercially biased.
Supporters of the ideological approach usually have scrutinize typology of media
influences (or "effects"), among which are:
- cognitive effects: short-term; intensive, an extensive;
- effect relations: creating views; vaccination / change / strengthening opinion;
- emotional effects: short reaction;
- physiological effects: temporary illusion of fight / flight; temporary sexual arousal;
- behavioral effects: imitation; activation (i.e., for example, activation of purchases
through advertising) [Potter, 2001, pp.262-263].
In this case, the subject of media literacy education is a media system and its functioning
in society, human interaction, the language of the media and its use. As goals are distinguished:
creating a culture of interaction with the media, the development of perception of different
types of information, skills of analysis and interpretation of media texts, critical thinking,
learning various forms of self-expression with the help of the media, the development of
creative abilities in the field of media.
Understanding of the term media agency (in the sense of a source of information and
media people who own, create and distribute media texts) preschoolers' may seem far removed
from the understanding of sixteen, but it is important to see the connection between them.
Everyone is aware that any texts not arise by themselves, but are – even if they do not know by
whom and for what purpose.
The theory of media education as the development of critical thinking (as, indeed, and
cultural studies) suggests that older students should seek to understand more complex issues –
such as the pressure of the state system, in varying degrees, affecting the media censorship (in
particular, age restrictions on the sale, rental and demonstration of media texts), the division of
functions in media production, media production funding sources, etc. But anyway, the key here is
to understand the difference in the sense of a media text, depending on how the Agency it was
created (or commissioned by a company, for example, Christian Dior or Sony).
Many teachers in this sense, have a good result of studies consider not simply memorizing
information by the audience, but their ability to set key questions. For example: "Why is there such
a book was published in a small edition, and this something – big?", "Why did the director A.
received in Hollywood $ 300 million to make a film, and director B. always work with a relatively
small budget?", etc.
The methodology of cultural studies paradigm of media literacy education use both
approaches: critical thinking and practical. In particular, students can more understand the key
5
concept of media agency into the practice (for example, role game “Agency”). Good way is the role
game about "financiers of media production", "editors", "censors", etc.
As already mentioned, one of the main objectives of media literacy education in modern
conditions is the development of critical thinking of the audience in relation to the different media
texts, disseminated through the mass media. However, the full development of critical thinking of
the audience cannot be without her acquaintance with the typical objectives, methods and
techniques of manipulative media impacts, its socio-psychological mechanisms, without problem
analysis information, including ideological and philosophical.
Here is a list of anti-manipulative media educational technologies:
- identification and show of social and psychological mechanisms used by the authors of
media texts focused on manipulative effect;
- analysis of methods and techniques, which are the media text’s creators are trying to
achieve the desired effect;
- attempt to understand the logic of the author's thinking, revealing the author's conception,
the auditor's assessment of the concept of a media text;
- "sifting" of information (a reasoned selection of true and false in the materials of the press,
television, radio, etc., clarification of information, comparison with the actual facts, etc.);
- removing information’s halo: "typical", "vulgar", "credibility";
- critical analysis of the goals and interests of agency, that is a source of information;
- description of manipulative ideological influences in a particular media text: "orchestration"
("constant repetition"), "prejudiced selection", "sticking labels, creating an image of the enemy",
"guidance blush, creating a positive image," "transfer” (transfer of properties from one object to
another), "reference to the authorities”, “ simplification”, “distraction / refocusing”, lies, half-truths, etc.
Of course, such an approach is useful in carrying out activities under certain conditions.
First of all, it must be based on theoretical training audience. This can include classroom
training right in practice direct problem analysis information, but, in my opinion, the
preliminary general theoretical acquaintance with the typical audience objectives and methods
of the manipulative media exposure greatly facilitates the process of further studies.
A critical analysis of selected political information is very good for the TV -news, but not
useful for art house media text, because students must understand the difference between a
particular political interest in reality and more multi-faceted impact of the work culture. And if
the person is not prepared to perceive information in its various forms, this person cannot fully
understand and analyze of media texts, unable to resist the manipulative media effects.
One of the most pressing issues related to ideological aspects of the manipulative media
influence – violence on the screen. Undoubtedly, few people try to imitate violent action. But it
exist the "addiction" to the media violence, mindless consumption of episodes with numerous
scenes of murder, torture, etc., the indifference, the inability of a normal human reaction to the
compassion of others.
The purpose of consideration of this aspect on media literacy education lessons is critical
analysis. For example, discover the true essence of the negative character, easily killing dozens
of people, who try to show of violence as a "game", "joke", etc.
I think one of the effective game form – "Investigation", the essence of which is as
follows. The audience is invited to investigate the crimes of several characters of media texts,
containing scenes of violence. The task: to identify improper, illegal, cruel, inhumane actions of
these characters, which may, among other things supplied by the authors in the "fun" and
"playful" forms. Thus, gathering compelling "evidence", the audience builds the final charge
against the authors ("Agency") of various media texts, manipulative scenes of violence.
In this case, the audience should be able to define: 1) the difference between media
images and well-known facts; 2) the reliability of the source; 3) the accuracy of the
determination; 4) valid and invalid statements; 5) the difference between the primary and
secondary information, approval; 6) partiality of judgment; 7) installed and uninstalled
judgment; 8) vague and ambiguous arguments; 9) a logical inconsistency in the chain of
reasoning; 10) the force of the argument [Beyer, 1984, p.56].
6
Discussion
Analysis of the ideological concept of media shows that in the 1920's – early 1980's was
two main options – the Western and Soviet. In the first case, media educators have focused on
the critical analysis of political, philosophical, social and economic aspects of media texts in
their countries. In the second case, media educators (for example, from the so -called "socialist
camp") believed to be critically analyze media texts by the capitalist West. "Socialist" media
production (especially directly promotes the official ideology) was originally considered to be
politically correct, so completely eliminated the scope of this kind of critical analysis (except in
rare cases of "manifestations of trends revisionism") [for example: Lacis, Keylina, 1928;
Uritzky, 1954].
Now the ideological theory of media largely lost its former position, but in some way
transformed to the area of national-regional, religious, socio-political approach to media and
media texts. And teachers of some states and nations strive to protect students from the
expansion of American popular culture (similar to "protectionist" media education theory).
In the countries of the "third world" (for example, Latin American, Asian, Arab) is becoming a
popular active opposition of media globalization (that is, again, Americanization). In addition,
the ideological theory of media education, no doubt, has a commo n ground with more popular
in the West media education – the development of critical thinking. For both one and the other
to ask questions about whose interests is this or that media information, and what groups it is
designed. And the audience must not only develop of "critical thinking", but also make analysis
of the mechanisms of ideological influence and values of certain information [Masterman,
1988; 1994; 1997].
D. Buckingham wrote that the views of L. Masterman largely represent the
transformation of the ideological approach but he has not the active attention for cultural
studies aspects [Buckingham, 1990, p. 7].
Some theories of media literacy education (for example, "practical" media education)
ignore of a key concept media audience. It should be noted that a genuine interest in the
concept of audience appeared in media literacy education since 1960s. Before this time many
supporters of “protectionist injection” (inoculatory approach in media education), in general,
thought that the media has a direct impact on the behavior and attitudes supposedly
homogeneous audience, and other media educators rashly believed that the audience’s
problems – these are the problems of sociology and psychology, but not a topic for training
sessions on media material.
Students’ audience, even the same age, have very differentiated interest and level of
preparedness for any activity. Here play the role of factors such as heredity, macro / micro
environment, previous experience of education and training. Therefore, students’ perception of
the same media text of the same study group can be different. In addition, my practical
experience shows that in many cases, the audience tends to conform the perception and
evaluation of media texts. Students can use different reactions from the contacts with the same
media texts alone, in the company of peers, parents, in the classroom with the teacher, etc.
That is why the method works with the key concept of audience maybe start from the lessons it
involves a discussion of such situations. The materials for students’ collective discussion –
amateur photos, videos, posters, newspapers, etc.
I suppose, the progress in this type of media literacy works will appear when the students
will gain the ability to discuss the range and diversity of audience reactions, as well as related
issues of taste, compliance, laws and codes of practice, censorship and legal issues. All this can
be investigated by means of practical and critical work. At a more advanced level, students can
study the theory on the effects of media on the audience, as well as how the audience accepts or
rejects some media texts.
Results
Ideological and philosophical analysis of media texts implies a number of creative tasks [BFI,
1990; Semali, 2000, pp.229-231; Berger, 2005; Nechay, 1989, pp.267-268; Fedorov, 2004,
pp. 43-51; Silverblatt, 2014; Potter, 2014, but I substantially supplemented and revised this cycle of
tasks]: literary analytical, role-playing, fine-simulation. Each of these tasks includes analysis of the
7
key aspects of media literacy education [media agencies, media categories, media language,
media technologies, media representations, media audiences, etc.].
Cycle of literary and analytical creative tasks for ideological and philosophical analysis of
media texts in the student audience:
Media agencies:
- analysis of information about who owns the media and monitors in the country;
- analysis of the key titles on the front pages of various newspapers, the attempt to draw
conclusions about their political, genre orientation;
- research the situation related to the closure or prohibition of a particular source of media
(newspapers, magazine, film), a political media company for / against this or that politician.
- analysis of similar genre of media texts of different countries in order to prove that the same
genre can be interpreted in different ways – depending on the social, political, ideological,
philosophical, national position of authors.
Media technologies:
- analysis of how the use of different media technologies may be due to ideological influence.
Media languages:
- analysis of media language (visual, audio, audio-visual) and how it can be used to enhance
the manipulative ideological influence on the audience;
- analysis of the volume of a media (newspapers, TV), dedicated to the political and
ideological image (photographs, drawings, etc.) and volume for verbal texts (articles, dialogs, etc.)
on the ideological, political theme. Subsequent determination of political, ideological bias of media
texts;
- writing of essay (3-4 pages) “The Ideological concept of media texts on a contemporary
theme”;
- analysis of a news program in terms of the presence / absence of transmission attempts of
manipulative ideological effects (ambiguities figure of silence, "sticking labels", "orchestration" (ie
in the form of psychological pressure constant repetition of certain facts, regardless of the truth),
"selection" (i.e., the selection of certain trends - for example, only positive or negative); "transfer"
(transfer any qualities (positive, negative) to another phenomenon (or person); "evidence" – a
reference to the authorities in order to justify an action, or that slogan, "playing folksy" (the most
simplified forms of information);
- analysis, comparison of ideological orientation of TV-news in three different channels
within the same day, identifying similarities and differences, a comparison of these plots with TV
news in the press, which appeared in print the next day;
- analysis of media text on the political theme, based on documentary evidence. The study of
regional geographic, political, philosophical, and historical materials relating to the topic and the
time period. Comparison of the studied materials with the image of political events in the media
text (the image of the country, nation, race, nationality, social system, ideology, political
administration, philosophy, justice, education, employment, etc.);
- comparison of several points of view (e.g., professional journalists, art critics) on political
developments, its philosophical significance;
- location of abstracts in order of importance to understand and describe the ideology and
philosophy of a particular media text;
- description and analysis of a particular episode of a media text on the political theme,
including ideology, philosophical concept, etc.
Media audiences:
- writing of essay (3-4 pages) “The ideological influence of books, TV and press on the
youth”.
Cycle role game creative tasks for ideological and philosophical analysis of media texts in
Media agencies:
- role game on hypothetical search of sponsors for media project with those or other
ideological and / or philosophical orientation;
8
- role game on the situation related to the closure or prohibition of a particular source of
media (newspapers, magazine, transfer, film), a political media company for / against this or that
politician;
- role game on the decisions about the plot on the ideological theme in different media
genres;
Media technologies:
- role game about what different media technologies may be due to ideological influence.
Media languages:
- role game on the dispute of the "authors" about how the tools of media language (visual,
audio, audio-visual) can be used to enhance the manipulative ideological influence their future
work on the audience.
- "Interview" (role game interviews with various "characters" media text - with an emphasis
on ideological and philosophical issues);
- role game: "press conference" with authors of media text ("writer", "director", "actors",
"producer" and others.) with question about ideology an philosophy of authors’ ideas;
- role game on "international meeting of media criticism" (the analysis of a various
ideological and philosophical aspects of the media and media texts);
Media audiences:
- Advertising campaign, media text sale to potential buyers (publishers, TV-channels) in view
of its ideological and / or philosophical orientation;
In fact, the role game activities complement and enrich students’ skills acquired during the
literary analytical game workshops.
Graphic-cycle simulation creative tasks for ideological and philosophical analysis of media
Media agencies:
- create draw comics on the topic of search hypothetical sponsors for media project with
ideological / philosophical orientation.
- create a series of drawings on the theme of the situation related to the closure or
prohibition of a particular source of media (newspapers, magazine, transfer, film), a political media
company for / against this or that politician.
- work with ideological stereotypes (the audience is invited to fill in the appropriate table).
Media technologies:
- create a comics on the topic of how the use of different media technologies may be due to
ideological influence.
Media languages:
- Analysis of the frame (photos, posters, advertising posters) from ideological and
philosophical point of view.
- read scenic line (for example: "He goes into the crowd of anti-war demonstrations, without
noticing the approaching Police ..."). Training (using sheets-frame) series of frames "the film
adaptation of this scenic line;
- create advertising, posters, collages or dioramas on the ideological, political, philosophical
theme based on texts and images clippings from old newspapers / magazines with additional drawings;
Media audiences:
- create cartoon comic based on those or other media texts on political, ideological,
philosophical theme, intended for adult audiences;
- create visual media texts on political or philosophical theme, intended for a specific
audience, foreseeing how the audience might react to such products.
The next series of media literacy education classes is problematic group discussions about
media texts in terms of their ideology and philosophy. There can be used the following tasks:
- comparison of media critics’ reviews and discussion, associated with the problems of the
median ideology and philosophy;
- preparing essays devoted to the ideological, philosophical problems of media culture;
9
- group discussions (with the help of problem questions of the teacher) about a media texts
with an emphasis on ideological orientation and philosophical concepts;
- students’ reviews about specific media texts of different types and genres, taking into
account their ideological orientation and philosophical concepts.
The logic of these creative tasks comes from the fact that the critical analysis of media
theoretical articles, monographs devoted to media culture and specific media texts), in which
the audience can judge the different approaches and forms of this type of work.
author of the review see the advantages and disadvantages of media texts, especially his
philosophy and ideology?", "How deep reviewers penetrate the philosophical and / or
ideological intention of the author?", "Do you agree or not with certain ideological, political
reviewers’ assessments? Why?”, etc.
Then – the works on the essay on the ideology and philosophy of media sphere. And only
then - an independent discussion about media texts.
Workshops on skills of critical analysis of media texts are aimed primarily at the ideological
and philosophical aspects, the ability to apply this knowledge in new teaching situations.
- introduction (the goal: to give brief information about the creators of media texts, remind
their previous work, refer to other works of these authors, if there is a need to dwell on the
ideological, political, philosophical the context of the event, in any case, without touching the
ratings the author's position, and, of course, not retelling the plot of the work);
- "reading" of media text (communicative phase);
- discussion about media text, conclusions.
The questions for ideological and philosophical analysis of the functioning of media in
society and media texts [Silverblatt, 2001, pp.42-43; Fedorov, 2004, pp.43-51; Fedorov, 2006,
pp. 175-228]:
Media agencies:
texts? Why Are?
The agency determines the target audience for a media text?
Can the agency "create" your audience?
artistic, etc.)?
Is it possible to absolute objectivity views creators of media texts?
Are there visible signs of deviant behavior, sexism, conformity, anxiety, stereotyped thinking,
conflict of generations, etc.?
Media Audiences:
audience?
Conclusion
This article presented the main directions for Ideological and Philosophical Analysis of the
functioning of media in society and media texts on media education classes for student audience,
including the examples of creative problems and issues associated with this type of the analysis in
the context of media education problems, i.e. based on six key concepts of media literacy
education: agency, category, language, technology, audience, representation. The author supposes
that the Ideological and Philosophical Analysis of the functioning of media in society and media
10
texts on media education classes can significantly develop media competence of students, including
students' critical thinking.
References:
2. Beyer, B.K. (1984). Improving Thinking Skills. Phi Delta Kappan, 1984. Vol. 65. N 8, p. 56.
№ 4, pp. 43-51.
7. Lacis, A., Keylina, L. (1928). Children and movies. Moscow: Teakinopechat, 88 p.
11. Masterman, L. (1998a). 18 Principles of Media Education. In:
http://www.screen.com/mnet/eng/med/class/support/mediacy/edec/masterman.htm
12. Masterman, L. (1998b). Media Education Revolution. In: Hart, A. (Ed.). Teaching the
Media. International Perspectives. Mahwah, New Jersey – London: Lawrence Erlbaum Assoc.
Publishers, p.x.
13. Masterman, L. (2000). New Paradigms and Directions. Telemedium. Journal of Media
literacy. Vol. 46. N 1, p.7.
УДК 1
Идеологический и философский анализ функционирования медиа в обществе

и медиатекстов на медиаобразовательных занятиях

Аннотация. Идеологический и философский анализ – это анализ идеологических,

философских аспектов медийной сфере. Теоретической основой здесь становится
идеологическая теория медиа: предполагается, что средства массовой информации могут
сознательно влиять на общественное мнение, в том числе в интересах определенных
социальных классов, рас или нации. Педагогическая стратегия медиаобразования сводится
тут к изучению политических, философских, социальных и экономических аспектов
национальных средств массовой коммуникации, к анализу многочисленных противоречий,
которые содержат эти вопросы с точки зрения конкретного класса, расы, религии или нации.
11
В этом случае, аудитория должна быть в состоянии определить: различия между медийными
образами и известными фактами; надежность источника; точность определения; верные и
неверные утверждения; разницу между первичной и вторичной информацией, утверждением;
пристрастность суждения; неопределенность и неоднозначность дискуссии; логическую
несостоятельность в цепи рассуждений; силу аргумента.
Ключевые слова: идеологический и философский анализ, медиа, медиатексты,
12

Researcher
ISSN 2304-9650
E-ISSN 2305-6746
Vol. 17, Is. 3, pp. 324-334, 2016
DOI: 10.13187/ejced.2016.17.324
www.ejournal1.com

Curricula for Media Literacy Education According to International Experts
Alexander Fedorov a , *, Anastasia Levitskaya b , Emma Camarero c
a Anton Chekhov Taganrog Institute, Rostov State University of Economics, Russian Federation
c Loyola Andalucía University, Spain
Abstract
The article analyzes the results of the international experts' survey regarding the curriculum
of media literacy education, which was administrated by the authors in September-October 2015.
The expert panel includes specialists actively involved in the real process of media literacy
education in schools, universities and other educational institutions, who also have significant
publications record (monographs, study guides, articles in peer-reviewed journals). 65 experts
from 20 countries took part in the survey: Armenia, Australia, Belgium, Canada, China, Croatia,
Germany, Hungary, Greece, Israel, Mexico, Portugal, Russia, Serbia, Slovakia, Spain, Thailand,
Turkey, Ukraine, the USA. Based on the experts' answers, the productive sources of media literacy
education curriculum were distinguished; as well as the content and learning outcomes of media
literacy education curriculum, and assessment strategies of students’ media literacy competence,
aimed at various target groups. Furthermore, main challenges for media literacy curriculum design
and implementation are outlined: the resistance of the administrative bodies, overloaded
curriculum in the classroom, poor development of the initial and continuing training for teachers,
necessity for the development high-level research and curriculum proposals.
Keywords: curriculum, media literacy, media education, expert, international survey.
1. Introduction and state of the question

Concern over the implementation of media literacy education has led a lot of researchers to
explore the problem of its curriculum – UNESCO guides (Frau-Meigs, 2006; Grizzle & Wilson,
2011; Grizzle & Torras Calvo, 2013; Pérez Tornero, 2008; Pérez Tornero, & Varis, 2010; UNESCO,
2013), EAVI - European Association for Viewers' Interests (Celot, 2010; 2014; 2015; EAVI, 2011),
E-mail addresses: 1954alex@mail.ru (A. Fedorov), a.levitskaya@tmei.ru (A. Levitskaya),
ecamarero@uloyola.es (E. Camarero)
324
leading researchers in media education (Fenton, 2009; Ferguson, 2011; Frau-Meigs, 2007; Hartai,
2014; Hobbs, 2007; 2010; Potter, 2014; Silverblatt, 2014; Silverblatt, Miller, Smith, & Brown,
2014; Verniers, 2009; Worsnop, 2004). There is also a tendency to link media literacy education
and information literacy (Lau, 2006; Grizzle & Wilson, 2011; Grizzle & Torras Calvo, 2013; Pérez
Tornero, 2008). However, even if “Ofcom’s annual series of ‘media literacy audits’ may not tell us
much about what media literacy actually is, they certainly provide a useful source of information
about changing trends in people’s textual practices and preferences“ (Bazalgette & Buckingham,
2013).
The framework of the curriculum of media literacy education by Canadian media educators is
based on the following approaches (Andersen, Duncan, Pungente, 1999: 146-147): enhancing
consumer awareness, critical thinking, considering the role of citizenship, ontology, value,
semiotic, cultural studies, as well as synthetic creative, cross disciplinary approaches. Nonetheless,
whichever approach is taken, the key to learning is considered to be its authenticity, i.e. the media
texts under study are interesting and are relevant to students' lives (Andersen, Duncan, Pungente,
1999: 146-147).
Alike British educators, Canadian ones are keen to use tasks that develop creative and critical
thinking of the students, for instance, assignments on spotting and analyzing media stereotypes
(Duncan, 1989: 37). Chris Worsnop suggests over a hundred of various types of classroom
activities, which in general, do not require special technology (drawing, collage, poster, crossword
puzzle, journal, discussion, dramatization, essay, interview, report, review, script, game, etc.)
(Worsnop, 1994; 2004). Similar activities are developed by the British Film Institute (BFI, 2003)
and professor David Buckingham (Buckingham, 2003: 90-96).
Reflecting on the curriculum of media literacy education, the British media educator Len
Masterman observes that the central and universal concept of media education is the
representation; and the media education's effectiveness can be measured with the help of two
criteria: students' ability to apply the new knowledge in new situations, and the spectrum of
responsibilities, interests, and motives, gained by them. The main objective is to teach the audience
to understand how media represent the reality, how to decode, critically analyze media texts, how
to find one's way in the information/ideological flow of modern society (Masterman, 1997: 40-43).
In particular, according to this approach, it is important to enhance the audience's understanding
of 1) who is responsible for creating a media text, who owns the medium and controls it? 2) how the
desired effect is achieved? 3) what are the values of the created world? 4) how is it perceived by the
audience? (Masterman, 1985; Masterman, 1997: 51-54).
The issue of media representations, in our opinion, roots the curriculum of media literacy
education as developed by American media educator A. Silverblatt. It is specifically focused on the
development of the following audience's skills: distinguishing between fact and opinion; defining
the credibility of a source of information; accurateness of a message; differentiation of supported
and non-supported claims; locating prejudice in a media text; identifying obvious and indirect
assumptions in media texts; identifying logical incongruities in media texts; evaluating the
argumentation strength of a media text's author (Silverblatt, 2001: 2-3; Silverblatt, 2013: XV-
XVIII).
Considering media literacy education, W.J.Potter stresses the multifaceted nature of this
process, width of the approach to cognitive, emotional, aesthetic, and moral information in order to
achieve a higher level of understanding, regulating, and appreciation of media world (Potter, 2001:
12; Potter, 2014: 14-15). For example, the audience is given an assignment to analyze the schemes
of: stereotyped characters; narrative structure; thematic stereotypes; possible variants of the
audience's conclusions about the aim (information, entertainment, moral teaching) of a media
text's authors (Potter, 2001: 74; Potter, 2013: 211-217). Media literacy is understood as a right of all
citizens (Area, 2012). Efforts should be made conducive to digital inclusion to ensure access to new
technologies, implementing and promoting standards and accessibility guidelines through the
implementation of training courses and media education (De la Fuente & Hernández-Galan, 2014).
This assumption is based on a curriculum able to evaluate the use of technology and knowledge of
the media, supported by psychoeducational theories that encourage young people and the general
public to use them positively. It is also based on the personal contribution of those who can
improve society through their moral values (Camarero, Smith & Square, 2015).
325
Our analysis has demonstrated that compared to the ideological model of the curriculum of
media literacy education with the dominating development of the audience's critical thinking, put
forward by the British theorist Len Masterman, considerably larger number of media educators
around the world support the synthesis of social-cultural, educational-informational, and practical
models (Frau-Meigs, 2006; Grizzle & Wilson, 2011; Grizzle & Torras Calvo, 2013; Haider, & Dall,
2004; Hartai, 2014; Hoffmann, & Gehring, 2006; Keeshan, Watson, et. Al, 2015; Pérez Tornero,
2008; Pérez Tornero, & Varis, 2010; Ferguson, 2011; Hobbs, 2007; 2010; Potter, 2001; 2014;
Silverblatt, 2001; 2014; Verniers, 2009; Worsnop, 2004 and others).

In September-October 2015 we conducted the international experts' survey regarding the
curriculum of media literacy education and analyzed its results. To start with, 300 questionnaires
were sent out to experts – specialists in media literacy education around the world. The selected
experts included specialists actively involved in the real process of media literacy education in
schools, universities and other educational institutions, who also have significant publications
record (monographs, study guides, articles in peer-reviewed journals). 65 experts from
20 countries actually took part in the survey. The experts' list includes such world renowned media
researchers and educators as (in alphabetical order) Ignacio Aguaded, Ben Bachmair, Frank Baker,
Richard Cornell, Tessa Jolls, Laszlo Hartai, Jesus Lau, W. James Potter, Alexander Sharikov,
Art Silverblatt, Kathleen Tyner, and other.
The questions, as well as the response options were designed by us, taking into consideration
various approaches to the curriculum of media literacy, described in some of the guidelines of the
most influential organizations and in the works of the distinguished specialists in the field (Frau-
Meigs, 2006; Grizzle & Wilson, 2011; Grizzle & Torras Calvo, 2013; Pérez Tornero, 2008; Pérez
Tornero, & Varis, 2010; UNESCO, 2013; Celot, 2010; 2014; 2015; EAVI, 2011; Ferguson, 2011;
Hartai, 2014; Hobbs, 2007; 2010; Potter, 2014; Silverblatt, 2014; Verniers, 2009; Worsnop, 2004,
etc.). To the best of our knowledge, we have been the first one ever to conduct the international
experts’ survey regarding the curriculum of media literacy education.
3. Instruments
The questionnaire was designed as follows:
- at first we asked the experts if media literacy education is part of the National Education
Guidelines / Ministry of Education Standards;
- next, experts had to choose several categories that best describe the way of their media
literacy education activities (Table 1) and the source of media literacy education curriculum
support, relevant to their teaching (Table 2);
- then, one of the central questions of our survey followed, namely about the priorities of the
content of media literacy education curriculum. Experts were to rank (on a scale from 1 to 10, with
1 being the most prioritized option, and 10 – the least) the suggested answers, separately for pre-
school children, for secondary school children, for university students, and for general audience.
Later we calculated, which of the options in each category got the maximum points, that is points
between 1 and 3 (Table 3);
- similar ranking was done while answering the question about learning outcomes of media
literacy education curriculum (Table 4);
- the next question dealt with the frequency of using particular strategies when assessing
students’ media literacy competence (Table 5);
- two more questions suggested free answers about curriculum approach(es) in media literacy
education that the experts find effective and the biggest challenges for media literacy curriculum
design and implementation.
326
4. Results
Table 1. Which of these categories best describe the way Your media literacy education activity
is organized?
Categories of media literacy education activities Number of
experts' votes
(%)
Researching, designing curriculum, developing policy documents, teaching 83.1
material and resources.
Teaching media studies course. 70.8
Teacher training course. 46.1
Teaching media literacy integrated in other subject area 40.0
Media criticism in mass media (e.g. write a newspaper column, Internet blog). 30.8
Other (please, specify). 12.3
Analysis of the data in Table 1 demonstrates that the majority of the respondents are
involved into the process of researching, designing curriculum, developing policy documents,
teaching material and resources (83.1 %) and teaching media studies course (70.8 %), almost half
of them teacher occupies with training course and teaching media literacy integrated in other
subject area. In agreement with the tendency of the synthesis of media literacy education and
media criticism, as found in one of the previous expert surveys (Fedorov & Levitskaya, 2015), about
one third of the respondents acknowledged that they were also involved in mass media criticism.
Part of experts (12.3 %) added other relevant activities (consultation, expertise, speeches at
academic conferences, writing monographs, and study guides on media literacy education).
Table 2. What source of media literacy education curriculum support have been useful for your
teaching?
Sources of media literacy education curriculum Number of experts'
votes (%)
Books, academic journals 89.2
Colleagues 80.0
Professional conference 76.9
Professional development course/seminar 58.5
Administration 30.8
Other (please specify): 10.8
The data of Table 2 displays that experts refer to books, academic journals (89.2 %),
information provided by colleagues (80.0 %) and professional conference (76.9 %) as the dominant
source of media literacy education curriculum support, applicable for their teaching. Slightly over a
half experts mentioned professional development course/seminar and only one third –
administration. as a central source for media literacy curriculum. Another source (10.8 %) was
Internet.
Table 3. What are Your priorities of the content of media literacy education curriculum for
each target group?
Content of the media literacy Number of experts' votes (%)
education curriculum for pre- for secondary for for general
school school university audience?
children? children? students?
Types and genres of media 49.2 24.6 24.6 18.5
Functions of media 43.1 20.8 24.6 27.7
Media and lifelong learning 4.6 27.7 30.8 33.8
Media languages 33.8 40.0 33.8 18.5
Media aesthetics 24.6 18.5 27.7 18.5
327
Media production 30.8 30.8 27.7 21.5

Media representations 33.8 46.1 30.8 30.8
Media theories 1.5 6.1 43.1 12.3
Media literacy education theories 3.1 7.7 40.0 12.3
Commercial implications of media 27.7 24.6 21.5 21.5
Social implications of media 18.5 40.0 26.9 30.8
Political implications of media 3.1 33.8 49.2 40.0
Media and media culture history 4.6 21.5 40.0 15.4
Media ethics, peoples’ rights and 21.5 49.2 49.2 36.9
responsibilities
Role of media in a democratic 6.1 52.3 46.1 36.9
society
Access to media sources, enquiry, 18.5 40.0 52.3 21.5
determination of needs in the
media sphere, media activities
Protection from harmful media 46.1 33.8 30.8 36.9
effects
Media competences 24.6 46.1 46.1 21.5
History of media education 1.5 24.6 18.5 12.3
Other (please, specify) 1.5 1.5 1.5 0
Analysis of the experts' answers to the question about the priority content of media literacy
education curriculum, aimed at different target groups (Table 3) indicates that:
- as far as pre-school children are concerned, the experts distinguished the following content
of the media literacy education curriculum: types and genres of media (49.2 %); protection from
harmful media effects (46.1 %); functions of media (43.1 %); media languages & media
representations (33.8 %); media production (30.8 %); commercial implications of media (27.7 %).
It is only logical, moreover, absolutely correlates with the suggestions for media literacy education
curricula, developed by leading organizations and individual educators (Alper, 2011; Ashley, et al,
2013; Grizzle, & Torras Calvo, 2013; UNESCO, 2013).
In contrast, it is possible to teach children of that age the basics about types, genres and
functions of media and how to protect themselves from harmful media effects.
As for the secondary school children, the experts have chosen: role of media in a democratic
society (52.3 %); media ethics, peoples’ rights and responsibilities (49.2 %); media representations
(46.1 %); media competences (46.1 %); media languages (40.0 %); social implications of media
(40.0 %); access to media sources, enquiry, determination of needs in the media sphere, media
activities (40.0 %); political implications of media (33.8 %); protection from harmful media effects
(33.8 %). As it can be seen, the experts fairly considered to accentuate some complicated topics
requiring a conscious awareness of social, cultural and political contexts (see, for example, Kirwan,
et al, 2003; Ofcom, 2011; Mihailidis, & Thevenin, 2013).
Similarly to previous age group, units on media theories (6.1 %) and media literacy education
theories (7.7%) gained the least numbers.
Table 4. What learning outcomes of media literacy education curriculum do you consider as the
most important for each target group?
Number of experts' votes (%)
Learning Outcomes (Students for pre- for for for teacher for
will...) school school university training? general
children? students? students? audience?
identify some media forms 52.3 24.6 18.5 15.4 21.5
identify a variety of media forms 18.5 36.9 15.4 18.5 27.7
demonstrate the understanding of 43.1 40.0 33.8 21.5 27.7
some types of media texts
a variety of different media texts
328
explain how the media language is 36.9 33.8 36.9 36.9 30.8
used to create meaning
create a simple media text of some 43.1 33.8 21.5 21.5 18.5
form
create a media text for self- 24.6 36.9 36.9 27.7 33.8
expression
create a media text for participation 9.2 30.8 30.8 27.7 24.6
in social/political life
create a variety of media texts 9.2 36.9 40.0 43.1 24.6
aimed at different audiences, using
appropriate media language
be able to reflect on and identify 4.6 24.6 36.9 30.8 27.7
their strengths and areas for
improvement in understanding and
creating media texts
the role and functions of media in
democratic societies
critically evaluate media content 12.3 30.8 58.5 43.1 58.5
analyse and critically evaluate 9.2 36.9 58.5 58.5 43.1
media representations of people,
issues, values, and behaviours
know roles and career options in a 3.1 15.4 24.6 18.5 18.5
variety of media industries
know the main stages of the history 1.5 30.8 30.8 30.8 18.5
of media and media culture
know the basic media theories 1.5 15.4 33.8 36.9 18.5
know the media literacy education 1.5 3.1 21.5 40.0 12.3
theories
know the basic media effects and 21.5 33.8 18.5 30.8 40.0
can protect themselves against
harmful media effects
know about media ethics, peoples’ 15.4 30.8 46.1 40.0 40.0
rights and responsibilities
Other (please, specify) 4.6 4.6 4.6 4.6 6.1
Table 4 reflects the experts' responses to the question of learning outcomes of media literacy
education curriculum, that they consider as the most important for different groups.
Experts distinguished the following learning outcomes, most applicable for pre-school target
group: children should be able to identify some media forms (52.3 %), demonstrate the
understanding of some types of media texts (43.1 %), create a simple media text of some form
(43.1 %), explain how the media language is used to create meaning (36.9 %), demonstrate the
understanding of a variety of different media texts (30.8 %), create a media text for self-expression
(24.6 %), know the basic media effects and can protect themselves against harmful media effects
(21.5 %).
As for the secondary school children experts have chosen a larger variety of learning
outcomes: demonstrate the understanding of a variety of different media texts (58.5 %),
demonstrate the understanding of the role and functions of media in democratic societies (43.1 %),
demonstrate the understanding of some types of media texts (40.0 %), identify a variety of media
forms (36.9 %), create a media text for self-expression (36.9 %), create a variety of media texts
aimed at different audiences, using appropriate media language (36.9 %), analyse and critically
evaluate media representations of people, issues, values, and behaviours (36.9 %), explain how the
media language is used to create meaning (33.8 %), create a simple media text of some form
(33.8 %), know the basic media effects and can protect themselves against harmful media effects
(33.8 %), create a media text for participation in social/political life (30.8 %), critically evaluate
329
media content (30.8 %), know the main stages of the history of media and media culture (30.8 %),
know about media ethics, peoples’ rights and responsibilities (30.8 %).
The following learning outcomes were selected for the university students: critically evaluate
media content (58.5 %), analyse and critically evaluate media representations of people, issues,
values, and behaviours (58.5 %), know about media ethics, peoples’ rights and responsibilities
(46.1 %), demonstrate the understanding of a variety of different media texts (46.1 %), create a
variety of media texts aimed at different audiences, using appropriate media language (40.0 %),
explain how the media language is used to create meaning (36.9%), create a media text for self-
expression (36.9 %), be able to reflect on and identify their strengths and areas for improvement in
understanding and creating media texts (36.9 %), demonstrate the understanding of some types of
media texts (33.8 %), know the basic media theories (33.8 %), create a media text for participation
in social/political life (30.8 %), demonstrate the understanding of the role and functions of media
in democratic societies (30.8 %), know the main stages of the history of media and media culture
(30.8 %). It should be noted that each of the suggested answers gained over 15 % of experts'
agreement. These data show that leading learning outcomes for the university students' audience
are the ones linked to the critical analysis of media texts and their creation. While learning
outcomes connected with the understanding of the role, functions, and variety of media, head the
list for school pupils' audience.
As for the general (adult) audience, such learning outcomes have the lead as: critically
evaluate media content (58.5 %), demonstrate the understanding of a variety of different
media texts (46.1 %), demonstrate the understanding of the role and functions of media in
democratic societies (43.1 %), analyse and critically evaluate media representations of people,
issues, values, and behaviours (43.1 %), know the basic media effects and can protect themselves
against harmful media effects (40.0 %), know about media ethics, peoples’ rights and
responsibilities (40.0 %), create a media text for self-expression (33.8 %), explain how the media
language is used to create meaning (30.8 %). The learning outcome of knowing the media literacy
education theories gained the least per cent (12.3 %). The rest of the suggested learning outcomes
reached from 18 % to 27 %. Thus, the critical analysis of media dominates as the most important
one among learning outcomes for the mass audience.
Learning outcomes specifically applicable for teacher training of course had a special
emphasis on analysis and critical evaluation of media representations of people, issues, values,
and behaviours (58.5 %), understanding of the role and functions of media in democratic societies
(52.3 %), creation a variety of media texts aimed at different audiences, using appropriate media
language (43.1 %), critical evaluation of media content (43.1 %), knowledge about media ethics,
peoples’ rights and responsibilities (40.0 %).
Table 5. How often you use each of the following strategies when assessing students’ media
literacy competence?
Strategies for assessing students’ Number of experts' votes (%)
media literacy competence Never 1 – 3 times every 1 – 3 times 4–5
per year month per week times
per week
student surveys 6.1 55.4 21.5 6.1 3.1
real-world projects and 0.0 36.9 15.4 21.5 6.1
investigations
portfolios 15.4 36.9 9.2 6.1 6.1
reports and reviews 1.5 30.1 27.7 21.5 0.0
course work 0.0 27.7 21.5 24.6 6.1
scales and rubrics 7.7 27.7 18.5 6.1 3.1
student anthologies, logs, journals 21.5 27.7 12.3 15.4 6.1
analytical frameworks 6.1 18.5 18.5 15.4 12.3
critical or deconstruction 1.5 15.4 30.1 18.5 18.5
exercises
Other (please, specify) 0.0 3.1 0.0 0.0 1.5
330
Analysis of the answers to the question on how often experts use each of the different
strategies when assessing students’ media literacy competence (Table 5) revealed that specialists
often (1–3 times a week) use course work in the classes (24.6 %), reports and reviews (21.5 %) and
real-world projects and investigations (21.5 %), critical or deconstruction exercises (18.5 %).
Three out of these four types of activities retain their leadership within the frequency of every
month activities: critical or deconstruction exercises (30.1 %), reports and reviews (27.7 %) and
course work (21.5 %). However as far as the frequency 1–3 times an academic year is concerned,
such assignments as students' surveys dominate (55.4 %).
5. Discussion and Conclusions

While answering the question about what curriculum approach(es) in media literacy
education they find effective, experts accentuated the following: UNESCO, Media Literacy
Clearinghouse, Australian Curriculum Assessment and Reporting Authority, CLEMI (France),
Grupo Comunicar (Spain), Canadian Centre for Digital and Media Literacy Media Smarts, Media
Education Lab by Renee Hobbs British Film Institute Teaching Modules for Film in the Classroom,
The Digital International Media Literacy eBook (DIMLE), The Keys to Interpreting Media
Messages by Art Silverblatt, the works of Frank Baker and J.W. Potter.
As for the biggest challenges for media literacy curriculum design and implementation, the
experts pointed out:
- the resistance of the administrative bodies (such as ministry, National Education
Institution, etc): experts from Armenia, China, Greece, Russia, Serbia;
- overloaded curriculum in the classroom: (Armenia, Greece, Hungary);
- the initial and continuing training for teachers (Belgium, Canada, Greece, Hungary, Mexico,
Russia, Spain, USA);
- the development of the critical thinking towards the media (Israel, Russia, Slovakia);
- the development high-level research and curriculum proposals (those polled from
Hungary, Serbia, Spain, Russia, Thailand, USA).
Kathleen Tyner is convinced that “with multiple aims, definitions, purposes and theories,
media literacy education does not yet have the consensus to define itself as a field, although field
building activities are in process“. Оne of the leaders of an international project The Digital
International Media Literacy eBook Project (DIMLE) Sara Gabai wrote that the major challenges
for media literacy curriculum design and implementation are: “the lack of a clear and practical
internationally recognized media literacy framework that can be used and shared cross-culturally
by multiple stakeholders (civil society, indigenous communities, marginalized groups, academia,
NGOs, media institutions, Intergovernmental organizations, governments); and the lack of
culturally relevant media literacy educational resources suitable for an international audience.
And one of possible solution is The Digital International Media Literacy eBook Project (DIMLE) is
designed to provide a shared qualitative approach to the study of media literacy and to promote
international media literacy scholarship”. Media literacy experts from over 40 countries in the
world are working together to create online eBook editions of Media Literacy: Keys to Interpreting
Media Messages that are updated, relevant and culture and context sensitive. And as stressed by
Sara Gabai, “each country will need a media literacy curriculum that reflects at best their cultural
and media contexts and that is implemented in local languages and through situated experiences”.
The analysis of the Table 4 data demonstrates that we succeeded in providing the majority of
media literacy education learning outcomes, since only 4 % to 6 % of options (that were missing, in
their opinion) were additionally suggested by the experts.
The analysis of the research findings let us draw the following conclusions:
- we have succeeded in bringing together global media literacy education leaders – highly
qualified respondents experienced both in practical and theoretical aspects of media literacy
education. Their answers provide insight into the current state and future of media education
worldwide;
331
- experts' answers indicate that we were able to (on the basis of existing materials in different
countries) accentuate core types of sources of media literacy education curriculum support, useful
for teaching; key content and learning outcomes of media literacy education curriculum; and
strategies of assessing students’ media literacy competence, aimed at various target groups;
- most significant challenges facing media literacy curriculum design and implementation are
the resistance of the administrative bodies, overloaded curriculum in the classroom, poor
development of the initial and continuing training for teachers, need for the development of high-
level research and curriculum proposals.
Many of the implications have yet to be researched. It is important to note that like for any
other academic discipline, curricula for media literacy is the keystone of effective teaching and
learning and should reflect a sophisticated understanding of the subject matter, instructional and
assessment practices. As we have elaborated throughout this study, modern media educators use
common processes for developing media literacy curriculum; and we think that still a greater
curricular consistency should be reached on a global scale. In reference with the above, we highly
appreciate the timely initiative of the international project The Digital International Media
Literacy eBook Project (DIMLE), aimed at creating a multilingual, country-specific study guide
and curriculum of media literacy education.

Science Foundation (RSF). Project 14-18-00014 «Synthesis of media education and media criticism
in the preparation of future teachers», performed at Taganrog Management and Economics
Institute.
References
Alper, 2011 - Alper, M. (2011). Developmentally Appropriate New Media Literacies:
Supporting Cultural Competencies and Social Skills in Early Childhood Education. Journal of
Early Childhood Literacy. 1, 1-22.
Área, 2012 - Área, M. (2012). Sociedad líquida, web 2.0 y alfabetización digital. Aula de
Innovación Educativa, 212, 55-59.
Ashley et al., 2013 - Ashley, S., Maksl, A., & Craft, S. (2013). Developing a News Media
Literacy Scale. Journalism & Mass Communication Educator. 68(1), 7-21.
Bazalgette, Buckingham, 2013 - Bazalgette, C., & Buckingham, D. (2013). Literacy, media
and multimodality: a critical response. Literacy. 47(2), 95-102.
Bowker, 1991 - Bowker, J. (Ed.) (1991). Secondary Media Education: A Curriculum
Statement. London: BFI.
British Film Institute, 2003 - British Film Institute (2003). Look Again! London: British
Film Institute, 60 p.
Buckingham, 2003 - Buckingham, D. (2003). Media Education. London: Polity Press.
Camarero et al., 2015 - Camarero, E., Herrero, P & Cuadrado, F. (2015). Media Literacy to
young poor in Nicaragua. Working on a model of empowerment and employability for social
change. First results. Media Education. Russian Journal of History, Theory and Practice of Media
Education. 45(2), 54-61.
Celot, 2010 - Celot, P. (Ed.) (2010). Study on Assessment Criteria for Media Literacy Levels.
Brussels: EAVI.
Celot, 2014 - Celot, P. (Ed.) (2014). Media Literacy. European Policy Recommendations.
EAVI’s version. Brussels: EAVI.
Celot, 2015 - Celot, P. (Ed.). (2015). Assessing Media Literacy Levels and the European
Commission. PilotInitiative.Brussels: EAVI.
Fuente, Hernández-Galán, 2014 - DE LA Fuente, Y. & Hernández-Galán, J. (2014). Las
tecnologías de la información y la comunicación como entorno de la convergencia tecnológica.
Revista Internacional de Sociología, 72, extra 1, 93-112.
Duncan, 1989 - Duncan, B. (Ed.) (1989). Media LiteracyResourceGuide. Toronto: Ministry
of Education of Ontario, Publications Branch, The Queen’s Printer.
332
EAVI, 2011 - EAVI (2011). Testing and Refining Criteria to Assess Media Literacy Levels in
Europe. Final Report. Brussels: EAVI.
European Parliament - European Parliament Resolution of 16 December 2008 on Media
Literacy in a Digital World (2008/2129(INI). Strasbourg, 16 December 2008.
http://goo.gl/nQprtx (01-01-2015).
Fedorov, Levitskaya, 2015 - Fedorov, A. & Levitskaya, A. (2015). The framework of Media
Education and Media Criticism in the Contemporary World: The opinion of International Experts.
Comunicar, 45(23), 107-116. Fenton, N. (2009). My Media Studies: Getting Political in a Global,
Digital Age. Television New Media, 10(1), 55-57.
Ferguson, 2011 - Ferguson, S. (2011). Classroom Contradictions: Popular Media in Ontario
Schools' Literacy and Citizenship Education Policies. Education, Citizenship and Social Justice.
6(2), 137-151.
Frau-Meigs, 2007 - Frau-Meigs, D. (2007). Cultural Diversity and Global Media Studies.
Global Media and Communication. 3(3), 260-266.
Frau-Meigs, 2006 - Frau-Meigs, D. (Ed.) (2006). Media Education.AKit for Teachers,
Students, Parents and Professionals. Paris: UNESCO.
Grizzle, Torras, 2013 - Calvo Grizzle, A., & Torras Calvo, M.C. (Eds.) (2013). Media and
Information Literacy. Policy & strategy guidelines. Paris: UNESCO.
Grizzle, Wilson, 2011 - Grizzle, A., & Wilson, C. (Eds.) (2011). Media and Information
Literacy. Curriculum for Teachers. Paris: UNESCO.
Haider, Dall, 2004 - Haider, A., & Dall, E. (2004). Guideline for Media Literacy in
Education. Graz: ECML.
Hartai et al, 2014 - Hartai, L. et al. (2014). Formal Media Education in Europe. Barcelona,
Gabinete de Comunicación y Educación. UAB.
Hobbs, 2007 - Hobbs, R. (2007). Reading the Media: Media literacy in High School English.
New York, NY: Teachers College Press.
Hobbs, 2010 - Hobbs, R. (2010). Digital and Media Literacy: A plan of Action. Washington:
The Aspen Institute.
Hoffmann, Gehring, 2006 - Hoffmann, C., & Gehring, R. (2006).
Medienkompetenzvermitteln – Strategien und Evaluation. Stuttgart: Schriftenreihe der
Landesstiftung Baden-Württemberg.
Keeshan et al., 2015 - Keeshan, M. et al. (2015). Mapping Digital Literacy Policy and
Practice in the Canadian Education Landscape. Ottawa: Media Smarts.
Kirwan et al., 2003 - Kirwan, T., Learmonth, J., Sayer, M., & Williams, R. (2003). Mapping
Media literacy. Media Education 11-16 Years in the United Kingdom. London: BFI.
Lau, 2006 - Lau, J. (2006). Guidelines on Information Literacy for Lifelong Learning.
Mexico: IFLA.
Marchessault, 2014 - Marchessault, J. (2014). Media Studies as Interdisciplinary
Exploration. Journal of Visual Culture. 13(1), 82-84.
Masterman, 1985 - Masterman, L. (1985). Teaching the Media. London: Comedia Publishing
Group, 341 p.
Mihailidis, Thevenin, 2013 - Mihailidis, P., & Thevenin, B. (2013). Media Literacy as a Core
Competency for Engaged Citizenship in Participatory Democracy. American Behavioral Scientist.
57(11), 1611-1622.
OFCOM, 2011 - OFCOM (2011) UK Children’s Media Literacy. http://goo.gl/JK4ae1 (10-10-
2015).
Pérez Tornero, 2008 - Pérez Tornero, J.M. (Ed.) (2008).Teacher Training Curricula for
Media and Information Literacy. Paris: UNESCO.
Pérez Tornero, Varis, 2010 - Pérez Tornero, J.M., & Varis, T. (2010). Media Literacy and
New Humanism. Moscow: UNESCO Institute for Information Technologies in Education.
Potter, 2013 - Potter, W.J. (2013). Media Literacy. Thousand Oaks, California: SAGE
Publications, Inc.
Potter, 2014 - Potter, W.J. (2014). The Skills of Media Literacy. Santa Barbara, California:
Knowledge Assets, Inc.
333
Silverblatt, 2014 - Silverblatt, A. (Ed.) (2014). The Praeger Handbook of Media Literacy.
UNESCO, 2013 - UNESCO (2013). Global Media and Information Literacy Assessment
Framework: Country Readiness and Competencies. Paris: UNESCO.
Verniers, 2009 - Verniers, P. (Ed.) (2009). Media literacy in Europe. Controversies,
Challenges and perspectives. Bruxelles: EuroMeduc.
Worsnop, 1994 - Worsnop, C. (1994). Screening Images: Ideas for Media Education.
Mississauga: Wright Communication, 180 p.
Worsnop, 2004 - Worsnop, C. (2004). Media Literacy Through Critical Thinking. Seattle,
WA: Washington State Office of Superintendent of Public Instruction and NW Center for
Excellence in Media Literacy.
334
Comunicar, n. 45, v. XXIII, 2015 | Media Education Research Journal | ISSN: 1134-3478; e-ISSN: 1988-3293
www.revistacomunicar.com | www.comunicarjournal.com
The framework of Media Education and

Media Criticism in the Contemporary
World: The opinion of International Experts
Situación de la educación en medios y la competencia crítica en el mundo actual:
opinión de expertos internacionales
Dr. Alexander Fedorov is Deputy Director for Science of Anton Chekhov Taganrog Institute at the Rostov State
University of Economics (Russia) (1954alex@mail.ru) (http://orcid.org/0000-0002-0100-6389).
Dr. Anastasia Levitskaya is Lecturer in the Department of Humanities at Institute of Management and Economics
in Taganrog (Russia) (a.levitskaya@tmei.ru) (http://orcid.org/0000-0001-8491-8721).
ABSTRACT
The article analyzes the results of the international survey «Synthesis of Media Literacy Education and Media Criticism in the
Modern World», conducted by the authors in May-July 2014. 64 media educators, media critics, and researchers in the field of
media education and media culture participated in the survey, representing 18 countries: the USA, the UK, Canada, Australia,
New Zealand, Germany, Ireland, Spain, Portugal, Sweden, Finland, Greece, Cyprus, Hungary, Ukraine, Serbia, Turkey, and
Russia. Analysis of the data shows that the international expert community on the whole shares the view that the synthesis of
media education and media criticism is not only possible, but also necessary, especially in terms of effectively developing the
audience’s critical thinking skills. However, only 9.4% of the experts believe that media critics’ texts are used in media literacy
education classes in their countries to a large extent. Approximately one-third (34.4% of the polled experts) believe that this is
happening at a moderate level, and about the same number (32.8%) believe that this is happening to a small extent. Consequently,
media education and media criticism have a lot of work to do to make their synthesis really effective in the modern world.
RESUMEN
El artículo analiza los resultados de la encuesta internacional sobre la «Situación de la educación en medios y la competencia crí-
tica en medios en el mundo actual», llevada a cabo por los autores en mayo-julio de 2014. Fueron entrevistados responsables de
64 medios de comunicación, educadores críticos e investigadores en el campo de la educación mediática y la cultura de los
medios de comunicación de 18 países: USA, Reino Unido, Canadá, Australia, Nueva Zelanda, Alemania, Irlanda, España, Portu-
gal, Suecia, Finlandia, Grecia, Chipre, Hungría, Ucrania, Serbia, Turquía y Rusia. El análisis global de los datos muestra que la
comunidad internacional de expertos comparte la convicción de que la situación de la educación en medios y la competencia crí-
tica no es únicamente posible sino también necesaria, sobre todo en términos del desarrollo del pensamiento crítico de la audien-
cia. Sin embargo, solamente el 9,4% de los expertos en general cree que se utilizan los textos críticos de los medios en las clases
de alfabetización mediática en sus respectivos países. Aproximadamente un tercio (34,4% de los expertos encuestados) cree que
esto está sucediendo en un nivel aceptable y un porcentaje similar (32,8% de las respuestas) considera que ocurre en una mínima
parte. En consecuencia, habrá mucho trabajo que hacer para que la educación en medios y su análisis crítico consiga su imple-
mentación eficaz en el mundo actual.
KEYWORDS | PALABRAS CLAVE

Media literacy, media education, media criticism, expert, international survey, functions, genres, critical thinking.
Alfabetización mediática, educación en medios, competencia crítica, experto, encuesta internacional, funciones, géneros, pensa-
miento crítico.
Received: 06-07-2014 | Reviewed: 03-09-2014 | Accepted: 17-01-2015 | Preprint: 15-04-2015 | Published: 01-07-2015
DOI http://dx.doi.org/10.3916/C44-2015-11 | Pages: 107-115
108
1. Introduction and state of the question Again, it is a common feature between media criticism
Comunicar, 45, XXIII, 2015
One of the most important components of media and media education, because one of the main objec-
literacy education is teaching the audience to analyze tives of media education is not only to teach the au-
media texts of different kinds and genres. That is dience textual analysis techniques, but also to unders-
where, in our opinion, media criticism serves as an tand the mechanisms of their construction and func-
effective ally (Downey, Titley & Toynbee, 2014; Her- tion.
mes, Van-den-Berg & Mol, 2013; Kaun, 2014; Mas- Moreover, British media educators (Bazalgette,
terman, 1985; Silverblatt, 2001; Potter, 2011). Media 1995, Buckingham, 2006: 271-272 and others) among
criticism is an area of journalism, a creative and analy- the six key aspects of media education emphasize the
tical activity that requires the exercising critical aware- agency, the category, the technology, the media lan-
ness and the evaluation of information produced by guage, the representation and the audience. As a mat-
mass media, including its social significance, relevance, ter of fact, the same key aspects of media are subject
and ethical aspects (Korochensky, 2003). These ob- to media criticism, appealing to both the professional
jectives are linked to using and analyzing media in- and the mass audience. This is why a solid connection
formation of different genres, forms and types: and between media criticism and media education is so
identifying economic, political, social, and/ or cultural important (Hammer, 2011; Potter, 2011).
interests connected to it.
Media criticism can be divided into academic (e.g. 2. Materials and methods
publication of research findings related to media under- We conducted an international survey, entitled
standing, aimed mainly at specialists in the field of «Synthesis of Media Literacy Education and Media
media studies and professors/instructors in media de- Criticism in the Modern World», and analysis from
partments); professional (publications in journals May 2014 through early July 2014. We sent out 300
aimed at media industry professionals); and general questionnaires to specialists in the fields of media criti-
(aimed at a general audience) (Bakanov, 2009; Ko- cism and media literacy education from different coun-
rochensky, 2003; Van-de-Berg, Wenner & Gronbeck, tries. The choice of experts was determined by their
2014). Thus, it is primarily media critics in mass perio- influence and leadership in the academic community
dicals, along with media educators who strive to raise and the number of research articles on the theme they
the media literacy level of the mass audience. had published in peer-review journals.
Media competence is multidimensional and requi- On the whole we surveyed 64 media educators,
res a broad perspective, based on well-developed foun- critics, and researchers in the field of media education
dational knowledge. It is not a fixed category: theoreti- and culture from 18 countries: the USA, the UK, Ca-
cally, one can raise his/her media competence level, by nada, Australia, New Zealand, Germany, Ireland,
perceiving, interpreting, and analyzing cognitive, emo- Spain, Portugal, Sweden, Finland, Greece, Cyprus,
tional, aesthetic and ethical media information. The Hungary, Ukraine, Serbia, Turkey, and Russia. Of these
audience that is at a higher level of media literacy has a 50% (32 people) were from Western countries, while
higher level of understanding and ability to manage and 32 people were from Russia and Ukraine. The list of
evaluate the world of media (Camarero,
2013; Fantin, 2010; Huerta, 2011;
Potter, 2011: 12).
There are still pragmatic pseudo-
media education approaches –in which
real media education is substituted by
teaching elementary media skills or en-
couraging greater media consumption–
in use today (Razlogov, 2005). The
danger of such a simplistic attitude to
media education has been emphasized
by many researchers (for instance,
Wallis & Buckingham, 2013).
Media criticism has great potential
to facilitate educational efforts to deve-
lop the audience’s media culture.
© ISSN: 1134-3478 • e-ISSN: 1988-3293 • Pages 107-115

109
tics are used in

media education
classes in their
countries (see table
in the next page).
The sixth ques-
tion dealt with the
experts’ estimation
of which media
education objectives
can be more effecti-
vely reached if sup-
ported with the use
of media critics’
texts. The findings
are reflected in the
following table.
The seventh
experts includes such prominent media educators and question of the survey related to the experts’ self-
researchers of media culture as Kathleen Tyner, Faith assessment of the extent they synthesize media literacy
Rogow, W. James Potter, Marilyn A. Cohen, John education and media criticism in their teaching practi-
Pungente, Ignacio Aguaded, Georgy Pocheptsov, ce (see table in the next page).
Hanna Onkovich, Sergey Korkonosenko, Alexander
Korochensky, Kirill Razlogov, and other experts to 4. Results – Discussion and conclusions
whom the authors are sincerely grateful. The analysis of table 1 shows that the vast majority
of experts (87.5%) support the analytical function of
3. Instruments media criticism as the most relevant for mass media
Thus, the first point of our survey offered experts education. Then follow educational (73.4%), ethical
a list of media criticism functions, of which they had to (62.5%), informational-communicative (59.4%), aest-
choose the most important ones, in their opinion. hetical (57.8%), ideological/political (56.2%) and ethi-
Table 1 shows the results of the first question. The cal (54.7%). The rest of the functions of media criti-
second question dealt with the genres of media criticism (entertaining, recreation; regulatory, corporate;
cism that are most applicable to media education. advertising) did not gain the vote of more than 25% of
The third question of the survey dealt with media the experts.
criticism’s degree of compliance with media education Only 12.5% of experts added other functions of
functions towards the mass audience. The results are media criticism; among them were the functions of cri-
represented in table 3. tical thinking development, the audience’s socializa-
The fourth question of the survey concerned the tion, and learning about the economic organization of
experts’ evaluation of the degree of integration of media and its impact on what is produced. The latter,
media criticism and media education in public educa- as rightly mentioned by one of the experts, is very
tion institutions in their home countries (see table in important for facilitating discussion of such questions
the next page). as: what kind of media landscape would we have if
The fifth
question
related to
the experts’
estimation of
the degree
to which
certain texts
by media cri-
© ISSN: 1134-3478 • e-ISSN: 1988-3293 • Pages 107-115

110
experts’ votes and 40.6% of votes). This

considerable difference (ranging from 18 to

31%) demonstrates that Western media
educators, critics, and researchers place
much more emphasis on the ideological,
entertainment, and advertising functions of
media criticism. We believe that this can be
explained by the fact that media education
everything was financed by selling advertising? Is there in post Soviet countries has paid little attention to
still a role for public service media financed out of advertising and entertainment genres until recently;
taxation, and if so, what is that role? Should websites and intensive imposition of communist ideology during
like Facebook be allowed to sell personal data about the Soviet regime led to media teachers’ wary attitude
their users? to ideology functions in the post-Soviet era.
We should mention here that while developing The analysis of table 2 demonstrated that the most
the survey, we implied that the function of critical thin- relevant media criticism genres for media education
king development is a part of the analytical function. are considered to be analytical articles about events
However, if we compare the answers of the and processes (present or past) in the media sphere
experts from post-Soviet countries (Russia and Ukraine), (78.1% experts’ votes), comments on a media topic
on the one hand and experts from the Western coun- (57.8%), interview, talk, discussion with media perso-
tries, on the other hand, then we are able to see that nalities (54.7%), short review (film/radio/TV/Internet)
their views on analytical, informational-communicative, (43.7%), essay on a media topic (43.7%), long review
educational, ethi-
cal, regulatory,
corporate, artistic,
and aesthetic
functions of
media criticism
correspond clo-
sely, but their opi-
nions about other
functions differ
substantially. For
example, the ide-
ological/political
function, gained
49.8% of Russian
and Ukrainian
experts’ votes
and 68.7% of
Western experts’
votes. Entertain-
ment and recrea-
tion gained 6.2%
of Russian and
Ukrainian
experts’ votes
and 31.2% of
Western experts’
votes. Advertis-
ing gained 9.4%
of Russian and
Ukrainian
© ISSN: 1134-3478 • e-ISSN: 1988-3293 • Pages 107-115

111
of a specific media text

(film/radio/Internet) (42.2%),
and report on a media topic
(35.9%). The remaining
media criticism genres (me-
moir on a media topic, open
letter on a media topic,
parody on a media topic, por-
trait (characteristics) of a per-
son from the media, pamphlet, satire on a media topic) in mind that it is about priorities, because in their com-
did not exceed 30% of the experts’ votes. Only 10.9% ments many experts wrote that all the suggested genres
of experts supplied other genres. They mentioned pit- are important.
ches, presentations, intercultural dialogue, open dis- The analysis of data in table 3 shows that on the
cussions, evaluation of public service announcements, whole experts think that media criticism realizes edu-
readers’ Internet forum inspired by a media critic’s cational functions on a medium level (40.6% of surve-
publication, etc. In our opinion, this attests to the fact yed experts) or to a small extent (46.9%). Only 6.2%
that we have managed to represent the main genres of of experts believe that media criticism exercises educa-
modern media criticism in our survey. tional functions to a great degree in their home coun-
However, if we compare the answers of experts tries. In the meantime, if the answers of experts from
from post-Soviet countries (Russia and Ukraine) and post-Soviet countries (Russia and Ukraine) are compa-
experts from the Western countries, then we can see red to the answers of their Western colleagues, we
that while they are quite close in their views about can see that the latter are more optimistic: 12.5% of
such genres of media criticism as short review (film/- them do believe that media criticism performs educa-
radio/TV/Internet), long review of a specific media tional functions to a large extent and 43.7% – to a
text (film/radio/Internet), open letter on a media topic, medium extent. However, more than one third of the
report on a media topic, pamphlet, and satire on a experts from western countries believe that media cri-
media topic, they differ drastically about such genres as ticism has little educational effect. These data, in our
comments on a media topic (experts from Russia and opinion, testify to the fact that even in European and
Ukraine, 46.9% of votes, Western experts, 68.7%), North American countries, according to experts’
interview, talk, or discussion with media personalities views, the media educational potential of criticism
(experts from Russia and Ukraine, 78.1%, Western most often remains untapped.
experts, 31.2%), memoir on a media topic (experts The analysis of the data in table 4 indicates that
from Russia and Ukraine, 12.5%, Western experts, only 7.8% of experts in general consider that media
3.1%), essay on a media topic (experts from Russia and criticism is integrated with the media literacy education
Ukraine, 34.4%, Western experts, 53.1%), parody on of school and university students to a considerable
a media topic (experts from Russia and Ukraine, degree. About one third (32.2% of those polled) think
12.5%, Western experts, 46.9%), portrait (characteris- that this integration is at the medium level, and over
tics) of a person from the media (experts from Russia one half (56.2%) – to a small degree.
and Ukraine, 37.5%, Western experts, 18.7%). Still, comparing the answers of experts from post-
This significant difference (reaching 47% in the Soviet countries on the one hand, and the Western
case of interview, talk, or discussion with media perso- countries on the other hand, we can trace the differen-
nalities) shows that in Western countries, media edu- ce: 15.6% of the latter are sure of considerable degree
cators, critics and researchers lay more emphasis on of usage of media criticism in media education classro-
entertaining genres of media criticism (e.g. a parody) oms in schools and universities, while all the experts
on the one hand, and on the other hand – prefer con- from Russia and Ukraine left this column blank. This
tents and composition of «loose» media criticism gen- means that experts from post-Soviet countries do not
res (such as comments and essays). At the same time see the examples of considerable integration of media
the analysis of the data in table 2 shows that Russian criticism and formal education practices, so it is only
and Ukrainian experts tend to a larger degree to prio- logical that 81.2% of them claim that this process is
ritize genres popular in the post-Soviet media such as developing very little in their countries. This is accoun-
interview, talk, or discussion with media personalities ted for by for the sad fact that the media criticism
and memoirs on a media topic. However, let us bear potential remains untapped in educational institutions.
© ISSN: 1134-3478 • e-ISSN: 1988-3293 • Pages 107-115

112
Table 5 demonstrates that 9.4% of experts in analysis of different aspects of media/media culture
general believe that media critics’ texts are used in (75.0%);

media literacy education classes in their countries quite • Development of the audience’s ability to percei-
often. Around one third (34.4% of those polled) think ve, understand and analyze the language of media
that the educational application of concrete texts of texts (64.1%).
media critics is implemented at a medium level, and • Amplification of analytical skills related to the
about the same number (32.8% of votes) consider that cultural and social context of media texts (62.5%).
this is almost not happening. • Protection from harmful media effects (59.4%).
Among the names of media critics whose texts are • Preparation of the audience for living in a demo-
widely used in educational practices, Western experts cratic society (56.2%).
mentioned Marshall McLuhan, David Buckingham, • Development of good aesthetic perception,
Roland Barthes, Noam Chomsky, Neil Postman, and taste, understanding, and appreciation of artistic quali-
Denis McQuail, and experts from Russia and Ukraine ties of a media text (53.1%).
referred to Irina Petrovskaya, Alexander Korochensky, • Development of the audience’s ability to create
Georgy Pocheptsov, Roman Bakanov, and Len Mas- and publish their own media texts (53.1% of respon-
terman. A closer look at these names reveals that dents).
Western experts mostly named well-known English- If we compare the answers of the experts from
speaking authors (UK, USA, and Canada). For exam- post-Soviet countries (Russia and Ukraine) and experts
ple, authors from Australia and Northern Europe have from Western countries, then we can see the relatively
entered this list at minimum, and Russian and similar views about such media education objectives as
Ukrainian authors were not included at all. On the the development of analytical/critical thinking, auto-
contrary, experts from Russia and Ukraine gave prefe- nomy of the individual in terms of media, protection
rence to Russian-speaking authors. In our opinion, this from harmful media effects, development of the au-
fact confirms the general tendency of both the dience’s skills in perceiving, understanding and analy-
Western and post-Soviet expert community not to zing the language of media texts, and development of
address the wider spectrum of their colleagues’ works communicative skills of the individual. The positions of
but instead to focus on a familiar names, mainly from experts in Russia and Ukraine differ considerably from
countries that share their mother tongue. Western experts about such objectives as:
However, if we compare the answers of experts • Preparation of the audience for living in a demo-
from post-Soviet countries (Russia and Ukraine) and cratic society (experts from Russia and Ukraine –43.7%
those from the Western countries, then we can see of votes, Western experts– 68.7%).
that the number of Western experts that are sure of a • Development of the audience’s ability to create
moderate level of media criticism application in educa- and publish their own media texts (experts from Russia
tional institutions is over one half (53.1%, vs. 15.6% of and Ukraine –40.6%, Western experts– 65.6%),
experts from post-Soviet countries). 43.7% of Russian • Development of the audience’s skills in carrying
and Ukrainian experts are sure that this process is out moral, spiritual, and psychological analysis of aspects
undeveloped and one third (31.2%) found it difficult to of media and media culture (experts from Russia and
answer this question at all. Ukraine –59.4%, Western experts– 37.5%).
These data, to our mind, account for the fact that • Satisfaction of various needs of the audience
in experts’ opinion, specific texts by media critics are in terms of media (experts from Russia and Ukraine
used in media education practice in schools and uni- –21.9%, Western experts– 40.6%).
versities little or only somewhat. This correlates to the - Learning about the theory of media and media
data from table 4 as well. culture (experts from Russia and Ukraine –31.2%,
The analysis of table 6 demonstrates that, accor- Western experts– 50.0%).
ding to the experts’ opinions, the most important media • Learning about the history of media and media
literacy education objectives that can be facilitated by culture (experts from Russia and Ukraine –34.4%,
using media critics’ texts in media literacy education Western experts– 46.9%).
classes are the following: • Development of good aesthetic perception,
• Development of analytical/critical thinking, auto- taste, understanding, and appreciation of artistic quali-
nomy of the individual in terms of media (87.5% of ties of a media text (experts from Russia and Ukraine
those polled). – 59.4%, Western experts– 46.9%).
• Development of skills of political/ideological • Development of skills of political/ideological
© ISSN: 1134-3478 • e-ISSN: 1988-3293 • Pages 107-115

113
analysis of different aspects of media/ media culture table 1, are linked to the fact that the imposition of

(experts from Russia and Ukraine –68.7%, Western communist ideology in Soviet times led to a skeptical
experts– 81.2%). attitude toward this function later on.
• Amplification of analytical skills related to cultu- The analysis of data in table 7 shows that 39.1%
ral, and social context of media texts (experts from of experts in general think that as teachers they integra-
Russia and Ukraine –56.2%, Western experts– te media criticism and media literacy education to a
68.7%). considerable degree, and 29.7% of experts believe that
This significant difference (ranging from 12% to they do this somewhat. However, only one-fourth of
25%) demonstrates that Western media educators, experts confess that they integrate media criticism little
critics, and researchers place more emphasis on the in their classes.
preparation of the audience for living in a democratic Additionally, if the answers of Russian and Ukrai-
society, developing the audience’s ability to create and nian experts are compared to the answers of their
publish their own media texts, satisfaction of various Western colleagues, one can see that the number of
needs of the audience in terms of media, learning Western professionals sure of considerable integration
about theory and history of media and media culture, of media criticism in their classes is over one-half
development of skills of politi-
cal/ideological analysis of diffe-
rent aspects of media/media
culture, and amplification of In our opinion, the synthesis of media education and
analytical skills related to the
cultural, and social context of criticism is very important. For this reason, the discussion
media texts. On the other
hand, Russian and Ukrainian about the role and function of media in society and analysis
educators, critics, and resear- of various media texts in educational institutions is very
chers emphasize the develop-
ment of the audience’s skills in important. Both media criticism and education have great
carrying out moral, spiritual,
and psychological analysis of potential in terms of the support of the efforts of
aspects of media, and media educational institutions to develop the media competence
culture; and development of
good aesthetic perception, of the audience.
taste, understanding, and
appreciation of the artistic qua-
lities of a media text.
Developing the audience’s ability to create and publish (56.6%) while in post-Soviet countries this number is
their own media texts, satisfaction of various needs of only 21.9%.
the audience in terms of media, and learning about the While one-third (34.4%) of Russian and Ukrainian
theory and history of media and media culture get less specialists acknowledge the weak degree of applica-
attention. tion of media criticism in their classrooms, only 12.5%
We think that these differences are connected to of Western experts hold the same view.
the fact that the development of the audience’s skills in These data, in our opinion, attest that:
carrying out moral, spiritual, and psychological analysis • Even among the expert community around half
of aspects of media and media culture and develop- (53.1%) integrate media criticism and media literacy
ment of good aesthetic perception, taste, understan- education fairly little or very little.
ding, and appreciation of artistic qualities of a media • Russian and Ukrainian media educators integra-
text are traditional points of emphasis for the media te criticism in their classrooms far less than their wes-
education of the Soviet and post-Soviet period, while tern colleagues.
the preparation of the audience for living in a demo- This is in spite of the fact that, according to the
cratic society is more typical of the Western approach. table 3 data, the majority of experts do recognize that
As for the development of skills of political/ideolo- the educational potential of media criticism in educa-
gical analysis of different aspects of media/media cul- tional institutions remains untapped.
ture, the differences in approaches, as reflected in Because of the conflicting political, economic and
© ISSN: 1134-3478 • e-ISSN: 1988-3293 • Pages 107-115

114
media situation around Ukraine that occurred in 2014, • Development of the audience’s ability to create
we considered it essential to compare not only the dif- and publish their own media texts (53.8% in 2003 and
ferences in expert opinions between post-Soviet coun- 53.1 in 2014).
tries and Western countries, but between Russian and • Learning about the history of media and media
Ukrainian ones as well. With all the similarities of culture (37.8% in 2003 and 40.6% in 2014).
approaches detected by the survey answers, it appears •- Learning about the theory of media and media
that many Ukrainian experts are sensitive about the culture (47.9% in 2003 and 40.6 in 2014).
correlation of the current political situation with the • Preparation of the audience for living in a demo-
position of media criticism in education. cratic society (61.9% in 2003 and 56.2 in 2014).
Despite the relatively small number of respon- However, there are some differences, for exam-
dents, it is important to note that the survey results to
ple, the objective of the development of communicati-
ve skills of the individual
(57.3% in 2003 and 28.1% in
2014). In our opinion, this fact
is not connected to a decrease
We should expand the participation of academic communi- in number of experts who
ties, researchers, specialists in different fields (teachers, socio- chose this media education
objective as one of the most
logists, psychologists, cultural studies experts, journalists and important in 2014, because
the share of Western experts
philosophers), institutions of culture and education, social in the 2003 questionnaire
organizations and funds in order to promote the develop- remained almost the same in
2014 (in the survey of 2003
ment of media literacy/media competence of the citizens, 14 (53.8%) Western experts
were among the 26 partici-
and to create organizational structures able to implement the pants, and in 2014 – 32 (50%)
whole spectrum of media education objectives in alliance Western experts out of 64
respondents). We tend to
with media critics. believe that the fall in popula-
rity of the objective of the
development of communicati-
ve skills is due to the fact that
one of the key questions, shown in table 6 (What 2014 experts reasonably think that communicative
media literacy education objectives can be facilitated skills development by itself cannot be the aim of media
by using media critics’ texts in media literacy education education. There are now more vital objectives such
classes?) almost completely coincided with the results as development of analytical/critical thinking, auto-
of our previous sociological research (Fedorov, 2003). nomy of the individual in terms of media, development
In 2003 we surveyed 26 experts in the field of media of skills of political/ideological analysis of different
education/literacy from 10 countries. In particular, aspects of media/media culture, amplification of analy-
they answered questions about the main objectives of tical skills related to the cultural and social context of
media education/media literacy. The comparative media texts, and preparation of the audience for living
analysis of both surveys reveals the following characte- in a democratic society (56.2% of votes).
ristic congruence about the objectives of media educa- Quite reasonably, one of the leading Russian
tion: experts added in the margins of our survey that the
• Development of analytical/critical thinking, auto- development of mass media criticism in Russia as well
nomy of the individual in terms of media (84.3% in as in foreign countries is hindered by the lack of inte-
2003 and 87.5% in 2014). rest on the part of the authorities and the media busi-
• Development in the area of cultural/social media ness in having a media-competent audience of active
context (61.5% in 2003 and 62.5 in 2014). citizens (which is an essential prerequisite of democra-
• Development of good aesthetic perception, tic development in a modern media saturated society).
taste, understanding, and appreciation of artistic quali- But media criticism is more and more often used as a
ties of a media text (54.9% in 2003 and 53.1 in 2014). new information propaganda resource, used to
© ISSN: 1134-3478 • e-ISSN: 1988-3293 • Pages 107-115

115
influence communities of media professionals and visual media to Social Change in Nicaragua. (http://goo.gl/pQF-

mass audiences during crisis situations. C3R) (07-07-2014).
Downey, J., Titley, G., & Toynbee, J. (2014). Ideology Critique:
To sum up, media criticism and education have a The Challenge for Media Studies. Media, Culture & Society, 36(6),
lot in common: for instance, both media education and 878-887. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0163443714536113
criticism place great emphasis on the development of Fantin, M. (2010). Literacy, Digital Literacy and Information Literacy.
analytical thinking in the audience. One of the main International Journal of Digital Literacy and Digital Competence,
objectives of media education is, in fact, to teach the 1(4), 10-15. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.4018/jdldc.2010100102
Fedorov, A. (2003). Media Education and Media Literacy: Experts’
audience not only to analyze media texts of various Opinions. Mentor. A Media Education Curriculum for Teachers in
types and genres, but to understand the mechanisms of the Mediterranean. Paris: UNESCO.
their construction and functioning in society. As a mat- Fenton, N. (2009). My Media Studies: Getting Political in a Global,
ter of fact, media criticism deals with the same thing, Digital Age. Television New Media, 10, 55-57. DOI: http://dx.doi.-
appealing to professional and mass audiences. org/10.1177/1527476408325100
Hammer, R. (2011). Critical Media Literacy as Engaged Pedagogy.
Therefore, in our opinion, the synthesis of media edu- E-learning and Digital Media, 8(4), 357-363. DOI: http://dx.doi.-
cation and criticism is very important. For this reason, org/10.2304/elea.2011.8.4.357
the discussion about the role and function of media in Hermes, J., Van-den-Berg, A., & Mol, M. (2013). Sleeping with the
society and analysis of various media texts in educatio- Enemy: Audience Studies and Critical Literacy. International Jour-
nal institutions is very important. Both media criticism nal of Cultural Studies, 16(5), 457-473. DOI: http://dx.doi.-
org/10.1177/1367877912474547
and education have great potential in terms of the sup- Hobbs, R. (2007). Reading the Media: Media literacy in High
port of the efforts of educational institutions to develop School English. New York, NY: Teachers College Press.
the media competence of the audience (Buckingham, Huerta, R. (2011). Hybridation between Media Education and
2003; Fenton, 2009; Hobbs, 2007; Korochensky, Visual Arts Education. Miyazaki’s Cinema as a Revulsive’. Acta Di-
2003; Miller, 2009; Sparks, 2013). We should expand dactica Napocensia, 4(4), 55-66.
Kaun, A. (2014). I really don’t Like them! – Exploring Citizens’ Me-
the participation of academic communities, researchers, dia Criticism. European Journal of Cultural Studies, 17(5), 489-
specialists in different fields (teachers, sociologists, psy- 506. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1367549413515259
chologists, cultural studies experts, journalists and philo- Korochensky, A.P. (2003). Media Criticism in the Theory and
sophers), institutions of culture and education, social Practice of Journalism. Rostov: Rostov State University Press.
organizations and funds in order to promote the deve- Masterman, L. (1985). Teaching the Media. London: Comedia Pu-
blishing Group.
lopment of media literacy/media competence of the Miller, T. (2009). Media Studies 3.0. Television & New Media,
citizens, and to create organizational structures able to 10(1), 5-6. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1527476408328932
implement the whole spectrum of media education Potter, W.J. (2011). Media Literacy. LA: Sage.
objectives in alliance with media critics. Razlogov, K.E. (2005). Media Education: What is it for? Media
Education, 2, 68-75.
Sharikov, A.V. (2005). Media Education: So what is it for? Media
Support and acknowledgement Education, 2, 75-81.
This article is written within the framework of a study supported by
Silverblatt, A. (2001). Media Literacy. Westport, Connecticut.
the grant of the Russian Science Foundation (RSF). Project 14-18-
London: Prager.
00014 «Synthesis of media education and media criticism in the pre-
Sparks, C. (2013). Global Media Studies: Its Development and Di-
paration of future teachers», performed at Taganrog Management
lemmas. Media, Culture & Society, 35(1), 121-131. DOI: http://-
and Economics Institute.
dx.doi.org/10.1177/0163443712464566
Temple, M. (2013). The Media and the Message. Journal of Po-
References litical Marketing, 12, 147-165. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/-
Bakanov, R.P. (2009). Media Criticism of the Federal Periodicals of 15377857.2013.781479
1990s. Information Field of Modern Russia: The Practices and Van-de-Berg, L.R., Wenner, L.A. & Gronbeck, B.E. (2014). Media
Effects. Kazan: Kazan University Press, 109-116. Literacy and Television Criticism: Enabling an Informed and
Bazalgette, C. (1995). Key Aspects of Media Education. Moscow: Engaged Citizenry. American Behavioral Scientist, 48, 219-228.
Russian Association for Film Education. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0002764204267266
Buckingham, D. (2003). Media Education. London: Polity Press. Wallis, R., & Buckingham, D. (2013). Arming the Citizen-consu-
Buckingham, D. (2006). Defining Digital Literacy. Digital Kom- mer: The Invention of ‘Media Literacy’ within UK Communications
petanse, 1(4), 263-276. Policy. European Journal of Communication, 28(5), 527-540.
Camarero, E. (2013). Training, education and innovation in audio- DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0267323113483605
© ISSN: 1134-3478 • e-ISSN: 1988-3293 • Pages 107-115

116
© ISSN: 1134-3478 • e-ISSN: 1988-3293


Researcher
ISSN 2219-8229
E-ISSN 2224-0136
Vol. 14, Is. 4, pp. 245-255, 2015
DOI: 10.13187/ejced.2015.14.245
www.ejournal1.com

UDC 37
Aesthetic Analysis of Media texts in the Classroom at the Student Audience
Alexander Fedorov

Abstract
Aesthetic analysis of media texts, ie the analysis of art concept of the media texts of different
types and genres, is closely related to the aesthetic (artistic) theory of media (Aesthetical Approach,
Media as Popular Arts Approach, Discriminatory Approach ). Aesthetic theory of media literacy
education has been very popular in the 1960s (especially among active supporters of film education
in the era of the triumph of "auteur"). Since the 1970s, it became rapidly superseded by theories of
media literacy education as critical thinking, semiotic and cultural theories, when the media
educators believe that art in media - not the most important target. Therefore, it is necessary to
evaluate the media text, not primarily for its aesthetic qualities, but in fact the content on the ideas,
the components of language, symbols and signs. However, many training programs in media
culture are now trying to find a compromise solution to disputes "aesthetics" and "pragmatists",
combining the sphere of artistic, experimental, analytical media literacy education with practice
and creative approaches.
Keywords: aesthetic analysis, media, media texts, media education, media literacy, media
Introduction
Aesthetic analysis of media texts, ie the analysis of art concept of the media texts of different
types and genres, is closely related to the aesthetic (artistic) theory of media (Aesthetical Approach,
Media as Popular Arts Approach, Discriminatory Approach ) [Halls & Whannel, 1964; Baranov,
2002; Penzin, 1987, 2001; Whiskers, 1989, etc.]. The theoretical basis is largely coincides with the
cultural theories of media literacy education. However, the main purpose of media literacy
245
education seems to help the audience understand the basic laws and the language of the art
spectrum of media texts, to develop aesthetic / artistic sensibility and taste, the ability to qualified
aesthetic analysis. That's why the focus is on the analysis of the language of media culture, a critical
analysis of the author's conception of artistic media text.

The main material for this article was the area of the books and articles about the aesthetic
analysis of media texts. Aesthetic analysis of media texts implies a number of students of creative
tasks (part of this work is available at: Semali, 2000, pp.229-231; Bazhenova, 1992; Usov, 1995;
Nechay, 1989, pp.267-268; Fedorov, 2004, p.43 -51; Fedorov, 2005, Silverblatt, 2001; 2014; Potter,
2014, but I substantially supplemented and revised the series of tasks): literary and analytical,
literary and theatrical role-playing simulation, visual-simulation. Each of these tasks include
analysis of the key concepts of media literacy education [media agencies, media categories, media
language, media technologies, media representations, media audiences, etc.].
Discussion
In many countries of Eastern Europe (primarily - in Russia) aesthetic theory of media literacy
education for many decades (from the 1920s to the 1980s) was combined with ideological. Today,
this theory is largely gravitates to cultural theories of media literacy education, as has clear
theoretical basis for matching with respect to the problem of "media and the audience" and
considerable similarity in goals and objectives, the content and teaching strategies.
Here is just one characteristic of the aesthetic theory of media opinion, shared by
considerable number of teachers: "The main objective is familiarizing young spectator to the art of
cinema, to recognize the value of his" [Spichkin, 1999, p.133], but here you can easily add many
quotes associated with a consistent orientation to the study of media arts masterpieces media
[Penzin, 2001, p.73].
Analyzing this kind of approach, K. Tayner rightly notes that in aesthetic / artistic theory of
media literacy education, cinema is in a more privileged position than the press or television. In
this case, some media texts are usually selected teacher are considered "good ", while others,
usually is a favorite of students - "bad". Valuable questions, that is "good" versus "bad" remained
central [Tyner, 1998, p.115].
Thus, many researchers, for example, L. Masterman [Masterman, 1997, p.22], believe that
"aesthetic theory" of media education, in fact, discriminatory (Discriminatory Approach),
proclaims as the ultimate goal of development of the ability to qualified judgment only in relation
to the artistic component of the media spectrum. L. Masterman believes that questions assessing
the quality of a media text should be in media education subsidiary, rather than central. The main
goal - to help students understand how the media operate, whose interests reflect what the content
of media texts, as they reflect reality, and how they are perceived by the audience [Masterman,
1997, p.25].
Aesthetic theory of media literacy education has been very popular in the West in the 1960s
(especially among active supporters of film education in the era of the triumph of "auteur"). Since
the 1970s, it became rapidly superseded by theories of media literacy education as critical thinking,
semiotic and cultural theories, when the media educators believe that art in media - not the most
important target. Therefore, it is necessary to evaluate the media text, not primarily for its aesthetic
qualities, but in fact the content on the ideas, the components of language, symbols and signs.
However, many training programs in media culture are now trying to find a compromise
solution to disputes "aesthetics" and "pragmatists", combining the sphere of artistic, experimental,
analytical media literacy education with practice and creative approaches.
An indicator of the ability of the audience to the analysis of visual, audio, spatial and
temporal structure of media texts is the ability to multi-layer reflection shaped the world as
separate components, and work as a whole: the logic of audio-visual, plastic development of the
author's thoughts in an integrated, holistic unity of the diverse resources of the organization of
image and sound.
Y.N. Usov exhaustively described the practical implementation of these theoretical and
methodological approaches in relation to the development of the audiovisual perception, nonverbal
creative thinking of students. So he identified two main types of artistic perception of the audience,
246
noting that if the first group of viewers, based on an abstract logical mindset remains at the level of
empathy to character, then the second group follows the authors understand the logic of their
thoughts in an artistic structure just because it is based on imagery and spatial reasoning [Usov,
1980, p.10].
Analyzing the typology of the viewer's perception of students, Y.N. Usov exhibited
extraordinary gift of art criticism, very astutely observed that "in contrast to the artistic image in
painting audio-visual difficult to capture the image for analysis, since it is in constant development
of space-time coordinates. Our focus captures the state of "phases" of becoming audio-visual image
on the screen and its final form in our minds"[Usov, 1980, p.16].
In another work Y.N. Usov formulated various levels of perception of artistic media text in
more detail:
I. Assimilation environment, that is the emotional development of the reality presented on
the screen.
II. Assimilation with the character: 1) assessment of individual fragmentary episodes in
which pronounced character actor, 2) understanding the outline of events, which reveals the logic
of the hero's behavior, 3) understanding the logical connection episodes indicate the nature of the
hero.
III. Assimilation with the author: 1) understanding the logical connection episodes, which
revealed the development of the author's thoughts, 2) the perception of form’ film narration based
on emotional and semantic correlation of significant parts, 3) understanding of artistic failure of
the film, exposing the concept of a work of art screen [Usov, 1992, p.11].
As we can see, unlike many other figures of media education in Russia (Y.I. Bozhkov,
P.D. Genkin, L.P. Pressman et al.), who believed that the main focus in the classroom with the
students need to do to work with hardware (camera, projector, video camera, monitor, etc.),
Y.N. Usov believed that the main thing - the development of art perception, creative critical
thinking, audiovisual media competence by means of viewing and analyzing the works created by
professionals [Usov, 1980, s.20-21].
In other words, the perception of "audiovisual image in the dynamics of plastic forms
awakens in the heart of particular emotional stress: 1) establish the association with specific
viewer’s artistic and life experiences; 2) based on their intuitive understanding happens developing
plastic forms as a result of empathy with the hero and author; 3) consistently occur shaped
generalization of individual components of the film, from the staff, their installation connections
episodes, scenes, and ending with the individual parts of the movie as a whole"[Usov, 1980, p.26].
Here we can talk about the visual decision frame of plastic, facial expressions of actors, of close-ups
isolated parts, etc.
Talking about the features of the audiovisual image, Y.N. Usov gives the specific examples
emphasize its similarities and differences from the image of literary, musical, theatrical arts, each
time coming back to the idea that the specificity of the on-screen text in the unity of its dynamic
audiovisual and spatial-temporal nature. [Usov, 1980, p.60].
The level of the audiovisual thinking turned out to be directly related to the depth of
understanding and interpreting different types of narrative forms, containing the author's
ideological orientation, with the ability of the student to assimilate the media environment,
empathy and character to the author, and the result interpretation depended on the ability to
understand the emotional reaction to evaluate the aesthetic media text copyright system views.
Y.N. Usov rightly pointed out the flaws in the typical methodological approaches for the Russian
media education when, instead of forming a holistic perception of the audiovisual image that is
deployed in the dynamics of space-time coordinates, students are encouraged to study only some
specific features of the cinema - installation, angle, etc.
Of course, the most popular among young people is adventure genre - with beautiful, strong
characters, entertaining intrigue and a happy ending, undoubtedly, for entertainment, emotional
discharge. Scientists have long shown that the phenomenon of compensation, purifying human
feelings - one of the essential results of the contact viewer, reader with art. Use it to compensate for
the lack of psychological experiences, or, on the contrary, the viewer switches from conflict and
stressful life situations towards the implementation of the illusion cherished desires. Here, for
example, includes, short let, compensation erotic and aggressive feelings.
247
I note also a strong informational impact of media texts, so to speak, and everyday utilitarian:
how to succeed in love, to avoid danger, to be able to fend for themselves in a critical situation,
fashionable dress, skillfully meet, etc. For young people this information level of the media text is
of particular importance, because media are the channel for visual recommendations on the most
pressing problems of life.
How to be in this situation?
From childhood, each of us accustomed to hear and read countless appeals to the aesthetic
education of youth. Citations of the articles of prominent figures of pedagogy and culture, which
speaks of the importance of art in human life would have been, probably, a lot of pages of fine
print... Everything is so. But in many schools the lessons of art focuses on the most simple: draw a
vase, sing the chorus... And the art is often out of the question on the lessons...
Results
These series of aesthetical analysis’’ tasks for media education literacy classes for students:
literary-analytical, literary imitation, drama, role-playing, fine-simulation.
Literary simulation creative tasks that contribute to the aesthetic analysis skills in the
student audience:
Media agencies:
- to make the thematic plan for media agencies, designed to produce artistic media texts for
children of a certain age.
- to write the synopses for scenarios of feature films (different genres, but with the same
characters).
Media technologies:
- to write of synopses for future scenarios of artistic media texts based on different media
technologies.
Media languages:
- to write the "shooting script" for artistic media text (for the film, radio / television program,
computer animation, etc.): plans, camera angles, camera movements, installation guidelines, etc.
- to write the text of the poem, a song that reflects the story of media text;
- to write a story for sequel of art house media text;
- to write the original script for artistic media text (for example, for up to 2-3 minutes of
screen action movie, TV programs, realizable in practice, the training video);
Media audiences:
- to write the letter telling a friend about your perception of any art house media text;
- to write the monologues ("letters" in the editorial offices of newspapers and magazines, on
television, in the Ministry of Culture, etc.), relating to art house media texts), but to be in the “role”
of the audience with a variety of age-related, social, professional, educational, and other data at
different levels of aesthetic media insight ("primary identification", "secondary identification",
"complex identification," according to the orientation on entertainment, recreational,
compensatory, and other functions of media culture, etc.).
By performing these tasks, the audience in the form of a game is getting ready for a more
serious problem-analysis skills. Naturally, all the above works collectively discussed are compared.
The knowledge and skills connected with these works are from the courses of literature
(theme, idea, plot, etc.), world art and culture (color, light, composition, view, etc.), music (temp,
rhythm). The audience learns the deeper concepts such as perception, empathy, identification, etc.
As a result, students develop cognitive interests, fantasy, imagination, associative, creative, critical,
individual thinking, media competence.
Cycle theatrical role-creative tasks that contribute to the aesthetic analysis skills in the
student audience:
Media agencies:
- realization / shot of a scenic design artistic skills; In this case, the audience put the
following specific objectives: a) film director: the choice of "actors", the definition of the main
"actor", "operator", "decoration", "sound and music", "light-color" solutions, Accounting genre and
stylistic features of the product, etc.; b) director of photography: the plans, perspectives, camera
248
movement, depth, frame, etc.; c) lights and colors for media text; d) sounds: use of noise and
background music, etc.; e) decorator: the use of natural scenery, costumes, design Interactive sites,
computer animation, etc.; f) actor; g) editor.
- shooting of the fragments of pre-written script synopses of art house media texts of
different genres, but with the same characters.
Media technologies:
- preparation and comparison of various technology options for art solutions into a video.
Media languages:
- preparation and comparison of different variants of art solutions into a video (color, light,
perspective, composition, editing, etc.);
- implementation of different interpretations of "dubbing" unfamiliar for audience art house
movie (devoid of sound soundtrack) or episode from a foreign movie or TV show;
- to make variety of sound, noise effects.
- preparation and comparison of different options in practice video art media text on the
same screenwriting plan, implemented by different groups of students;
- role game sketches on "press conference with media text’s authors”
("writer","director","actors", “composer ","artist", "producer","designer", etc.);
- role game on "international meeting of media critics" is that condemn various aesthetic
aspects of the media, analyze individual artistic media texts, etc.
Media audiences:
- role game on topics monologues and dialogues about art media texts representatives
audiences with different age, social, professional, educational, and other data at different levels of
aesthetic media insight ("primary identification", "secondary identification", "complex
identification," according to the orientation for entertainment, recreational, compensatory, and
other functions of media culture, etc.).
In fact, the theatrical role-creative activities complement and enrich the skills acquired by the
audience during the literary and simulation gaming workshops. In addition to oral skills
brainstorming artistic features of media texts, they promote emancipation, sociability audience,
activate improvisational abilities.
Graphic-cycle simulation creative tasks that contribute to the aesthetic analysis skills in the
student audience:
Media agencies:
- to create a comic book, which reveals the stages of creating the agency artistic skills.
- to create a series of drawings, each of which reflects a visual look at your specific genre of
artistic media text (comedy, romance, detective, etc.).
Media technologies:
- to create a series of drawings, each of which would reflect your visual look at certain
technologies;
Media languages:
- preparation and comparison of different variants of media art into a video frame solutions
(color, light, perspective, composition, editing, etc.).
- figurative representation as a generalization of a media frame, visual metaphors, association
with other arts;
- to create a collage on the theme of artistic media text on the basis of clippings of texts and
images of old newspapers / magazines.
- to create advertising billboards, posters for own artistic media text (option: posters for
professional media texts) with the help of photo collage with additional drawings or based on their
own original drawings;
- to create new media images of the characters of artistic media texts, their dialogues;
- manufacturing of finger puppets depicting certain scenes of artistic media text, staging
puppet show in some episodes;
- to create animation, comic books, intended for adult audiences.
249
Media audiences:
- to create a series of drawings on the themes of monologues and dialogues about art media
texts of representatives audiences with different age, social, professional, educational, and other
data at different levels of aesthetic media insight.
After performing the above tasks is a contest of creative posters, collages, drawings, comics
students can discuss their advantages and disadvantages. The main indicator of achieving these
goals, developing imagination, fantasy, associative and critical thinking, non-verbal perception of
the audience: the ability of the student in the form of non-verbal to convey their impressions of
artistic media texts.
Cycle of literary and analytical creative tasks that contribute to the aesthetic analysis skills
in the student audience:
Media agencies:
- to analyze of the influence of the main producer of media agencies / holding on the artistic
features of media texts.
- to analyze of the same genre in the works of different figures of media culture, different
genres in the work of the same figure of media culture;
- to analyze of the similarities and differences of the tragedy, drama and melodrama as a
genre of media texts;
- to analyze of similarities and differences between the characters of tragedy, drama and
melodrama.
Media technologies:
- to analyze of the nature and extent of the impact of media technologies on the artistic level
of media texts.
Media languages:
- to analyze of the lighting, colors and angles used in the specific posters / photos;
- to analyze how to use various forms of media art language to convey ideas or values;
- to analyze of the concrete manifestation of the influence of the great masters of painting on
a number of iconic modern media texts.
- reveal of story structure (plot, the development of the action, climax, denouement) in the
episode or artistic media text as a whole;
- reveal of artistic pattern construction of on-screen text as the main compositional
techniques that consistently used by the author in creating scenes and work as a whole;
- to identify of conflict (moral, philosophical, and so on.;
- to write the versions of "improving quality" of various famous art media texts: what changes
can be made in the design and layout of the internet site, magazine, newspaper, some actors /
facilitators would take on leading roles in a film or television show that would change in a
particular plot media text (seizures, additions, etc.);
- to remember of prose, poetry, theater, paintings, musical works, associated with a particular
art media texts, to justify this choice.
Media audiences:
- to substantiate their attitude towards media texts, to his philosophical, artistic and moral
orientation.
The cycle of creative tasks to restore dynamics of space-time, audio-visual images in the
episodes of art house media texts in the process of collective discussion in the student audience.
After the introduction of creative and analytical part of the training should be the main stage
of the audience's full perception of visual, aural, spatial and temporal structure of art media texts.
In this case, I agree with the idea of Y.N. Usov (1936-2000) about the perception of media
image (tempo, rhythm, subtext, plastic form of media texts) [Usov, 1989, p. 235]. The most
important indicator of full perception of media texts is the audience’s capability to perception of
the composition frame, its spatial, light-color, sound, field-aligned solutions. The audience also
possessed a kind of mounting thinking: the emotional state of the semantic elements of the
narrative, their rhythmic, plastic compound in the frame, episode, scene, so that eventually the
perception of media texts based on the relationship of several processes:
250
- perception of dynamically developing visual images; stored in the memory of previous

audio-visual, spatial and temporal elements of media image;
- prognosis, foreboding probability of a phenomenon in the media text.
To accomplish these tasks in relation to the audiovisual media, the audience is encouraged to
try to describe the dynamics of the media image deployment rhythmically organized in plastic form
of narration. The basis of this process can be a discussion of the mounting (with the rhythm,
tempo, etc.) a combination of frames (taking into account their composition: the front, depth-
aligned, light-color, etc.) and episodes, as the dynamics of the formation of the audiovisual image it
manifests itself in the interaction of training and installation.
The purpose of these studies is that the students, talking to the media, to develop their
emotional, creative activity, non-verbal thinking, audio and visual memory; facilitate the analysis
and synthesis audio-visual, the space-time image of the media text.
The cycle of creative activities designed to develop students' skills of aesthetic analysis of
media texts in the process of collective discussion, debate.
The implementation of these steps based on a cycle of workshops devoted to aesthetic
analysis of specific media texts. However, as experience shows, it is necessary, first, to go from
simple to more complex: first choose to discuss, analyze clear on the plot, the author's thoughts,
the style of media texts. And secondly – the aim, to take into account the genre, thematic
preferences of the audience.
Of course, here again using creative, game, heuristic and problem tasks, significantly
increasing the activity and interest of the audience.
Heuristic form of the class, in which the audience is invited to a few wrong and right
judgment, much easier for the audience analytical tasks and serves as the first step to subsequent
gaming and problematic forms of artistic discussion of media texts.
During the implementation of heuristic approaches the audience offered:
- the true and incorrect versions of the author's conception, reveals in a particular art media
text.
For example, for "heuristic" discussion of the popular series "The Streets of Broken Lights"
("Cops"), the students were offered the following theses:
1) This is a true, deep thoughts on the work that critically examines the vices of a society:
crime, corruption;
2) The film is completely deceitful. There is nothing from the truth: crime in the country has
been virtually eliminated, the police reject any dishonest transaction;
3) The critical aspect of the picture - only intriguing bait, which should give the appearance of
truth, because, despite the cutting-theme film suffers from superficiality, and some episodes of
frank parody;
4) The events of the film are logical, justified vital, the characters deeply and masterfully
played by actor;
5) The characters in the movie are deprived of these characters - this activity but rather
primitive psychological scheme;
6) The picture should be viewed as a fun skit mocking stamps domestic and foreign police
and gangster thriller;
7) The film only in some episodes looks parody, as a whole - is hastily removed detective
stories with casual fine solution;
8) The authors made a media text of mass success, quite professionally by calculating the
arithmetic mean some similar "militants";
9) The authors very carefully approached the compositional structure of the series, his color,
light and sound decision, there is nothing superfluous, everything works perfectly to create the
necessary atmosphere and mood.
An indicator of this assignment was the ability to audience during the discussion, carefully
weighing all the "pro" and "contra" to speak in support of the faithful, from their point of view,
theses. In the final sessions of the heuristic cycle students have themselves could make a similar
thesis, using these or other media texts massive success.
The next stage of training is problematic group discussions and in reviewing the art media
texts.
There can be used the following problem of creative tasks:
251
- comparison of reviews and discussion (articles, books) of professional media critics and
journalists, concerning the aesthetic aspects of media culture;
- preparing essays devoted to aesthetic issues of media culture;
- group discussions (with the help of problem questions of the teacher) about artistic
component of media text;
- students’ reviews on specific art media texts of different types and genres.
The logic sequence of creative tasks comes from the fact that the critical analysis of art media
theoretical articles, monographs devoted to media culture and specific media texts), in which the
audience can judge the different approaches and forms of this type of work.
The audience is looking for answers to the following problem questions: "What is the author
of the review see the aesthetic merits and demerits of the media text?", "How deep reviewers
penetrate the artistic vision of the author?", "Do you agree or not with this or that aesthetic
appreciation reviewers? Why?","Do the reviewers own individual artistic style? If yes, what is it
manifested?","What is out of date, and that - not in this book?","What kind of media texts theme,
genre orientation support the author, the book? Why?","Why did the author has constructed the
composition of his book so and not otherwise?", etc.
Then students work on the essay about the aesthetic aspects of media culture, independent
discussion of media texts.
Workshops on aesthetic analysis of media texts aimed at training audio-visual memory, the
stimulation of creative abilities of the individual, on improvisation, independence, a culture of
critical thinking, the ability to apply this knowledge in new situations, the psychological, moral
work, reflections on artistic values, etc.
The general scheme of the discussion of art media text:
- introduction word (the goal - to give brief information about the creators of media texts,
remind their previous work, refer to other works of these authors, if there is a need to dwell on the
historical and political context of events or in any way relating to art and other assessments of the
author's position, and, of course, not retelling the plot of the work), that is, on the installation
media insight;
- collective "reading" of art media text (communicative phase);
- discussing about media text, summarizing lessons.
Discussion about art media texts begins (as recommended Y.N. Usov) with steps, a relatively
simple for media reception:
- to select episode, most clearly revealed artistic rules of constructing the entire media text;
- analysis of episodes (attempt to understand the logic of the author thinking - in a complex,
interconnected development of the conflict, characters, ideas, audio and visual details, etc.);
- identification of the author's concept and its evaluation audience.
audience received analysis skills (for example: "What are the known media texts you can compare
this work? Why? What do they have in common?", etc.).
Questions contributing aesthetic analysis skills in the student audience [Nechay, 1989;
Berger, 2005; Fedorov, 2001; Fedorov, 2004, pp.43-51; Fedorov, 2006, pp.175-228; Silverblatt,
2001; 2014; Potter, 2014,]:
Media agencies:
To what extent media agencies can determine the artistic features of media texts?
As a genre is refracted in the works of specific figures of media culture (the same genre in the
works of different figures of media culture, different genres in the works of the same figure of
media culture)?
What are the similarities and differences of the tragedy, drama and melodrama as a genre of
media texts?
What are the similarities and differences of characters tragedy, drama and melodrama?
Is there a difference in the approaches to the use of color and lighting in art media texts of
different types and genres?
252
Media technologies:
Is the media technology has the influence on the artistic level of media texts? If so, how? If
not, why not?
Media languages:
What angle used in this poster / photos? What type of lighting? How to use color?
As media use different forms of artistic language to convey ideas or values?
What are the effects of the choice of certain forms of artistic language media?
What are the dominant (literary, visual, musical, acting) in the creation of specific figures of
media culture?
What is the difference between the types of installation (installation parallel, crossover,
contrast, rhythm, intelligent, associative, and others.)?
What is the difference in film editing, photography, visual arts, music?
Whose eyes see events in a particular episode of art media text?
As the authors of art media text can be pictorially show that their character has changed?
Media audiences:
What is the aesthetic taste? Can you think of his criteria in relation to media texts? Why did
you choose these criteria?
To what extent knowledge cause an emotional reaction to a series of pictorial art media text?
What is the difference between pictures / movies made in relation to the same object tourist
and professional in the field of media culture?
As lighting, the play of light and shade effect on the perception of the audience of a media
image?
Conclusions
This article presented the main directions for Aesthetical Analysis on media literacy
audience, representation. The author supposes that the Aesthetical Analysis of media texts on
critical thinking and aesthetical perception.
References:
1. Baranov, O.A. (2002). Media education in schools and universities. Tver: Tver State.
University Press, 87 p.
2. Bazhenova, L.M. (1992). In the world of screen arts. Moscow, 74 p.
Moscow: Williams, 288 p
5. Fedorov, A.V. (2001). Media Education: History, Theory and Methods. Rostov: CVVR,
708 p.
№ 4, pp. 43-51.
8. Hall, S. & Whannel, P. (1964). The Popular Arts. London: Hutchinson.
9. Masterman, L. (1984). Education language media: Theory and Practice // Prospects.
1984. № 2, pp.37-48.
253
12. Penzin, S.N. (1987). Movies and aesthetic education: methodological problems.
Voronezh: Voronezh. State University Press, 176 p.
14. Pressman, L.P. (1988). Method of use of teaching aids: screen-acoustic means.
Moscow: Education, 191 p.
Press, 243 p.
17. Tyner, K. (1998). Literacy in the Digital World: Teaching and Learning in the Age of
Information. Mahwan, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 291 p.
18. Usov, Y.N. (1980). Technique of use of cinema in the ideological and aesthetic
education of pupils of 8-10 classes. Tallinn, 125 p.
20. Usov, Y.N. (1992). Audiovisual development of students of classes IX-XI // System
audiovisual education high school students. Moscow, pp.11-15.
21. Usov, Y.N. (1993). Basics screen culture. Moscow, 1993. 91 p.
22. Usov, Y.N. (1995). In the world of screen arts. Moscow, 224 p.
23. Usov, Y.N. (1995). Media Education in Russia (on the basis of screen arts). Manuscript.
Moscow, 1995. 8 p.
24. Usov, Y.N. (1998). Media education. The program is for students in grades 10-11
comprehensive school // Basics screen culture. A series of programs. Moscow, pp.55-59.
25. Usov, Y.N. (1998). The program of the course "Basics screen culture" for students in
grades 9-11 secondary school // Basics screen culture. A series of programs. Moscow, pp..29-45.
26. Usov, Y.N. (2000). Screen arts - a new kind of thinking // Art and Education. 2000. №
3, pp.48-69.
27. Usov, Y.N. (1999). Screen arts in an emotional and intellectual development of students
// Contemporary approaches to the theory of aesthetic education. Moscow: Institute of Art
Education of the Russian Academy of Education, pp.139-141.
28. Usov, Y.N. (2000). Virtual thinking in familiarizing students to different types of art //
Art in school. 2000. № 6, pp.3-6.
29. Usov, Y.N., Bazhenova L.M., Bondarenko, E.A. (1991). Fundamentals of audiovisual
culture. The program of training sessions for grades 1-11 secondary schools. Moscow, 62 p.
УДК 37
Эстетический анализ медиатекстов на занятиях

в студенческой аудитории

Аннотация. Эстетический анализ медиатекстов – анализ художественной концепции

медиатекстов различных видов и жанров, тесно связанный с эстетической (художественной)
теорией медиа. Эстетическая теория медиаобразования была очень популярна в 1960-х
(особенно среди активных сторонников кинообразования в эпоху торжества понятия "автор").
С 1970-х годов эта теория стала быстро вытесняться теориями медиаобразования как развития
критического мышления, семиотической и культурологической теориями, в рамках которых
254
медиапедагоги полагают, что искусство в медиа – не самое важное поле для обучения, так как
необходимо оценить медиатекст, в первую очередь, не по его эстетическим качествам, а по
содержанию идей, компонентов языка, символам и знакам. Однако многие учебные программы
в области медиакультуры в настоящее время пытаются найти компромиссное решение споров
"эстетиков" и "прагматиков", сочетая сферу художественного и аналитического подходов к
медиобразованию с практикой и творческими заданиями.
Ключевые слова: эстетический анализ, медиа, медиатексты, медиаобразование,
255

ISSN 2411-3239
E-ISSN 2413-7588
Vol. 6, Is. 4, pp. 214-224, 2015
DOI: 10.13187/jincfar.2015.6.214
www.ejournal36.com
UDC 37
Hermeneutic Analysis of the Cultural Context of the Functioning of Media in Society

and Media Texts on Media Literacy Education Classes
Alexander Fedorov

Abstract
Hermeneutic Analysis of Cultural Context is a study of the process of interpretation of media
texts, cultural and historical factors influencing the viewpoint agencies / media text and the
author's point of view on the audience. Hermeneutical analysis suggests a media text
comprehension through comparison with cultural tradition and reality; penetration into the logic
of media texts; analysis skills through comparison of artistic images in the historical and cultural
context. Thus, the system is subject to analysis media and its operation in society, human
interaction, language, and media using. For the purposes of media education in this case stand out:
the creation of a culture of interaction with the media, the development of the perception of
different types of information, skills analysis and interpretation of media texts, the formation of
critical thinking, creativity in the field of media.
This article presented the main directions for Hermeneutic Analysis of Cultural Context on
media literacy education classes for student audience, including the examples of creative problems
and issues associated with this type of the analysis in the context of media literacy education
problems, ie based on six key concepts of media literacy education: agency, category, language,
technology, audience, representation. The author supposes that the Hermeneutic Analysis of
Cultural Context of media texts on media literacy education classes can significantly develop media
competence of students, including critical thinking.
Keywords: hermeneutic analysis, cultural context, media, media texts, media education,
Introduction
Hermeneutic Analysis of Cultural Context is a study of the process of interpretation of media
texts, cultural and historical factors influencing the viewpoint agencies / media text and the
author's point of view on the audience. Hermeneutical analysis suggests a media text
comprehension through comparison with cultural tradition and reality; penetration into the logic
of media texts; analysis skills through comparison of artistic images in the historical and cultural
context. Thus, the system is subject to analysis media and its operation in society, human
interaction, language, and media using. For the purposes of media education in this case stand out:
214
the creation of a culture of interaction with the media, the development of the perception of
different types of information, skills analysis and interpretation of media texts, the formation of
critical thinking, creativity in the field of media.
Students should study such topics as the pressure of the state system, censorship, in varying
degrees, affect the content of media texts, etc. In particular, the important point here is to
understand the difference in the sense of a media text, depending on how the Agency it was
created. For example, key questions for these are: The views of what political forces reflects in the
leading TV- news?, etc.
In culture studies paradigm of media literacy education, in the technique of "critical
thinking" teachers can use the practical approaches. In particular, students can analyze the key
aspect of agency in the practice. For example, students create a groups of "financiers", "producers",
"editors", etc. for planning to release a magazine or TV show. Naturally, the media literacy
education key aspects are not in vacuum, they are connected with each other. Therefore, for
example, the problem of printing and censorship can (and should) be considered in the classroom
dedicated to the key aspect of audience.

The main material for this article was the area of the books and articles about the
hermeneutic analysis of media texts. The method of hermeneutic analysis of the cultural context of
media and media texts implies a number of students of creative tasks (part of these works is
available at: BFI, 1990; Semali, 2000, pp.229-231; Potter, 2001; 2014; Berger, 2005; Nechay, 1989;
Fedorov, 2004, pp.43-51; Siverblatt, 2001; 2014): simulation (literary, visual) and analytical
literary, theatrical role-playing. These tasks include analysis of the key concepts of media literacy
education [media agencies, media categories, media language, media technologies, media
representations, media audiences etc.].
Discussion
The key aspect of the hermeneutic analysis of media texts in the student audience is
representation, as it is assumed that media texts differently correlate with reality, it is not a mirror
image, and create their own version of virtual reality. The study of this concept is closely related to
such aspects as agency, audience, media language, category and technology, as at every level of
production decisions agency must be selected to include or exclude material due to the category
and technology. This decision has an impact on the way in which language is presented media
texts, and as understood by the audience. In addition, each of these aspects affect the
representation of a media text.
Hermeneutic Analysis of Cultural Context based on Cultural Studies Approach [Bazalgette,
1992; Hart, 1998a; 1998b]. It is alleged that the media is likely to offer than impose an
interpretation of media texts. The audience is always in the process of dialogue with media texts
and their evaluation. The audience is not just "read" the information, but invests in a variety of
meanings perceived media texts their own analyzes and the main goal of media literacy education
is to help students understand how the media can enrich the perception, knowledge, etc. audience.
Cultural approach determines the principles and the right to learn in the process of media
literacy education:
- principle of voluntary choice of the level of complexity of learning and support the principle
of humane education;
- principle of free access to any media information that is not public or commercial secret;
- right person to humane pedagogical interpretation of their learning outcomes and
achievements [Gura, 1994, p.12].
An active supporter of cultural theories of media education, the British professor A. Hart
argued that media competence of person familiar with the five basic principles of media literacy
education and extremely important for the hermeneutical analysis of media texts:
- media not simply reflect or copy the world; selection, analysis and creation of media texts
occur in the complex process of editing and a rethinking of messages;
- audience not passive and predictable, and the active and changeable in their reactions to
media texts;
215
- content of media messages are defined not only producers and editors, governments,
advertisers and media moguls, but also the audience;
- media contain a variety of different forms with different technologies, languages and
influence [Hart, 1991, p.8].
This approach is close for approaches of Canadian media educators:
- all media texts are the result of purposeful design;
- every media text has a unique aesthetic form;
- form and content in a media are closely related, each type of media has its own
characteristics language, hints and coding of reality;
- media create reality;
- audience estimates the value of a media text in terms of such factors as sex, race, age, life
experience;
- media have a socio-political and commercial importance;
- media contain ideological and value messages [Andersen, Duncan & Pungente, 1999,
pp.142-143; Duncan, 1989, pp.8-10].
Undoubtedly, a model of media literacy education, based on key aspects is not a dogma, and
can be improved.
The key aspect of technology is no less important for media literacy education, because every
technological solution affects on the result of any work. The technology of media literacy education
can include any tools and materials - from elementary (pencil, ink, to complex - a video-camera,
DVD, computer). In this case, even the simplest practical experience for creating media texts give
students the great importance of technology and equipment.
The aspect of technology is closely linked with the concept of audience (the problem of
choosing one or another technology of media text, designed for a particular audience), the aspect of
agency (for example, the problem of the cost of a technology) and the aspect of media language
(we cannot create media texts, without thinking about the problems of the language), and others.
That is why media educators aimed at teaching the audience create their own small media
text (newspaper, website, short video, etc.).
Results
Literary imitation tasks for hermeneutic analysis of media texts in the student audience:
Media agencies:
- to compose a short action plan for new media agency, given the current socio-cultural
context.
- to tell the same story from your life in different genres (drama, comedy, science fiction,
etc.).
Media technologies:
- to compose a short plan for the use of media technologies in today's edition, TV / film /
radio studio.
Media languages:
- to outline the same information in the language of publication of serious socio-political
newspaper, or, on the contrary, the language of "yellow press";
- to compose a story on behalf of the protagonist or secondary character of a media text:
preserving the features of his character, vocabulary, etc. ("identification", "compassion", "co-
creation");
- to compose a story on behalf of one of inanimate objects appearing in the media texts, thus
changing the narrative perspective in a paradoxical, fantasy-eccentric side;
- think of a start / continue / final of a given situation contained in media texts;
- to read a short story, think about the fact that it can be removed, and that it is impossible to
make changes to the plot for the film adaptation of his best.
- to write a words for songs that reflect your perception of media texts;
- to write a annotations and scenarios for advertising media texts (or "anti-advertising"
aimed at ridiculing the weaknesses of media texts);
Media Audiences:
216
- to get acquainted with media text and to identify the audience to whom it is addressed;
then try to present the same information for a different audience;
- to compose a monologues ("letters" in the editorial offices of newspapers and magazines,
on television, in the Ministry of Culture, etc.) with various representatives of the audience age,
social, professional, educational, and other data at different levels of media insight (primary
entertainment, recreational, compensatory, and other functions of media culture, etc.);
Role game tasks:
Media agencies:
- "shooting a movie or TV show" (the various stages of preparation and film-making process,
including financial calculations, casting and signing of contracts).
- role game on solutions of the same short story in a variety of genres (comedy, drama,
detective, and so on.).
Media technologies:
- role game on the dispute of media texts’ creators about what specific techniques they can
use.
Media languages:
- role game on the dispute of media texts’ creators about what specific codes (signs, symbols,
etc.) can be used.
- role game "Interview" (interviews with various media text characters);
- role game "international meeting of media critics” is that condemn various aspects of the
media, analyze individual works, etc .;
- "acting etudes": students play the role in the media text.
Media Audiences:
- role game on the theme of different audience’s reactions (the audience can be of different
age, education level, social status, etc.) to certain media texts.
In fact, the theatrical role-creative activities complement and enrich the skills acquired by the
audience during the literary and simulation gaming workshops. In addition to the oral skills of
collective discussion, they contribute to emancipation, sociability audience, activate
improvisational abilities.
The disadvantages of some theatrical role-playing activities can probably be attributed quite a
long stage of preliminary preparation of the audience who want to get into the role of "author",
"journalists", etc.
Graphic simulation creative tasks for hermeneutic analysis of media texts in the student
audience.
Media agencies:
- to compose a comics on the topic of activities of new media agency, given the current socio-
cultural context.
- to draw a poster, where the same characters will be presented in different genres (drama,
comedy, science fiction, etc.).
Media technologies:
- to use a different technologies for creating computer presentations in power point;
- to use a different technologies for creating billboards, posters, related to various media
texts;
- to use different technologies shooting digital photos by the same object;
- to use different processing technology of digital photos on your computer;
- to use different installation techniques movies using the capabilities of modern computer.
Media languages:
- to use a different visual (color, light, shadow, perspective, camera movement and so on.),
sound (music, noise and so on.) for audiovisual realization of the same short story, designed for 2-3
minutes of screen time ("Game chess", "Examination", etc.);
- to view unvoiced passage of a media screen, choose the audio track for the fragment.
217
- to make a sketch / collage posters for media text, reflecting your perception skills.
Media audiences:
- to draw a comics, which manifests itself in the drawings to respond to media texts by
various members of the audience.
By performing these tasks, the audience in the form of a game is getting ready for a more
serious problem-analysis skills. Naturally, all the above work collectively discussed and compared.
Most works have a competitive basis, with subsequent determination of the best work, etc. As a
result a students develop cognitive interests, fantasy, imagination, associative, creative, critical,
individual thinking, media competence.
Literary analytical creative tasks for hermeneutic analysis of media texts in the student
audience.
Media agencies:
- to identify the cultural and historical factors that influenced the views of the agency /
originator specific skills;
- to analyze a function and significance for commercial advertising media agency.
- to compose a thematic compilation of information materials from newspapers and
magazines on any topic;
- to rank a media texts for its contemporary social significance;
- to select a genre and theme analogues to a specific media texts with the same authors’
ideas;
- to compose a associative array to the categories of "film", "romance", "play", "broadcast";
- to remember a prose, poetry, theater, paintings, musical works, associated with a particular
product media culture, justify this choice;
- to study a typology of storylines occurring in media texts, and compare the new types of
storylines with those that were previously known to you;
- to select a story structure (plot, the development of the action and the denouement of the
plot, etc.) in media text;
- to analyze a genre stereotypes of media texts (narrative scheme, typical situations,
characters, facial expressions, gestures, clothing, shelter characters, locales, etc.);
- to listen a excerpts from the soundtracks and try to determine what kind of genre of media
texts they are taken;
Media technologies:
- to analyze a features of the process of creating media texts of different types;
- to analyze a possible influence of modern technologies for creating media texts for their
maintenance.
Media languages:
- to analyze a how verbal and visual symbols form a certain value (for example, the role of
signs in advertising);
- to read and analyze symbolic codes used media (picture, angle, etc.), how the information
relates to the codes and conventions of media; analyze how the symbolic codes used by the media
(picture, camera angle, etc.) may interact with one another to create a particular meaning of the
text;
- to create a series of frames that could be used as a basis for shooting a scene (with the
support of the various types of crop - the general plan, close-up, detail, etc.);
- to compare two frames (two photos, two of the figure), where the same scene is shown
from different angles; think about how to change the angle affects the perception, understanding
the relationship of media text characters to each other;
- to analyze a frame (photo, poster, advertisement poster) from the point of view of what is
going on there; produce cutting shapes or objects depicted in photographs or posters; consider
different options for the location of these clippings in the "frame"; reflect on whether the changed
attitude of the characters and items after this transposition; compare the results of this study with
the results of other students.
- to compare a ways in which different types of media interpret similar plot or story;
- to create a "time line" to show the sequence of events in the story of a media text;
218
- get acquainted with the first (or final) episode of a media text, followed by an attempt to
predict the future (past) events; media text can be split into large blocks-cards; try to interchange
these blocks, and thus change the course of events of the plot;
- to compose a options "improve the quality" of certain well-known media texts: what
changes can be made in the design and layout of the internet site, magazine, newspaper, some
actors / facilitators would take on leading roles in a film or television show that would change in
the plot of a particular media text (exemptions, additions, and so on.);
- on a specific example of a media popular culture to try to discover the essence of the
mechanism of "emotional pendulum" (alternation of episodes that cause positive (happy) and
negative (shock, sad) the emotions of the audience, that is, relying on psycho-physiological side of
perception);
- to analyze a components of the so-called "entertaining" media text;
- to select a "rhythmic blocks" in the media texts;
- to put a media text’s character in changing the situation (with a change of name, genre,
gender, nationality, etc.);
- to analyze an advertising banners media texts (visual and written information, the most
important part of this information, indicate the genre of media text, composition posters);
- to analyze a media text on a historical theme, based on documentary evidence: explore
regional geographic, political and historical materials related to the topic and a given period of
time; compare the studied materials depicting historical events in a media (the image of the
country, people, race, nationality, social structure, political governance, the justice system,
education, employment, etc.);
- to analyze a difference between the actual event and its reflection in media texts; to analyze
various aspects of documentary, news media texts, such as the interpretation, validity of factual
material;
- to compare a several points of view (eg, professional journalists, art historians) about the
events reflected in the media texts;
- to choose thesis, from the perspective of a student, faithfully reflects the views of the media
text’s creators;
Media audiences:
- to name a ways in which the media can affect personality; pick up some examples of social
impacts of media texts;
- to analyze a concrete and abstract values in media texts, to justify the idea that people
perceive the media texts differentiated - depending on many factors such as age, gender, race,
experience;
- to analyze a influence of media on the environment (family, home, school, work),
professional development and people's leisure time;
- to select a stereotypes description of media texts for different students according to their
age group, including how to describe these affect different social, and cultural differences;
- to analyze a media text in terms of audience, belonging to different cultures, ages,
educational and social levels, etc.;
- by list of the most popular media texts to try to explain the reasons for their success
(reliance on myth, folklore, entertainment genre, the system of "emotional swings," the presence of
entertainment, recreational, compensatory, and other functions, a happy ending, the author's
intuition, and so on);
- to analyze how the same story in the media text can be adapted to different types of
audiences;
- to analyze how genre clarifies the expectations of the audience in relation to the content of
media messages;
- to use media text for the study of human relations, new ideas, their own and other cultures
(dialogue of cultures);
- to analyze a effect of advertising on the audience;
Creative activities aimed at changing the various components of the works play an important
role in shaping the skills of perception and subsequent analysis of the works of media culture.
Students discuss the various options for the names of media texts, making sure at the same time as
219
significantly changed the perception of the same stories, the solution is or another genre. Changing
in their work time and place of the action genre, the composition of a media text, students can
show their creativity, imagination.
Creative tasks associated with all sorts of artistic associations, tend to cause great difficulties
in the audience as provide a solid body of knowledge about other forms of art. There usually lead
students who have good and excellent grades in courses of literature, art, music, world culture.
Indicator of the effectiveness of creative activities, reveals a link between the various works of
different arts, is to develop the students of associative thinking, understanding of the relationship
of sound, visual, spatial, temporal, and audio-visual, spatio-temporal components in media texts of
various kinds and genres.
Our experiment showed that hermeneutical analysis is very effective for teaching students.
The logic of creative tasks based on the fact that independent critical analysis of media texts
preceded by acquaintance with the works of critics' community professionals (reviews, theoretical
articles, monographs devoted to media culture and specific media texts), in which the audience can
judge the different approaches and forms of this type of work.
The audience is looking for answers to the following problem questions: What is the author
of the review see the advantages and disadvantages of the media text?, How deep reviewers
penetrate the author's intention?, Do you agree or not with this or that estimates of the
reviewers? Why?, Do the reviewers own individual style? If yes, what is it manifests itself (style,
vocabulary, accessibility, irony, humor, etc.)?, What is out of date, and that - not in this book? ,
What kind of media texts theme, genre orientation support author, books? Why?, Why did the
author has constructed the composition of his book so and not otherwise?, etc. Then - work on the
essay. And only then - independent students’ review and discussion of media texts.
The cycle of creative activities aimed at developing the skills the student audience for
hermeneutic analysis of media texts in the process of collective discussion, debate.
The main stages of this cycle are as follows:
- identification and review content of the scenes of media texts, with maximum brightness
embody the characteristic patterns of work as a whole;
- analysis of logic thinking of the authors of media texts: in the development of conflicts,
characters, ideas, audio-visual, spatial and time series, etc.
Define the concept and rationale of the author's personal attitude of each student to a
particular position of the creators of media text.
Methodical implementation of these steps based on a cycle of workshops devoted to the
analysis of specific media texts.
However, as my experience shows, it is necessary, first, to go from simple to more complex:
first choose to discuss, analyze clear on the plot, the author's thoughts, the style of media texts. And
secondly - aim to take into account the genre, thematic preferences of the audience.
Of course, here again we can use creative, game, heuristic and problem tasks, significantly
increasing the activity and interest of the audience. Heuristic form of the class, in which the
audience is invited to a few wrong and right judgment, much easier for the audience analytical
tasks and serves as a first step to subsequent gaming and problematic forms of media texts
discussion.
include:
- true and false interpretations of logic thinking of media text’s authors;
- true and incorrect versions of the author's conception, reveals in a particular media text.
Such a heuristic form of employment is particularly effective in the audience with a weak
initial training. This audience will undoubtedly need support theses on the basis of which (plus
own additions, etc.) can be formulated as a particular analytical judgment.
The next series of classes is the problem collective oral discussion of media texts.
Classes for the formation of skills of analysis and synthesis of media texts in the process of
collective discussion focused on training audio-visual memory, the stimulation of creative abilities
of the individual, on improvisation, independence, culture of thinking, the ability to apply this
knowledge in new pedagogical situations, the psychological, moral work, reflections on the moral
and artistic values, etc.
The general scheme of a media literacy education debate:
220
- introduction of educator (the goal: to give brief information about the creators of media
texts, remind their previous work that the audience can go beyond a particular product, refer to
other works of these authors, if there is a need to dwell on the historical and political context of
events or in any way relating to artistic, moral and other assessments of the author's position, and,
of course, not retelling the plot of the work), that is, on the installation media insight;
- collective "reading" of media text (communicative phase);
- discussion about media text, summarizing lessons.
Discussion of media texts begins with a relatively simple for perception works mass
(popular) culture with the following steps:
- to select a episode, most clearly revealed artistic rules of constructing the entire media text;
- to analyze a data episodes (attempt to understand the logic of the author thinking - in a
complex, interconnected development of the conflict, characters, ideas, etc.);
- identification of the author's concept and its evaluation audience.
audience received analysis skills (for example: "What are the known media texts you can compare
this work? Why? What do they have in common?", etc.).
Indicator of the ability of the audience to hermeneutic analysis of audio-visual, spatial and
temporal structure of media texts is the ability to multi-layer reflection shaped the world as
individual components and the work as a whole, in correlation with historical images of media
texts, socio-cultural context, the study of the process of interpretation of media texts, cultural and
historical factors, affecting the viewpoint agency / author of a media text and audience point of
view; media text comprehension through comparison with cultural tradition and reality;
penetration into the logic of media text.
Questions aimed at developing skills in the audience hermeneutic analysis of media texts
[Berger, 2005; Silverblatt, 2001, pp.42-43; 80-81; 2014; Potter, 2014; Buckingham, 2003, pp.54-
60; Media ... 2005, p.333; Fedorov, 2004, pp.43-51; Fedorov, 2006, p.175-228]:
Media agencies:
Who makes media texts? Who is responsible for creating media texts?
What is the purpose of creating media texts? Does the creation of media texts: hidden feature;
function of competition?
Who is the owner of companies that buy and sell media / media texts?
What are the demographic characteristics of the media agencies? How these characteristics
affect the content and prospects of production of media texts?
The agency makes a profit?
Why are produced and distributed media texts?
How do we get information about the media text?
Who and why advertising has created this media text?
What is the path of the media text - from the author's intention to the audience?
What is the main purpose of this media text? To what extent has achieved this goal? What
kind of reaction the audience awaiting its creators?
Who controls the production and distribution of media texts? Are there laws governing this,
and how effective are they?
What are the distinctive characteristics of the media?
Is there any other ways of classifying media texts, except genre? If so, what? (eg, thematic,
generic, style).
Where do you see the distinction between fictional and documentary media texts?
Media technologies:
What technologies are used to produce and distribute media texts?
How technology affects the creation of media texts?
Media languages:
As media use different forms of language to convey ideas or values? How is the use of
language becomes clear and generally accepted?
What are the grammatical "rules" set by the media? What happens when they are violated?
How do these conventions and codes operate in different types of media texts?
221
What do the images, sounds or words?

Why does the author of a media text N. exactly built this or that episode?
Why certain items (including clothing characters, leading, etc.) are represented this way?
That tell us these things about the characters, their lifestyle, their relation to each other? How
important to the development of action dialogs language characters?
Whose eyes see (someone told) events in a particular episode of a media text? How to depict
people and objects in a particular episode? Is there a media text are times when the proposed point
of view helps to create a sense of danger or surprise?
What is the role of light, color, sound, music in a media?
Think about the various social problems, such as crime, drunk driving, violence, racism,
unsafe sex, unhealthy habits. How the media can exacerbate these problems or, on the contrary,
contribute to their resolution?
Have this media text realistic? Why do some texts seem more realistic than others? As the
media argue that report the truth about the world? How media texts try to seem authentic?
What is included and excluded from the world of media? Who speaks and who silenced?
Do media texts in a specific world view? Do moral or political values?
As portrayed in the popular media texts of different genres and countries: family, class,
gender, race, life in other countries, the police, etc.?
Why media text sometimes begins with images of events which, as we will see later on, come
after the main action?
Do you think that was selected to receive just such a frame? What is the relationship between
the various objects that we see in the picture?
What do you think, is it possible to insert a media text additional episodes? If yes, which
ones? In what part of their media text could be inserted?
As changes in the show characters and situations help to develop action media text? Does it
ever happen that certain facts about the characters, items, or locales are hidden from the audience
for the discharge voltage or the desire to uncover the mystery or crime?
Is it possible that some of the characters (or scene) displayed in contrast with respect to each
other?
At what stages and how conflicts are revealed in a media N.?
Who sympathizes with the author of a media text? He gives the audience understand? Why
did you make such a conclusion?
Do the scenes of violence in the media text? If yes, what is the difference between the image
of violence in other famous media texts?
Could this story be completed before? What would change if our media reception? What is
the importance of the real final media text?
Media audiences:
As the choice of audience affects for a strategy, style, and content of media texts? As a
strategy, style, and content of media texts affect for understanding of their audience?
What is the target audience in the media? How the media try to influence it?
What assumptions about the audience are the creators of media texts? What characters or
that the agency wants you identify? What is the ideology of these characters express?
audience?
What are the causes of success with the audience the most famous recent media texts (genre,
theme, emotional swings system, reliance on mythology, a happy ending, the calculation of the
maximum coverage of the media preferences of the audience, etc.)?
How to keep the interest of the audience to the story in the media text? Is it possible to see
how the growing attention from episode to episode?
artistic, etc.)?
What is the typology of the media audience?
What are the typical indicators of media preferences can be differentiated audience?
222
Conclusions
This article presented the main directions for Hermeneutic Analysis of Cultural Context on
media literacy education classes for student audience, including the examples of creative problems
and issues associated with this type of the analysis in the context of media literacy education
problems, ie based on six key concepts of media literacy education: agency, category, language,
technology, audience, representation. The author supposes that the Hermeneutic Analysis of
Cultural Context of media texts on media literacy education classes can significantly develop media
competence of students, including critical thinking.
References:
1. Andersen, N., Duncan B. & Pungente, J.J. (1999). Media Education in Canada – The
Second Spring. In: Von Feilitzen and Carlsson (Eds). Children and Media: Image. Education.
Participation. Geteborg: The UNESCO International Clearinghouse on Children and Violence on
the Screen at Nordicom, pp.139-162.
2. Bazalgette, C. (1995). K. Key aspects of media education // Report on the Russian-British
seminar on media education. Moscow, 51 p.
3. Bazalgette, C., Bevort, E., Savino, J. (Eds.) (1992) Media Education Worldwide. Paris:
UNESCO, 256 p.
4. Berger, A.A. (2005). Seeing is believing. Introduction to visual communication. Moscow:
Williams, 288 p.
5. BFI (1990) (British Film Institute). Film Education. Мoscow, 124 p.
6. BFI (2003) Department for Education. Look Again! The Teaching Guide to Using Film &
Television with Three-to Eleven-year Olds. London: British Film Institute, 60 p.
8. Buckingham, D. (2002). Media Education: A Global Strategy for Development. Policy
Paper for UNESCO. In: Buckingham, D., Frau-Meigs, D., Tornero, J.M. & Artigas, L. (Eds.).Youth
Media Education. Paris: UNESCO Communication Development Division. CD-ROM.
10. Duncan, B. (Ed.) (1989). Media Literacy Resource Guide. Toronto: Ministry of
Education of Ontario, Publications Branch, the Queen’s Printer, 232 p.
№ 4, pp.43-51.
14. Gura, V.V. (1994). Cultural approach as a theoretical and methodological basis of the
humanization of information technology education. Ph.D. Dis. Rostov.
15. Hart, A. (1997). Textual Pleasures and Moral Dillemmas: Teaching Media Literacy in
England. In: Kubey, R. (Ed.) Media Literacy in the Information Age. New Brunswick (U.S.A.) and
London (UK): Transaction Publishers, pp.199-211.
16. Hart, A. (1998a). Introduction: Media Education in the Global Village. In: Hart, A. (Ed.).
Teaching the Media. International Perspectives. Mahwah, New Jersey – London: Lawrence
Erlbaum Assoc. Publishers, pp.1-21.
17. Hart, A. (Ed.) (1998b). Teaching the Media. International Perspectives. London:
Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers, 208 p.
18. Media. Introduction (2005). Moscow: Unity-Dana, 550 p.
19. Nechay, O.F. (1989). Fundamentals of cinema. Moscow: Education, pp.167-168.
Press, 243 p.
223
УДК 37
Герменевтический анализ культурного контекста функционирования медиа

в социуме и медиатекстов на медиаобразовательных занятиях

Аннотация. Герменевтический анализ культурного контекста – исследование

точку зрения агентства / медиатекст и автора, на точку зрения аудитории.
Герменевтический анализ предусматривает анализ медиатекстов через сравнение с
культурной традицией и действительностью; через проникновение в логику медиатекстов;
через анализ путем сравнения художественных образов в историческом и культурном
контексте. Вся эта система – предмет анализа медиа, медиатекстов и их функционирования
в обществе, анализа взаимодействия человека, языка и средств массовой коммуникации.
В медиаобразовании в данном случае выделяются: создание культуры взаимодействия с
медиа, развитие восприятия различных видов информации, умения анализа и
интерпретации медиатекстов, развитие критического мышления, творчества в медийном
поле.
Эта статья анализирует основные направления герменевтического анализа в
культурном контексте на медиаобразовательных занятиях в студенческой аудитории, в том
числе, на примерах творческих заданий и вопросов, связанных с этим типом анализа в
контексте проблем медиаобразования, т.е. на основе шести ключевых понятий
медиаграмотности (агентство, категория, язык, технология, аудитория, репрезентация).
Автор предполагает, что герменевтический анализ культурного контекста медиа и
медиатекстов на медиаобразовательных занятиях может значительно развить
медиакомпетентность студентов, в том числе критическое мышление.
Ключевые слова: герменевтический анализ, культурный контекст, медиа,
медиатексты, медиаобразование, медиаграмотность, медиакомпетентность, студенты.
224

European Researcher
ISSN 2219-8229
E-ISSN 2224-0136
Vol. 97, Is. 8, pp. 539-559, 2015
DOI: 10.13187/er.2015.97.539
www.erjournal.ru
UDC 37
Comparative Analysis of Students’ Media Competences Levels
Alexander Fedorov

Russian Federation
Professor, Doctor of Pedagogy
Abstract
This article analyzed the results of survey of university students’ media literacy competence
(on the base of a classification of indicators of media literacy competence of the audience as an
effective tool for comparative analysis of the levels of development of media competence of
students of the control and experimental groups): the level of media competence of students who
have a one-year training course in the framework of media literacy education courses four times
higher than in similar indicators in the control group. Analysis of the results of this survey
confirmed the general trend of media contacts of student audience – its orientation to
entertainment genres of audiovisual media, visually appealing; positive, active, unmarried,
childless, educated, highly qualified characters (primarily – male characters) aged 19 to 35 years.
These heroes are characteristic optimism, independence, intelligence, emotion. They have an
excellent command of the life situation and have a positive impact on the development progress of
the plot of a media text.
Keywords: survey, analysis, media, media texts, media education, media literacy, media
Introduction
Based on the media literacy education technology (Fedorov, 2004, p. 43-51), I had media
literacy education lessons in pedagogical university. My objective was to track changes in the levels
of students’ media competence in the control and experimental groups.
Ascertaining levels of media competence of students based on indicators of the classification
of media competence of the individual, by which I mean the sum of its motives, knowledge, skills,
abilities (motivation, contact, information, perceptual, evaluation, practice and activity, creative)
promoting the use and critical analysis, evaluation and transfer of media texts in different types,
forms and genres, the analysis of complex processes of media functioning in society.
539

In accordance with this interpretation of students’ media competence I created the five main
blocks of questions and tasks:
1) the block of questions (closed-type profile) to identify levels of motivation indicator of
audience’s media competence (genre, theme, psychological, therapeutic, emotional,
epistemological, moral, intellectual, creative and aesthetic motifs on by contact of an audience with
a media texts);
2) the set of questions (closed-type profile) to identify levels of contact indicator (frequency
of contacts with various types of media) the development of the audience’s media competence;
3) the set of questions (closed-type test) to detect the level of information index (knowledge
of terminology, history and theory of media culture) development of the audience’s media
competence;
4) the block of analytical tasks for detecting levels of evaluation index (based on various
levels of perceptual indicator) development of the audience’s media competence;
5) the block of creative tasks for detecting levels of the audience’s creative media competence.
90 students of the faculty of psychology and social pedagogy involved in my experiment at
Anton Chekhov Taganrog Institute (the age of students: 20-21 years): 45 students (14 boys and
31 girl) of the control group, in which were no class of media education cycle, and 45 students
(14 boys and 31 girls) of the experimental group, in which the media education cycle was conducted
during the academic year. My research showed that no significant difference in the levels of
development of media competence of students of the control and experimental groups were observed
in the beginning of the education year. And the levels of development of students’ media competence
recorded at begin and the end of the education year in the control group were approximately the
same.
The ratio of boys and girls in the control and experimental groups, in our opinion, is typical
of the Russian pedagogical universities, which for decades has been male students consistently are
a minority (10% to 30% of the composition of the study groups).
Results
Analysis Table 1 shows that a high level of motivation indicator of media competence, that is
a wide range of genres, thematic, emotional, epistemological, hedonistic, intellectual,
psychological, creative, aesthetic reasons (including: selection of different genre and thematic
spectrum of media texts with the mandatory inclusion of non-entertainment genres the desire for
philosophical / intellectual, aesthetic discussion / dialogue with the creators of media text,
criticism of their position; to identify, empathy, the desire for aesthetic experience, to obtain new
information, to validate their competence in various fields of life and media culture; to search for
educational materials, scientific and research purposes, etc.) actually found only 11 % of the
students in the control group.
Table 1: The classification of the identified levels of motivation indicator of students’ media
competence in the control and experimental groups
№ Number of Students from the control group: Students from the experimental
levels of groups:
the
The number of young
The number of young

men (in%), who have
motivation
The number of girls
The number of girls

(in%) who have got
have got this level:
al
students (%) who
indicator:
Total number of
men (in%), who

(in%) have got
got this level:
Total number
who have got

students (%)
this level:
this level:
this level:
1 High level 0,00 16,13 11,11 14,28 29,03 24,44
540
2 Average 21,43 35,48 31,11 35,71 48,39 44,44

level
3 Low level 78,57 48,39 57,78 50,00 22,58 31,11
The identified levels of motivation indicator of students’ media competence in the

experimental groups (past media education program course) exceed twice that in the control
group. At the same time gender difference was clearly manifested in the control and experimental
groups: the number of women who have a high level of motivation indicator of media literacy,
significantly higher than the number of boys. In contrast, among boys revealed significantly more
respondents who found a low level of motivation indicator of media competence (i.e. narrow
spectrum of genre, theme, emotional, hedonistic, psychological reasons, including: the choice of
only the entertainment genre and thematic spectrum of media texts, the desire for compensation,
pursuit the psychological "treatment", the desire for thrills, the desire for recreation, entertainment
and the absence of aesthetic, intellectual, creative motives of contacts with media texts).
Thus, the comparison of students’ media motivation in the control and experimental groups
to some extent show the effectiveness of media education curriculum for students of experimental
group.
Table 2: The classification of the identified levels of contact indicator of students’ media
competence in the control and experimental groups (type of media: press)
№ Numb Students from the control group: Students from the experimental
er of groups:
levels
The number of young
The number of young

men (in%), who have
of the
The number of girls
The number of girls

(in%) who have got
conta
students (%) who
ct
Total number of
men (in%), who

(in%) have got
indica
Total number
who have got

students (%)
tor:
this level:
this level:
this level:
this level:
got
1 High 0,00 0,00 0,00 14,28 3,22 6,67

level
2 Avera 50,00 54,84 53,33 42,86 58,06 53,33
ge
level
3 Low 50,00 45,16 46,67 42,85 38,70 39,99
level
Data analysis of table 2 shows that a big difference exists between students of the control and
experimental groups in the area of the press reading. About half of both groups found the average
level of the contact indicator (read the press several times a week) the development of media
competence. A significant gender differences in this regard have also been observed. However the
contact indicator is not the main indicator of media competence. Undoubtedly, a person who is not
in contact with media has not the high level of media competence. But the highest level of
television viewing, listening to the radio, surfing the Internet or reading the press cannot guarantee
a high level of media competence, if a person, for example, has poor analytical skills.
541
competence in the control and experimental groups (type of media: radio)
№ Number Students from the control group: Students from the experimental
of levels groups:
of the
The number of young
The number of young

contact
men (in%), who have
men (in%), who have

The number of girls
The number of girls


indicator:
students (%) who
students (%) who

Total number of
Total number of
(in%) have got
(in%) have got

got this level:
this level:
this level:
this level:
got
1 High level 42,86 45,16 44,44 42,86 74,19 64,44
2 Average 21,43 25,81 24,44 35,71 9,68 17,78
level
3 Low level 35,71 29,03 31,11 21,42 16,12 17,77
Analysis Table 3 shows that there are certain differences between the students of the control
and experimental groups in relation to listening to the radio. 64 % of respondents from the
experimental group have high (daily) the level of listening to the radio, but in the control group -
only 44 %. Compared with control group, the experimental group is almost half of the respondents
with low (once a month or less) level of contact with the radio.
competence in the control and experimental groups (type of media: TV)
levels of the groups:
contact
The number of young
The number of young

men (in%), who have
men (in%), who have
indicator:
The number of girls
The number of girls


students (%) who
students (%) who

Total number of
Total number of
(in%) have got
(in%) have got

got this level:
this level:
this level:
this level:
got
1 High level 71,43 74,19 73,33 71,43 64,52 66,67

2 Average 14,28 12,90 13,33 28,57 16,13 20,00
level
3 Low level 14,28 12,90 13,33 0,00 19,35 13,33
Analysis of Table 4 gives an indication of the fact that viewing among students from control
and experimental groups no big differences in relation to TV. Over 66 % of these both students
groups watching TV daily, from 13 % to 20 % - several times per week. And only 13 % students for
control and experimental groups watching television a few times a month or less. At the same time
symptomatic of gender differences cannot be detected.
I believe that the lack of progress in increasing the frequency of television viewing in the
experimental group is not a fault of the experiment, as I initially did not set a goal to increase the
contact indicator of students’ audience. As shown by further analysis of the experimental results, a
slightly higher level of TV viewing in the control group did not contributed to raising the analytical
level indicator of students’ media competence.
542
competence in the control and experimental groups (type of media: Internet)
№ Number Students from the control group: Students from the experimental
of groups:
levels of
the
The number of young
The number of young

men (in%), who have
men (in%), who have

The number of girls
The number of girls

contact

students (%) who
students (%) who

indicator:
Total number of
Total number of
(in%) have got
(in%) have got

this level:
this level:
this level:
this level:
got
got
1 High level 00,00 6,45 4,44 14,28 6,45 8,89
2 Average 35,71 6,45 15,55 21,43 22,58 22,22
level
3 Low level 57,14 54,83 55,55 57,14 61,29 57,99
24.44 % of the students in the control group (7.14 % of boys, girls 32.26 %) and 8.89 % of
students in the experimental group (7.14 % of boys, girls 9.68 %) never use the Internet.
Unfortunately, the level of contacts between Russian students with the Internet still leaves much to
be desired: only between 4 % and 9 % of students in the control and experimental groups visit the
Internet daily and 15 % to 23 % - on a weekly basis. But more than half of the students from control
and experimental groups, visit the Internet site several times a month or less, and from 9 % to 24 %
of the students do not come to the Internet at all. The majority of students’ interactive contact takes
place in the university / internet cafes, but not at home.
The levels’ difference in the control and experimental groups is small, but the analysis of
table 5 showed that gender differences in relation to contacts with the Internet are available. Boys
with their traditional propensity for technical innovations somewhat more active in a web surfing
than girls, which is correlated with the results of similar surveys conducted previously by various
organizations (eg, see: Education & Culture, 2000).
competence in the control and experimental groups (type of media: video/PC games)
levels groups:
of the
The number of young
The number of young
contact
men (in%), who have
men (in%), who have

The number of girls
The number of girls

indicator:
students (%) who
students (%) who

Total number of
Total number of
(in%) have got
(in%) have got

this level:
this level:
this level:
this level:
got
got
1 High level 14,28 6,45 8,89 7,14 3,22 4,44

2 Average 42,86 6,45 17,78 35,71 19,35 24,44
level
3 Low level 35,71 58,06 51,11 49,99 41,93 44,45
22.22 % of the students in the control group (7.14 % boys, 29.03 % girls) and 26.67 % of
students in the experimental group (7.14 % boys, 35.48 % girls) never play video / computer games.
543
Of course, the frequency of contacts of students with a video / computer games can in no way be
tangible proof of their media competence. In my view, even the opposite: too frequent habit of
playing with the computer takes away from the time for human contact with other kinds of media.
However, analysis of table 6 shows that the level of contacts of students from control and
experimental group is comparable, and only 4 % - 9 % of students have the high level of this type of
contacts. But more than half of the students play computer games several times a month, and 22%
- 26 % do not play them at all.
The gender difference in relation to computer games is quite distinct, as the number of boys -
fans of such activities at least twice the number of girls, which again corresponds to the world
practice of similar sociological research. The majority of popular computer games based on the
theme of violence («Doom», etc.) with the dominance of the male computer players.
competence in the control and experimental groups (an average of all of the above types of media)
levels groups:
of the
The number of young
The number of young

men (in%), who have
men (in%), who have

contact
The number of girls
The number of girls


indicator: students (%) who
students (%) who

Total number of
Total number of
(in%) have got
(in%) have got

this level:
this level:
this level:
this level:
got
got
1 High level 25,71 26,45 26,22 14,28 0,00 4,44
2 Average 32,86 21,29 24,89 64,28 93,55 84,44
level
3 Low level 38,57 40,00 39,55 21,43 6,45 11,11
Thus, only 26.22 % of the students from the control group and 4.44 % from the experimental
group showed a high level of the contact indicator by several kinds of media in general. However,
I should not forget that this result is due to a low degree of contact of the audience with the
Internet and computer games (where the low level of contacts found more than half of the
respondents in both groups). But 73.33 % of the surveyed students (71.43 % boys and 74.19 % girls)
in the control group and 66.67 % of the students from the experimental group (71.43 % boys and
64.52 % girls) said that they watch TV every day. Pretty high was and students’ contact level in
relation to listening to the radio (44 % to 64 % of respondents with high level of exposure to this
type of media).
I can conclude that 50 % to 89 % of the students have average and high contact indicator,
which in itself, as I have noted, cannot be considered as a basic indicator for determining the level
of media competence of the respondents as a whole.
After that students were asked 30 questions divided into blocks of 10 questions each.
One block consisted of questions relating to the terminology of media / media culture, the second -
the history of media / media culture, the third - the theory of media / media culture.
For one correct answer for each question the student received 1 point. Thus, the maximum
number of points that could gain the student as a result of the test was 30.
The high level of information index of media competence: students who were able to give a
80 % to 100 % of correct answers (from 24 to 30 points);
The average level of information index of media competence: students who were able to give
a 50 % to 80 % correct answers (from 15 to 23 points);
The low levels of information index of media competence: students who were able to give
less 50% correct answers (from 0 to 14 points).
The test results are summarized in the table 8.
544
Of course, testing of students according to our questions was not without vulnerabilities.
On the one hand, students retain the ability to intuitive answers - by exclusion the most
questionable choices, and the correct answer has a probability of 25 %, then there is one correct
answer from four possible. On the other hand, testing could not give guarantees against cheating
and prompting students to each other. However, the test results were verified with the results of
our surveys and oral interviews, which greatly helped to ensure that they are correctly reflected in
the overall outcome of students’ knowledge (in the control and experimental groups).
Analysis of the table 8, in our opinion, clearly demonstrates the effectiveness of media
education activities conducted with the students of the experimental group during the year. A high
level of media competence information index (from 80 % to 100 % of correct answers to questions
related to the terminology, history and theory of media / media culture) showed 95 % of students in
the experimental groups, while this per cents in the control group of respondents Were only 13 %.
Low levels of information index (less than 50% correct answers) was not seen at all in the
experimental group, whereas in the control group 37% of students were at low levels of information
index.
Gender differences in responses between students showed that girls generally have a large
amount of knowledge about the terminology of the theory and history of media / media culture.
13% of students from the control group showed a high level of media competence indicator
information without having to visit any media educational activities. And it can be assumed that
this level has been reached by them at the expense of self and / or family upbringing.
Table 8: The classification of the identified levels of information indicator of students’ media
levels of the groups:
information
The number of young
The number of young

men (in%), who have
men (in%), who have
indicator:
The number of girls
The number of girls


students (%) who
students (%) who

Total number of
Total number of
(in%) have got
(in%) have got

this level:
this level:
this level:
this level:
got
got
1 High level 7,14 16,13 13,33 92,86 96,77 95,55

2 Average 28,57 58,06 48,89 7,14 3,23 4,44
level
3 Low level 64,29 25,81 37,78 0,00 0,00 0,00
The data in Table 9 shows how the distributed right / wrong answers of students from control
and experimental groups on various types of test information knowledge in the field of media /
media culture.
Analysis of the data in Table 9 shows that students experienced the greatest difficulties when
answering the questions of the text relating to the history of media / culture media (the number of
incorrect responses was generally about 50% in the control group, while in the experimental group
it was slightly higher).
545
Table 9: The results of testing of students in the control and experimental groups
(levels of information indicator of media competence)
Students from the Students from the

Knowledge Number of control group experimental groups
of students responses
Number Number Total Number Number Total
of of number of of number
young girls’ respons young girls’ respons
men’s es men’s respons es
respons respons (%) response es (%)
es (%) es s (%) (%)
(%)
the the number 55,9 74,2 68,1 97,14 97,42 97,33
terminology of correct
of media / answers
media number of 45,1 25,8 31,9 2,86 2,58 2,67
culture incorrect
answers
the history the number 32,6 38,3 36,7 83,57 78,39 80,00
media / of correct
media answers
culture number of 67,4 61,7 63,3 16,43 21,61 20,00
incorrect
answers
the theory the number 37,8 56,5 50,6 83,57 86,77 85,78
media / of correct
media answers
culture number of 62,2 43,5 49,4 16,43 13,23 14,22
incorrect
answers
the number of 42,1 56,3 49,2 88,10 84,19 87,70
terminology, correct
history and answers
media theory number of 57,9 43,7 50,8 11,90 15,81 12,30
/ incorrect
media answers
culture
(as a whole)
Further, it seemed to us important to analyze the combination of the levels of motivation and
information indicators of media competence of students’ audience in the control and experimental
groups (see Table 10).
546
Table 10: The combination of the identified levels of motivation and information indicators of
media competence of students’ audience in the control and experimental groups
№ Combinatio Students from the control group: Students from the

n of levels of experimental
motivation groups:
and
The number of girls

The number of young
The number of young

information
men (in%), who have
men (in%), who have
The number of girls

indicators
students (%) who
students (%) who

Total number of
Total number of
(in%) have got
got this variant
got this variant
(in%) have got

have got this
have got this

this variant
this variant
variant
variant
1 The 57,14 19,35 31,11 0,00 0,00 0,00
combination
of
low levels
2 The 14,29 19,35 17,78 0,00 3,22 2,22
combination
of average
levels
3 The 0,00 6,45 4,44 14,28 29,03 25,09
combination
of
high levels
4 mismatching 28,57 54,84 46,67 85,72 67,75 72,69
levels
Analysis of the data in Table 10 shows that the discrepancy between the levels of motivation
and information indicators of media competence of the students’ audience - a common
phenomenon, concerning approximately 50 % - 70 % of respondents.
Thus, some students may not have a special awareness of the media / media culture, but the
same students may have a more or less diverse motives contacts with media texts, and vice versa.
Our study also showed that a strong correlation between the frequency of students’ contacts
with media and students’ motivational and / or indicators of development of information media
competence does not exist. The vast majority of respondents (73.33 % - in the control group and
66.67 % - in the pilot) found, for example, a high level of contact indicator of media competence in
relation to the TV, but it only 4.44 % of the students in the control group and 25.09 % - in the
experimental group showed a pronounced combination of high levels of motivation and
information indicators of media competence.
But we can clearly see a correlation between a high level of development of students’
information and media competence in the experimental group. So just 13.33 % of the students in
the control group found a high level of development of information media competence
development indicators, while in the students’ experimental group (which was read during the year
training course on the basics of media culture and media education), the figure was 95.55 %.
Analysis of the data in Table 11 shows that the students in the control group is dominated by
the low level of evaluation indicator of media competence ("ignorance", that is, ignorance of the
language of media, instability confused judgment, susceptibility to external influence, the lack of
interpretation of the position of the characters and authors of media texts, the ability to retell plot
works, the ability for the simple analysis of media text, but based on the low levels of "information",
"motivational" and "perceptual" indicators). Such students in the control group was 71 % (with no
significant gender difference). The students of the experimental group detected 3.5 times less often
(20 %) a low level of evaluation indicator of media competence.
547
Table 11: The classification of the identified levels of evaluation indicator of students’ media
№ Levels of Students from the control Students from the experimental

evaluation group: groups:
indicator:
The number of young
The number of young

men (in%), who have
men (in%), who have

have got this variant

The number of girls
The number of girls

(in%) have got this
students (%) who
students (%) who

Total number of
Total number of
got this variant
got this variant
(in%) have got

this variant
variant
1 High level 7,14 3,22 4,44 7,14 35,48 26,67
2 Average level 21,43 29,03 26,67 42,86 58,07 53,33
3 Low level 71,43 67,74 71,43 50,00 6,45 20,00
I can give a lot of examples here, but they all boil down to the monotonous and short or long
retelling the plot of a media text. Of course, I can find in one way or another retelling of the plot the
elements of reliance on the media insight at identification with the character, but it is, in fact, only
the elements, hints that ultimately have little effect on the overall low level of analytical skills of the
respondents.
The average level of evaluation indicator of students’ media competence (the ability to
characterize the acts and psychological character of a media text on the basis of fragmentary
knowledge, the ability to explain the logic of the sequence of events in the story, the ability to talk
about the individual components of the media image, the lack of interpretation of the author's
position (or a primitive interpretation of it), and simple analysis media text, based on the average
levels of "information", "motivational" and "perceptual" indexes of media competence), proved to
be peculiar to about 26 % of the students in the control group (also without any significant gender
differences).
The students of the experimental group have more high (53 %) of the average level of
evaluation indicator of media competence.
The high level of evaluation indicator of media competence (analysis skills based on the
capacity for media insight, close to the "complex identification", capacity for analysis and synthesis
of spatial-temporal form of media text, understanding, interpretation and evaluation of the
author's concept in the context of product structure (with the expressions a reasoned agreements
or disagreements with the position of the media text creators), the social significance of media text
(eg its relevance), the ability to relate the emotional experience with conceptual judgment, this
judgment to move to other genres and types of media culture, media text to associate with the
experience and expertise of other humans, etc.; analysis skills based on high levels of
"information", "motivational" and "perceptual" indexes of media competence) found only 4% of the
students in the control group. But the students of the experimental group have a high level of
evaluative indicator of media competence is six times higher (26 %, with the apparent significant
gender dominant of female respondents).
This is a significant difference in the levels of performance indicators between students
control and experimental groups emerged, despite the fact that, as mentioned earlier, many of the
students in the control group had a fairly high contact performance levels of media competence (eg,
73 % of students in the control group have found high levels of television viewing).
Thus, analysis of the data in Table 11 once again convince us that high frequency of contacts
with the media in itself does not lead to a high level of ability to the full perception / analysis skills.
But on the level of evaluation indicator of media competence of students significantly reflected
their levels of information and motivational indicators of media competence.
In contrast, the comparative analysis of the data tables show that low levels of motivation
(57.78 %), information (37.78 %) and evaluation (71.43 %) indicators of media competence of
548
students in the control group it is correlated with one other. However, as clearly relate to the same
group of high levels of motivation (11.11 %), information (13.13 %) and evaluation (4.14 %) indices.
Thus, low estimates in the development of media competence of students in most cases is
associated with similar levels of their motivational and informational indicators and vice versa ...
If we turn to the comparative analysis of a number of tables in the experimental group, we
can see that the presence of a high level of information index of media competence (95 %) does not
guarantee for students the same high level evaluation indicator of media competence. In any case,
only 26.67 % of the students of the experimental group were able to confirm the high level of media
competence of evaluation indicators, while half of the students (53.33 %) found the average
evaluation indicators. These data lead us to believe that in itself the awareness in the field of
terminology, theory and history of media / media culture does not automatically improve the
analytical skills for evaluation of media texts. This is also indicated by the numbers low estimates
in the development of media competence.
Most correlation is observed in the experimental group the levels of motivation and
evaluation indicators of media competence (31 % of students with low motivation index
corresponds with 20 % of students with low evaluation indicator, the ratio of the average level is
44 % and 53 %, and high – 21 % and 26 %).
Since the operating rate (high level: practical skills of independent creation of media texts of
different types and genres; the average level: practical skills of creating media texts with the help of
counseling teachers / professionals; low level: the lack of practical skills of creating media texts or
unwillingness of their creation) – the part of creative component of the media competence, I did
not analyze it separately. I note only that our monitoring the implementation of creative works by
students of various types have shown that the level of operating performance correlates well with
the level of creative figure. Students who do not have practical skills in the field of media are not
able to create media texts. Although, of course, on their own practical skills do not guarantee a high
level of creative index of media competence. This lack of direct dependence of practical skills and
creative results is well known among professionals in the world media, when several dozen annual
media faculty’s graduates don’t have the possibilities for creating the high level media production...
Table 12: The classification of the identified levels of creative indicator of students’ media
№ Levels Students from the control group: Students from the experimental
of groups:
creative
The number of girls
The number of girls

The number of young
The number of young

men (in%), who have
men (in%), who have

students (%) who
students (%) who
indicat
Total number of
Total number of
(in%) have got
(in%) have got

got this variant
got this variant
or:
have got this
have got this

this variant
this variant
variant
variant
1 High 14,28 22,58 20,00 7,14 74,20 53,33

level
2 Averag 14,28 19,36 17,78 71,43 19,35 35,55
e level
3 Low 71,43 58,06 62,22 21,43 6,45 11,11
level
Analysis of the data in Table 12 shows that between the levels of operating abilities and
creative development of media competence there is a clear relationship. Learning for the creation
of media texts of different types and genres, students in the experimental group twice exceeded the
control group of students (high and medium levels of creative index of media competence). At the
same time 53 % of the students of the experimental group found a high level of creative index of
549
media competence, that is a distinct level of creativity in various activities (perceptual, games, art,
etc..), related to the media. In the control group, the percentage was only 20 %. The number of girls
with high creativity was higher than the number of boys. Conversely, the number of young men
with low indicator of creative media competence was significantly higher than that of girls.
Analysis of the data in Table 13 show that the discrepancy Between the levels of creative and
evaluation indicators of media competence of the student audience is found in almost half of the
respondents. This occurs more often an option when the level of development of creative media
competence indicator is higher than the estimated level (this is particularly noticeable in the
experimental group, which had the opportunity to develop their operational and creative abilities
on media in the process of studying the curriculum).
But clearly traced common combination of low levels of creative and evaluation indicators of
media competence of students in the control group (64 % of boys and 48 % girls).
Table 13: The combination of the identified levels of creative and evaluation indicators of
media competence of students’ audience in the control and experimental groups
Combinati Students from the control group: Students from the experimental
on of groups:
levels of
The number of young
The number of young

men (in%), who have
men (in%), who have


The number of girls
The number of girls

creative
and
students (%) who
students (%) who

Total number of
Total number of
(in%) have got
(in%) have got

evaluation
this variant
this variant
this variant
this variant
indicators
got
got
1 The 64,29 41,94 48,89 14,29 6,45 8,89

combinati
on of
low levels
2 The 7,14 0,00 2,22 35,71 16,13 22,22
combinati
on of
average
levels
3 The 7,14 3,21 4,44 7,14 32,26 24,44
combinati
on of
high
levels
4 Mismatch 21,43 54,84 44,44 42,86 45,16 44,44
ing levels
Gender differences are evident, above all, that the coincidence of low levels of creative and
evaluation indicators of media competence was more common among young men in the control
group, while in the experimental group, a greater number of matches to high levels of the above
indicators were observed in girls. The limited sample of respondents does not allow us to make far-
reaching conclusions, but will not be superfluous to note that women in general are more likely
than boys attended classes, so get more operating skills on the basis of which were better able to
develop their creative abilities on media material.
After analyzing the data tables 1-13, I have made the table of 14 for the classification level of
the complex index of media competence of students of the control and experimental groups.
550
At the same time, I agreed to assume that the students, with the highest level of
comprehensive media competence I carried those who in the course of the study showed a high rate
of three or four major indicators except for the contact. In the experimental group of students were
12 people (26.67 %) of them - 11 girls. In the control group - only two people, both girls (4.44 %).
Table 14: The classification of the identified levels of complex indicator of students’ media
№ Levels of Students from the control group: Students from the experimental
complex groups:
The number of young
The number of young

men (in%), who have
men (in%), who have


indicator
The number of girls
The number of girls

of media
students (%) who
students (%) who

Total number of
Total number of
got this variant
got this variant

compete (in%) have got
(in%) have got

nce this variant
this variant
1 High 0,00 6,45 4,44 7,14 35,48 26,67
level
2 Average 21,43 12,90 15,55 35,71 58,06 51,11
level
3 Low 78,57 80,64 80,00 57,14 6,45 22,22
level
For students with an average level of development of a media competence I assigned students
who in the course of the study there was not a single low-level indicator on the three most
important positions (level of information, evaluation and creative abilities). In the experimental
group of students this level was about half (51.11%: 35.71% boys and 58.06% girls). In the control
group, this level was detected only in 15% of students.
For students who have a low level of development of a media competence, I included those
who in the course of the study it was found by one or more manifestations of the low level of the
index in the three most important positions above. In the control group, those turned four times
larger than the experimental value. Moreover, if the control underperformed the boys and girls are
quite comparable, it is dominated by young men in the experimental low-media competence: they
are 9 times more than women (which, in my opinion, was due to the narrow quantitative sample of
respondents).
In general, the data in Table 14 demonstrate the effectiveness on our media literacy education
pilot training course, the effectiveness of our methods.
The classification of the identified levels of the various indicators of media

competence at students of experimental and control groups
The lack of many sociological studies, in our opinion, is that skillfully results in terms of mass
surveys, the authors do not always try to analyze and compare the knowledge / skills of a particular
person, which in some areas can be a very high level, and in others - medium or low...
That's why the main feature of our ascertaining experiment was that in addition to the
traditional study and analysis of the "anonymous" preferences and knowledge over / under on the
number of respondents for the audience, an attempt was made case study: the study and analysis of
the levels of development of specific media competence of students / individuals. From each group
of respondents (high, medium and low levels of indicators of media competence), I selected typical
representatives, answers, creativity and practical work Were analyzed to identify relationships and
dependencies of motivational levels, contact, information, analytical, creative (and partially
operational) indicators of media competence in a particular individual.
551
First there the tables of 15 and 16 give an overview of the classification levels of the various
indicators of media competence at students of experimental and control groups.
Table 15: The classification of the identified levels of the various indicators of media
competence of students of the experimental group
№ Indicators of media competence

Students Levels of Levels of Levels of Levels of Levels of
motivation contact information evaluation creative
1 Alexandra A. Average Average High High Average
2 Anna D. Average Average High Average Average
3 Anna K. Low Average High Average High
4 Anna M. High Average High Average Average
5 Anna P. Low Average High Average High
6 Anna U. Average Average High High High
7 Ekaterina I. Average Average High Average High
8 Elena V. High Average High High High
9 Elena G. High Average High High High
10 Elena E. High Average High Average High
11 Elena C. Average Average High Average Average
12 Inna V. Low Average High High High
13 Inna L. Average Average High High High
14 Irina K. Average Average Average Average High
15 Irina C. Average Average High Average High
16 Irina M. High Average High Low Low
17 Irina N. Average Low High Average High
18 Irina S. High Average High Average Average
19 Karina I. Average Low High Average High
20 Karina U. Low Average High High High
21 Lubov A. Average Average High Average Average
22 Maria B. High Average High High High
23 Maria G. Low Average High High High
24 Maria K. High Average High High High
25 Natalia L. High Average High High High
26 Oksana M. Average Average High Average High
27 Olga G. Average Average High Average High
28 Tatiana B. Low Average High Average High
29 Tatiana E. Low Average High Average High
30 Tatiana P. Average Average High Average High
31 Tatiana T. Average Average High Low Low
32 Alexander D. Low Average Average Low Low
33 Alexei E. Average Low High Average Average
34 Alexei H. Low Low High Low Average
35 Anadrei O. Average Average High Low Average
36 Valery V. Low Average High Average Average
37 Valery K. Average Average High Low Average
38 Vassily A. Average Average High Average Average
39 Vayacheslav S. Low High High Low Average
40 Dmitry I. High Average High Average Average
41 Eugeny K. Average Average High High High
42 Igor P. High Low High Average Average
43 Roman S. Low Average High Average Low
44 Segei D. Low Average High Low Average
45 Sergei S. Low High High Low Low
552
Table 16: The classification of the identified levels of the various indicators of media
competence of students of the control group
№ Students Indicators of media competence

Levels of Levels of Levels of Levels of Levels of
motivation contact information evaluation creative
1 Alexandra P. Average Average High Average Low
2 Anna K. Average Average Average Average Low
3 Anna O. Low Average Average Low Average
4 Valeria R. Low Average Average Average High
5 Victoria B. High Average Average Low Low
6 Victoria E. Low Average Average Low Average
7 Ekaterina D. Average Average Average Average High
8 Ekaterina K. High Average High High High
9 Elena A. High Average High Average High
10 Elena B. Low Average Low Low Low
11 Elena V. Average Low Low Low Low
12 Elena K. Average Average Average Average Low
13 Elena L. Low Average Average Low Low
14 Elena C. Average Average High Average Low
15 Irina C. Low Average Low Low Low
16 Irina S. High Average Average Low Average
17 Lubov C. Low Average Low Low Low
18 Marina B. Average Average High Average High
19 Natalia E. Average Low Low Low Low
20 Natalia R. Low Low Low Low Low
21 Oksana L. Low Average Average Low Average
22 Oksana S. Average Average Average Average Low
23 Olga V. Low Average Low Low Low
24 Olga I. Low Average Average Low Average
25 Olga L. Low Average Average Low Low
26 Svetlana K. Low Average Average Low Low
27 Svetlana S. High Average Average Average High
28 Tatiana T. Average Average Average Low Low
29 Juliana S. Low Average Low Low Low
30 Julia Z. Low Average Average Low Average
31 Julia S. Average Low Average Low High
32 Alexander B. Low Average Low Low Low
33 Alexei B. Low Average High Average High
34 Alexei K. Average Low Low Low Low
35 Alexei P. Average Average Average Average Average
36 Andrei G. Low High Average Average Low
37 Andrei S. Average Average Average High High
38 Anton A. Low Average Low Low Low
39 Vladislav H. Low Average Low Low Low
40 Dmitry K. Low Average Low Low Low
41 Kirill G. Low Low Low Low Low
42 Nikolai G. Low Average Average Low Low
43 Oleg P. Low Average Low Low Average
44 Pavel G. Low Average Low Low Low
45 Sergei S. Low Average Low Low Low
553
Based on the data in Tables 15 and 16, I have analyzed the students' responses, typical
symptoms of various levels (high, Average and low) the development of media competence.
Group A – the high level indicator of media competence of the student.
Here you can select a student Maria K., who has only one indicator of the average level -
contact. All the rest are high. In fact, Maria K. has a diverse range of media motivations, she gained
a solid knowledge base in the field of terminology, theory and history of media literacy education.
But most importantly, she is a creative person with a high level of perception and analytical
thinking in relation to the media texts. She did all types of creative works during a year-long study
of media literacy education courses, as well as the reviews, remarks in the discussion of media
texts, etc.
Eugeny K. and Inna L. showed at the end of a year-long training and a similar levels of media
competence.
The high level indicator of media competence of the students: 26 % in the experimental
group, and only 4 % in the control group.
Group B - the average indicator of media competence of the student.
Here, as a typical student can distinguish Irina K., in which there is only one indicator of the
high level - creative. All the others - average. This diligent student does not have a strong abilities
for the study of media culture. She achieves a average level of knowledge, including media literacy
education. However, implementation of creative works opened her hidden potential research
innovative solutions (for example, in the collage on media topic). Other typical members of this
group: Anna D. (she has many averages levels of media competence, but because of her natural
memory, she showed a high level of knowledge of terminology, theory and history of media culture)
and Ekaterina D.
The average level indicator of media competence of the students: 51% in the experimental
group, and only 15 % in the control group.
Group C - the low level of the indicator of media competence of the student.
It is not difficult to identify a typical student: Kirill G., Pavel G., Sergei S. Some of them have
the average levels of contacts with media, but all other indicators of the level of media competence
consistently low. Motivation of their media contacts limited attraction to entertainment. They are
not at all interested in the theory and history of media / media culture. Perceptual and analytical
skills in relation to media texts have absolutely undeveloped. Creativity also occur ... As a rule, they
are looking the possibilities to skip classes. They are not interested at all of their future profession.
Their target – receiving a state diploma in higher education. The real motives of their studies
(defined again, rather their parents) are generally reduced to three parent "so as not to" (for young
men, "so as not to be in the army", "not to hang around the streets and doorways," "not to fell into
bad company "; for the girls," that was not worse than the others "," not to dally " “not to remain
without a diploma").
The low level indicator of media competence of the students: 22% in the experimental group,
and only 80 % in the control group.
Analysis of the performance of students of the creative tasks of content

analysis of media texts
To further clarify of students’ media competence, and the results of students performing
creative tasks on content analysis of media texts I used the media educational methodology of A.
Silverblatt (Silverblatt, 2001, pp. 62-64). The experiment involved 38 students (31 girl and 7 boys,
aged 20-21 years) of Anton Chekhov Taganrog Institute. Each of them chose a content analysis of
three of their favorite media texts of different types and genres. 114 students analyzed media texts
for a total. Students analyzed the main media characters, their gender, age, race, level of education,
type of work / study, marital status, number of children, appearance, personality traits, the role
and influence of these characters in the media text.
These results were eventually brought us to the table 17.
554
Table 17: Results of the students creative tasks on content analysis of media texts
Categories Selection of Selection of

Selection of
female students male students(
all students ( %)
( %) %)
1. Types of media texts
1.1. Films, serials 48,39 85,71 55,26
1.2. TV products 41,93 28,57 39,47
1.3. Presse, print 6,45 0,00 5,26
1.4. Video games 3,22 0,00 2,63
1.5. Other media texts 0,00 0,00 0,00
2. Genres of media texts
2.1. Comedy 25,81 28,57 26,31
2.2. Melodrama 29,03 0,00 23,68
2.3. Reality show 12,90 0,00 10,53
2.4. Talk show 9,68 14,28 10,53
2.5. Fantasy 6,45 28,57 10,53
2.6. Entertainment show 6,45 0,00 5,26
2.7. Drama 6,45 0,00 5,26
2.8. Detective story 6,45 0,00 5,26
2.9. Criminal drama 0,00 28,57 5,26
2.10. Other genres 6,45 14,28 7,89
3. Gender of media text character
3.1. male 58,06 85,71 63,16
3.2. female 41,93 14,28 36,84
4. Age of media text character
4.1. 0-5 3,22 0,00 2,63
4.2. 6-12 3,22 0,00 2,63
4.3. 13-18 3,22 14,28 5,26
4.4. 19-25 32,26 42,86 34,21
4.5. 26-35 45,16 28,57 42,10
4.6. 36-50 9,68 14,28 10,53
4.7. 50-65 6,45 14,28 7,89
4.8. over 65 0,00 0,00 0,00
5. Race of media text character
5.1. White 83,87 85,71 84,21
5.2. Color 6,45 0,00 5,26
5.3. Blacks 0,00 14,28 2,63
5.4. Asian 3,22 0,00 2,63
5.5. Latino 3,22 0,00 2,63
5.6. Other 6,45 0,00 5,26
6. Level of education of media text character
6.1. University 64,52 57,14 63,16
6.2. High school 22,58 28,57 23,68
6.3. Elementary school 3,22 14,28 5,26
6.4. другое 9,68 0,00 7,89
7. Type of job/education of media text character
7.1. skilled worker 67,74 57,14 65,79
7.2. Unemployed 9,68 14,28 10,53
7.3. Students 6,45 28,57 10,53
7.4. worker of low qualification 9,68 14,28 10,53
7.5. an employee occupying
3,22 0,00 2,63
high position
7.6. Others 6,45 14,28 7,89
8. Marital status of media text character
8.1. Bachelor 51,61 71,42 55,26
8.2. married 38,71 28,57 36,84
8.3. Divorced 6,45 0,00 5,26
555
8.4. Civil marriage 3,22 0,00 2,63

8.5. WidoIr / Widow 3,22 0,00 2,63
8.6. Other 0,00 0,00 0,00
9. Number of children that media character has
9.1. 0 67,74 85,71 71,05
9.2. 1 25,81 14,28 23,68
9.3. 2 6,45 0,00 5,26
9.4. 3 and more 3,22 0,00 2,63
10. Appearance of media text character
10.1 Attractiveness for traditional
58,06 57,14 57,89
standards
10.2 Averaging for traditional
29,03 42,86 31,58
standards
10.3. Charming / glamor 9,68 0,00 7,89
10.4. Unpleasantness for traditional
6,45 14,28 7,89
standards
10.5 Other 3,22 0,00 2,63
11. Body style of media text character
11.1. average Iight / figure 41,93 42,86 42,10
11.2. harmony /leanness 38,71 14,28 34,21
11.3. Athletic 16,13 14,28 15,79
11.4. Iight above average 0,00 28,57 5,26
11.5. fullness 6,45 0,00 5,26
11.6. Other 3,22 0,00 2,63
12 Character Traits
12.1. independence 70,97 57,14 68,42
12.2. dependency 3,22 0,00 2,63
12.3. intellectuality 51,61 42,86 50,00
12.4. dullness 3,22 0,00 2,63
12.5. straightforwardness 41,93 57,14 36,84
12.6. cunning, resourcefulness 9,68 14,28 10,78
12.7. Activity, ownership situation 35,48 57,14 42,10
12.8. passivity 3,22 0,00 2,63
12.9. wittiness 35,48 28,57 34,21
12.10. irony,sarcastic 9,68 0,00 7,89
12.11 the object of humor /
ridicule, irony by 6,45 14,28 7,89
other characters
12.12. diligence 35,48 14,28 31,58
12.13. carelessness 12,90 0,00 10,53
12.14. Fidelity 35,48 14,28 31,58
12.15. betrayal 0,00 0,00 0,00
12.16. Optimism 67,74 71,43 68,42
12.17. Pessimism 0,00 0,00 0,00
12.18. truthfulness 32,26 28,57 31,58
12.19. lying 0,00 0,00 0,00
12.20. naivety 9,68 0,00 7,89
12.21. cynicism 0,00 0,00 0,00
12.22. goodness 35,48 14,28 31,58
12.23. Cruelty 3,22 14,28 5,26
12.24. PoIr, resoluteness 16,13 28,57 18,42
12.25. Iakness, hesitancy 6,45 14,28 7,89
12.26. courage 16,13 28,57 18,42
12.27. cowardice 0,00 0,00 0,00
12.28. hard-working 32,25 14,28 29,80
12.29. sluggishness 0,00 0,00 0,00
12.30. practicality 6,45 14,28 7,89
12.31. disorder 0,00 0,00 0,00
12.32. principles 6,45 14,28 7,89
556
12.33. unscrupulousness 0,00 0,00 0,00

12.34. purpose 12,90 14,28 13,16
12.35. aimlessness 0,00 0,00 0,00
12.36. emotionality 41,93 28,57 40,58
12.37. coldness 0,00 0,00 0,00
12.38. tenderness 19,35 28,57 21,56
12.39. rudeness 3,22 14,28 5,26
12.40. coquetry 19,35 14,28 18,42
12.41. tightness 0,00 0,00 0,00
12.42. Sexuality, sensuality 16,13 28,57 18,42
12.43. frigidity 0,00 0,00 0,00
12.44. Other 9,68 0,00 7,89
13. The role of the media text character in the story
13.1. Positive 51,61 57,14 52,63
13.2 Romantic 22,58 14,28 21,05
13.3. Comic 9,68 14,28 10,53
13.4. Negative 3,22 14,28 5,26
13.5. Other (for example, the role of
TV 26,14 14,28 24,37
presenter
14. Influence of media text character in the plot development
14.1. Positive influence 74,19 71,43 73,68
14.2. Low influence, or no influence 16,13 14,28 15,79
14.3. Synthesis of positive &
negative 6,45 14,28 7,89
influence
14.4. Negative influence 3,22 28,57 7,89
Conclusion
I have developed a classification of indicators of media competence of the audience was quite
an effective tool for comparative analysis of the levels of development of media competence of
students of the control and experimental groups. This analysis showed the productivity of our
models and methodology of media competence of students: the level of media competence of
students who have a one-year training course in the framework of media literacy education courses
four times higher than in similar indicators in the control group.
Analysis of data (table 17) led us to the following conclusions:
1. Students prefer to choose as a favorite:
1) movies and TV-serials (55.26%, while the number of male students who choose this option
(85.71 %) is significantly higher than the number of female students (48.39%); 2) TV-shows
(39.47% under the dominance of female respondents).
Printing presses, computer games, the internet site as a whole failed to gain more than 8% of
the votes polled.
These data confirm the overall picture that has developed in the contacts with mass media
audience: reading is gradually losing its position, the Internet has not yet managed to gain wide
circulation, so the audience prefers TV (including watching on television films and series).
2. The most students’ preferred genres of media texts have appeared:
1) comedy (26.31 % of votes of male respondents are more female);
2) romance (23.68 %, and this is purely a women's preferences);
3) reality shows and talk shows (by 10.53 %);
4) fiction (10.53 %, with a predominant number of votes of male respondents - 28.57 %).
None of the other media genres failed to score more than 6 % of the vote (although the crime
drama gives preference to 28.57 % of male students).
As expected, the entertainment dominated among students’ favorite genre. Genres that a
mass audience are traditionally considered as "heavy" (drama, tragedy, parable, analytical TV
program, etc.) are generally not able to score and six percent of the vote.
557
3. The vast majority of favorite media characters, according to a sample of the content made
by the students, it was men (63.16 %). In this case of male respondents 85.71 % favorite characters -
men. 58.06 % of respondents allocate characters-men, and 41.93% - women.
4. As expected, the characters are under the age of 18 and older than 35 years were not very
popular in students’ audience. Maximum preference was rendered their peers - the age group of 19
to 25 years old (34.21 % of the votes, without significant gender differences in preferences) and a
few more characters in the older age group of 26 to 35 years old (42.10 %, are dominated by female
voices that psychologically and socially quite understandable, because women often instinctively
prefer men with the existing material status and life experience).
5. Racially students choosing favorite characters were unanimous - 84.21 % of the
respondents (without gender distinction) preferred media heroes with white skin. However, male
respondents were more tolerant of Blacks characters (14.28 %), while female respondents noted
their sympathy to the fabulous, fantastic characters of indeterminate race (for example, from the
animated film "Shrek") – 6.45 %.
6. Own the level of education (education in high school) significantly influenced the selection
of your favorite media characters with higher education (63.16 %, with no gender difference in
preferences). However, 23.68 % of respondents liked the characters with secondary education.
7. Similarly, there was the situation with a view of studying / working beloved characters.
Most votes received skilled workers (65.79 %). Media characters like students in the school /
university liking mainly male respondents (28.57 %), and only 6.45 % of female respondents. Male
respondents also proved more enthusiastic unemployed characters. Paradoxically, the media
characters who have low qualifications (10.53 % of the vote) was three times more popular
characters, occupying a high position (2.63 %). Perhaps this apparent traditionally lukewarm
attitude of today's youth to senior boss...
8. As expected, the most popular among respondents proved to media characters are
bachelors (55.26 %, while they fell like part of the female students and 71% of male students). The
second most popular characters were married person (36.84 % at the advantages of female voices).
Divorced, widowed and those living in a civil marriage (combined) were able to score only 10 % of
the vote. However, here it is worth noting that this kind of preferences (as well as in the previous
cases) is dictated by the specific media texts, and there are known to dominate the unmarried and
married characters, rather than widowers or divorced...
9. It is clear that the sympathies of students, usually unmarried respondents Were addressed
to the bereaved characters (as a whole - 71.05 %, but in male students audience, the figure is even
more - 85.71 %). However, a quarter of respondents called the students among their favorite
characters and fathers / mothers of one child (among male respondents, this figure did not exceed
15 %). The popularity of the characters with two or more children in their arms is minimal (3 % to
6 % of the vote).
10. It is also predictable that students prefer visually appealing characters (57.89 %), or at
least - external data medium (31.58 %). Unattractive by traditional media standards cute characters
only 7.89 % of respondents.
11. It is interesting that the characters with sports / athletic figure does not become leaders of
student preferences (about 15 % of the vote without a noticeable gender difference in the
respondents). Apparently, students are much nicer to sympathize with characters like them at the
average body type (42.10 % of the vote). However, slender heroes of media texts is also quite
popular (34.21 % - with the advantage of female voices) ... With respect to the characters having a
weight higher than the average, was designated the tolerance of male respondents (28.57 %).
12. The most popular media characters traits steel qualities such as optimism (68.42 %),
independence (68.42 %), intellectuality (50.00 %), activity, ownership situation (42.10 %),
emotional (40 58%), straightforwardness (36.84 %), wittiness (34.21 %). About a third of the vote
gained such character traits of media characters as kindness, honesty, caring, loyalty, hard work.
This, of course, that such traits as intellectuality, kindness, diligence and loyalty, more votes
among female respondents, and in activities - male. Undoubtedly, not all of the above character
traits can be unambiguously interpreted as positive. For example, activity and emotion, as I know,
does not always go for the good...
But on the whole range of students leaning towards positive media characters. These negative
features of the characters, like lying, cowardice, carelessness, passiveness, pessimism, etc. left
558
respondents indifferent. However, the 5.26 % allocated in their favorite characters such negative
traits as the cruelty and brutality.
13. About half of the respondents (without noticeable gender differences) outlined the role of
a character from favorite media text as positive. For 21.05 % of the respondents (with a
predominance of female voices) have an important function of the romantic hero. Every tenth
respondent singled out a comic character function. And only 5.26 % - negative function (which is
identical to the percentage of previously allocated such negative traits of characters, cruelty and
brutality). A quarter of respondents said that their favorite characters (usually the TV presenters)
does not have a pronounced positive / negative feature in media texts, keeping a sort of neutrality.
14. The majority of respondents (73.68 %, with no significant gender difference) noted that
the characters from their favorite media texts have a positive impact on the development of the
plot. And only 7.89 % have identified a negative effect (or both positive and negative effects
together).
Thus, analysis of the results of our survey confirmed the general trend of media contacts the
student audience - its orientation to entertainment genres of audiovisual media, visually appealing
(but medium build), positive, active, unmarried, childless, educated, highly qualified characters
(primarily – male characters) aged 19 to 35 years. These heroes are characteristic optimism,
independence, intelligence, emotion. They have an excellent command of the life situation and
have a positive impact on the development progress of the plot of a media text.
References:
1. Fedorov A.V. (2004). The specificity of media education students of pedagogical
universities // Pedagogy. № 4, pp. 43-51.
2. Silverblatt A. (2001). Media Literacy. Westport, Connecticut – London: Praeger, 449 p.
3. Sobkin V.S. (ed.) (2000). Education and information culture. Sociological aspects.
Works on the sociology of education. Vol. V. Vol. VII. Moscow, 2000.
УДК 37
Сравнительный анализ средств массовой информации

компетенций уровня студентов

Аннотация. В данной статье проанализированы результаты социологического опроса

студентов, касающегося выявления их уровней медиакомпетентности (на базе
классификации показателей медиакомпетентности аудитории в качестве эффективного
инструмента для сравнительного анализа уровня развития медиакомпетентности студентов
в контрольной и экспериментальной группах): уровень медиакомпетентности студентов,
которые в течение года обучались в рамках учебного курса по медиаграмотности в четыре
раза выше, чем в аналогичные показатели в контрольной группе. Анализ результатов
исследования подтвердил общую тенденцию: медийные контакты студенческой аудитории
основаны на ее ориентации на развлекательные жанры аудиовизуальных, визуально
привлекательных медиа; на положительных, активных, не состоящих в браке, бездетных,
образованных, высококвалифицированных персонажей (в первую очередь - мужчин) в
возрасте от 19 до 35 лет. Этим персонажам отличаются оптимизмом, независимостью, умом,
эмоциональностью, и они оказывают положительное влияние на развитие сюжета
медиатекста.
Ключевые слова: социологический опрос, анализ, средства массовой информации,
медиа, медиатексты, медиаграмотность, медиакомпетентность, студенты.
559

Zhurnal ministerstva narodnogo prosveshcheniya
ISSN: 2409-3378
Vol. 4, Is. 2, pp. 68-74, 2015
DOI: 10.13187/Zhmnp.2015.4.68
www.ejournal18.com
Pedagogical Research
UDC 37
Content Analysis of the Functioning of Media in Society and Media Texts

on Media Education Classes in the Student Audience
Alexander Fedorov
Anton Chekhov Taganrog Institute, Russia, branch of Rostov State University of Economics,
Russian Federation
Abstract
The author define the content analysis as a quantitative analysis of media texts (the definition
of the category of media text, organize facts, conclusions about the types of narratives, symbols,
languages, forms, etc.; how often appear certain factors such as stereotypes plot). This also
connected with the analysis of media agencies work (volume of transmitted information, selectivity
information and so on.). The author substantiates the technology content analysis of media and
media texts in the student audience. The article also provides examples of creative tasks and issues
related to content analysis of media & media texts.
Keywords: media, content analysis, media text, media literacy education, media violence,
media studies, media culture, students.
Introduction
Content analysis - a quantitative analysis of media texts (the definition of the category of
media text, organize facts, conclusions about the types of narratives, symbols, languages, forms,
etc.; how often appear certain factors such as stereotypes plot). Is also applicable to the analysis of
media agencies work (volume of transmitted information, selectivity information and so on.).
British media educator Julian Bowker draws attention to the fact that content analysis - a
quantitative method of study, leading to the evaluation of the formal aspects of art or media. For
example, students can compare the amount of paper that is dedicated to the illustrations, and the
amount provided for the text; students can also count the number of promotional materials
compared to the number of subjects of news. This should take into account the types of paper
(regional, national, etc.). Other exercises include reference to characterize the attitude of the
magazine for women, count the number of illustrations, where women play a passive role,
compared to those where they are active, or count the number of frames in the passage of the
television news program [Bowker, 1995, p.7].
68
In relation to the functioning of the media in society and media texts content analysis "may
include both analytical analysis of all content-formal consideration of the complex media, analysis
of problem-specific clusters of content, information campaigns, genre forms and media analysis of
selected works. The purpose of the analysis may be the definition of relevant content, internal
structure and formal style characteristics of media works of the conceptual model and format
media, revealing the dominant ideological complex, reflected in the aggregate publications. ...
Analysis of the content can be carried out by different categories: on the subject of messages; by
forms of supply; genre characteristics of media works; on the composition and characteristics of
the characters appearing in them; frequency reference to specific topics and subjects; on the degree
of systematic and timeliness of the material reproduced in media texts"[Korochensky, 2003, p.63-
64]. Categories of content analysis can be, for example, political symbols and language reflected in
media texts, and the unit of analysis - the word. Then the unit of account will mention a single word
from the political vocabulary in a variety of media texts.

It is known that the main types of media today - print, press, cinema, radio, television, video
and the Internet. Regardless of the type of communication media can identify the main indicators
for media typology: periodicity, target orientation, object-thematic, genre orientation, a typology of
the characters and the audience [Gripsrud, 1999; Limburg, 1988; Nazarov, 2004].
For example, American researchers P. Babitsky and J. Rimberg made the content analysis of
Soviet feature films from 1923 to 1950, and they found that the characters are villains in these
media texts were distributed according to the following ethnic lines: the class enemies of Russian
nationality (31% ), Germans (21%), British (7%), Americans (6%) [Babitsky, Rimberg, 1955, p.223].
As for the motives of their crimes, they were mostly political (72%) and economic (16%), while all
other motives (household, love, family, etc.) together accounted for only 12% [Babitsky, Rimberg
1955, p. 233]. According to the results of the same content analysis, age ranges of positive character
of Soviet films period 1923-1950 years were as follows: 46% of active heroes were young in age
from 20 to 29 years, children and young people up to 20 years were three times less – 14 %,
characters retirement age was 4% marginal niche) [Babitsky, Rimberg, 1955, p. 230].
More detail classification parameters are defined by the media category of objects in terms of
application and learning experiences for the philosophical basis for the orientation to areas of
personal development, the nature of the content and structure, by type of social and educational
activities, the type of management of public processes, organizational forms , methods, tools, etc.
The media can be classified by the type of:
- property and equipment (press, radio, film, television, video, computer networks and
others.),
- the channel of perception (audio, video, audio-visual, symbolic - text, graphics),
- the place of use (individual, group, mass, home, work, transport, etc..),
- the content of the information transmitted to socialization (ideological, political, moral,
educational, informative, educational, aesthetic, ecological, economic),
- the functions and purposes of use (informational, educational, educational, communicative,
social and cultural, social, entertainment, recreational, relaxation, compensatory, ethical, aesthetic,
and others.),
- the results of the impact on the individual (development outlook, self-knowledge, self-
education, self-learning, self-assertion, self-regulation of the state, socialization, marginalization
and so forth.),
- on the media typological structure affects function and other activities: production,
advertising, information and others.
Media differentiated according to the intended purpose, taking into account the nature of
their participation in the political and economic functions, in support of various ideological,
political, religious and other movements. Owners, founders of media can be public, commercial
and non-profit organizations, political parties, trade unions, churches, etc. Media can be included
in holdings, corporations, or loyal opposition to the authorities having different party, ideological
orientation.
Study different aspects of the functioning of media in society helps to know the social
processes, mindsets audience focus of its interests, etc. The type of information is also important
69
for the formation of different typological groups of media. Publications / TV / radio / Internet
portals / sites (international, all-Russian, regional, women's, men's, sports, science, etc.). Media
texts addressed a specific audience, can be universal themes, or reflect several topics of interest to
this audience group, but they are monothematic (fashion, medicine, hunting, fishing, mathematics,
chemistry, etc.).
Media texts intended for differentiated according to various indicators of the public: mass
and elite, global and local, multinational / ethnic and mono-national / ethnic, urban and rural,
male and female, child / adolescent and adult, atheist and religious, corporate, etc.
However, despite the heterogeneity of the audience around the globe overwhelming part
prefers mass media pop culture, the reasons for the success of which can be found in the folklore
basis, entertainment genre orientation in the use of "emotional swings," compensation functions,
recreation, intuition of the author and others.).
Media educators have successfully used the one of the key aspects of media education –
category – in the works related to content analysis.
There are several ways to determine the category of media text. For example, it may be
species (documentaries, fiction, non-fiction works, etc.) or media text genre category (reportage,
portrait, interviews, comedy, drama, etc.). Separation of media texts by category can be so by the
development of ideas of students on how to understand the text and how (and why) they are
created [Bazalgette, 1995, p.23-25].
For example, the popular American TV series Star Wars is different from other American TV
series Star Track on the subject, the composition of the crew, the level of special effects and so on,
but they both belong to the same category - the game fiction cinema. Students also can analyze the
process of interpenetration, synthesis of forms and genres that violate clarity the definition of
category (for example, the famous film by American director R.Zemekis Who Framed Roger
Rabbit? (1988) synthesized gaming and animation kinds of cinema, and Sin City (2005) by
Robert Rodriguez brilliantly combined detective, thriller and gangster drama with stylized classic
comics).
The term category is linked to other key concepts of media literacy education, such as
agency and audience.
For the purposes of media education students need to demonstrate their content analysis
tools, as need to know how they were obtained, or other results. If we imagine a particular situation
when a student begins a content analysis of media texts, tracking them certain characteristics, it is
necessary to fix the document observations. This fixation can occur in one of three ways: the first
one is “likened to work with bibliographic cards: a blank on the name entered characteristics or
numeric numbering of the code, these forms are accumulated and then as needed summed
frequency of occurrence of a particular characteristic; the second method consists in the fact that
previously procured array forms with names printed on them characteristics. Encoder is the right
place to enter it finds characteristic; third way - the most economical, but is only possible to solve
problems when researchers interested in the characteristics mentioned, but not the volume of the
text where these characteristics are found, - when the card is a continuous series of numbers
(which coincides with the total number of codes), and the encoder circling only codes that
correspond to the characteristics encountered in the text. Counting the frequency of occurrence of
each characteristic in the whole array will be the result of the primary analysis of a selected set of
texts” [Fedotova, 2001, p.99-100].
I have conducted a content analysis on "Violence in the Russian screen", and I found that at
the beginning of the XXI century the majority of Russian TV series did not differ variety of genres
and was somehow related to the theme of crime and violence. Each of these series contained a
number of scenes of violence (murder, shooting, violent fights, etc.). On average, the total duration
of the demonstration data series on the four leading Russian channels was not less than 50 hours
per week (about 7 hours daily).
The correctness of these results are confirmed by other studies. For example, K. Tarasov
monitored six leading Russian TV channels, which found that “the total duration of the violence in
a movie is in the range from less than one minute to 31 minutes” [Tarasov, 2003, p.121]. A similar
content analysis was carried A. Korochensky: “the sun had not yet risen to the zenith, and we have
witnessed a dozen murders and over 20 scenes of criminal violence: fights, brutal beatings,
shootings, stabbings, assaults, torture and acts of terrorism. (...) Crime has become a topic number
70
one national television. (…) Crime is perceived as ordinary, mundane phenomenon” [Korochensky,
2002, p.11].
Of course, unlike television documentaries on the theme of crime, the violence in the game
film seems not so terrible and shocking. For example, kids can always say: "Do not be afraid, it's
only a movie! His uncle was killed for fun. He's not a gangster and a cop and an actor." However,
the negative impact on the psyche of minors such views still have [among the many scientific
publications confirming this, see: Stoughton, 2000, p.91].
I conducted a content analysis of television programs from leading Russian channels, and I
have the conclusion that television often represents the world as a dangerous area, where the
killing and cruelty - the usual case, successfully resolving any social conflict, and human death itself
- a trifle. Hence, some students there is confidence that the killers and gangsters - a well-paid
profession, worthy of respect and a desire to acquire them, together, of course, with a full set of
"ethics" and functions [Fedorov, 2001; 2004].
A table structure, in my opinion, can be used effectively in teaching content analysis: students
can investigate the plot, theme, genre, gender, ethnic, etc. of different media texts.
Content analysis of media texts implies a number of students of creative tasks. Each of these
tasks include analysis of the key concepts of media literacy education (media agencies, media
categories, media language, media technologies, media representations, media audiences, etc.).
Creative tasks on content analysis of media and media texts in the classroom at the student
audience (some of this tasks are available at: BFI, 1990; Semali, 2000, pp.229-231, however, the
cycle of tasks was supplemented and revised):
Media agencies:
- Content analysis aimed at clarifying the quantitative parameters of the genre and thematic
orientation of specific media agencies;
- Visit the library reading room and analysis exposed the press there in terms of its typology,
category (functions aimed at a specific audience, genre priorities);
- Distribution of media texts on various topics by category;
Drawing up associative array to the categories "film", "romance", "broadcast", etc.
Media technologies:
- content analysis of the frequency of use of specific media technologies used to create media
texts.
Media languages:
-content analysis aimed at determining the amount of specific characters, stereotypes (plot,
gender, race and so on.) and forms that appeared in media texts and genres specific for a certain
length of time/
- content analysis of key headlines on the front pages of various newspapers, conclusions
about their political, classroom, genre orientation;
- content analysis of genre stereotypes (plot schemes, typical situations, characters, clothing,
objects, scenes of action, etc.);
- content analysis of advertising media texts and a certain type of genre in order to count the
number of direct display of the advertised product, the number of male and female characters,
their age ranges, etc.;
- content analysis of audiovisual media texts for the number of facts hidden advertising
(placement): alcoholic and non-alcoholic beverages, cigarettes, certain brands of cars, etc.
- content analysis of media texts relating to the specific facts and events that occurred during
the day / week / month;
- content analysis aimed at determining the number of language units (eg, words or phrases)
in media texts and genres specific for a certain length of time;
- content analysis aimed at determining the amount of transmitted information media
agency, its selectivity, etc. in media texts and genres specific for a certain length of time.
- content analysis of a media (newspapers, TV), dedicated to the image (photographs,
drawings, etc.), or promotional materials, and volume for verbal texts (articles, dialogs, etc.);
subsequent determination of the type of media text (type, genre, method and region distribution
and so on.);
71
Media audiences:
- content analysis typology of media audiences. As a result, performance of tasks related to
content analysis, contribute to the development of students' cognitive interests, associative critical
thinking, media competence.
Questions to the study of the characteristics of media content analysis in the student
audience [Silverblatt, 2001, pp.42-43; Fedorov, 2001, p.86; Nazarov, 2004; Fedorov, et al 2005]:
Media agencies:
How often (year, month, week or day) produces a particular media agency / shows / sells
certain genres?
How often (year, month, week or day) produces a particular media agency / shows / sells
certain subjects?
What is a system of media texts (photographic, cinematographic, radio / video / TV)? What
are the dominant features are the basis of their classification? What are the characteristics of each
of these types of media texts? Is there any other ways of classifying media texts, except genre? If
so, what is it? (Eg, thematic, generic, style);
How often specific genre stereotypes used in a particular media text?
Media technologies:
What is the frequency of the use of specific media technologies in a particular media text?
Media languages:
How often manifest visual symbols, stereotypes (gender, race, etc.) in media texts for a
certain length of time?
Is there a difference between the numbers of daily and weekly newspapers (subject, in the
genres of the material, etc.)? If yes, what is it?
Where do you see the difference between newspapers and magazines?
What documentary media text different from scientific, popular science, gaming, animation?
What is the difference between the game (fictional) and documentary media texts?
What are the similarities and differences between different media (press, radio, TV, Internet
sites) with respect to their coverage of sensational crimes, acts of violence and terror?
How and in what percentage of a given time period portrayed in popular media texts of
different genres and countries: family, class, gender, race, life in other countries, the police, etc.?
As human values displayed in the your country’s media texts a certain time period, different
from the values appearing in the media texts of other countries in the same period?
What are the similarities and differences (and on what parameters) moral principles
contained in the propaganda media texts of Nazi and Communist regimes?
How can you prove that a particular media text pursues subversive in relation to this or that
state goals as reliably determine whether it has propagandistic content or not?
What are the characteristics of a famous person (candidate in the elections, sportsmen, show
business, etc.), the most frequently mentioned in media texts specific channel / publication?
In some episodes reveal conflicts in media texts? How appears the image of the conflicting
parties in media texts of different agencies?
What are the typical content of advertising products domestic producers? How is this
different from the imported advertising?
If you are asked to select ten of media texts that could tell about Russian aliens (or
foreigners), which would you choose? Why these media texts?
Media audiences:
artistic, etc.)?
What factors are primarily attracted an audience of media texts?
What are the values of the individual usually appealing advertising media texts, whether to
change their character?
What is the typology of the media audience?
What are the typical indicators of media preferences can be differentiated audience?
72
Conclusions
Thus, we concluded that the technology of content analysis can be successfully applied in the
students’ classroom in the humanities faculties. The basis of these studies, in our opinion, may be
based on a variety of creative tasks associated with the key concepts of media education (media
audiences, etc.).
References:
1. Babitsky P., and Rimberg J. (1955). The Soviet Film Industry. New York: Frederick A.
Praeger, 377 p.
2. Bazalgette, C. (1995). Key aspects of media education // Report on the Russian-British
seminar on media education. Moscow, 51 p.
3. Bowker, J. (1995). The practical work in the classroom. Moscow: Publishing House of
the Russian Association for Film Education, 25 p.
4. Fedorov, A.V. (2001). Violence on the screen and the Russian youth // Bulletin of the
Russian Humanitarian Foundation. 2001. № 1, p. 131- 145.
2004. № 2, p.87-93.
6. Fedorov, A.V. (2004). Violence on the screen // Chelovek. 2004. № 5, p.142-151.
7. Fedorov, A.V. at all. (2005). Media Education. Media Education. Media journalism.
Moscow: Publishing House of the UNESCO Programme "Information for All». CD. 1400 p.
8. Fedotova, L.N. (2001). Content analysis - sociological method of studying mass
communication. Moscow: Institute of Sociology of the Russian Academy of Sciences, 202 p.
9. Gripsrud, J. (1999). Understanding Media Culture. London – New York: Arnold &
Oxford University Press Inc., 330 p.
10. Korochensky, A.P. (2002). Invitation to a nightmare // New City Newspaper. 2002.
№ 33, p.11.
11. Korochensky, A.P. (2003). "The Fifth Estate"? Media criticism in theory and practice of
journalism. Rostov State University Press, 284 p.
12. Limburg V.E. (1988). Mass Media Literacy. Dubuque, Iowa: Kendall/Hant Publishing
Company, 486 p.
13. Nazarov, M.M. (2004). Mass communication and society: An introduction to theory
and research. Moscow: Avanti plus, 2004. 428 p.
Press, 243 p.
16. Stoughton, C. (Ed.).(2000). Media Violence Alert. Zionsville, IN: Dream Catcher Press,
p.91.
17. Tarasov, K.A. (2003). Globalized cinema as school violence // Cinema in the world and
the world of the movies. Moscow, 2003, pp.116-133.
УДК 37
Контент-анализ функционирования медиа в обществе и медиатекстов

на медиаобразовательных занятиях в студенческой аудитории

Аннотация. Автор определяет контент-анализ как количественный анализ

медиатекстов (определение категории медиатекста, выводов о типах повествования,
73
символах, языках, формах и т.д.; как часто появляются определенные факторы, такие, как
стереотипы, например). Это также применяется к анализу работы медийного агентства
(объем передаваемой информации, сведения об отборе информации и др.). Автор
обосновывает контент-анализ технологии медиа и медиатекстов в студенческой аудитории.
В статье также приводятся примеры творческих задач и вопросов, связанных с контент-
анализом медиа и медиатекстов.
Ключевые слова: медиа, контент-анализ, медиатекст, медиаграмотность,
медиаобразование, медиакультура, студенты.
74

0 Filmstudiesand Media Literacy 20152018

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

0 Filmstudiesand Media Literacy 20152018

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

See

Media Education and Media Criticism in the

Article · March 2017

Alexander Fedorov Anastasia Levitskaya

SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE

Media Education Journal Медиаобразование (журнал) View project

Media Literacy Education View project

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

Copyright © 2017 by Academic Publishing

WARNING! Article copyright. Copying,

Media Education and Media Criticism in the Educational Process in Russia

Alexander Fedorov a , *, Anastasia Levitskaya b

a Rostov State University of Economics, Russian Federation

2. Materials and methods

View publication stats

Soviet film critics about Soviet cinema: from

Article · March 2017

Instructions for Authors of Media Education Journal View project

International Journal of Media and Information Literacy View project

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

Soviet film critics about Soviet cinema:

Prof. Dr. Alexander Fedorov,

Moscow publishing house Art began to produce in mid-1960s annual book

Materials and methods

Screen 1964 (published in 1965, put a set in April 1965)

For example, I. Solovyova wrote that "Smoktunovsky’s play in Hamlet

Screen 1965 (published in 1966, put in a set in October 1966)

The well-known film critic M. Bleyman (1904-1973) published in 1970 the

Just an example of a purely "cinematic" movie, which says on its "brutal"

a brilliant cinematography, which marked virtually every frame, suddenly triggered

Screen 1966-1967 (1967, put in a set in April 1967)

Table 1. Top films, directors, cameramen, actors and actresses in 1966,

Alas, this was only one interesting experiment without further

Screen 1967-1968 (1968, put in a set in March 1968)

The Resolution of the Soviet Communist Party Central Committee "On

M. Bleyman’s article about an eccentric in a movie (Beware of the Car,

Screen 1968-1969 (1969, put in a set in February 1969)

A secret resolution of the Soviet Communist Party Central Committee "On

struggle for communism requires reflection attacks rr-revolutionary demagogues,

accustomed to understand by the words "popular character" [Shcherbakov, 1969, p.

Screen 1969-1970 (1970, put in a set in March 1970)

This Yearbook was released in the year a centenary "leader of world

Screen 1970-1971 (1971, put in a set in February 1971)

enemies... Of course, The adjutant of his Excellency (directed by E. Tashkov)

Screen 1971-1972 (1972, put in a set in March 1972)

Screen 1973-1974 (1975, put in a set in February 1974)

Screen 1974-1975 (1976, put in a set in November 1975)

Yearbook changed the editor. The new editors E. Bauman and G.

Screen 1975-1976 (1977, put in a set in August 1976)

This is another issue, edited by E. Bauman and G. Dolmatovskaya.

standpoint of ordinary logic in realistic circumstances, but it is quite convincing as

Screen 1976-1977 (1978, put in a set in January 1978)

solve problems is obvious, but simplified to elementary commandments"

Screen 1977-1978 continued the theme of the 60th anniversary of the

Screen 1978-1979 (1981, put in a set in July 1980)

In particular, Y. Cherepanov, without the slightest shadow of a doubt, wrote

Screen 1979-1980 (1982, put in a set in November 1981)

told that "the manifestation of lack of ideology, ideological promiscuity, a

Screen 1980-1981 (1983, put in set in December 1982)

Against this background, A. Romanenko’s article looked much more

Screen 1981-1982 (1984, put in set in December 1983)

Screen 1982-1983 (1985, put in a set in August 1984)

E. Gromov and M. Kuznetsova devoted their review of the most notable